ASA

THE COMPLETE

THE COMPLETE ADVANCED PILOT

ADVANCED THE COMPLETE
PILOT ADVANCED
SIXTH EDITION
Bob Gardner

“If the Airline Transport Pilot certificate is the Ph.D. of aviation,

the Commercial and Instrument tickets represent the bachelor’s
and master’s degrees.” Author Bob Gardner so defines the
advanced pilot; The Complete Advanced Pilot is written for the
many pilots who streamline their efforts by preparing for the
PILOT
A COMBINED COMMERCIAL & INSTRUMENT COURSE
instrument rating and the commercial certificate simultaneously.
An FAA Knowledge Exam is required for the instrument
rating and the commercial certificate. In using the FAA tests
as the premise for learning, Bob Gardner applies practical
information so readers are not only prepared for the exams but
also for the cockpit. The required aeronautical knowledge is
augmented by his specific tips and techniques, checklists and
mnemonic devices, and sound advice from personal experience.
Each chapter concludes with sample FAA test questions, and
a comprehensive glossary and index are included as well as an
approach chart legend appendix. This practical application of
the FAA Knowledge Exam is not available in any other text!

Bob Gardner
With the author’s conversational yet concise explanations,
readers will quickly grasp the subjects, pass the required tests
and checkrides, and have an operational understanding of flight
they can take to the cockpit as newly-minted commercial pilots
operating under instrument flight rules (IFR). Includes helpful
internet resources for weather charts, full color examples of
those weather charts, updated review questions and resource
website links.
Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.
Also by Bob Gardner in The Complete Pilot Series: 7005 132nd Place SE
Newcastle, Washington 98059
The Complete Private Pilot 425-235-1500
The Complete Private Pilot Syllabus www.asa2fly.com
The Complete Multi-Engine Pilot ASA-MPT-4
The Complete Remote Pilot

Say Again, Please: Guide to Radio Communications

TRANSPORTATION USD $49.95
ISBN 978-1-61954-853-4

SIXTH EDITION
ASA-CAP-6

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

7005 132nd Place SE | Newcastle, WA 98059
425-235-1500 | asa2fly.com Bob Gardner
ASA-CAP-6
THE COMPLETE
ADVANCED
PILOT
A COMBINED COMMERCIAL & INSTRUMENT COURSE

SIXTH EDITION
Bob Gardner

AVIATION SUPPLIES & ACADEMICS

NEWCASTLE, WASHINGTON
The Complete Advanced Pilot: A Combined Commercial & Instrument Course
Sixth Edition
by Bob Gardner

Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

7005 132nd Place SE
Newcastle, Washington 98059-3153

Visit the ASA website often, as any updates due to FAA regulatory and procedural
changes will be posted there: www.asa2fly.com

© 1994 – 2019 Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright holder. While
every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and Bob
Gardner assume no responsibility for damages resulting from the use of the information
contained herein.

None of the material in this manual supersedes any operational documents or procedures
issued by the Federal Aviation Administration, aircraft and avionics manufacturers,
flight schools, or the operators of aircraft. The chart excerpts contained in this manual
are reproductions for example only, and are not to be used for navigation.

ASA-CAP-6-PD
ISBN 978-1-61954-856-5
Additional formats available:
ISBN 978-1-61954-853-4
ISBN 978-1-61954-855-8
ISBN 978-1-61954-854-1
ISBN 978-1-61954-857-2 (print+PDF eBook download code)

Original illustrations: Dick Bringloe and Don Szymanski

Photo credits: Cover photos (front and back): ©Piper Aircraft, Inc. Inside photography cour-
tesy of: page xi—Dave Gwinn; p. xii—Jim Fagiolo; p. xiii—Bob Gardner; p. 1-14—King; p.
3-15—Cessna Corporation; pp. 4-5, 4-6, 4-7—King; p. 4-10—Narco; p. 5-1—Boeing Company;
p. 5-41—Cessna Corporation; pp. 5-43, 5-44—Dennis Newton; p. 5-45—Bendix Corporation;
pp. 9-18, 10-16—King; p. 11-4 (top)—Bendix Corporation, (bottom)—Garmin; p. 12-12—Bob
Gardner; p. 13-1—General Aviation News & Flyer; p. 13-15—Bob Gardner. Charts on p. 9-15
provided courtesy E. Allan Englehardt, FAA Accident Prevention Program. Chapter 5 illustra-
tions (of satellite and weather forecast products) are from the National Weather Service and
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration “Aviation Weather Center” website (http://
aviationweather.gov).
CONTENTS
Foreword by Dave Gwinn / About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

1 The Flight Instruments

You and Your Flight Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1
Pitot-Static Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Gyroscopic Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-9
Magnetic Compass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-13
Slaved Gyro Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-14
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-15
Flight Instrument Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-17
Autopilots, Flight Directors, and Flight Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-18
Flight Instruments Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-20

