How commuting affects employees’ Wellbeing and

Work-Life Balance: The perspective of full-time

employees commuting within the greater Dublin
area

MSc in Management

Jessica Flynn
Submitted to the National College of Ireland, August 2017
Abstract
A recent poll stated that Ireland’s transport infrastructure competitiveness ranking
has improved although per the World Economic Forum (WEF) competitiveness
report, it remains poor compared to well-developed economies with whom the State
competes for investment. As cities become more lucrative, urban mobility occurs,
therefore, if the State’s lack of capital investment in land transport continues, the
resulting congestion and bottlenecks begin to impact on the daily lives of people.
Commuting distances are becoming shorter but the journey duration is lasting on
average 24.8 minutes considering the average distance travelled around the capital
is at 9.8km

Considering this public information, this paper explores current research in relation
to commuting, the variables of commuting stress and the relationship they have
upon those employees’ wellbeing and work-life balance when travelling within the
greater Dublin area.

The method of analysis used was that of qualitative research in the form of focus
group settings. The aim was to explore the daily commuting experiences of three
focus groups varying by distance to which they travelled from home to the
workplace. Although, the norm of qualitative research is not to compare, it was
important to understand by varying the distance would the variables differ or relate
across all three focus groups

The findings from each of the focus groups were coded using thematic analysis,
allowing interesting themes to emerged from the analysis. Findings such that
commuting and its effects have an impact on employee wellbeing. Different modes
of transport show to have an impact when considering feelings of employees. Finally,
the relationship of commuting and work-life balance of the employee show the need
for further investigation upon work-time flexibility.

i
 Declaration
Submission of Thesis and Dissertation

National College of Ireland

Research Students Declaration Form

(Thesis/Author Declaration Form)

Name: Jessica Flynn

Student Number: 15010155

Degree for which thesis is submitted: MSc in Management

Material submitted for award

(a) I declare that the work has been composed by myself.

(b) I declare that all verbatim extracts contained in the thesis have been distinguished
by quotation marks and the sources of information specifically acknowledged.

(c) My thesis will be included in electronic format in the College

Institutional Repository TRAP (thesis reports and projects)

(d) I declare that no material contained in the thesis has been used in any other
submission for an academic award.

MSc in Management

(State the award and the awarding body and list the material below)

Signature of research student: _____________________________________

Date: _____________________

ii
Submission of Thesis to Norma Smurfit Library, National College of
Ireland

Student name: Jessica Flynn Student number: 15010155

School: National College of Ireland Course: MSc in Management

Degree to be awarded: MSc in Management

Title of Thesis:

How commuting affects employees’ Wellbeing and Work-Life Balance: The

perspective of full-time employees commuting within the greater Dublin area

One hard bound copy of your thesis will be lodged in the Norma Smurfit Library and
will be available for consultation. The electronic copy will be accessible in TRAP
(http://trap.ncirl.ie/), the National College of Ireland’s Institutional Repository. In
accordance with normal academic library practice all thesis lodged in the National
College of Ireland Institutional Repository (TRAP) are made available on open
access.

I agree to a hardbound copy of my thesis being available for consultation in the

library. I also agree to an electronic copy of my thesis being made publicly available
on the National College of Ireland’s Institutional Repository TRAP.

Signature of Candidate:

____________________________________________________________

For completion by the School:

The aforementioned thesis was received by__________________________

Date: _______________

This signed form must be appended to all hard bound and electronic copies of your
thesis submitted to your school

iii
 Acknowledgements

Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor Dr Joanna Power for her time and effort
in guiding me through my thesis over the summer months.

I would also like to thank my family, and friends for their patience and time
throughout the process of the research.

Finally, I would like to thank my work colleagues for taking time out of their busy
schedules to take part as participants in the focus groups created for this research
project.

iv
 T ABLE OF C ONTENTS

Abstract................................................................................................................ i
Declaration .................................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................... iv
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................ v
List of Tables ............................................................................................................. viii
List of Diagrams .......................................................................................................... ix
List of Appendices........................................................................................................ x
List of Abbreviations................................................................................................... xi
Chapter 1: Introduction ....................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background to the Study....................................................................................... 1
1.2. Purpose of the Study ............................................................................................. 3

1.3. Structure of the Study ........................................................................................... 5

Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................... 6

2.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................... 6
2.2. The Historical view of Commuting ....................................................................... 6
2.3. The relationship between Urban Living, Economic Factors and Commuting……. 8

2.4. Commuting and Wellbeing ................................................................................... 9

2.4.1 Distance and Duration of a Journey and the impact on the Commuter… 10

2.4.2 Using the Commute as a source of Recovery Time ................................... 11

2.4.3 Different modes of Transport .................................................................... 13

2.5. Commuting and Work-Life Balance ................................................................... 15

2.6. Conclusion to the Literature Review ................................................................... 16

Chapter 3: Research Question and Objectives .................................................... 17
3.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 17
3.2. Research Question and Objectives ..................................................................... 17

3.2.1 Research Question ..................................................................................... 17

3.2.2 Research Objectives ................................................................................... 18

v
Chapter 4: Methodology .................................................................................... 19
4.1. Research Philosophy ........................................................................................... 21
4.2. Research Design .................................................................................................. 21
4.2.1 Methodological Choice and Research Strategy ......................................... 21

4.2.2 Time Horizon/ Constraints to Data ............................................................ 22

4.2.3 Ethical Considerations................................................................................ 22

4.3. Sampling .............................................................................................................. 23

4.3.1 Participant Profiles ..................................................................................... 24

4.4. Collecting Data .................................................................................................... 28

4.4.1 Pilot Studies ............................................................................................... 28

4.4.2 Focus Groups.............................................................................................. 28

4.4.3 Venue used to collect the data .................................................................. 29

4.4.4 Technology used to collect the data………………………………………………………29

4.5. Data Analysis ....................................................................................................... 29

4.6. Limitations of Methodology ................................................................................ 30

4.7. Methodology Conclusion .................................................................................... 31

Chapter 5: Findings ............................................................................................ 32

5.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 32
5.2. Examining the effects commuting within the GDA has on the employee and
their wellbeing………………………………………………………………………………………………………33
5.2.1 Perception of Wellbeing ........................................................................... 34

5.2.2 Isolation of Business Parks ......................................................................... 35

5.2.3 Lack of Control when Commuting ............................................................. 37

5.2.4 Seasonality ................................................................................................ 39

5.2.5 Expense to consider when Commuting ..................................................... 40

5.3. Understand if different modes of transport have an impact on the feelings

experienced by the employee during the daily commute.…….………………………………42

5.3.1 Feelings associated with Public Transport ................................................ 44

5.3.2 Feelings associated with Active Transport ................................................ 45

vi
 5.3.3 Comparisons associated between different modes of transport ............. 45

5.3.4 Comparison associated between travelling within other countries ……….46

5.3.5 Comparisons among people travelling within the GDA …………………………47

5.4. Understand the relationship between commuting and the work-life balance of
employee……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...48
5.4.1 Recovery between Work and Home Life ................................................... 48

5.4.2 Flexibility.…………………………………….………………………………………………………..49

5.5. Distance as a Factor across the Three Focus Groups ......................................... 50

Chapter 6: Discussion......................................................................................... 51
6.1 Restatement of the Research Questions ............................................................. 51

6.2 The effects commuting within the GDA has on the employee and wellbeing ....51

6.3 If different modes of transport have an impact on the feelings experienced by

the employee during the daily commute……….………………………………………………………54

6.4 The relationship of commuting and the work-life balance of employees …….....56

6.5 Limitations and implications for further Research.……………………………………….…58

Chapter 7: Conclusion ........................................................................................ 60

7.1. Conclusion to the Study .............................................................................. 60
7.2. Future Research .......................................................................................... 62
References ........................................................................................................ 63
Appendices ........................................................................................................ 67

vii
 List of Tables

Table 1:
Ice breaker data of Group 1, including the region participants are travelling from,
what mode of transport the participants take to work and the participants favourite
after work activity………………………………………………………………………………………………….25

Table 2:
Ice breaker data of Group 2, including the region participants are travelling from,
what mode of transport the participants take to work and the participants favourite
after work activity………………………………………………………………………………………………….26

Table 3:
Ice breaker data of Group 3, including the region participants are travelling from,
what mode of transport the participants take to work and the participants favourite
after work activity………………………………………………………………………………………………….27

viii
 List of Diagrams

Diagram 1: Model of commuting stress source …………………………………………………….58

ix
 List of Appendices

Appendix 1: Pilot Study 66

Appendix 2: Study 67

Appendix 2: Consent forms 68

Appendix 4: Questions for the Focus Group Sessions 69

x
 List of Abbreviations

Central Business District CBD

Department of Transport, Tourism and Sport DTTS

Greater Dublin Area GDA

National Travel Survey NTS

Transport Infrastructure Ireland TII

Work – Life Balance WLB

xi
 Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study

Commuting to work has often become part of an employee’s daily routine, becoming
a mundane routine on the individual. This activity institutes such a large part of
everyday life that it is not surprising that the concept of commuting wouldn’t have
an impact on people’s overall life satisfaction and well-being (Olsson, Gärling,
Ettema, Friman and Fujii, 2013, p. 256). The journey from home to work and back is
therefore an important aspect of modern life. Where it affects people’s wellbeing
and life demands, are in the difficult decisions about movement on the labour
(building a career) and housing market (wanting to live in the desired location)
(Stutzer and Frey, 2008, p. 363). People may compensate with a larger commute to
live in and affordable area or accept a shorter commute where the cost of living is
higher but the desired job is effective. Work commutes are in this context a neglected
aspect of everyday life, when considering the affects it may have on the individual’s
work to life balance (WLB) and wellbeing.

