POULTRY NUTRITION
FORMUALTION OF POULTRY DIETS
POULTRY FEED FORMUALATION
• Term poultry includes birds reared for economic gains like chicken, ducks, ostrichs, emus, quails,
turkey etc.
• Feed formulation involves judicious use of feed ingredients to supply in adequate amounts and
proportions the nutrients required by poultry
• While choosing the feed ingredients a consideration is also given to their current price to
formulate least cost diets.
Feeding of Chicken:
The following information is needed for feed formulation.
• Nutrient requirement for chicken feed.
• Information of feed ingredients and their chemical composition.
Nutrient Requirements:
The nutrient requirement of the chicken depends upon
• Species
• Age
• Breed
• Its genetic make up
• Production status
• Environment conditions
Poultry Feeding standards
• Poultry Nutrient requirement by Bureau of Indian Standards ( BIS 2007)
• Nutrient requirement of poultry (1994) by the National Research Council (NRC) of the National
Academy of Science (USA)
• Academic Research Council (ARC) UK
• ICAR has also given the nutrient requirement of poultry (Ranjhan 1998)
BIS 2007 recognizes fifteen type of chicken feeds
BIS (2007) recognizes three phases in the broilers
• Pre-,starter Feed (BPSF) — a ration to be fed to chicks, intended for meat production and to be
used from I to 7 days.
• Broiler starter feed (BSF) — a ration to be fed to growing chickens, intended for meat
production, from 8 to 2 I days.
• Finisher Feed (BFF) — a ration to be fed to growing chickens, intended for meat production,
from 22 days to finish.
BIS (2007) recognizes four phases in the layers
1. Chick feed for layer (CFL) —- a ration to be fed to chicks. intended for egg production, from 0
to 8 wks.
2. Grower feed for Layer (GFL) — a ration to be fed to growing chickens, intended for egg
production, from 9 to 20 wks or until laying commences.
3. Layer feed for Phase 1(LFP-1) — a ration to he fed to laying birds from 2 I to 45 wks.
4. Layer feed for Phase II (LFP-II) — a ration to be fed to laying birds from 46 to 72 wks.
Phase 11and I feed in layer cycle is necessary because there are changes in production, egg size,
requirement of calcium, efficiency of digestion, age. etc.
BIS (2007) recognizes four phases in the broiler breeder
1. Breeder chick feed for Broiler (BCFB)—- a ration to be fed to chicks, intended for broiler
breeding, from O to 4 wks.
2. Breeder Grower Feed for broiler (BGFB) — a ration to be fed to chickens. intended for broiler
breeding, from 5 to 22 wks.
3. Breeder Layer Feed for Broiler (BLFB) –- a ration to be fed to laying birds, intended for broiler
breeding, from week 23 onwards.
4. Breeder Broiler Feed for Mule (BBFM) — a ration to be fed to male birds. intended for broiler
breeding, from 23 wks onwards.
BIS (2007) recognizes four phases in the Layer breeder
1. Chick Feed for Layer Breeder (CFLB) --- a ration to be fed to chicks, intended for layer
breeding, from 0 to 4 weeks.
2. Grower Feed for Layer Breeder (GFLB) — a ration to be fed to chickens, intended for layer
breeding, from 5 to 22 weeks.
3. Breeder Layer Feed (BLF) — a ration to be fed to laying birds, intended for layer breeding, from
week 23 onwards.
4. Breeder Layer Feed for Male (BLFM) — a ration to be fed to male birds intended for layer
breeding, from week 23 onwards.
BIS(2007) specifications include a margin of safety for certain nutrients and such are the allowances.
Nutritional allowances exceed the requirements. These allowances are provided as a margin of safety to
allow for nutrients lost during
- storage,
- nutrients lost due to oxidative destruction,
- nutrients lost during processing of feed,
- variation in the chemical composition of feed ingredients
- and nutrients destroyed in the digestive tract before they get absorbed.
• Broiler breeder hens are reared for egg production for hatching purposes to get commercial
broiler chicks
• To check the broiler breeders donot put on too much weight or fat, their growth is controlled from
initial stages usually by two methods, viz. either by offering low protein, low amino acid regimen
from 3rd week of their life or by introducing feed restriction.
• If broiler breeders become too much fatty, egg production, fertility and hatchability are affected.
Energy for Poultry
• Poultry need Energy for growth, maintenance of body tissue, production of eggs, regulation of body
temperature and activity. Energy is derived from oxidation of carbohydrates, lipids and amino acids and
related organic compounds.