2 Aerodynamics
Pitch, Power, and Trim Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1
Turn Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Speed, Bank Angle, Radius of Turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
What Controls What? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Spatial Disorientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Scanning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Control and Performance Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
The Selected Radial Scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Primary/Supporting Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Pitch Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Initial Climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-10
Constant Airspeed Climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Enroute Climbs and Descents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Constant Rate Climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Leveling Off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Pitch Control on Partial Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Using the Vertical Speed Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Use of Trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-13
Bank Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Transition to Banked Flight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14
Maintaining a Level Turn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-15
The Efficient Scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
Heading Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
Focus on the Attitude Indicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
Straight and Level Flight Scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
Partial Panel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-16
Using the Power Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-17
Aerodynamics for Commercial Pilot Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19
Commercial Versus Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-25
Aerodynamics Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-26

The Complete Advanced Pilot iii

3 Performance
“Can We Get Off the Ground Safely?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Weight and Balance Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1
Zero Fuel Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Graphic Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3
Weight and Balance for Commercial Pilots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Weight and Balance Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Predicting Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Density Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Takeoff Performance Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Rate-of-Climb/Maximum Climb Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
Climb Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Single-Engine Rate of Climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Time, Fuel, and Distance to Climb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10
Cruise Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Normal Landing Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
Instrument Pilots: Ice Adds Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
Turbulence and Maneuvering Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16
Performance Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-17

4 Navigation
Basic VOR Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Intercepting and Tracking with an HSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
The Localizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
ADF Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Intercepting ADF Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10
Tracking Inbound to a Radio Beacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11
Tracking a Bearing Outbound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12
Service Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13
Global Positioning System (GPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14
A Final Word on the Use of Navaids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15
Navigation Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16

5 Weather
Aviation Weather Center . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Inflight Aviation Weather Advisories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14
Winds and Temperature Aloft Forecast (FB) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-15
Skew-T Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16
Surface Analysis Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Radar Coded Message (RCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25
Significant Weather Prognostic Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26
Constant Pressure Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27
Freezing Level Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
Weather Depiction Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
Satellite Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28
Data Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32
Doppler Radar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32
“Center, Are You Showing Any Weather on My Route?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34
“Approach, Are You Painting Any Weather...?” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34

iv The Complete Advanced Pilot

 Automated Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35
Pilot Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35
Other Sources of Weather Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-36
Icing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-37
Icing Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-42
Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-42
Fog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-44
Weather Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-45
Wind Shear and Turbulence for the Commercial Pilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-46
Microbursts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-47
Estimating Cloud Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-47
Summary of Weather Reports and Forecasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-48
A Review of Weather Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-48
Weather Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-54

6 Charts and Publications

Chart Supplement U.S. and the Airport/Facility Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1
Enroute Low-Altitude Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4
Area Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
Minimum Operational Network (MON) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-8
Departure Procedures and STARs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
Instrument Approach Procedure Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-9
Notices To Airmen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-22
Aeronautical Information Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-22
For Commercial Students Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-23
Charts and Publications Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-24

7 The IFR System and Departures

Understanding the System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1
The Flight Plan Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2
GPS Departures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
Special Planning Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
Departure Procedures (DPs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Visual Climb Over Airport (VCOA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15
Getting Your Clearance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-16
From the Terminal Area to the Enroute Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-18
IFR Flight Planning List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-20
The IFR System and Departures Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21

8 En Route
Enroute Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1
Altitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
Minimum Enroute Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
The Snitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Minimum Obstruction Clearance Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
Minimum Crossing Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
Minimum Reception Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4
Checking In . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7
Enroute Altitude Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7

The Complete Advanced Pilot v

 VFR-On-Top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7
Cruise Clearances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8
VFR Climb/Descent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9
Pilot’s Discretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9
Operating in a Non-Radar Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9
Popping Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10
Flying Direct Routes Without GPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12
Random Route Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13
Bells and Whistles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16
Let’s Get Practical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16
Lost Communication Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17
Holding Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-19
Standard Terminal Arrival Routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26
Entering the Terminal Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-26
En Route Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-28

9 Arrivals
Destination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1
Altimeter Setting? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
No Approach? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
Approach Segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6
Procedure Turns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8
Mandatory Holding Pattern Course Reversal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-10
DME Arcs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-12
The GPS Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-19
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-19
Arrivals Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-21

10 Instrument Approaches
In the Terminal Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
The Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
Precision vs. Nonprecision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1
The Final Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2
Types of RNAV (GPS) Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4
The Instrument Landing System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-10
VOR on Airport with no Final Approach Fix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-20
VOR on Airport with Final Approach Fix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-22
VOR off Airport with Final Approach Fix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-23
Missed Approach Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-25
Other Types of Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-28
Runway Markings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-35
Visual Approach Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-36
General Airport Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-37
Getting the Weather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-38
Instrument Approaches Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-40

vi The Complete Advanced Pilot

11 Cockpit Organization and Procedures
Getting Organized . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1
Clearance Copying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5
Mandatory Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-6
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-7
Expectation-of-Landing Syndrome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10
IFR Proficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-10
The Aviation Safety Reporting Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-12
Cockpit Organization and Procedures Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-13

