THEORIES OF LEARNING

1.BEHAVIOURISM

Behaviorism emerged in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries as a reaction against

introspective psychology, which relied on subjective reports of mental states and processes.

John B.Watson, an American working in the realm of the new psychology, is widely accepted as one of

the earliest proponents of behaviourism. Others:Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner.

Emerging in contrast to psychodynamic psychology, behaviourism focuses on observable behaviour as a

means to studying the human psyche. The primary tenet of behaviourism is that psychology should

concern itself with the observable behaviour of people and animals, not with unobservable events that

take place in their minds.

Although theorists of this perspective accept that people have “minds”, they argue that it is never

possible to objectively observe people’s thoughts, motives, and meanings – let alone their unconscious

yearnings and desires.

Therefore, internal events, such as thinking, should be explained through behavioral terms (or

eliminated altogether).

•Behavior is determined by the environment through either association or reinforcement.

Association: associating a stimulus (e.g. creating a friendly school environment) with a response.(ie

learners develop a liking for school)

Reinforcement: entails offering rewards or incentives to strengthen desired behaviors. This can include

verbal praise, stickers, tokens, or other tangible rewards.

All behavior is a learned response: According to Behaviorists, we are born as “blank slates” and our

environment writes on “vessels” or pours knowledge into “lumps of clay” that can be shaped by one’s

environment.

APPLICATION OF BEHAVIOURISM IN THE CLASSROOM

•Teacher should avoid exposing learners to negative emotional experiences , that can obviously have

bad results, such as creating a school phobia. Create an atmosphere that attracts children to school by

being warm loving, kind and caring. For example, if a student is bullied at school he may learn to

associate the school with fear. Also a student may show dislike of a certain subject or teacher that may

continue throughout his academic career because the student was humiliated or punished in class by

that teacher.

•Rewarding/Reinforcing learners who display acceptable behaviours to encourage them perform more

learning tasks.

•Relating what is being learnt to learners experiences to maximize learning.

• Using teaching methods such as probing, which encourage spontaneous recovery.

•Using the behavioral learning model learning is presented in a systematic and structured way enabling

educators to set clear expectations and establish consistent routines in the classroom.

•Classical conditioning can also be used to treat fears, anxieties and phobias e.g. fear of exams can be

treated by frequently giving learners exams within their ability which are administered in a relaxed

atmosphere.

•Feedback is vital to achieve learning, as the teachers stimulates the learner to give the desired

response to measure learning outcomes.

•Apply the concept of behavior shaping. Shaping is the process of gradually reinforcing successive

approximations of a desired behavior until it is mastered. This technique breaks down complex

behaviors into smaller, manageable steps, allowing students to develop the desired skills or behaviors

gradually. For example, a teacher can reward a student for writing one sentence, then two sentences,

then a paragraph, until they can write a full essay.

2.COGNITIVISM

The cognitivist theory was developed as a response to behaviorism. Behaviorists believed learning was

simply a reaction to a stimulus and ignored the idea that mental processes play a role in learning.

Cognitivism focuses more on the internal processes and connections that take place in an individual’s

mind during learning.

The main issues that interest cognitive psychologists are the inner mechanisms of human thought and

the processes of knowing.

In contrast to behaviorism, cognitivism is a relatively recent learning theory, its impact coming during

the mid-1950s. This second half of the twentieth century witnessed an outburst of theoretical and

empirical works on such cognitive processes as memory, attention, concept formation, and information

processing within a cognitive framework.

Among the proponents of cognitivism are Jean Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, and German

Gestalt psychologists. Out of the spectrum of cognitive theories, the individual cognitive trend deriving

from Piaget’s studies and the sociocultural trend based on Vygotsky’s works constitute the backbone of

cognitivism. Both theories have also been inspirational for the subsequent constructivist movement.

Study: Piaget Schema, adaptation, organization, assimilation, accommodation, equilibration and

disequilibration with relation to the process of learning.

The primary emphasis is placed on how knowledge is acquired, processed, stored, retrieved, and

activated by the learner during the different phases of the learning process.
The cognitive school views learning as an active process involving the acquisition or reorganization of

the cognitive structures through which humans process and store information and the learner as an

active participant in the process of knowledge acquisition and integration.