• Energy that exist within the structure of the micronutrients i.e GE is not fully available to poultry
because protein, carbohydrates, proteins and lipids are not 100% digestible and energy is lost in digestion
and assimilation of the nutrients
GE (4000Kcal)
↓ Lost in feces and Urine (800+300)
ME (2900Kcal)
↓ Heat Increment during assimilation of
Nutrients (600Kcal)
NE (2300Kcal NEm+p (1500Kcal maintenance
+ 800 egg and Tissue)
• In poultry ration energy is expressed as ME Kcal/Kg of ration because birds dropping contain
faeces and urine together. ME is the energy available to the bird for transformation in the body. It
is considered because
• Determination of ME values of feed is easier in poultry.
• ME value of an ingredient is independent of other dietary components.
• The ME values remain relatively constant regardless of age, type or nature of production of the
bird.
• ME is determined by measuring feed intake and excreta output over a 2-5 days test period.
Apparent ME is most commonly determined through actual measurement of feed intake and
excreta output. In case of indicator method (through use of an inert dietary marker, such as
chromic oxide (Cr2O3)). In case of indicator method, quantitative collection of excreta is not
necessary; only a representative sample is required.
Nitrogen-Corrected ME
• For convenience, all computations are adjusted to a condition of zero nitrogen retention (AMEn)
• AME per gram diet = Energy per gram diet-( Excreta energy per g diet + 8.22 x g N retained per
g diet)
• If during ME determination, nitrogen is retained by the animal, the excreta will contain less
nitrogen and hence less energy would be excreted as compared with the animal that is not
retaining nitrogen.
• Since the extent of nitrogen retention differs with age and species, a correction factor is essential.
• Assuming that if nitrogen is not retained it will appear as uric acid, a correction value of 8.22
Kcal/g nitrogen retained ( 8.1kcal is taken as equivalent to 34KJ) was proposed because this is the
energy obtained when uric acid is completely oxidized.
• True ME for Poultry is the gross energy of the feed consumed minus the gross energy of the
excreta of feed origin. A correction for nitrogen retention may be applied to give TMEn value.
Calorie/Protein Ratio.
It is defined as the ME Kcal per Kg divided by the percentage of the CP in the ration. The ratio varies
with the age of the bird. Calorie protein ratio for BIS requirement are presented below.
S.No. Type Calorie-Protein ratio
1. Broiler starter feed 122
2. Broiler finisher feed 145
3. Chick feed 130
4. Growing chicken feed 156
5. Laying chicken feed 144
Essential amino acids for poultry
• The synthesis of muscle and egg proteins requires a supply of 20 amino acids, all of which are
physiological requirements.
• The 10 essential amino acids for poultry are
• Lysine, Methionine, Tryptophan, Isoleucine, Leucine, Histidine, Valine, Phenylalanine and
Arginine.
• Non Essential (dispensable) amino acids are
• Alanine, Aspartic acid. Citrulline, Cystine, Glutamic Acid, Glycine, Proline, Hydroxyproline,
Serine, Tyrosine
• In addition, some consider glycine to be essential for young birds. Its requirement is relatively
larger because glycine is needed for the biosynthesis of uric acid( an end product of nitrogen
metabolism in birds).
• Cysteine and tyrosine are considered semi-essential amino acids, because they can be
synthesized from methionine and phenylalanine, respectively.
• Of the ten essential amino acids, lysine, methionine and threonine are the most limiting in most
practical poultry diets.
• Arginine is essential for poultry and yields urea and ornithine
Ideal amino acid profile
• In the ideal concept for poultry as well as for pigs lysine is used as a standard, whereas the
requirement for the other amino acids is expressed as a percentage of the need for lysine.
• The Ratio = Amount of amino acid present in protein
• ________________________________
• Requirement of that amino acid
• Lowest ratio gives first limiting amino acid.
• Second lowest gives the second limiting amino acid.
Energy requirement for Chicken
• ME rquirements are 18% higher than the NE requirement. This is due to the specific dyanamic
action of the nutrients.
• In a well balanced diet containing 20% protein, 5%fat and 65% protein the average heat
increment is 18%. Thus NEm requirements are approximately 82% of the MEm requirements.