12 Regulations
Part 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1
Part 91 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4
Airspace Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8
Regulations for the Commercial Pilot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10
A Little of This, a Little of That . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-20
Regulations Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-21

13 For Commercial Students

Mixture Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1
Carburetor Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
Fuel Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
Ignition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3
Detuning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4
Propellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4
Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-7
Turbine Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-7
Winter Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-8
Preheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-9
Complex Airplane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-9
Retractable Landing Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-10
Environmental System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-11
Turbocharging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-12
Pressurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-12
Airport Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-14
Helpful Hints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-15
Single-Pilot Resource Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-17
Review Questions for Commercial Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-21

14 Preparing for the Practical Tests

For Instrument Students Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1
Preparing for the Commercial Flight Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4
Guidelines for the Commercial Flight Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6
Instrument Flight Test Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-20

Appendix A: Glossary
Appendix B: Aviators Model Code of Conduct
Appendix C: Approach Chart Legend Excerpts
Appendix D: FAA-ICAO Flight Planning Guide
Index

The Complete Advanced Pilot vii

viii The Complete Advanced Pilot
FOREWORD

As an aviation educator and journalist, I receive an

abundance of e-mail asking aviation questions, often-
complex ones. My answers are always prompt and
wonderfully informational because an airline Captain
knows everything. I confess: Two things I know
readily are what bookshelf Bob Gardner’s books
are located on for easy reference, and I know Bob
Gardner’s phone number. Together with my own 39
years of experience that encompasses “knowing just
about everything.”
In reading the Foreword written several years ago carves a route for you to reach complex destinations
complimenting Bob’s The Complete Advanced Pilot, of understanding through simple road maps of edu-
I’m tempted to underline many comments, but not cational travel.
alter anything. The latest edition amplifies in some
areas, updates to current procedures, corrects a couple To make the complex simple is the accomplishment
minor errors and is another outstanding exhibit of of the capable teacher. The need to share and give
Bob’s mastery of aviation academics. and uplift are attributes of a person of quality. I
find Bob’s book exceptionally readable, splendidly
The addition of color pages makes it possible for sectioned for ready reference for virtually any
Bob to just scratch the surface of all that is new with topic, and supplemented with the caliber of
graphic weather reports and forecasts. Like peeling personal ex­perience that integrates “technique” into
an onion, each new web page exposes more informa- “procedure” with mastery.
tion for planning.
Someone once defined for me the specifics of the
Therefore, from the previous Foreword, I repeat with “good” and the “bad” teacher. The latter always held
utmost sincerity: back, denied to others some ingredient of his pers­on­­al
In a long and rewarding friendship, Bob Gardner has knowledge, retained and guarded some educational
always delighted me with his multitude of talents. asset that set him above the bunch. Bob Gardner
Foremost in my inventory, he is a total gentleman, a has always met the “good” definition, wanting you
giving and caring person who is driven to share all to know everything he’s learned, in ways you can
the knowledge he’s accumulated throughout a diverse employ it, and to gain the confidence that you have
and impressive career. become an enlightened and safe pilot by having
absorbed all that this good man can give to you.
His aviation experience is abundant: a flight in­structor,
charter pilot, corporate and freight Captain, ground I’m grateful for the opportunity to review and
school instructor, splendid speaker and dedicated comment upon the latest educational achievement
educator. He has again documented decades of accu- by Bob Gardner. As my peer, friend and fellow
mulated knowledge in another brilliantly organized educator, Bob never fails to earn my applause and
instructional adventure: The Complete Advanced endorsement.
Pilot. As with all of his books, Bob’s organized mind Capt. Dave Gwinn, TWA-Retired
June 2008

The Complete Advanced Pilot ix

About the Author

Bob Gardner has always been an admired member

of the aviation community. He began his flying
career as a hobby in 1960, during his time in the
U.S. Coast Guard in Alaska. By 1966 Bob earned
his Private land and sea, Commercial, Instrument,
Instructor, CFII, and MEL. Over the next 16 years
he was an instructor, charter pilot, corporate and
freight Captain, and served as Director of ASA
Ground Schools.
Bob holds an ATP certificate with single- and multi-
engine land ratings; a CFI certificate with instru-
ment and multi-engine land ratings; and a Ground
Instructor's Certificate with advanced and instru-
ment ratings. He has been a Gold Seal Instructor and
has been flight instructing for many years, with an
impressive list of additional accomplishments as a
well-known author, journalist, and airshow lecturer.