Up until the last decade relatively little effort has been devoted to studying the
impact of the daily journey on the employees’ wellbeing and WLB. Existing research
on commuting stress has shown that it is affected by variables such as control,
predictability, the duration and distance of the commute and commute impedance
(Sposato, Röderer and Cervinka, 2012). This concept of commuting stress is relatively
new, dating back to the late 70’s, to which most authors guided their studies in
relation to the commute impedance model (Kluger, 1998; Novaco, Stokols, Campbell
and Stokols, 1979; Stokols, Novaco, Stokols and Campbell, 1978). The model set the
standard and has evolved to demonstrate that traffic congestion and travel
impedance can negatively affect mood, behaviour and health of commuters. Several
studies have analysed these variables of commuting stress by mostly survey
methods, of large sample sizes. These studies however are mainly conducted in the
United Kingdom (Lyons and Chatterjee, 2007; McLennan and Bennetts, 2003), the
United States (Kluger, 1998; Novaco and Gonzalez, 2009), and across mainland

1
Europe (Olsson et al, 2013; Rouwendal and Nijkamp, 2004), apart from one study
carried out in Dublin The study was conducted on the Dublin commute in relation to
psychological effects of commuting found that different modes of commute had
different impact on commuter stress and mood (Buckley and O’ Regan, 2004). A
similar study looked at the use of public transport in the UK together with the health
and wellbeing implications of commuting. The findings suggesting, that those
surveyed mainly used the mode of a car as transport and reported this journey to be
stressful (McLennan and Bennetts, 2003). In contrast, not all modes of transport have
been found to create these negative feelings, researchers have found the positive
emotions with active transport such as those cycling or walking on their daily
commute or simply using commutes as a buffer between work and private spheres,
regardless of the distance travelled (Olsson et al, 2013).

Building upon the factor of using the commute as a buffer between work and home
life, other studies have related this concept, that the work demands, commuting
demands and work at home are impeding the fact of recovery (Sonnentag, 2001; Van
Hooff, 2015). The recovery that is needed for the disconnection between work and
home and to ensure subjective wellbeing is maintained. As stated further by Van
Hooff (2015), recovery can be hindered if the commute poses unforeseen demands
on the employee. Reverting to the variables and characteristic of commuting stress,
that delays experienced during the commute are a main determinant of commuter
stress (Lyons & Chatterjee, 2007). In addition, Koslowsky (2000), has brought the
element effects of commuting problems can have on the work organization.
Including the factors if lateness, absenteeism, increased turnover, lower employee
performance, and increased costs due to employees absent from work.

The literature above demonstrates the key variables and commuting characteristics
evident across the research of commuting, such that, control, predictability, the
duration and distance of the commute and commute impedance have been related
to both positive and negative relationships between commuting, wellbeing and WLB.
This study will relate the variables and characteristics of commuting stress to the
effects the phenomenon has on the employee travelling within the greater Dublin

2
area. On whether the effects have a negative or positive relationship between
commuting and the wellbeing and WLB of the employee.

1.2 Purpose of the Study

The greater Dublin area (GDA), a region comprising Dublin and the counties of Meath,
Kildare and Wicklow, accounts for 39% of the State’s population (Dublin Chamber,
2017) with a figure standing at 1.8 million residents for both the capital and the GDA
combined. The most recent statement by the Dublin Chamber (2017), this figure is
set to grow to 2.2 million by 2031. If these population figures are set to grow and the
state is currently experiencing a decline in capital investment on Irish transport
infrastructure, particularly land transport, the problem is in need for immediate
address (Engineers Ireland.ie, 2017), as congestion and bottlenecks are beginning to
impact on the day-to-day lives of people. This national issue doesn’t come as a
surprise, as Melia (2016), reported that commuters are now leaving an hour earlier,
to join the 159 thousand commuters using the M50 ring road transporting those from
the GDA in and out of Dublin city. These commuters are now subjected to rush hour
on the M50 that last eight hours a day.

Hence, the motivation behind the study has been linked to the desire to understand
first, commuting at the national level and how the increasing congestion problems
and increasing commuter time impacts on the daily commuter to and from their
place of work. Maintaining a work-life balance, regardless if single, married or family
dependent, it is key for every individual to maintain a stress free and balanced life.
As defined by the Healthy Ireland framework (Department of Health, 2013),
wellbeing is an integral part to a good quality of life, therefore, the commute and the
impact to the employees’ wellbeing is not to be ignored. People are starting their
days earlier than their actual working day and end later due to the distance of travel,
length of time they are spending on the choice of transport and all with dealing
before the stress of work and life demands.

3
It is evident that the problem has been highlighted for many years, as evidence of
national frameworks i.e. National Planning Framework, Ireland 2040 and national
strategies i.e. Transport, Tourism and Sport three-year strategy 2016-2019 are out in
the public realm. Where objectives and goals are investigating the movement of land
transport for the better. In contrast, as stated in the opening statement of the
research, the current grading system devised by Engineers Ireland has resulted in
Irelands’ transport system to sit at the mediocre level. In the report, the mediocre
level is defined as ‘a system that is inadequately maintained, and unable to meet
peak demand, and requiring significant investment’ (Engineers Ireland.ie, 2017, p 7).
A truth lies in this statement as the decrease in transport investment by the State
since 2008 has been very significant. Capital investment in transport peaked at €3.5
billion in 2008 or 1.9% of GDP falling to €1 billion in 2016. These frameworks and
strategies will only become effective if capital investment is returned into the correct
sources of land transport.

When considering the extent of commuting literature and where Irish land transport
currently stands at National level, the researcher understands there is a gap from an
Irish context and through this exploratory study intends to provide understanding in
this area, looking specifically at those employees travelling within the greater Dublin
area and the effects related to these working and commuting individuals.

4
1.3 Structure of the Study

The structure of this thesis is presented in seven chapters. Chapter one begins with
a brief background to the literature and provides an overview of the entire study.

The chapter to follow, chapter 2, will define the literature emphasised in chapter 1
with a more in-depth view of the commuting variables and commuting
characteristics; commuting and urban living, commuting in relation to the wellbeing
of the employee, followed by commuting and work-life balance of employees

Chapter three will outline the research question and objectives grounded by the
researcher, with chapter four describing the research methodology. The
methodology chosen for the research will include three focus groups using semi-
structured interviews to collect the data. Although previous studies have used
quantitative and mixed methods to highlight how commuting and the employee
combine, the researcher decided to take an exploratory approach to understand the
personal views of employees’ experiences of the daily commute and the affects it
may have on their wellbeing and work-life balance, if any.

Once the data was collected, thematic analysis was used to consider the findings
which are described in chapter five. Chapter six will lead on to discuss the findings
and link to the literature review researched in early moment of the dissertation.

The final chapter, chapter seven, consists of the overall conclusion of the
dissertation, and a summary in relation to the research question and the objectives.
Then finally the researcher presents the recommendations for future research that
should be considered.

5
 Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

The literature review will begin by exploring the historical journey the phenomenon
of commuting has begun, which is recent in terms of literature studies. This
information will guide the subsequent sections where the relationship between
commuting, economic factors and urban living are considered through information
at national level on the current commuting situation of Dublin and the Greater Dublin
Area (GDA). The remaining sections will link research gathered by previous academics
on the subject matter of commuting and its relationship to employee wellbeing.
Finally, we will look at the relationship between commuting and a work-life balance
of the employee. Everything considering, as described in the introductory section the
variables emphasied by Sposato et al, (2012) from the past decades of research, will
be explored and related to an Irish context.

2.2 The historical view in relation to the variables of commuting

Commuting to and from work has often become part of an employee’s daily routine.
Where in the field of transport studies, travel is treated as a consequent demand and
commuting is derived from the need to get to and from work (Lyons and Chatterjee,
2007, p. 190). Despite this, up until the last decade relatively little effort had been
devoted to studying the impact of the daily commute on the employees’ wellbeing
and work-life balance. Early studies conducted theory based research in relation to
this area which was based on one model – the commute impedance model (Novaco,
Stokols, Campbell and Stokols, 1979; Stokols, Novaco, Stokols and Campbell, 1978
cited in Kluger, 1998, p. 148). A model centred around two suggestions. The first,
suggesting that commuting induces stress brought upon by a factor stopping the end
goal of arriving at a destination. These factors including distance, slow speed and
congestion. Therefore, increasing people’s negative attitudes towards the
experience of commuting. The second element to the model is that negative effects
are reduced by perceived control.

6
When people are in high control and their prediction of the journey is not halted for
any unknown reason, the strain to the commuter is not felt. Kluger (1998) evaluates
the propositions of the commute impedance model (Novaco et al, 1979) with the aim
to proposing refinements to the model. Upon conclusion, the study found a positive
relationship between commute length and strain leading to negative reactions. The
study encountered a new factor of a positive reaction to commuting, for those
commuters driving along non-congested roads experiencing a constant flow. They
stated that driving to work was their only opportunity to have ‘quiet time’ for
themselves (Kluger, 1998, p. 160). This ‘quiet time’ concept found during the
commute has further evolved to be the buffer or disconnection the employee
experiences between the workplace and home life. A factor to which was analysed
by Van Hooff (2015) where such work-related thoughts will allow employees to reach
closure with respect to their work issues by the time they arrive home, or vice versa
when reaching the place of work.

Furthering from this information, variables and characteristics of commuting have

evolved from these theories and models. The model set the standard and has evolved
to demonstrate that control, predictability, the duration and distance of the
commute and commute impedance can negatively affect mood, behaviour and
health of commuters (Sposato et al, 2012). Allowing these historical concepts to link
to the following sections, will further couple the literature between commuting and
the effects it has upon an employees’ wellbeing and WLB.

7
2.3 The relationship between Urban Living, Economic Factors and Commuting

Many studies have included the relationship of national economic factors in relation
to commuting (Lyons and Chatterjee, 2007; Ory, Mokhtarian, Redmond, Salomon,
Collantes and Choo, 2003). Leading on from past research, it is important to consider
the relationship of commuting in the GDA to urban and economic factors of the State.
Larger cities bring large populations, migration away from the central business
district (CBD) and the inevitable, congestion. Increasing demand without matching
the supply, leaves Ireland’s transport network inadequately maintained and unable
to meet peak demand at times (Engineers Ireland.ie, 2017, p.5). After a period of
economic stagnation, Ireland’s transport infrastructure is not growing fast enough,
and cannot keep up with the ever-increasing demand for urban mobility (Engineers
Ireland.ie, 2017, p.3).