• Since the chicken has a higher body temperature than mammals its energy expenditure for
maintenance is greater
Energy Requirement for maintenance of layers
NEm requirement for adult hen
= 83XBWkg0.75Kcal/day
NEm requirement for 1.75Kg adult hen
=83X 1.750.75Kcal/day
=83X1.52=126kcal/day
MEm requirement=126X82%=126/0.82=154kcal/day
Activity allowance is 50% of the energy for hens kept in deep litter system needed for basal metabolism
and 37% for caged hens.
Therefore ME requiremet for non laying hen (kept in cages) =154+57=211Kcal/day
The energy content of large egg= 86 KCal
Then the total ME requirement of laying hen (in 100 % production)= 211+86=297Kcal/day
Energy for Growth
• The energy for growth ranges from 1.5-3.0 Kcal per gram of body weight gain. This depends
upon the amount of fat in relation to protein in the body weight gain.
• The requirements for growing cockrels is higher than pullets.
• Growth rate, basal metabolism, type of tissue deposited and efficiency of feed utilization all to
some extent are determined by the level of various hormone secretions, particularly growth
hormone, thyroxine and sex hormones
Energy requirement for egg production
• Estimates of the energy requirements for the average hen in production can be made by adding
the costs of maintenance to those of producing one egg. e.g. Let us assume that a 1.75 kg hen lays
seven eggs each weighing 54 g during ten days (70% production). The requirements are
calculated as follows:-
• BMR, Kcal NE/day=83 w0.75 kg
• (The coefficient 83 represents an average value for the kilo calorie of basal heat produced per unit
of metabolic size).
Protein Requirements of Chicken
a) Maintenance requirement =250 mg N/KgBW/day
= 1600 mg Protein / Kg BW/d
b) Tissue growth (Tissue Contain 18% Protein)
Daily gain in g x 0.18
c) Feather growth (82% Protein) and comprise 7% of body wt. at 4 wk of age.
Protein requirement for egg production
Maintenance Req. for WLH hen = 3 g/day
Protein content in One egg = 6g
Total = 9g
Efficiency of protein utilization for maintenance and egg production = 55%
Therefore, the protein requirement of the hen
= 9 x 100/55
= 16.36 g /day
Restricted Feeding
• Restricted Feeding of the bird during the growing period particularly in the age group of 12-20
weeks) means an actual reduction of nutrient intake below minimum requirement of birds.
• Feed restriction is recommended until 21-22 weeks of age or up to 5% egg production level,
whichever comes first.
• It is reported that low protein or low lysine diet are able to produce slightly more delay in sexual
maturity than quantitative feed restriction.
• Pullet birds on restricted feeding require 5-10 days longer to reach sexual maturity.
• There is reduction in the number of small eggs laid at the commencement of production.
FEED INTAKE CONTROL MECHANISMS
• Both peripheral and central neural controls have been implicated in the regulation of feed intake.
• Peripheral receptors in the upper digestive tract serve as important regulators of feed intake and
are presumed to be interrelated and in contact with the hypothalamus via neurons.
• At least five theories, each based upon a variable monitored by the central nervous system, have
been advanced to explain the control of feeding.
• These include the glucostatic, thermostatic, lipostatic, aminostatic, and ionostatic theories
Glucostatic Theory
• Glucose receptors in the hypothalamus which are sensitive to the rate at which glucose is being
utilised by them
• Low utilisation rates lead to hunger sensation
• The above theories can explain the short term regulation of feed intake ; long term regulationis
probably concerned with the prevention of excess of fat depostion.
Thermostatic theory
• Heat produced after food has been consumed raises the temp of blood and hypothalamus, so that
the desire to eat is lessened
• This theory would explainwhy birds eat less at high ambient temperatures and why feed with a
low heat increment such as fat can cause obesity.
Lipostatic theory
• Hypothalamus is sensitive to conc. Of circulating metabolites mobilized from endogenous fat
stores
• Since the amount of fat mobilized is proportional to the size of fat deposits, a lipostatic
mechanism keeping the fat content constant, could control body weight
• No one hypothesis alone describes adequately the observed feed intake completely. It is likely
that multiple factors are responsible.
Calcium for Layers:
• Layers ration should be adequate in calcium and recommended level of inclusion is 3%.
• Apart of the dietary calcium may be fed as oyster shell or limestone chips for better shell quality.
• The requirement for calcium is more in the afternoon since this is the time of the day that the egg
will be in the shell gland.
Phased Feeding During Laying Phase:
• Phased feeding refers to changes in the protein level laying diet during the normal production
cycle.
• Such changes are designed to regulate the intake of dietary protein to meet more closely the hen’s
requirement at various stages of egg production.