Books by Bob Gardner

The Complete Private Pilot
The Complete Multi-Engine Pilot
The Complete Advanced Pilot: A Combined
Commercial/Instrument Course
Say Again Please: Guide to Radio
Communications

x The Complete Advanced Pilot

INTRODUCTION

Just what is “an advanced pilot”? My definition is

a pilot with a commercial certificate and an instru-
ment rating. This certificate and rating will allow
you to have a long and enjoyable career in aviation.
Sure, a multi-engine rating is valuable, but thou-
sands of pilots have flown thousands of revenue
hours without ever flying a twin. And if the Airline
Transport Pilot Certificate is the Ph.D. of aviation,
the commercial and instrument tickets represent the
bachelor’s and master’s degrees.
Most private pilots aim for the instrument rating
first, knowing they can get started right away while
their brains are used to studying. They also know with the instrument rating information because that
that the ability to fly in the clouds will speed up applies to all of you, and finish with what you need
the progress of acquiring the 250-hour minimum to fly for hire.
for the commercial pilot certificate (Part 61). Many
pilots have no interest in getting a commercial cer- Some of the information may seem basic. There are
tificate but want the instrument rating so they can two reasons for this: Many prospective commer-
free themselves of VFR restrictions. cial pilots earned the private certificate many years
ago, so some review is helpful; also, the commercial
All of these pilots face knowledge examinations— knowledge exam explores some operational areas
one in the case of the noncommercial aviator, two in more depth than did the private pilot knowledge
for the pilot who wants to fly for money. Some of exam. However, I am not going to cover all of the
the required information overlaps; for example, private pilot information that you have needed to
both examinations test your knowledge of weather, know in order to fly safely up to this point. If it has
weight and balance, and regulations. I’m going been a long time since you reviewed the knowledge
to handle that by having two sets of review ques- requirements of a Private ticket, it might benefit you
tions where appropriate—read all of the text and to review The Complete Private Pilot.
then check your understanding by doing the review
questions for the proper knowledge test. All review This introduction has implied a heavy emphasis on
questions for this edition have been taken from FAA knowledge exams, but that is not my style as an
test databases. instructor. What you need to know for the knowl-
edge test represents less than half of the text — the
Where information is unique to instrument flight rest is solid information you must have but the FAA
or to commercial operations I will make that clear, doesn’t ask about. To ace the test, use the appropri-
and of course there will be whole chapters that apply ate ASA test preparation book.
to only one of your immediate goals. I will lead off

The Complete Advanced Pilot xi

You will also note an emphasis on computers, the The world of aviation is constantly changing and
internet, and the worldwide web. Most pilots are to new information comes to light between editions
some extent technically oriented, and it is estimated of this book. Stay ahead of the game by going to
that well over half of all pilots use home comput- www.asa2fly.com for resources and text updates.
ers for flight planning, acquiring weather informa- When I run across an article that expands on a
tion, maintaining their logbooks, etc. Accordingly, subject beyond what I have written in this book,
I have included access information wherever it is I upload it to the “Reader Resource” page there:
appropriate. As web surfers know, if you can find www.asa2fly.com/reader/cap.
one webpage you will find links to dozens of other
One final word: I am a flight instructor, and flight
pages ready to be accessed with the click of a mouse
instructors love to talk. You should hear my voice
button. You can reach me at bobmrg@comcast.net;
in your ear as you read. Also, I know that it aids in
I am also active in several internet forums such as
understanding if some information is presented in
AOPA, and Pilots of America.
different contexts—so if you see the same material
in more than one section it is not due to poor editing
but is intended to carry out an instructional purpose.

xii The Complete Advanced Pilot

You and Your Flight The six basic flight instruments are divided into two
groups by source of power or input: pitot-static and
Instruments gyroscopic. Your knowledge of how each instru-
The FAA will test your knowledge of the flight ment derives its input will help you troubleshoot
instruments on both the commercial and instru- any erratic indications and isolate the instrument or
ment knowledge examinations. The material in this system which has failed.
chapter applies to both.
It’s a Whole New World
When you begin training for the instrument rating
you must make a mental commitment to believe the For the immediate future, FAA Knowledge Exams
indications of the flight instruments and to ignore will assume that your trainer has analog instru-
physical clues to flight attitude. The days of instru- ments, an arrangement known to pilots as a six-pack,
ment flight by “the seat of your pants” never existed. and questions will be based on that assumption.
It takes commitment and concentration to sit in a Although there are a lot of whiz-bang new airplanes
cockpit with nothing to look at but a collection of with digital instrumentation, chances are that you
gauges and to feel comfortable and confident in your will train in an older plane with a six-pack. Your
ability to control the airplane, to know its position in knowledge test will include questions about satel-
space, and to guide it safely to your destination. It’s lite navigation regulations and requirements but you
an ego trip. Pilots are a special group, and instrument will not be asked to interpret a display.
pilots are the cream of the crop.
An electronic flight display, when compared to the
It’s difficult to place your faith in an instrument legacy analog instruments, offers new capabilities
unless you know how it works, where it gets its infor- and simplifies the flying task. The following sec-
mation, and how to use its indications to control the tions will discuss where and how those instruments
airplane. We’ll begin with how the flight instruments get their inputs. (To learn more, go to www.faa.gov
work and then examine the systems that allow them and search for the Advanced Avionics Handbook,
to function. In the next chapter, we will discuss how FAA-H-8083-6.)
to develop the most efficient method of scanning the
instruments.