As stated in the introductory, section 1.2, the GDA region currently has a population
of 1.8 million with a continuing increase to 2.2 million by 2020. A region which is
already reaching capacity limits. Therefore, living in or surrounding a densely
populated urban area, the natural effects of urban expansion explained through the
monocentric city model (Alonso, 1964; Mills, 1981; Muth, 1961; Wheaton, 1974 cited
in Oueslati, Alvanides, and Garrod, 2015, p. 1587), is effective for this trend. The
model assumes that all employment in the city takes place within a single Central
Business District (CBD). The pattern of urban development is then shaped by the
trade-off between affordable housing further away from the CBD and the associated
commuting costs (Oueslati, Alvanides, and Garrod, 2015, p. 1587). Similarly stated by
Stutzer and Frey (2008). Thus, to offset higher commuting costs, housing prices
decline with distance away from the CBD. Therefore, stating as urban development
moves away from the CBD those working in the major city must compensate further
travel to live an affordable life. Inevitably the commute to work becomes the main
factor of everyday life.

Equally important, if business continue to relocate outwards from the city to Dublin’s
industrial and businesses parks, the private car and public transport commuters are
instantly subjected to congestion and isolation.

8
Therefore, increasing cost of an employee and an organisation’s time (Ernst and
Young, 1996 cited in McLennan and Bennetts 2003, p 181). The authors also suggest
to relocate business on the outskirts of urban regions to allow for access by private
car. In contrast, reports emphasise the reality of congestion of the major ring road,
linking Dublin and the GDA. Transport Infrastructure Ireland (TII) (2017) reported that
incidents are a major contributor to commuter delays with about 120 incidents
occurring in a typical month on the M50, over half of them during rush hour traffic.
A recent report by The Journal.ie (Brennen, 2017), highlighted figures, released to
the reporting body through the Freedom of Information by the TII. Brennen, (2017)
reported from the data dating back to 2013, that over the M50 46km route, 1950
accidents have occurred bringing the total to 39 per month, or more than one per
day. Both highlighting that it is not an effective way to move away from the CBD,
without the infrastructure read to hold capacity.

The aspect of urban mobility coupled with insufficient transport system of the State,
it comes as no surprise that congestion, constant incidents leading to heavy, dense
traffic can influence employees travelling to and from the workplace, to later affect
personal Wellbeing.

2.4 Commuting and Wellbeing

Wellbeing is evident throughout numerous studies, creating and identifying different

concepts of the phenomenon. The interesting aspect found from the literature was
the correlation between subjective wellbeing and the daily commute. Previous
authors have highlighted the relationship between the daily commute and the
wellbeing of individuals but have not embellished the concept together with
commuting, wellbeing and daily work activities, to later effect work-life balance.

Firstly, the concept of wellbeing is established were studies have reported wellbeing
and defined as a concept that is a crucial component of a good-quality, happy life
(Diener, 2000). That wellbeing is associated with happiness, satisfaction, vitality,
optimism and passion (Seligman, 2002). All aspects relate to positive effects on the
individual with the absence of negative effects, which in turn, relates to subjective
wellbeing.

9
Subjective wellbeing focuses in positive effects and the absence of negative effects
(Ryan & Deci, 2001). Additionally, Fredrickson (2004, p. 1367) has further identified
by broadening an individual’s range of positive emotions, the discovery of novel and
creative actions, ideas and social bonds, can be achieved through play and
exploration which in turn builds on that individual’s personal resources; ranging from
physical and intellectual resources, to social resources.

Having a sense of positive emotions upon arriving to the workplace should create
and improve the creative thought process and engagement of individuals, and
therefore have a positive effect on the employer and the organisation the individual
may reside. A process which is beneficial to both the employee from a personal level
and the employer from a productive level. Moreover, studies have taken the
employer and productive level and analysed the effects of commuting problems.
Where the effects of commuting problems on the work organisation include lateness,
absenteeism, increased turnover, lower employee performance, and increased costs
due to employees absent from work (Kowslowsky, 2000). Thus, given that factor of
the potential to increase the stress level rate or motivation of employee upon
reaching and leaving the workplace.
In the case of this research subjective wellbeing will be the focus. The literature,
although mainly links this concept of wellbeing and commuting variables together in
relation to negative effects, positive effects have also been reported. A concept to
highlight in the furthering sections through the duration of the commute, the effects
from different modes of transport on an individual and the way of dealing with
impedance to the commute.

2.4.1 Distance and Duration of a Journey and the impact on the Commuter

Distance and duration of commutes being one of the variables associated with
commuter stress has had a place in research studies in recent years. The research
showed negative effects occurring after a point in time was reached when
commuting. Stutzer and Frey (2008) found a large negative effect of commuting time
on people’s satisfaction with life. People to whom commuted 22 minutes, known at
the time as the mean commuting time in Germany, reported, a lower satisfaction
with life.

10
The authors concluding by stating those travelling large distances had lower
subjective well-being. These findings coupled with the findings from the National
Travel Survey 2016 (CSO, 2017) saw the average journey distance for Dubliners was
9.8 kilometres, while the average journey duration was 24.8 minutes. Essentially
commuters now travelling today across the major roads of the GDA (M50, N4, N7
and N11) are above the average of 22 minutes and are immediately subjected to the
potential of having a lower satisfaction, a lower sense of mood and wellbeing. The
trend of short-distance commuting with longer durations are more concrete and a
factor that is not just a passing trend. It is certain in Dublin and surrounding areas;
the distance of the commute is continuing to shorten but the average duration is
increasing.

Similarly, although not in the scope of this research, it is important to mention is how
research has emphasised the duration of a commute and measuring the elevated
biological effects of commuters to understand the effects to their health and
wellbeing. Reports by Kluger (1998) suggested that longer car commutes were
positively correlated with the effects of stress, such as high blood pressure, reduced
task performance, negative mood in the evening hours after work, and the following
with: tiredness, a difficulty in focusing attention, and anger.

Another factor that may not be to the fault of the commuter/employee, is that of the
cost of commuting and having to migrated away from the CBD, due to desire to live
elsewhere or due to rising house prices. Many workers choose a house in a location
they can afford, despite long and costly journeys to the work needed to pay for it
(Darcy et al, 2005, p. 11). It is then thereafter the convenience of the workplace is
considered. The main reason for the choice of location and transport costs, was
heavily influenced by the needs to access schools and social associations of life.

2.4.2 Using the Commute as a source of Recovery Time

Several studies have taken inspiration from the Meijman and Mulder (1998) effort
recovery model (cited in Sonnentag 2001), and in relation to commuting and
wellbeing, researchers suggest that recovery and unwinding processes, between
house and home, play an important role in predicting individual wellbeing.

11
Subsequently, Novaco and Gonzalez (2009, p. 13) explained the ‘inter-domain
transfer effects’ as a concept of commuter stress. That the ‘inter-domain transfer
effect’ allow certain environmental conditions i.e. home, commuting and work to act
upon a person’s wellbeing and that they can transfer to one another, either positively
or negatively.

The effort recovery model describes that spending effort during working hours leads
to specific load reactions in the individual (Sonnentag, 2001, p.196). These reactions
include physiological, behavioural and subjective responses (Sonnentag, 2001, p.
196). Normally these conditions are not subjected to pro-long, if high work demands
are not experienced. However, when demands continue, no recovery can occur.
Essentially, as a time of transition is experienced during the commute between work
and home life, it is possible that the recovery process can begin during this time. If
the recovery is not experienced, these load-reactions can accumulate resulting in
longer term negative effects, such as impaired wellbeing and health problems.

In a recent study the assumptions from the effort recovery theory in line with the
suggested of Sonnentag (2001), it was found that relaxation during the commute
from work to home was positively related to calmness after returning home from
work, after taking commuting time into account (Van Hooff, 2015, p. 133). Of course,
also considered is the daily work routine. When job demands were low, the method
of relaxation during the commute was not needed, but when job demands were high,
detachment during the commute occurred to begin the recovery process.

In contrast, to the study the negative emotion experienced was during stressful
delays, when the commute was reduced to low speed (Schaeffer et al, cited in
Novaco 2009), or completely halted. As explained by Lyon and Chatterjee (2007), that
the main determinant of commuter stress is when delays are experienced during the
commute. Coupled with this notion, the stress experienced during the commute is
largely due to exposure to high volumes of traffic (Kuennen and College, 2012, p. 56).
The only time when strain was not effective, in the experience of constant flow of
traffic. The speed of travel is reported to reduce the stress from congested commutes
(McLennan and Bennetts, 2003, p. 183).

12
Other studies have made the factor of control as the subject to also relate the
negative emotions felt during the stop or experience of congestion to a journey.
When the lack of control is experienced, a heightened sense of stress occurs. Kluger
(1998), had mainly analysed this aspect when a blockage occurred to a journey this
was positively correlated with strain. When the lack of choice to the employee or the
commuter in this instance was experienced, strain was also prevailing.

Furthering on from the concept of control, what was particularly interesting, from
the most recent study conducted using app technology to capture a three-week field
study. The data of the research showed mood was related to the prediction of
frustration and that commuters had in fact predicted their upcoming anger or
frustration in a traffic congestion, prior to the occurrence. However, when the
commuter was asked to recall the event their experienced frustration was lowered
(Wurhofer, Krischkowsky, Obrist, Karapanos, Niforatos and Tscheligi, 2015).
Moreover, unexpected traffic congestions, in contrast to expected ones were prone
to higher levels of anger.

2.4.3 Different Modes of Transport

An aspect of commuting that can create both positive and negative emotion is that
of different modes of transport. Commuting is the key to travel to and from the
workplace but by what mode of transport are commuters replying on most? In 2016
the findings from the National Travel Survey 2016 (CSO, 2017), identified that the
most common reason for making a journey was to travel to work and by what mode
of transport was explained. Is was obvious from the findings of the National Travel
Survey 2016 (CSO, 2017), the most common trend was the affinity to the car, where
almost three quarters of journeys at 74.3% were by car. Walking was highlighted as
the next mode of travelling after the car with public transport then proceeding. The
evidence from these results are suggesting that the car is certainly the most reliable
form to travel within the GDA. Therefore, how is this impacting on the individuals
subjected to this mode of transport.