Cognitivism focuses on studying internal mental processes such as perception, memory, attention,

language, reasoning, and problem-solving. It seeks to understand how these processes operate, how

they are organized, and how they influence behavior.

Cognitivism emphasizes the idea of mental representation, suggesting that the mind constructs internal

representations of external stimuli. These representations include concepts, images, schemas, and

mental models that help individuals organize, interpret, and make sense of their experiences.

Cognitivism employs schema theory, which posits that individuals organize knowledge into cognitive

structures or frameworks called schemas. Schemas represent generalizations about categories of

objects, events, or situations.

Memory Processes: Cognitivists study memory processes such as encoding, storage, and retrieval. They

investigate how information is encoded into memory, how it is stored over time, and how it can be

retrieved when needed. This includes exploring different types of memory, such as sensory memory,

short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Information Processing: Cognitivists view the mind as a complex information-processing system, similar

to a computer. Just as a computer receives input from its environment, processes it and stores it in
different files within its memory, the human mind is seen as processing information received from the

senses, and stores it in different "folders" or locations within itself.

Retrieval of information involves accessing these stored memories, akin to retrieving data from

computer storage.

In the classroom, teachers can apply several strategies based on the cognitive learning approach to

enhance student learning and understanding. Here are some implications and actions teachers can take:

•Activate Prior Knowledge: Teachers can start by activating students' prior knowledge related to the

topic they are about to teach. This can be done through brainstorming sessions, asking questions, or

conducting pre-assessments. Activating prior knowledge helps create connections between new

information and existing mental frameworks, making learning more meaningful.

•Chunking Information: Breaking down complex information into smaller, manageable chunks helps

students process and remember it more effectively. Teachers can present information in a structured

manner, use visual aids, and provide examples to facilitate chunking and enhance comprehension.

•Promote Active Learning: Encourage students to actively engage with the material through activities

such as discussions, debates, hands-on experiments, and problem-solving tasks. Active learning

promotes deeper understanding and retention of information compared to passive learning methods

like listening or reading alone.

•Provide Feedback: Timely and constructive feedback is crucial in the cognitive learning approach.

Teachers should provide feedback on students' understanding, reasoning, and problem-solving

strategies. This feedback helps students identify areas for improvement and adjust their learning

strategies accordingly.

•Use Mnemonic Devices: Mnemonic devices are memory aids that help students remember information

more effectively. Teachers can teach students mnemonic techniques such as acronyms, rhymes, and

visual imagery to facilitate recall and retention of key concepts.

•Encourage Metacognition: Metacognition refers to the awareness and control of one's own thought

processes. Teachers can encourage metacognitive practices by prompting students to reflect on their

learning, set goals, monitor their progress, and adjust their strategies as needed. Metacognitive skills

enhance students' ability to regulate their learning and become independent learners.

•Utilize Scaffolding: Scaffolding involves providing temporary support and guidance to students as they

learn new concepts or skills. Teachers can scaffold learning by gradually reducing support as students

gain proficiency, using prompts, modeling problem-solving strategies, and providing resources such as

graphic organizers or templates.

•Promote Critical Thinking: Encourage students to think critically by posing open-ended questions,

challenging assumptions, analyzing information from multiple perspectives, and evaluating evidence.

Critical thinking skills are essential for deeper understanding and application of knowledge.
3. CONSTRUCTIVISM THEORY IN EDUCATION

Constructivism means the learners construct their knowledge rather than just passively take in

information, through a reflection of existing ideas. The evolution of learning comes from the prior

concepts to make new thoughts. According to this theory when the learners receive new information,

they reconcile this idea with their previous thoughts and experiences. They may refute the new

information, ideas and concept or endorse it by comparing with preconceived ideas. In both cases,

they are the ‘manufacturers’ of knowledge.

As people experience the world and reflect upon those experiences, they build their own

representations and incorporate new information into their pre-existing knowledge (schemas).

learners use their previous knowledge as a foundation and build on it with new things that they learn

Constructivism is a theory in education which posits that individuals or learners do not acquire

knowledge and understanding by passively perceiving it within a direct process of knowledge

transmission, rather they construct new understandings and knowledge through experience and social

discourse, integrating new information with what they already know (prior knowledge). For children,

this includes knowledge gained prior to entering school. The origin of the theory is also linked to Swiss

developmental psychologist Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development.