Chapter 1 The Flight Instruments 1-1

Digital instruments get information from an Atti- cross-check of the other instruments (especially the
tude and Heading Reference System (AHRS), a altimeter and VSI) will quickly pinpoint the ASI as
collection of solid-state or micro-electromechanical having failed.
systems (MEMS) providing pitch, heading, and yaw
As a professional pilot or as a private pilot with a pro-
signals to an electronic display. The errors inher-
fessional attitude, you should know what airspeed
ent in analog instruments, which I discuss in detail,
will result from a given pitch attitude and power
are vanishingly small in digital displays…until the
setting; that is, you should be able to fly the airplane
power fails, in which case you must fall back on the
without an airspeed indicator if that becomes neces-
required analog instruments: attitude indicator, air-
sary in an emergency.
speed indicator, and altimeter, all of which, hopefully,
have power sources independent of ship’s power. The static port is located where the airplane’s motion
through the air will create no pressure at all: on the
The avionics industry has developed a number of
side (or both sides) of the fuselage or on the back of
battery-powered digital systems, some handheld,
the pitot tube. The airspeed indicator is calibrated
to solve this problem. I recommend that you invest
to read the difference in pressure between impact
in one.
air and still (static) air—both inputs are required.
One step up from the AHRS is the air-data reference
If either the pitot tube or the static port is blocked
system (ADHRS), which incorporates positioning
the system will be useless, much like trying to
information from a Global Positioning System
get electricity from only one side of an electrical
(GPS) navigator plus airspeed and altitude into the
outlet. Blockage of the static system would disable
basic AHRS.

Pitot-Static Instruments
The pitot-static system consists of a pitot (pressure-
sensing) tube, a static (zero pressure) source, and
related plumbing and filters. The pitot-static instru-
ments are the airspeed indicator, the altimeter, and Static Ports
the vertical speed indicator; they measure changes
in air pressure caused by the airplane’s vertical
and horizontal movements in the atmosphere (see
Figure 1-1). ASI ALT VSI
Pitot
Airplanes equipped for instrument flight have pitot Tube
tube heaters, virtually identical to the resistance
elements in your kitchen toaster, and they soak
Figure 1-1. Pitot-static system
up a prodigious amount of electricity. Airplanes
approved for instrument flight in commuter or
on-demand operations must have pitot tube heaters. Situation Airspeed Altimeter VSI
The pitot heat should be turned on before you fly
1. Blocked pitot. zero works works
into visible moisture, so that ice has no opportunity
2. Blocked pitot high in climb works works
to form on the pitot tube. If water gets into the pitot and drain hole.
plumbing it will cause erratic indications or worse. Open static. low in descent
When the tubing connecting the pitot head to the 3. Blocked static low in climb frozen frozen
airspeed indicator is blocked by ice, the air trapped — open pitot. high in descent

between the point of blockage and the diaphragm in 4. Using alternate reads high reads high unreliable
cockpit static air.
the instrument will expand as the airplane climbs,
unreliable
and the airspeed indicator will react as an altimeter, 5. Broken VSI glass reads high reads high

indicating higher airspeeds as altitude increases. A Table 1-1. Pitot-static system failures