13
Gatersleben and Uzzell (cited in Novaco and Gonzalez, 2009, p. 20) compared the
affective responses to commuting of car users, public transport users, cyclists and
walkers. Car users were found to perceive their journeys as most stressful and public
transport users as most boring. Cyclists were found to perceive their journeys as most
interesting and exciting, and walkers as most relaxing. Comparative results were
achieved in the study conducted on the Dublin commute in relation to psychological
effects of commuting found that different modes of commute had different impact
on commuter stress and mood. The study indicating that nearly 80% of respondents
reported their daily commute as a stressful experience, those who travelled by train-
Dart experienced highest levels of stress and most negative moods on reaching their
workplace (Buckley and O’ Regan, 2004, p. 2). Even though conducted over a decade
ago, this research project aims to analyse the perspective from employees travelling
within Dublin and the greater Dublin area (GDA).

Disassociating from the negative feelings of daily hassles allows people happiness in
being able to make the routines of everyday life work. On this account, Olsson et al
(2013) have analysed the commute moving from the negative way of thinking about
the commute to a positive way of thought, as wellbeing (subjective wellbeing) is the
concept of positive emotion over negative. The study found, from the aspect of active
transport, i.e. walking and cycling, that feelings during the commutes are
predominantly positive or neutral. Allowing physical exercise to take place with
adding the element of extra hours for example, in the gym, after the daily commute
has taken place. The researchers also found, for longer work commutes, social and
entertainment activities either increase positive effects or counteract stress and
boredom (Olsson et al, 2013, p. 256).

14
2.5 Commuting and Work-Life Balance

Work-life balance as a phenomenon in research literature is a grounded in theory

and concepts and by no means a trend of the past. Work-life balance is understood
by organisations world-wide. It may have achieved the status of a defining
employment issue and some progress has undoubtedly been made toward the
introduction of flexible work arrangements (Hyman and Summers, 2005, p. 418), i.e.
flexible working hours. What is lacking and not utilised to the most effective way are
the ability teleworking and working from home can bring to the individual employee.
These elements could reduce the level if congestion, if less commuters are out on
our roads. In a like manner, flexibility would be greater due to time otherwise spent
commute could be used effectively in other daily tasks outside the work realm. It has
been defined, commuters with flexi-time availability had lower driver stress and time
urgency than the commuters without flexi-time (Lucas and Heady, 2002, p. 569).

As researchers before have analysed the effect commuting has on the employee
when comparing work-life balance and the flexibility available. Especially those to
whom are subjected to a strict routine, due to family commitments. Studies in Sydney
found difficulties associated with dropping off and picking up children, childcare
arrangements and sufficient time to spend with children for those workers with long
commute journeys (Darcy, Stubbs, Perry and Blunden, 2005). Similarly, the growth in
dual growth in dual career households has been led by increasing female labour
market participation (Wheatley et al., 2008, p. 814). Equally observed from an Irish
context, were findings from the July Monthly Unemployment Central Statistics Office
results (CSO, 2017), a 2.8% decrease from July 2015 of unemployment has occurred
in males working and a decrease of 1.7% seen for females. Suggesting that the “work-
rich, time-poor”, and “work-poor, time-rich” households are present in society today
(Wheatley et al., 2008, p. 814).

15
2.6 Conclusion to the Literature Review
The aim was to explore the current research in line with evidence currently available
on the daily aspect of the commute. What was evident from the literature, that the
study is only recent in terms of research studies and the effects commuting stress
has evolved through variables; control, predictability, hindrances to commutes and
the duration and distance of the commute. These variables are undoubtedly evident
and have somewhat of a correlation to one another through the said literature. When
control or lack of control was experienced the level of stress increased for the
individual as a hindrance to the commute or unexpected delay occurred. Regardless
of the mode of transport chosen. It was clear to one study that the strain occurring
during the unexpected event, the exact emotions could not be recalled. Similarly,
prediction of the commute before the activity occurred resulted in moods of anger.

Duration and distance of the commute emphasised both positive and negative
aspects. It was evident from the literature that it was the choice of individuals to live
in affordable areas to compensate with the long commute. This can only leave
individuals with serene, happy life if the ease of the commute and time was available.
Urban mobility takes effect with population increases occurring in suburban areas
around the CBD and therefore, enviably leading to over populated, congested zones.

Most of these studies were conducted using and measuring the elevated biological
effects of commuters, using quantitative methods and self-administered surveys. In
the case of this study an exploratory study was conducted to understand the
experiences of the employees commute and relate back to the commuting variables
and characteristics highlighted from the literature

There is extensive knowledge on the effects of commuting to the employee but

lacking in the relevance commuting has on the Irish employee and what effects it has
upon their wellbeing and WLB. Hence, the concept of commuting has come to the
forefront of many studies over the past decades, with the use of the commute from
the workplace to home in a positive manner, but the main consensus being of the
negative effect commuting has on WLB and the well-being of employee’s. This
dissertation aims to explore these areas further.

16
 Chapter 3

Research Question and Objectives

3.1 Introduction

The chapter will highlight the research question and the objectives set by the
researcher to understand if the daily commute affects the wellbeing and work-life
balance of full-time employees commuting within the Greater Dublin Area.

3.2 Research Question and Objects

The research question is a specific question that the research is designed to

investigate and provides focus to the research (Collis and Hussey, 2014, p2). The
objectives enable the research question to be achieved and are a set of closely
specified statements which are likely to be the milestones of the research (Horn,
2009). The research has one research question, with the aim to build on the existing
research relating to the daily commute and its effects on employee wellbeing and
work-life balance and has broken the question down into three objectives to be
achieved.

3.2.1 Research Question

The researcher’s aim was to understand the data behind the relationship between
commuting and the effects this phenomenon has on the employees’ wellbeing and
work-life balance. The main lead to the statement and title of the dissertation;

How does daily commuting affect employees’ wellbeing and work-life balance: The
perspective of full-time employees from a new product development facility
commuting within the Greater Dublin Area?

Raising the research question: Does the daily commute within the greater Dublin area
affect employees’ wellbeing and work-life balance?

17
3.2.2 Research Objectives

As the research question aims to explore the effects the daily commute within the
greater Dublin area has on those travelling to and from the work place, the following
objectives were set to aid in the collection of data.

Through the objectives the researcher wants:

Objective 1: to explore the different impacts and factors that commuting has on the
employee commuting within the Greater Dublin Area.

Objective 2: To understand better if different modes of transport have an impact on

the feelings experienced by the employee during the daily commute

Objective 3: To understand if there is a relationship between commuting and the

wellbeing of employees on a negative or positive manner

Objective 4: To understand if there is a positive or negative relationship between

commuting and the work-life balance of employees

18
 Chapter 4

Research Methodology

This chapter will outline the research methodology used to collect the subjective and
‘rich data’ required to understand if the daily commute affects the wellbeing and
work-life balance of full-time employees commuting within the Greater Dublin Area.
The research philosophies and research design will be guided by the subjects of
Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, (2016). The research design and plan of the
methodology section should focus on a methodological approach, research strategy
and the time horizon of the research itself. The sampling procedure used was that of
non-probability sampling, and collecting data from the use of the qualitative method
of focus groups. The collected data was analysed using thematic analysis.

4.1 Research Philosophy

The research philosophy as stated in Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill, (2016), refers to
a system of beliefs and assumptions about the development of knowledge. Collis and
Hussey, (2014) state further that the research paradigm is a framework that guides
how research should be conducted, based on people’s philosophies and their
assumptions about the world and the nature of knowledge. These statements both
build upon assumptions and the frameworks which guide research within a world of
unanswered questions and problems within the nature of scientific practice,
including the natural science and the social world.

Assumptions inevitably shape how you understand your research questions, the
methods you use and how you interpret your findings (Crotty, 1998 as cited in
Saunders et al, 2016). The assumptions are those of an epistemological and
ontological position. The epistemology assumption being regarded as appropriate
knowledge about the social world, and whether a natural science model of research
is suitable for studying the social world (Bryman & Bell, 2015, p19). The ontology
approach and the social world is regarded as something external to social actors or
as something that people are in the process of constructing (Bryman & Bell, 2015,
p19).

19
The philosophical frameworks, Positivism and Interpretivism, bring the nature of
scientific practice to a more concrete form. These are philosophical frameworks in
which the researcher must decide as to what fits the premise of this study best. The
study requires a more in-depth understanding of how the employees situated in a
business park and commuting within the GDA, feelings, emotions and thoughts are
portrayed. Having that said, positivism holds that an accurate and value-free
knowledge of things is possible and that the possibility that human beings, their
actions and institutions can be studied as objectively as the natural world (Fischer,
2007, p. 17). As the premise, stated previously, is to understand subjectively
thoughts, feelings and emotions of human participants an interpretivist framework
is the focus of this research. Interpretivism is concerned with the empathic
understanding of human actions rather than with the forces that act on it Bryman
and Bell, (2015, p. 28), this framework sitting under the epistemology assumption
will guide the research to narrow the methodological choice of qualitative research
methods with an inductive approach.

Qualitative research using an inductive approach researches the general and the
focuses down to the specific. The outcomes of qualitative research are therefore
often not generalizable to larger populations (Horn, 2009, p. 124). Smaller
populations are more apt to the inductive approach, as deduction does not depend
on observation or experience; it is simply a matter of logic (Fischer, 2007, p. 95).
Deduction methods would allow for the analysis of larger populations as a more
mathematical approach is needed. The inductive approach, for this research project,
fits to a smaller sample group. The perceptions of what it means to commute within
the GDA and the feelings, emotions and thoughts are related to the topic.

20
4.2 Research Design

The research design phase, as stated above, will focus on: the methodological choice,
research strategy, time horizons and ethical considerations to answer the research
question and objectives described in chapter 3.