• Since protein supplements are costlier, phased feeding programme is suggested to reduce feed
cost and also to help to reduce egg size.
• The level of protein in layer ration may be reduced to 17, 16 and 15 % on 90, 75to 90 and 65 to
75 % of egg production respectively, keeping the feed intake at 100g level per day per bird.
Forced Moulting:
• Moulting is a normal process of chicken and other feathered species. It occurs in both sexes.
• Decrease in day length is normal trigger for moulting.
• Minor stress such as temporary feed and water shortage and diseases, can also initiate a partial or
premature moulting.
• It supposedly gives the hen a period of rest during which she rejuvenates her bodily precesses,
preparing herself for the next laying cycle.
• Forced moulting of flock is suggested when egg production is less and egg prices are less
Cannibalism and Feather picking:
• This occurs in flock fed fibre free diet. It is considered that chicken diet should contain 3-4%
crude fibre.
• This problem is more likely with pelleted or crumbled diet.
• A methionine deficiency may also lead to feather picking aprt from limiting weight gain.
Fatty Liver and Kidney Syndrome (FLKS):
• Diets deficient or marginal in Biotin can lead to FLKS in young broilers.
• This condition is most commonly seen in 2-4 weeks old birds fed wheat based diets( wheat
contains little available biotin).
• Pyruvate carboxylase enzyme is biotin dependent. Death is caused by hypoglycemia due to
failure of hepatic gluconeogenesis which in turn is triggered by inadequate level of pyruvate
carboxylase.
• Stress is major contributor to the severity of FLKS. Stress likely induces an epinephrine-induced
catabolism of the already low glycogen reserves.
Fatty Liver Hoemorrhagic Syndrome (FLHS):
• It is a condition where there is increased accumulation of fat in the liver. It is a common
occurrence in laying hens and breeders. Pullets carrying an excess of body fat are more prone to
this condition.
Cage Layer Fatigue and Bone Breakage in Layers:
• This is a condition where high producing laying hens maintained in cages show paralysis around
the time of peak egg production.
• The condition is rarely seen in the deep litter system suggesting that lack of exercise/activity is a
pre-disposing factor
• CFL can be prevented by ensuring normal weight for age of the pullets at sexual maturity and
such pullets receive a high calcium diet (minimum 3.5% Ca) at least 14 days before 1 st
oviposition.
• Older caged layers are also susceptible to bone breakage.
Watery Whites:
• Watery Whites (albumen) generally suggest that the eggs were not cooled properly or became
overheated before gathering from the shed.
• Old or Stored eggs may have watery whites. It is possible to have a strain of bird which lays a
high percentage of eggs with firm whites by breeding, the watery white contains same amount of
water and protein as the thick white.
Salt Poisoning:
• Water containing 1.5% NaCl is toxic for laying hens, but a lower level of 1.0% salt may delay
the onset of egg production.
• The safe upper limit for salt in drinking water is less than 3000ppm.
• As per BIS specification a maximum level of 0.6% salt in the diet is optimum.
Nutritional deficiency and imbalances
Leg and Bone disorders
1 Soft, easily bent bones and beak Rickets, a deficiency or imbalance
of vitamin D, calcium and
phosphorus.
Hock enlargement and bowing of the legs in poult, chick, Niacin or Zinc deficiency
2 goosling, duckling (gastrocnemius, or tendon of Achilles
rarely slips from its condyles)
3 Enlarged tibiotarsal joint Niacin deficiency
4 Perosis or slipped tendon in chicks, poults. A deficiency cheifly of
manganese, choline, folacin,
biotin, vitamin B12 or Zinc.