1-2 The Complete Advanced Pilot

the airspeed indicator, the altimeter, and the verti- on the diaphragm also changes and the movement of
cal speed indicator because no pressure differential the diaphragm in response to these changes is trans-
would exist. mitted to the indicator needle. The designer tries to
locate the pitot tube so that it registers pressure in
Depending on the location of the static source or free air and is not affected by local airflow around
sources, structural icing might cause such a blockage, the supporting structure. The airspeed indicator is
and many all-weather airplanes are equipped with the only instrument that uses air pressure from the
electrical static port heaters to eliminate this hazard. pitot tube.
Although an alternate static source is not required At the start of the takeoff roll there is no differ-
by 14 CFR 91.205 for noncommercial instrument ence in pressure between the pitot and static inputs,
flight, most IFR airplanes are equipped with one. and the airspeed indicator will read zero. As the
(Part 135 requires an alternate static source for pas- airplane accelerates, the pressure in the pitot tube
senger-carrying flights operating under instrument increases and that pressure is transmitted to the air-
flight rules.) speed indicator needle. The designer cannot com-
The alternate static source is a small valve or petcock pletely isolate the pitot and static inputs from the
at the pilot station which, when opened, vents the effects of airflow around the wing or fuselage, so
static system to the cockpit. When it is in use, the an airspeed correction table is provided. The needle
altimeter and airspeed indicator read slightly high; on the airspeed indicator reads indicated airspeed
the vertical speed indicator will indicate correctly (IAS); when corrected for installation or position
after momentarily reading in reverse. Opening the error, it becomes calibrated airspeed (CAS). Note in
cabin vents will affect the readings of pitot-static Figure 1-2 that the greatest difference between indi-
instruments by slightly pressurizing the cabin when cated and calibrated airspeed occurs at low speeds
the alternate static source is being used. which require high angles of attack, and that as the
angle of attack is reduced and speed increases the
If you are flying in icing conditions and your air- difference between IAS and CAS becomes negli-
plane does not have an alternate static source, water gible. The colored arcs on the airspeed indicator are
freezing in the static plumbing will put the pitot- usually based on calibrated airspeed; other oper-
static instruments out of commission. Your only ating speeds may be based on indicated airspeed.
option is to open the system to cabin pressure by Check the operator’s handbook to be sure.
breaking the glass on the vertical speed indicator.
That will render the VSI pretty much useless but It takes a pressure of about 34 pounds per square
save the day for the airspeed indicator and altimeter. foot on the pitot side of the airspeed indicator’s dia-
The VSI isn’t a required instrument anyway. phragm to make the airspeed needle register 100
knots at sea level—that’s how the instrument shop
The Federal Aviation Regulations require that the calibrates your ASI. As the airplane climbs to alti-
altimeter and static system of any airplane used for tude, the air becomes less dense. The airplane will
instrument flight be inspected every 24 months, and have to move much faster through the less dense air
that the logbook endorsement indicate the maximum at altitude to develop a pressure of 34 psf in the pitot
altitude to which the system has been tested. For
unpressurized airplanes this altitude will far exceed
FLAPS UP
the service ceiling of the airplane. KIAS 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
KCAS 55 63 71 80 89 99 108 118 128 138 147 157

Airspeed Indicator FLAPS 10°

KIAS 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 --- ---
The airspeed indicator requires input from both the KCAS 50 54 62 71 81 91 100 110 120 130 --- ---
pitot (pressure) and static (unchanging) sources. Air FLAPS 30°
from the static port fills the airspeed instrument KIAS 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 --- --- --- --- ---
case, while air from the pitot tube is led to a dia- KCAS 47 54 62 71 81 90 101 --- --- --- --- ---

phragm. As airspeed changes, the pressure exerted Figure 1-2. Airspeed calibration

Chapter 1 The Flight Instruments 1-3

tube, so the true airspeed will be faster than 100 available runway, especially if it is wet. Flying at
knots when the airspeed indicator shows 100 knots. the manufacturer’s recommended airspeed will have
Your flight computer will allow you to make accu- predictable results.
rate calculations of true airspeed using IAS, pres-
A useful memory aid for the various airspeed cor-
sure altitude, and temperature, but as a rule of thumb
rections is “Ice Tea upside down.” That is,
true airspeed increases by 2 percent per 1,000 feet
of altitude. At sea level, under standard conditions, True (equivalent corrected for nonstandard
indicated and true airspeed will be equal; at 10,000 temperature)
feet msl, at the standard temperature for that alti- Equivalent (calibrated corrected for
tude, an indicated 100 knots means a true airspeed compressibility)
of approximately 120 knots. When the ambient tem-
perature rises above standard while indicated alti- Calibrated (indicated corrected for installation
tude is constant, pressure levels rise and both true or position error)
airspeed and true altitude will increase. Indicated

Note: Glass cockpit airspeed indicators (and altim- Pilots of light aircraft can safely ignore equivalent
eters, Page 1-5) take their inputs from air data com- airspeed.
puters, and their displays are vertical tapes and
Most modern IFR airplanes are equipped with an
digital readouts, not needles. Some “glass” airspeed
airspeed indicator capable of being set to indicate
indicators provide a “trend vector,” showing what
true airspeed when the outside air temperature and
the airspeed will be in six seconds if acceleration/
pressure altitude are set in a window at the top of
deceleration does not change.
the instrument. True airspeed is read within the
At airspeeds in excess of 240 knots, heating caused white arc at the bottom of the instrument. The inside
by the compression of the air in the pitot tube must calibrations on this type of instrument will still be
be taken into consideration in calculating true air- indicated airspeeds, one in miles per hour and one
speed. Equivalent airspeed is calibrated airspeed in knots. See Figure 1-3. Some glass cockpit air-
corrected for the compressibility of the air, and speed indicators display true airspeed in addition
should be of no concern at speeds less than 240 to indicated airspeed. These high-end units take
knots. Equivalent airspeed and calibrated airspeed input from an “air data computer” that measures
are equal at sea level on a standard day—it is at high air density and temperature.
altitude and high airspeed that they differ.
Every airplane has a design maneuvering speed
You will use true airspeed in flight planning, but (VA), which is the optimum speed in turbulence
most airspeeds that you will use in actual flight at maximum gross weight. Maneuvering speed
are indicated airspeeds. You will always use the
same indicated airspeeds, regardless of altitude. For
example, if you are taking your flight training at a 6 8 10 1 P
A

sea level airport and find that 110 knots indicated is

LT.