4.2.1 Methodological Choice and Research Strategy

Qualitative approach

The main aim with qualitative research, is not to emerge with findings that are
statistically representative of a given population but to explore subjective patterns
of personal or group experience, to gauge the meaning they have for the people
involved, to contrast this with the views that others have of them, and to take proper
account of situational context (Davies, 2007, p. 148). By using qualitative research, it
represents the common belief among qualitative researchers, that qualitative
provides a ‘deeper’ understanding of social phenomena than would be obtained
from quantitative data (Silverman, 2008). Using qualitative research, allows the
researcher in the case of the focus group setting, to conduct semi-structured
interviews with open ended questions. This form of questioning allows the
opportunity for the participant to share more intricate information than just short
answers that structured questioning may highlight. The questions (Appendix 4) for
each focus group interview and the way the interviews were held gave room for slight
differences, which is in-line with the element of semi-structured interviews. The
possibility to further validate the qualitative approach, are the elements of
observation. The researcher can rely on what the subject says but can also have the
added element of being present and view what and how participants act. Thus, given
a sense of increased validity to the data gathering process (Davies, 2007, p243).

21
4.2.2 Time Horizon/ Constraints to Data

Due to this research project being under a short time constraint, a cross-sectional
study was employed to understand the research question and objectives at the same
point in time. All data was collected and analysed between the months of May to
August 2017. The limitation associated with this time constraint; only a small sample
is available as a representative of the population of employees experiencing the daily
commute to and from their working environments within the GDA. A factor explained
further in section 4.3.

4.2.3 Ethical Considerations for this Research Project

Ethics refer to the standards of behaviour that guides conduct in relation to the rights
of those who become the subject of your work, or are affected by it (Saunders, et al
2016, p239) and therefore, ethical concerns are greatest where research involves
human participants, irrespective of whether the research is conducted person-to-
person (Bryman and Bell 2011; Saunders, et al 2016, p220) highlight the ethical
principles broken down by Diener and Crandall (cited in Bryman and Bell, 2011) into
four main areas: whether there is harm to participants, lack of informal consent, if
there is an invasion of privacy and is there deception involved?

Relating these principles to this research project, the researcher ensured all
information was clear to all involved within the project. As human participants were
required in focus group settings to gain access to the data required to answer the
research question and objectives, the researcher also considered participants and
their affiliation with other colleagues within the organisation. That topics spoken
about during the group sessions would not be voiced at any stage before during or
after. The researcher had to consider participant’s private lives outside of the work
setting.

The researcher then began the formal access. First, by highlighting the need to use
human participants from the selected organisation and requested the physical access
through a HR representative from the organisation. The research project was
highlight to senior management, who then granted the access to continue with the
study within the selected organisation.

22
Once the physical access was defined formal invites, by email (Appendix 2), were sent
to the three groups identified for focus group attendance. The formal requests
explained that each participant were under no obligation to accept the invitation to
take part in the focus group interview. Overtime eight participants within each of the
three focus groups agreed to take part.

Upon receiving the agreement from all participants to take part in the study, consent
forms were individually distributed (Appendix 3). The consent forms explained the
background to the research taking place and once again highlighted that
participation was voluntary, anonymity would be maintained, and that all
information was held as confidential. Participants signed a consent form to
acknowledge and record their understanding of this.

4.3 Sampling

The main purpose of sampling is to choose a subset of individuals from a population

to estimate characteristics of the whole population (Collis & Hussey, 2009; Fisher,
2007). Qualitative research explores subjective patterns from a personal or group
level, where the sample or core sample, are the people who make up your key target
group, with their beliefs, attitudes and social situation (Davies, 2007, p143).
Therefore, by having a small core sample of people to make up a target group will
give the area of this research a basis to be explored in-depth.

The core sample chosen were a subset of the population group of employees from a
research and development center located in a business park on the outskirts of Bray.
The idea was to take three groups, with similar demographics in that they are of
similar age, commuting from within the GDA or Dublin city center, either travelling
bus private car, bus, DART or active transport, i.e. cycle or walk. Across the three
groups, twenty-three participants were interviewed. Out of the twenty-three, eight
participants owned their home and the remaining all renting. The difference between
the groups, the distance in which each group lived from work, as explained further
by Tables 1, 2 and 3 and section 4.3.1.

23
4.3.1 Sample Size and Participant Profiles

The researcher required three groups including eight participants each to ensure the
correct amount of in-depth knowledge, insights and ideas were gained. A limitation
is highlighted from the second group (Table 2), in which, only seven participants
attended due to working commitments of the eighth participant.

In this study, the focus was mainly on employees working for a Research and
Development facility situated in a busy business park, located on the out-skirts of
Bray town and to understand if the employee’s daily commute effected their
wellbeing and work-life balance over all.

The criteria of each group, all of whom commute to and from work were divided into
three separate groups, depending on the distance in which they lived from the facility
in Bray. The first sample were defined as those living between 15 to 30 kilometers
from the facility in Bray. The second sample are those living 30+ kilometers from the
facility and the third sample being the furthest from the facility, at 0 - 15 kilometers.
The reason for selecting distance as the differing categories was to see if the
objectives 1 to 4 would differ across the groups or would the same themes and
commuting factors highlight throughout each group.

Each group, as in Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3, contained eight participants apart from
the second group only having seven participants. The purpose was to begin each
season with an ice-breaker, as stated in appendix 4, which lead to the collection on
the demographics of each participant displayed in Table 1, Table 2 and Table

24
Table 1 holds the information of the first focus group. The group consisted of both
female and male participant, all a young working age and travelled either by car-
sharing, as a single driver or sometimes by public transport. The group was
segregated by distance in relative to the second and third group. The distance
selected and set at 15 – 30 kilometers from the workplace.

Table 1: Demographics of Group 1 including the region participants are travelling from,
what mode of transport the participants take to work and the participants favourite after
work activity

25
Table 2 holds the information of the second focus group. The group consisted of both
female and male participant, all a young working age and all seven travelled, as a
single driver 5 days a week, apart from one participant cycling 3 days out of the 5.
The group was segregated by distance in relative to the first and third group. The
distance selected and set at 30+ kilometers from the workplace.

Table 2: Demographics of Group 2 including area travelling from? What mode of transport
the participants take to work and the participants favourite work activity

26
Table 3 holds the information of the final focus group. The group consisted of both
female and male participant, all a young working age and travelled either by car-
sharing, as a single driver or sometimes by public transport or active transport i.e.
cycling. The group was segregated by distance in relative to the second and third
group. The distance selected and set at 15 – 30 kilometers from the workplace.

Table 3: Demographics of Group 3 including area travelling from? What mode of transport
the participants take to work and the participants favourite work activity

27
4.4 Collecting the Data

The aim once again was to collect the data required to answer and understand the
research question; Does commuting within the Greater Dublin Area affect
employee’s wellbeing and work-life balance? As Krueger and Casey (2009, p. 21),
refer to such participants as being ‘information rich’, it was important to have the
correct participants for the study to collect the most efficient data.

4.4.1 Pilot Study

A pilot study was conducted prior to hosting the three separate focus groups (Table
1, 2 & 3). The aim of the pilot study was to refine the original intended questions
(Appendix 1) for the final focus groups interview schedule. The purpose was to avoid
problems in answering the questions by participants during the actual research
interviews and inevitably no problems in recording and collecting the data (Saunders,
et al 2016). Two separate pilot studies were conducted with groups comparable to
the final population over the month of June. All suggestions were considered, and
lead to continuous amendments to headings, the wording and the layout of the post-
pilot refined questions (Appendix 4). It is important to check all completed pilot
questions devised to ensure that respondents follow all instructions correctly and
have had no problems understanding or answering questions.

4.4.2 Focus Groups

Focus groups are a form of group interview that avails on communication from
research participants to generate data. The group interviews are essential for
exploratory matters when considering people’s experiences, opinions, wishes and
concerns.

Although group interviews are often used simply as a quick and convenient way to
collect data from several people simultaneously, focus groups explicitly use group
interaction as part of the method. This means that instead of the researcher asking
each person to respond to a question in turn, people are encouraged to talk to one
another: asking questions, exchanging stories and commenting on each other’s
experiences and points of view (Kitzinger, 1994, p. 16).

28
This way the interviewee had a possibility to expand their answer freely but the
interviews would still have certain pillars of consistency and comparability.

4.4.3 Venue used to collect the data

The focus group sessions took place within the research and development facility the
premises of both the researcher and the participants place of work. The meeting took
place in the innovation room, a designated room designed for innovation workshops
and focus group studies. The style of this room is styled on an apartment setting,
comfortable and familiar to all participants taking part within the study. Each
individual group was hosted for a one hour session with all sessions taking place at
11 am on the morning of the 17th, 20th and 21st of July. Each respondent was more
than willing to take part in the study, without a reward expected.

4.4.4 Technology used to collect the data

The voice recorder application on the Samsung A5 was used to capture the three
group discussions between the 19th to the 21st of July 2017

4.5 Data Analysis

Thematic analysis was chosen by the researcher to analyse the data collected from
the three focus groups stated in Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3. Thematic analysis is a
method of qualitative data analysis and is commonly used by most researchers when
analysing data. Braun & Clarke (as cited in Saunders et al, 2016) have highlighted six
phrases when it comes to analysing the data, which involves the researcher to
become familiar with the data, coding, searching for themes, review and search the
themes before writing the results obtained. The phrases are more of a guidance over
a liner model, therefore the following headings were used as a guidance:

Familiarisation with the data allows the researcher to immerse themselves in and
become extremely familiar with the collected audio-data and noting any analytical
observations during the focus group session.

29
Coding allows the researcher to formalise the relevant data in order of themes. A
method allowing the evolution and reduction of data collected.

Searching for themes identifies the data further into the correct groupings which
allows the researcher to easily interpret the data to collate results.

Reviewing themes enables the researcher to reflect on whether the themes found
tell a convincing and compelling story about the data, and begin to define the nature
of each individual theme, and the relationship between the themes. It may be
necessary to collapse two themes together or to split a theme into two or more
themes.