5 Bowed leds in ducks Niacin deficiency
6 Shortening and thickening of leg bones in chicks Zinc or manganese deficiency
7 Curled toe paralysis in chicks (Toes curled inwards) Riboflavin deficiency
8 Extreme leg weakness and hens show a characteristic Vitamin D3 deficiency
posture described as” penguin-like squat
Muscle disorders
1 Cardiac or gizzard myopathy in poults Vitamin E or selenium deficiency
2 Muscular dystrophy with white areas of degeneration Vitamin E or selenium deficiency
in skeletal muscle in chicks, ducks, poults
Nervous disorders
1 Convulsions with head retraction/head drawn over Thiamin deficiency B1 star grazing
back or polyneuritis in chicks, pigeons and quail syndrome
2 Convulsions and hyperexcitability in chicks, poults, Vitamin B6 deficiency
duckling
3 Encephalomalacia (an ataxia resulting from Vitamin E deficiency
haemorrhages and oedema within the cerebellum)
titanic spasm with head retraction, prostration with legs
outstretched
4 Hyperirritability in chicks, poults, quail, ducking Magnesium deficiency
5 Fright reaction and titanic spasm in chicks Chloride deficiency
6 Cervical paralysis, neck extended in poults, quail Folacin deficiency
7 Curled-toe paralysis, gross enlargement of sciatic and Riboflavin deficiency
brachial nerves with degeneration of myelin in chicks
8 Ataxia characterized by a star-gazing posture (similar Manganese deficiency
to that observed with thiamin deficiency) in young
chicks
9 Ataxia in the young growing chick due to elevation in Vitamin A deficiency
the cerebrospinal fluid pressure upon the brainstem
Feeding of the ducks
• Ducks feed on grains, insects, forage, etc. that are available in different fields after harvesting the
crop.
• They also get fish, etc. from the local streams, canals.
• Farmers keep ducks at their farm lands in order to get the manure during the nights.
• Eggs are collected the next day morning.
• Khaki Campbells are noted for their egg production potential and yield 250-300 eggs per year.
• It is a cross of Malaysian Indian Runner female with a Rouen male.
• The egg size is 70-75 g
• Layers come to lay at around 22 wks of age
• Eggs are hatched from the incubators in 28 days
• Pekin duck is the most popular meat duck in the world.
• They attain a body weight of 3.3 Kg to 3.6 Kg by 8 weeks of age and cumulative feed
consumption is about 10 Kg (9.6 to 9.9 Kg)
• Central duck Breeding Farm (CDBF), Hessarghata, Bangalore imported Vigova-Super M broiler
ducks from Vietnam.
• Vigova would weigh 3 Kg at 49 days of age.
Nutrient Requirement of White Pekin Ducks
• A typical three-feed programme provides 20, 18 and 16% protein for the periods from 0-2, 2-4
and 4-7 weeks, respectively.
• The feed efficiency and carcass fat may be improved when dietary energy is increased
• NRC (1994) have two-feed programme.
Aflatoxin poisoning in ducks:
• Ducks are very much susceptible to aflatoxin while guinea fowls and chickens are the most
tolerant.
• Ducks can tolerate to the extent of 0.03 ppm as against 0.2 ppm in case of chickens.
• The order of toxicity ranged from greatest for ducklings through turkey poults, goslings,
pheasants to the lowest level of toxicity in chicks.
Nutrient Requirements for Japanese Quail
• Domestic quails k/n as Japanese quails are reared for the meat
• The quails mature at about 8 wks of age.
• They start laying eggs at 40-50 days
• In year they lay around 250 eggs
• The eggs weigh around 10 g
• Eggs are hatched in 18 days
• The quails need 27% protein and 2800 Kcal ME/kg feed during first 3 wks of age
• The laying hens need 22% protein and 2900 Kcal ME/Kg feed
• Work on nutrient requirements had been done at Central Avian Research Institute (CARI),
Izatnagar.
Feeding of Turkey
• Turkey birds are mainly reared for meat.
• Turkey birds are reared in Central Poultry Breeding Farm (CPBF), Hessarghatta near Bangalore.
• They are a efficient as chicken in the utilization of feed for growth.
• The breeds reared in CPBF are Broad Breasted Bronze turkey & Broad breasted Large White
turkey.
• Turkeys start laying eggs at 30 wks of age
• Egg production is around 100 eggs in a 24 week season
• Turkey eggs are hatched in 28 days
• Turkeys are marketed at about 4 kg live wt. at 12-14 wks of age
• Nutrient requirements of Turkeys are higher because of their faster growth.
• Turkey’s requirement particularly for vitamins A, D niacin and choline is substantially higher
than for chick.
Feeding of Geese
• Geese are largely herbivorous.
• Geese are reared under three different systems:
• (i) the goslings are fed starter diets for 2 weeks in confinement and thereafter allowed for
foraging;
• (ii) the goslings are fed limited amounts of feed throughout the growing period and allowed for
foraging;
• (iii) the goslings are provided feed for ad libitum consumption in confinement.
• The energy and protein requirement of geese during 0 to 4 weeks is 2900 Kcal ME n / kg diet and
20%
• While the requirement of energy and protein after 4 weeks is 3000 Kcal and 15% (NRC 1994).