40
the correct final approach speed, you will use 110
240 30 +0 –30
60 TEMP.

knots indicated airspeed on final when you fly to 220 200 40

an airport at 5,000 feet above sea level as well. Your AIRSPEED 60 80

true airspeed will be 121 knots (2 percent times 5 = 200 180
80
160
10 percent, 1.1 times 110 = 121). Because the airplane 180
TRUE SPEED
KNOTS 100 100
140
approaching the airport at 5,000 feet is moving faster
210

120
through the air to have an indicated airspeed of 110 160 120
20
0

19 140M.P.H.
0
knots, its ground speed will be higher and landing 180
170
T
A

roll will be longer. A pilot who adds a few knots “just

S

in case” while on final approach at a high altitude

Figure 1-3. Airspeed indicator with TAS window
airport may have difficulty getting stopped on the

1-4 The Complete Advanced Pilot

is reduced as weight is reduced; get rid of ten attack information by some form of “safe-unsafe”
percent of your payload weight and maneuvering or “fast-slow” instrument reading. One such instru-
speed will be reduced by five percent. Flight at or ment compares air pressure changes both verti-
below maneuvering speed ensures that the airplane cally and horizontally and measures sink rate. See
will stall before damaging aerodynamic loads are Figure 1-4.
imposed on the wing structure.
Angle of attack indicator installation requires only
The manufacturer may designate other speeds, which a mechanic’s logbook entry. Legally, it does not
you will find in the Pilot’s Operating Handbook and replace the airspeed indicator; operationally, if you
possibly placarded on the instrument panel. Landing have an AOA indicator you will never look at your
gear extension and retraction speeds, maneuvering airspeed indicator again.
speed, and speeds for partial flap extension will be
found in the operating handbook and not on the air- In every case, you need only keep the instrument’s
speed indicator. needle in the “safe” area and no interpretation is
required.
You will be asked to interpret a velocity/G-load
diagram, used to determine V-speeds, on the com- Go to the Air Safety Institute’s website (or YouTube
mercial pilot FAA knowledge examination. That and search for “margins of safety”) and watch videos
subject will be covered in Chapter 2. on angle-of-attack indicators.

Angle of Attack Indicators (AOA) Altitude and Altimeters

You may recall Figure 1-5 from your private pilot
The airspeed indicator can be considered a form of
training. Absolute altitude is your airplane’s height
angle of attack indicator, since indicated airspeed
above the ground as it might be measured by a radar
is dependent on both angle of attack and power
altimeter. True altitude is your airplane’s height
setting. Several manufacturers provide actual angle
above sea level; that’s what it reads when you set the
of attack indicators, however, which are calibrated
Kollsman window to the local altimeter setting. If
to measure the actual angle between the chord line
you set it on the ground, indicated altitude should be
and the relative wind and provide you with angle of
within 75 feet of the published airport elevation; if
it isn’t, the altimeter needs work. Before you enrich
the instrument shop, however, make sure that your
airplane is not parked at a spot higher or lower than
the airport reference point. Pressure altitude is mea-
sured above the standard datum plane of 29.92" Hg
and is used at all times above 18,000 feet (Flight
Level 180). You also use pressure altitude exten-
sively in making performance calculations.

Absolute

True

Pressure

29.92 Standard Datum Plane

Figure 1-4. Angle of attack indicator Figure 1-5. Altitude definitions

Chapter 1 The Flight Instruments 1-5

Aircraft altimeters are aneroid (dry) barometers
1,000 Feet 10,000 Feet
calibrated to read in feet above sea level (true alti-
tude). The altimeter gets its input from the static 100 Feet
100
0 FEET