Defining and naming the themes requires the researcher to conduct and write the
detailed analysis of each theme and to identify the ‘essence’ of each theme and
constructing a concise and informative name for each them

Writing the results allows the researcher to now create a coherent and persuasive
story about the data and to contextualise to existing literature

4.6 Limitations to the methodology

Once the focus group analysis took place and substantial data was collected with a
subjective view, there are limitations to highlight which could question the validity
and reliability to the research. The researcher collected a high quantity of data, which
enabled four themes including sub-themes to evolve from the use of thematic data
analysis, as Wilkinson (cited in Silverman, 2008, p. 177), highlights the moderator
should have some basic interviewing skills, some knowledge of group dynamics, and
some experience in running group discussions. Although some of the skills involved
in moderating a focus group have similar traits to those involved in one-to-one
interviewing, the number of research participants involved in focus group requires
more in terms of ‘people management’. The element described is difficult for an
individual to conduct, although once a rapport is developed between the researcher
and the participants, an enabler to collect substantial data is created.

30
In this case the full amount of data may not have been collected for this reason, but
also considering time constraints as a limitation is useful.

Time constraints only allowed for a cross-sectional study to be employed. It would

be interesting to carry out a longitudinal study over a longer period, and preferably
use diary entries as well as focus group interviews.

Finally, the researcher carried out rigorous analysis of the data. It is, however, the
researcher’s own interpretation of the data and, therefore, will be limited by that
interpretation.

4.7 Methodology Conclusion

In conclusion of the research methodology chapter the researcher followed was a

philosophy of Interpretivism by incorporating semi-structured interviews through a
focus group method. Due to time constraints, a cross-sectional study was employed.

31
 Chapter 5

Findings

5.1 Introduction
This chapter will build on the key findings from the literature review and relate the
primary research conducted to these findings. The primary research being the three
semi-structured focus groups using open ended questions as part of the interview
schedule layout.
The researcher analysed the data and saw that from the four objectives grounded
from the beginning (section 3.2.2), Objective 1 and Objective 3 had large similarities
when comparing the study themes relating to these objectives. Objective 3 could not
be defined alone as the aspect of wellbeing was highlighted strongly within Objective
1, therefore the researcher decided to combine Objective 1 and 3 to strengthen the
analysis. The key findings will then be discussed as study themes under the three
objectives:

Objective 1: Examining the effects commuting within the GDA has on the employee
and their wellbeing

Objective 2: Understand if different modes of transport have an impact on the

feelings experienced by the employee during the daily commute

Objective 3: Understand the relationship between commuting and the work-life

balance of employees

The study themes emerging linked well with each heading as described above and
are explained further within sections through 5.2 to 5.5.

32
5.2 Examining the effects commuting within the GDA has on the employee and
their wellbeing

The study sought to understand the commuting factors influencing the effects
commuting within the GDA has on the employee and their wellbeing, as described
under theme 1 of section 5.2.

Theme 1: Factors Influencing Commuting

The reality of commuting for those travelling to and from the workplace, is the
potential to experience congestion and slow journeys on a regular basis. Considering
this reality, the researcher wanted to find out a little more information on how the
employee perceived their daily commute. The responses revealed, several themes
linking to factors: isolation of business parks, lack of control when commuting,
seasonality and expenses to consider when commuting.

First, to begin, the researcher wanted to understand how the concept of wellbeing
was perceived by the participants of the groups, by asking the question, ‘What does
wellbeing mean to you?’ and ‘what does wellbeing in the workplace mean to you?’’.
The questions would allow the researcher to understand if the participants’ own
thoughts of wellbeing, would link into definitions found in the literature or if the
notion of wellbeing is ‘buzz word’ trend? The definition of wellbeing, as described by
the national framework, Healthy Ireland, ‘Health means everyone achieving his or
her potential to enjoy complete physical, mental and social wellbeing. Where
wellbeing, reflects the quality of life and the various factors which can influence it
over the course of a person’s life (Department of Health, 2013).

33
5.2.1 Perception of Wellbeing

The perception of wellbeing was unanimous across all three focus groups, when
asked the question, ‘What does wellbeing mean to you?’, the resulting responses,
were, Happy, stress free, balance between health and happiness, healthy life, mental
balance. There was also a factor of work-life balance evident through participants
thinking of wellbeing, were Margaret in group 1 (Table 1) described wellbeing as:

Margaret: I see wellbeing as separate boss activities, separate work and

home… separating everything apart.

Another participant also described wellbeing from the aspect of a work-life balance
and included the concept of transport:

Tina: A lot of aspects can bring on stress, like work and, transport bringing on
stress. If you are short of money as in you can’t pay your bills, that brings on stress,
you know. For me, wellbeing is stress free. Keep life simple. Everything that can
possibly bring on stress…remove!!!

Wellbeing in the workplace took on a different perception, when asked, ‘What does
wellbeing in the workplace mean to you?’’, as a response, the remaining participants
across the three groups described this area as no conflict, good communication,
autonomy of the employee, time to one’s self, motivation, good relationships, and
again the element of work-life balance was evident through describing flexibility;

Pearce: To me wellbeing in work is having that feeling that you have done your
best, because there is an understanding that you are operating at the best of your
knowledge

Maeve: I just don’t think you should ever feel sick with work or sick with worry.
You should be able to enjoy what you do and get on with it and enjoy your day

34
What was very interesting and can be later described in detail through the theme of
disconnection from work and home life, an insight to non-English speaking
employees using the commute as a disconnection from a work to home life, which in
turn, helps not only from the aspect of feeling happy and relaxed but also encourages
wellbeing among employees:

Cristina: It’s true though, sometimes we as non - English speakers are not
understood by the native English speakers. Sometimes you just need to switch off,
or just not to think when you speak your own language.

There was a clear segregation between wellbeing and workplace wellbeing for most
participants. Wellbeing was considered as having a healthy body and mind, were
wellbeing in the workplace was to have autonomy, good relationships with others
and be motivated within one’s self. The perceptions had a strong link to those
defined by the national framework, therefore why not consider the entire picture
and include not only the employee’s wellbeing within the working life and home life,
but also for the transition employees encounter most days, a stressful commute.

5.2.2 Isolation of Business Parks

Considering the location of most business parks and industrial estates within the
greater Dublin area, the majority are all located either off the busy ring road around
Dublin, i.e. the M50 or considering the facility in Bray, located on the outskirts of the
town away from facilities, amenities and the variety of public transport options. Most
employees located among the business parks are immediately subjected to isolation,
relying on a car, transport by public bus and the idea of car-pooling. Although some
participants described a positive relationship between car-pooling commuting, the
negative relationship highlighted is when the location of the facility in relation to
public transport station and town center was limiting the participants to the most
reliable form, the car:

35
 Cian: I took public transport for a period and it’s actually fine until you get to
the bus stop at the station and that was always the problem. You ended up having
either 35minute walk from the train station or a 20minute walk to the bus stop on
main street to wait another 25 minutes for the bus. That was the problem

A participant from the first group echoed this view, highlighting the view of
isolation was evident:

June: I would prefer to take the Dart if it could be possible but the problem is
it would take so much more time to go from the Dart to here afterwards because
I would prefer to, it’s not like I don’t like to take the car anymore but if I had the
option to take the Dart straight home to work, it would be perfect

Most participants have considered other modes of transport other than commuting
by car but have dismissed the idea due to the position of the facility in Bray:

Kim: I’ve been asked about three times I’d say in the last fortnight by my
boyfriend’s parents if I couldn’t get the train to work from Clontarf and I’ve had to
explain to them it would be a 20minute walk to the train station near us and then
over an hour on the train and then another god knows how long to get from the
train station to here, so there really isn’t an alternative to driving because I’m not
a cyclist.

From this theme, it was clear that most participants found the location of the
business park to limit their choice in modes of transport to the car. This factor is
forcing most employees to take the car, to sit in the ever-growing congestion issue
surrounding the greater Dublin area. The factor is also forcing the employees to rely
heavily on the car bringing the element which is evident in section 5.2.3, on the lack
of control when commuting.

36
5.2.3 Lack of control when commuting
Regardless of the distance travelled (explained further in section 5.5) by each focus
group, there was a clear theme highlighted when a stop to the commute occurred or
having to rely on others when commuting to and from work. The participants were
no longer in control of their commute or routine they may have created, the
participants are now relying on either other employees to transport them to and
from the workplace or to rely on public transport. The participants mainly
emphasised frustration when discussing aspects on the lack of control they
experienced when commuting, experiencing a sudden or constant stop to their
commute. In the same fashion as the literature. The only time when strain is not
effective, is in the experience of constant flow of traffic. The speed of travel is
reported to reduce the stress from congested commutes (McLennan and Bennetts,
2003, p. 183). There was strong evidence from the data collected upon the positive
relationship between commuting and on the increased lack of control experienced.

Alan, a participant in group 2 (Table 2), emphasised this factor through describing the
different route he would take to remain in control of his journey. A lack of unforeseen
commuting incidents leading to a complete stop, would leave him in a better frame
of mind, as he a continued in a constant flow of movement:

Alan: I can come across the mountains at times, it takes you 50 minutes to an
hour but you are moving the whole time and you don’t get stuck behind traffic
compared to the M50 where it would be an hour to an hour and a half of constantly
stop, start, stop, start. It’s actually better to go across the mountains even though
it roughly takes the same time but you are coming in a better frame of mind
because you are not frustrated….

Another participant, Ryan echoed Alan’s view from the aspect of stress developing
when travelling routes with constant stopping due to traffic lights:

Ryan: I would prefer to be half an hour by car because public transport takes
more, but then again the N11, there are so many traffic lights that you must stop
every few seconds and this is what I find is stressful, yeah I don’t like this.

37
It was clear from Sally from group 1 (Table 1), when a stressful journey had occurred
the effects of the journey impacted the beginning of her day, therefore effecting her
wellbeing and partially effecting her working day:

Sally: because there is nothing worse arriving to your destination, whether its
work or home, stressed! I mean there are days when I get to work and I’m just like
angry!