Emu, ostrich rearing
• Emu are reared for their sturdy nature and faster growth
• They are mainly reared for meat
• Oil from emu is demanded for medicinal use
• They have high feed efficiency
• Ostriches are reared for meat, egg, oil and skin
• They are well adapted in tropical countries like India
Principal Points for consideration of Poultry Feed Formulation:
• Feeds must contain all essential nutrients in right amount and proportion required for the purpose
for which it is fed.
• Chickens of different ages require different ages require different level of nutrients, hence only
the accepted standards as per age should be followed accordingly.
• Ingredients chosen for preparation of poultry mashes must be palatable.
• Availability and cost of feed ingredients: In formulating balanced feeds, cost of feed ingredient
is also taken into consideration in addition to the nutrients present so that least cost balanced
feeds can be formulated.
• Chickens have no teeth to grind grains or oil cakes, hence these ingredients should be crushed
into proper sizes in keeping with age of the chicken.
• Micro-nutrients and non-nutrient feed additives should be carefully chosen and mixed up
meticulously for effective results.
• Include agro-industrial by-products to minimize cost and select a variety of ingredients to make
good deficiency of one by the other.
Maximum level of inclusion of feed ingredients: which is dictated by the presence of
antinutritional/toxic factor(s), cost of the ingredient, difficulty in feed formulation, proper storage and
shelf life of the feed, its capacity to induce imbalance of nutrients and reduce the performance of
birds.
• Fungal infested ingredients should always be avoided.
• Care should be taken to select optimum C/P ration for the purpose for which feeds are
compounded.
Feed Broiler Layer
ingredient(%)
Starter Finisher starter Grower Layer
Animal Protien 8.0 8.0 8.0 6.0 7.0
Vegetable 32.5 27.5 30.5 16.5 20.0
Protien
High Energy 57.0 62.0 49.0 53.0 57.0
Low Energy - - 10.0 22.0 10.0
Mineral mixture 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5+3.0(source
of Ca)
General guidelines for feed formulation in poultry
Ration formulation poultry algebraic method
• Fix the nutrient requirements for the feed to be formulated
• Slack space for additives 0.5%
• Slack space for lysine – 0.05
• Slack space for methionine – 0.15
• Slack space for common salt if fish meal not included – 0.4
• Slack space for calcium and phosphorus. Chicks 3, growers 2, layers 10 -12
• Fix level of animal origin protein source if it is going to be included max 10%
• Fix level of cereal milling byproducts to be included (refer maximum inclusion level)
• Calculate the total of the ingredients so far added.
• Assuming that the following is the list of ingredients selected
Total of ingredients other than Maize and Soya bean meal = 15.70
Balance from maize and Soya bean meal = 100 – 15.70 = 84.30
Total Protein requirement = 20 %
Protein already supplied = 4.55
Balance protein required = 15.45
Let X = Maize and Y = Soya bean meal
X + Y = 84.3 (Equation 1)
0.09 X + 0.50 Y = 15.45 (Equation 2)
Multiplying Equation 1 with 0.50
0.50 X + 0.50 Y = 42.15 (Equation 3) Subtracting equation 2 from equation 3
0.41 X = 26.7
X = 65.12 = 65
Y = 84.3 – 65.12 = 19.18 = 19.2
USE OF AGRO-INDUSTRIAL BY-PRODUCTS IN POULTRY RATIONS
• Protein supplements
• Mustard cake. Complete replacement of groundnut cake with mustard cake is not possible. It
could be included in chick starter or broiler diets upto 10% level. Deoiled variety of mustard cake
could safely be included in chicken ration replacing groundnut cake upto the tune of 100 per cent.
• Mahua cake. It may be included upto 10 per cent replacing groundnut cake.
• Blood meal. Reports indicate that upto 3 to 5 per cent blood meal replacing fish meal, can be
satisfactorily used in chick ration.
• Liver meal. Results indicate that upto 10% liver meal (liver dry residue) replacing fish meal
can be used in chick ration.
• Silk work pupae meal. Satisfactory growth and egg production have been obtained replacing
some part of maize and the whole of fish meal with silk worm pupae meal. However, could only
replace 50% of fish meal in chick starting ration.
• Guar meal. A by-product from guar gum industry. Results indicate that raw guar meal
proved detrimental to chick growth above 6.5 % inclusion in the rations but roasting or
autoclaving or supplementation with 0.1 % hemicelluloses enzyme, significantly improve its
nutritive value.