port, which is unaffected by the airplane’s move- 9 1 Aneroid wafer

8 2
ment through the air. An aneroid barometer con- 29.8
29.9
30.0

tains several sealed wafers with a partial internal 7 3

6
vacuum, so as the airplane moves vertically and the 5 4
outside pressure changes, the wafers expand and
contract much like an accordion. This expansion Indicated altitude
and contraction is transmitted through a linkage to is 10,180 feet
the altimeter needles. Altitude set knob
Barometers provide a means of weighing the earth’s Figure 1-6. 3-Needle altimeter
atmosphere at a specific location. At a flight service
station or National Weather Service office, an actual
mercury barometer may be used, and on a standard
day the weight of the atmosphere will support a
column of mercury (Hg) 29.92 inches high at sea
level. Inches of mercury are the units of measure
for barometric pressure and altimeter settings. The
equivalent metric measure is 1013.2 millibars.
Up to 18,000 feet, altitude is measured above sea
level, and sea level pressure will normally vary
between 28.50" to 30.50" Hg. The Aeronautical
Information Manual contains specific procedures
to be followed if cold weather causes an altimeter
setting of 31.00" or more. If the barometric pres-
sure is less than 28.50", both you and your airplane
should be protected from hurricane-force winds.
Your altimeter has an adjustment knob and an altim-
eter setting window, and you must enter the sea level Figure 1-7. Reading 3-needle altimeter
barometric pressure (altimeter setting) at your loca-
tion as received from a nearby flight service station or
air traffic control facility (each time you are handed
off from one ATC controller to another, you should
receive an altimeter setting). You can only use field
elevation when nothing else is available, and even
then you must get an altimeter setting as soon as
possible. The altimeter will, when properly set, read
altitude above mean sea level (msl). See Figure 1-6.
As you increase the numbers in the altimeter setting
window, the hands on the altimeter also show an
increase: each .01 increase in the window is equal
to 10 feet of altitude, each .1 is 100 feet, etc.
Misreading of altimeters has caused several acci-
dents. The indication of the 3-needle altimeter found
Figure 1-8. Drum-pointer altimeter
in many aircraft can be misinterpreted by 10,000

1-6 The Complete Advanced Pilot

feet if the needle on the outside rim of the instru- difference between your present altimeter setting
ment is ignored or misread. In Figure 1-7, which and 29.92 and add a zero. This will give you the dif-
instrument depicts 10,000 feet? Instrument R is ference in feet between your indicated altitude and
correct. The 10,000-foot needle reads one, and the the pressure altitude. Then add or subtract this value
1,000-foot and 100-foot needles read zero. What to (or from) the indicated altitude to get pressure
are the readings of instruments Q, S, and T? Check altitude, remembering that the altimeter needles
below for the answers.* always move in the same direction as the numbers
in the setting window.
The drum-pointer altimeter is encountered quite
often in light aircraft and is the altimeter of choice For example, assume that you are cruising at an indi-
as you move up to more expensive flying machines. cated altitude of 7,000 feet with the altimeter set to
It has a single needle and a drum counter similar 30.15, and you need to know pressure altitude for a
to an automobile’s odometer. As the needle rotates, flight computer calculation.
the drum reads the altitude directly in easily under-
stood numbers. Each rotation of the needle causes The difference between 29.92 and 30.15 is .23, or
the counter to increase 1,000 feet. See Figure 1-8. 230 feet. If you turned the altimeter setting knob to
lower its setting to 29.92, the needles would move
With a glass cockpit, altitude is displayed using a counterclockwise 230 feet, so the pressure altitude is
vertical tape with a digital readout. Some high-end 6,770 feet. The advantage of this method is that there
units display height above ground level (for example, is no danger of resetting the altimeter incorrectly.
“2320B” on the Chelton display means 2,320 feet
above the ground, measured by barometry). Above 18,000 feet the altimeter must be set to
29.92" Hg; you will be reading your altitude above
Pressure Altitude the standard datum plane. By international agree-
ment, a standard day at sea level is defined as having
You will need to determine pressure altitude to a barometric pressure of 29.92 (with the tempera-
convert indicated airspeed to true airspeed or to cal- ture 15°C), and by setting your altimeter to 29.92 it
culate density altitude using your flight computer. will read altitude above that standard level. Below
There are two ways of accomplishing this: first, note 18,000 feet, having the correct altimeter setting will
your indicated altitude and altimeter setting, then keep you out of the trees, while above 18,000 feet
turn the altimeter setting knob to 29.92; the altim- (where there are no trees or mountains in this part
eter needles will read pressure altitude. Write down of the world), the common altimeter setting of 29.92
the pressure altitude and return the altimeter setting provides altitude separation for IFR flights. Pres-
knob to its original position. The second method sure altitudes of 18,000 feet and above are referred
requires some mental gymnastics: determine the to as Flight Levels: “I’d like to file for flight level
220.” See Figure 1-9.
*Q = 1,000 feet; S = 11,000 feet; T = 10,100 feet.

29.92"

18,000'

29.73" 29.85"

Figure 1-9. Change to pressure levels above 18,000 feet msl

Chapter 1 The Flight Instruments 1-7

 ASA
THE COMPLETE

THE COMPLETE ADVANCED PILOT

ADVANCED THE COMPLETE
PILOT ADVANCED
SIXTH EDITION
Bob Gardner

“If the Airline Transport Pilot certificate is the Ph.D. of aviation,

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PILOT
A COMBINED COMMERCIAL & INSTRUMENT COURSE
instrument rating and the commercial certificate simultaneously.
An FAA Knowledge Exam is required for the instrument
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the FAA Knowledge Exam is not available in any other text!

Bob Gardner
With the author’s conversational yet concise explanations,
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Newcastle, Washington 98059
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Aviation Supplies & Academics, Inc.

7005 132nd Place SE | Newcastle, WA 98059
425-235-1500 | asa2fly.com Bob Gardner
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