In constructivism, hence, it is recognized that the learner has prior knowledge and experiences, which

are often determined by their social and cultural environment. Learning is therefore done by students'

"constructing" knowledge out of their experiences.

When individuals assimilate new information, they incorporate it into an already existing framework

without changing that framework.

According to the theory, accommodation is the process of reframing one's mental representation of

the external world to fit new experiences. Accommodation can be understood as the mechanism by

which failure leads to learning: when we act on the expectation that the world operates in one way

and it violates our expectations, we often fail, but by accommodating this new experience and

reframing our model of the way the world works, we learn from the experience of failure, or others'

failure.

Social constructivisms or socioculturalism encourage the learner or learners to arrive at his or her

version of the truth, influenced by his or her background, culture or embedded worldview.

This also stresses the importance of the nature of the learner's social interaction with knowledgeable

members of the society. Without the social interaction with other more knowledgeable people, it is

impossible to acquire social meaning of important symbol systems and learn how to utilize them.

Young children develop their thinking abilities by interacting with other children, adults and the

physical world. From the social constructivist viewpoint, it is thus important to take into account the

background and culture of the learner throughout the learning process, as this background also helps

to shape the knowledge and truth that the learner creates, discovers and attains in the learning

process.

Principles of constructivism.
There are many specific elements and principles of constructivism that shape the way the theory

works and applies to students. Learn about the different principles of constructivism and how they

make up the whole theory.

Knowledge is constructed. This is the basic principle, meaning that knowledge is built upon other

knowledge. Students take pieces and put them together in their own unique way, building something

different than what another student will build. The student’s previous knowledge, experiences, beliefs,

and insights are all important foundations for their continued learning.

People learn to learn, as they learn. Learning involves constructing meaning and systems of meaning.

For example, if a student is learning the chronology of dates for a series of historical events, at the

same time they are learning the meaning of chronology. If a student is writing a paper about history,

they are also learning principles of grammar and writing as well. Each thing we learn gives us a better

understanding of other things in the future.

Learning is an active process. Learning involves sensory input to construct meaning. The learner needs

to do something in order to learn, it’s not a passive activity. Learners need to engage in the world so

they are actively involved in their own learning and development. You can’t just sit and expect to be

told things and learn, you need to engage in discussions, reading, activities, etc.

Learning is a social activity. Learning is directly associated to our connection with other people. Our

teachers, our family, or peers, and our acquaintances impact our learning. Educators are more likely to

be successful as they understand that peer involvement is key in learning. Isolating learnings isn’t the

best way to help students learn and grow together. Progressive education recognizes that social

interaction is key to learning and they use conversation, interaction, and group applications to help

students retain their knowledge.

Learning is contextual. Students don’t learn isolated facts and theories separate from the rest of our

lives—we learn in ways connected to things we already know, what we believe, and more. The things

we learn and the points we tend to remember are connected to the things going on around us.

Knowledge is personal Because constructivism is based on your own experiences and beliefs,

knowledge becomes a personal affair. Each person will have their own prior knowledge and

experiences to bring to the table. So the way and things people learn and gain from education will all

be very different.

Learning exists in the mind. Hands-on experiences and physical actions are necessary for learning, but

those elements aren’t enough. Engaging the mind is key to successful learning. Learning needs to

involve activities for the minds, not just our hands. Mental experiences are needed for retaining

knowledge.

Motivation is key to learning. Students are unable to learn if they are unmotivated. Educators need to

have ways to engage and motivate learners to activate their minds and help them be excited about

education. Without motivation, it’s difficult for learners to reach into their past experience and make

connections for new learning.

Consequences of constructivist theory are that:

Students learn best when engaged in learning experiences rather passively receiving information.

Learning is inherently a social process because it is embedded within a social context as students and

teachers work together to build knowledge.

Because knowledge cannot be directly imparted to students, the goal of teaching is to provide

experiences that facilitate the construction of knowledge.

This last point is worth repeating. A traditional approach to teaching focuses on delivering

information to students, yet constructivism argues that you cannot directly impart this information.

Only an experience can facilitate students to construct their own knowledge. Therefore, the goal of

teaching is to design these experiences