This view was also highlighted by Janine in group 3 (Table 3), although she stated the
journey wouldn’t affect her wellbeing within the work setting, she highlighted that
her mood would change:

Janine: I don’t think journey effects my wellbeing but it can definitely effect
my mood and I generally feel relaxed coming into work, well I do get serious road
rage, so sometimes I can be angry coming into work so it can affect how you start
your day. As affecting wellbeing, I don’t think this is effected

Other participants may not have emphasised negative relationships when

considering hindrance to their journey, but highlighted how they felt when either
depending on public transport or on colleagues to car-pool.

Jacquelyn: Yeah it restricts you, you don’t mind doing lifts here and there, once
or twice a week, but it does restrict you, like say if you want to leave early or have
a doctor’s appointment

Pearce: Sometimes when I know I don’t have the car the following day, I either
try to organise with Donal or with somebody else because I know there are a few
colleagues living in Charlesland. I don’t like to car-pool unless there is a way I can
contribute as I don’t think… I would rather pay my bus ticket and be tied up with
the bus schedule than hop in someone else’s car and have him restrict his freedom
to do whatever he likes…

38
It was clear from the data collected, lack of control and independence brought stress,
frustration upon the employee when travelling either into or from work in the
evenings. Whereas those who rarely encounter this form of hindrance are happy with
their journey and have the sense of happiness when reaching their destination.

5.2.4 Seasonality

Winter has a huge effect on the mood of the employee when travelling to and from
work compared to the effects the summer would have on the individuals. The tone
from each of the three groups was negative when describing their travel in the winter
compared to the positive tone detected when describing the travel in the summer.
Summer had a positive relationship with wellbeing and a negative with winter and
wellbeing of the employee.

Declan: It’s the stop, start, stop, start.…because at least on the motorway,
again I don’t mind motorways but again during winter I agree it’s very stressful
with dark and wet and all that.

Clear too see across the groups a negative relationship between commuting in the
winter months to employee wellbeing. It was clear the aspect of frustration, anger
and tiredness were evident in the tone of the participants when describing how they
felt when commuting during the winter months

Sally: Yeah, in the winter time it’s definitely the toughest and like you said
(refer to participant), you can get home from work and you are just plain
exhausted and then you are going straight to bed and thinking this is not a life for
me; to be getting up, going to work, coming home, having dinner and going to bed.
That’s not a good work – life balance.

39
Another respondent mentioned during the winter month’s a strict routine is
essential. Linked the difference between travelling in the summer to travelling in the
winter

Evelyn: …...and I think that is also the time…like you, Cian, leave early and I
think….now if I’m not in the car, leaving my estate by quarter to or ten to seven,
even ten to seven is too late I know, I will get stuck. If I was to leave at seven, I
won’t get in for you know eight or after eight. Okay maybe not during the summer
time but winter time definitely

A view was highlighted from those using cycling as their mode of transport either a
few times a week, if not throughout the entire working week. By using this mode of
transport in the winter, their commute was further restricted compared to cycling in
the summer. Most of the employees cycling not only used this mode as a form of
transport but also as their point of exercise, which in turn, when hindered, the
exercise was effected which can later effect mood and wellbeing:

Cian: I mean I have a very different aspect from summer to winter. I try to
keep up cycling in the winter as much as possible but there is many a day it’s
horrible and you go, ‘I’ll get the car’’.

Annie: I’m not living far, it’s only 10 minutes by bike but when it’s raining it’s
not the best, but for the moment it’s okay…

5.2.5 Expense to consider when commuting

Each of the three groups saw expense of travelling as a stressor, especially when
considering and deciding as where is the best option to live. Comparing the cost of
travelling by public transport to using the car was an evident factor. This seemed for
most travelling by car, the more effective option over paying for public transport:

Declan: When travelling alone you are not saving much, so the cost of petrol
is all on me. When you think about the bus is quite expensive now as well, even if
you have a Leap card you are still almost, if not over a €5.

Maeve: but isn’t the train also more expensive, if you needed a car at the
weekends as well you are paying both tax, for your car insurance and then getting
the train on a weekly basis as well, it’s added expense.

40
The interesting point highlighted from group 2 (Table 2) was the current situation
within the housing market. Most of the group were actively house hunting or had
just recently bought. The commute was a large factor for them to consider when
buying as most had to comprise the commute to live in a more affordable location.

Morris: The thing is the prices of South county Dublin and north Wicklow is too
expensive or they are very close or what you pay is not quality or you could pay
crazy money for a house here in Greystones or in Bray and it may not be worth it…

Kim states: Yeah, it wasn’t pleasant having all those discussions, as you didn’t
want to buy in the South side because it’s too expensive but I like working here in
Bray and you know now that we are looking to buy a house it makes sense to…my
boyfriend works city centre so it makes more sense to go between the two of us.
Yeah it’s not a fun discussion, especially with the costs

Those travelling from the GDA into Dublin city centre highlighted a positive
relationship when considering the cost of commuting. Although Alan and his wife had
already made the decision to settle outside the city centre, where the housing market
was more affordable in the Kildare region. They have seen the positive with
infrastructure improving, but only from the public transport aspect into the city
centre and not from Alan’s case when it comes to driving.

Alan: My wife would commute to Dublin every-day and it has actually worked
out pretty well because of the expansion of the commuter train to include Sallins
and Naas, so they have actually reduce the commuter ticket price from whatever
it was before and again she is lucky because she works in central Dublin, so I think
it depends on your circumstances, it can work out well in some instances like public
transport but it purely depends on where you are travelling to and where you are
coming from…..

It was clear from the results that expense of commuting is a factor considered by
most. The concept was considered from the most affordable choice of transport to
the most affordable living area.

41
5.3 Understand if different modes of transport have an impact on the feelings
experienced by the employee during the daily commute

The study sought to determine if different modes of transport have an impact on the
feelings experienced by the employee during the daily commute.

The researcher wanted to find out a little more information on how an

individual/employee perceived their mode of transport and the effects this mode
had on either their mood or wellbeing. The responses allowed the researcher insights
into the following emerging themes; feelings associated with different types of
commuting and the comparisons associated between different modes of transport to
lead to a choice of one mode over another to have less of an effect on an individual’s
wellbeing.

Theme 2: Feeling associated with different type of commuting modes

Theme 2 saw the following feelings emerging: anger and annoyance when different
modes of transport were highlighted. There was a negative relationship between
forms of public transport and the effects they had on each employee. The positive
response arose when cycling and active transport was considered, the feeling of
being happy was evident.

5.3.1 Feelings associated with Public Transport

As stated above, public transport (public and private buses, commuter trains, the
DART and the LUAS), the feelings of anger and annoyance were associated to these
forms. Declan and June, two participants within the first group, who travel from the
city centre every-day agreed on the fact to how they felt when using the bus as their
mode of transport. The anger was not only evident within their comments but also
within their tone of which they explained their situations

Declan: It used to be a nightmare, I used to HATE getting the bus into work,
because it’s so early and the constant stopping and starting was a pain

42
 June: When I first started in the company I didn’t have to use public transport
much, I got to go with Amy quite quickly. As in when I started coming by bus, the
145 they were extremely long journeys from the city to here, by bus because it
stops pretty much everywhere.

The responses regarding using the DART or the commuter trains were positive when
travelling out from the city centre but those travelling from the Wicklow area found
the service as a negative experience:

Tina: Can I add an extra comment: I’m only a 15minute walk from the train
station in Wicklow town but going to work with the commuter would be
completely impossible because there are almost no trains and the timetable
doesn’t match ever

From the positive aspect to the commute by public transport:

Amy: I do see one good thing in the train is that it is along the sea so the view
is quite and you have your own seat as well

Tina: On the train, you can also read or can do things, you know…if you are in
the car, even if you are not driving you can get car sick anyways.

Sally: ….suppose we are going against the rush hour….

June from group 1 (Table 1), reiterated from a positive aspect how car-pooling works
and led on from the view she would be happy to travel by Dart or Car-pool over
driving alone:

June: Car-pooling is nice because we get to talk about things in general in the
morning, like I’d prefer to car-pool or take the DART, and not drive on my own
because it can be boring.

43
5.3.2 Feeling associated with Active Transport
When the factor of active transport (cycling, walking) was discussed the tone of the
participants was positive. Cian, a participant from Group 2 (Table 2), cycles up to
three times a week and is travelling the furthest compared to those in Group 1 and
3. His response highlighted the factor of combining both transport and fitness
together and stated that he almost plays on the fact that his commute is quite
extensive and long, he uses the mode of cycling as a release.

Cian: Cycling for me, well I basically I combine fitness. It’s an easy way to
combine exercise and commute, it takes less out of your day. If I went home and
then travelled 60km it would take another two hours after I’ve driven for two hours
so its combining the two. It’s also sometimes the traffic and sometimes on a Friday
afternoon you just go, ‘I’m cycling next week’’, because you are just stuck in traffic,
that’s the other reason.

Cian then proceeded to state the fact as to why he has considered personal
transportations, such as, the electric bike. As the experience of cycling is already
grounded, Cian is accustomed to travelling the distance by bike.

Cian: I was considering the electric bike as its one of my all-time aims for in
terms of transport is to reduce the fact of having two cars and it’s not
environmentally friendly and sustainable and therefore we have talked about
getting an electric bike to be able to cycle five days a week. I would investigate.

Another participant, Annie from Group 3 (table X), travels a short distance everyday
but her frustration with the cycling mode of transport was from an aspect of
organisation is key to her and can bring stress and a feeling of being unsafe, therefore
the idea of a car by transport is more appealing:

Annie: For example, if I am going to the gym or to rugby after work and with
the bike I can’t carry that much and for me this is a problem because it’s not safe
at all. I have a big bag, the bike and everything so if I want to go to shoreline
straight after, it’s not the best. So for a car it is easier

44
Theme 3: Comparisons associated between different modes of transport to lead to
a choice of one mode over another to have less of an effect on an individual’s
wellbeing.

5.3.3 Comparisons associated between different modes of transport

What developed throughout the analysis were the comparisons associated between
the different modes of transport and the experience of taking different modes of
transport in the past. The participants had experienced the stress and strain of
commuting by either being restricted by public transport in the past and then
alternating to the transport mode of the car:

Declan: In terms of wellbeing and to go back over it again. For me going from
public transport to driving had a huge effect on me for the better because you go
from having an hour and a half commute in the morning and again in the evening,
so three hours of your day gone to kind of 30 minutes. You have a lot more time
for things to do in the evening.

Declan further the conversation to reiterate the negative experience prior to change
his mode of transport:

Declan: In the past people, would say, ‘let’s do something in the evening’, and
I’m kinda thinking by the time I get home, I have to eat dinner and this and that.
Whereas now that I am driving you get home faster, eat a lot faster and go out,
and you can head out. It free’s up your evening a little bit more depending on how
you get to and from work, it makes a huge difference.

Those travelling the furthest distance had encountered public transport and resorted
to taking the car to free up their personal time:

Evelyn: I did it for two days when I started working for the company first and
it took me three hours to get to work because I had to get one train into town,
another train down to Bray and then the bus from Bray town and it took me three
hours, so after that, then I moved to Bray and when I moved back out of Bray I
made sure I drove all the time….

45
 Alan: It’s the same for me, I have no other option, because public transport
would take too long, to catch a train, the Luas and then the Dart followed by the
bus. It’s just not worth it!

Annie from group 3, although living close to the facility located in Bray, cycles most
days by bike but has thought about the need of a car, especially on wet days and
essentially not to be relying on others as a mode of transport to work, which in turn
links to the factor within objective one.

Annie: Yeah for example, for me, I am ready at 7:30 but I will wait until 8:30
for me to leave so I am going to lose one hour to think how I am going to go to
work without being completely wet so I have to call someone. For me I lose time
waiting for nothing. If I had a car maybe I could go to work straight.

5.3.4 Comparison associated between travelling within other countries compared

to the GDA
Furthering from the data analysis a strong sub-theme emerged from the review. The
notion of comparing different modes of transport to experiences in other countries
was strong in most of the groups experiences. What resulted was the change in mode
of transport and distance travelled when moving to Ireland:

Angela: Well I know in my past I have had very bad commuting and that is
why I am enjoying now. It is the fact that it is five minutes and I am so happy about
it. Maybe if I didn’t have this bad experience before I wouldn’t be so happy about
it and I wouldn’t feel the joy or being so close. When I am now at home, as I said,
I forget about work.

Cristina: But I think, compared to what I used to commute before, I think that
fact we are car-pooling, we don’t have the stress of sharing with others on public
commuting. On the Dart or the bus it’s okay but I remember in Paris every morning
I was stressed to deal with the large amount of people

46
The lack of options to combine active and public transport here in Ireland arose from
the data. The participant suggesting the annoyance of not having the option was
frustrating

Cristina: Yeah, like in some other countries you can take your bike on the bus
for like example, if you only want to do half an hour cycling or where cycling stops
you can take the bus and then finish by bike. Here, in Ireland, you cannot do that

5.3.5 Comparisons among people travelling within the GDA

As the three focus groups were defined from the aspect on distance of commute
(section 5.5) a strong feeling of empathy to other employees travelling a greater
distance, especially the M50 was highlighted. Another aspect, was the thoughts of
not having the desire to ever experience the traffic observed daily, i.e. the traffic
commuting towards the center of Dublin. Pre-empting situations of the congestion
was strong among those participants living closer to the facility in Bray. The
responses were mainly negative in relation to commuting and the effects it could
potentially have on the employee.

Ryan: Yeah I don’t think I could do it, it would have a huge effect on me. I
mean, if I was spending or it was taking me an hour and a half to two hours to get
home or into work in the morning, it would annoy me

Cristina: When we see the other side of the road, as in traffic going into Dublin,
I will never do that

Margaret: We are lucky, because every-day and especially these days where
traffic is much heavier, we see on the other side of the roads the heavier traffic but
really heavy, like continuous traffic.

47
5.4 Understand the relationship between commuting and the work-life balance of
employee

The final part of the study sought to understand the relationship commuting has on
the work-life balance of employees. The researcher wanted to find out a little more
information on how an individual/employee perceived their daily commute, in
relation to commuting and balance between work and home life. From the
responses, two sub-themes emerged: Disconnection between work and home life and
Flexibility.

Theme 4: Factors associated with commuting and work-life balance

Both flexibility between work and commuting time and disconnection between work
to home life was an important factor for the employees. These features can be linked
well to the studies carried out by studies previously analysing commuting and the
recovery time after the working day. Van Hooff (2015) analysed data using the effort-
recovery theory, to effectively state that in certain circumstances the commute can
be used as a buffer, transition, down time between home and work life.

5.4.1 Recovery between Work and the Home Life

The data collected showed the participants using their commuting time as a
disconnection or buffer between the workplace and the home, which in turn had
mainly a positive relationship for participants. It is clear for the employees that the
recovery time was effective:

June: We often discuss in the car, those who car-pool, things that have nothing
to do with work. You know people from work but you can get to know the people
outside of work. It’s hard some times to discuss some things about work in the car
but sometimes we just decide we don’t talk about work

Tina: for me I need to switch off people, so basically having my car on my own,
is my switch off time. If I’m in the car with other people I can’t switch off

48
 Pearce: Most of the time I drive home and probably think of some sort of
situations in work, go back home and I have that 5 to 10 minutes of chatting with
my wife saying… ah… well these things happen and I need that kind of buffer time
to just lay it all out and then after that I can think of other things

Other participants voiced their desire to remain in the car for a longer period to
disconnect further before reaching home, but also stated that he would be only
happy with forty minutes or less and would find any longer would impact on him

Donal: For me it is fine because I am such a short journey and there are times
where I actually wish I was a bit longer, as I like to be in the car listening to music
and that. I also wouldn’t like to be too long as in I wouldn’t like to go over 40
minutes

5.4.2 Flexibility

The participants/employees travelling the larger distance their work-life hours were
longer to their after-working hours, which in turn, has the employees working longer
hours and having less personal time for themselves:

Evelyn: I find when you come home and you have to cook the dinner, tidy up
after that…..I find now that I don’t do very much during the week, whereas when I
used to live in Dublin the commute was less, I used to do a bit more in the evenings.

As Morris in Group 2 (Table 2) stated the fact when living around built, industrialised
areas his time routine to leave in the mornings is strict compared to Angela in Group
3, where her commute is minimal therefore her time and routine is flexible.

Morris: I’ve noticed for myself the best time window is 7:30 or 7:45 to leave or after
8 to come to work during the winter, it’s gonna take 30 /35 minutes and if you are
between 7:45 to 8 its going to be much longer because then there are all the cars,
parents going to school or all the big trucks going to the industrial estates and
many cars going all together. I’ve noticed that early in the morning there a lot of
trucks going to the industrial estates and then later the cars going to the business
estates. This is something I think of, because when you drive these are the things
you think of….

49
5.5 Distance as a Factor across the Three Focus Groups

The nature of qualitative research is to explore subjective patterns of group

experiences and to gauge the meaning of these experiences and what have for the
people involved. What doesn’t lend itself well to qualitative research is the element
of comparison. Although the findings didn’t compare the data collected from each of
the three focus groups varying by distance (Table 1, 2 and 3). The research model
was executed in a way to explore within the different groups i.e. Group 1 at 15 to
30km in distance from the organisation, Group 2 - 30+km and Group 3 at 0 to 15km
from the organisation, the objectives set for the research. It was in the interest of the
researcher to understand if the variables of distance and duration of the commute
as highlighted in the literature search would become apparent of the participants
daily commuting experiences.

The findings suggested that those travelling the largest distance 30+ km emphasised
the strain to which the length of the commute place on them, as stated by two of the
participants, Evelyn and Maeve:

Evelyn: Yeah, the length of commuting, I think, has an impact as well, like
sometimes I which it was a bit shorter so I could do more things at home because
when you are driving you cannot do anything else…

Maeve: Yeah but when you are stuck in traffic you cannot control that either and
that’s the frustration, because it’s those empty hours we spoke about earlier

Similarly, those travelling between 15 to 30 km daily, experienced negative aspects

when commuting the distance but only by public transport and not by the private
car. It was inevitable that the participants travelling the shortest distance sought
effects of commuting but not from the fact of distance travelled, but more from the
mode of transport used. Which in this case saw this group (group 3) use active
transport more freely than the other two groups (1 and 2).

Margaret: When you have no issue with traffic you go straight home and you are so
happy because you have much more time to do things and you even have time to
think in the car what you will do at home

50
 Chapter 6

Discussion

This chapter will link the key findings of the primary research and relate the findings
back to previous literature as presented in Chapter 2. The chapter will close with the
limitations of the study and possible practical implications.

6.1 Restatement of the Research Questions

The research question and the objectives established had a sole purpose to explore
the wonders of commuting and to explore the effects the activity may have had upon
employees’ wellbeing and work-life balance. While, in parallel to also understand the
current commute of the greater Dublin area. Together they accentuated the status
of the land transport system around the GDA region, were true experiences were
conveyed in the views of employees commuting on a regular basis to and from the
workplace, in this case a facility situated in a business park on the outskirts of Bray
town.

6.2 Examining the effects commuting within the GDA has on the employee and
their wellbeing

One aim of the current research project was to explore the effect of commuting on
wellbeing. The research found that commuting influenced wellbeing and those who
commuted long distances to work felt that it affected their wellbeing. Section 6.2
explains the analysis and further links in detail to the research

The lack of investment is now impacting on the day-to-day lives of people as they
commute the state’s roads. The findings agreed with these statements as
participants highlighted they are now experiencing longer commutes to and from the
home, season dependent commutes and higher costs. This doesn’t come as a
surprise, as previously stated in the literature review. Melia (2016) reported that
commuters are now leaving an hour earlier, to join the 159 thousand commuters
using the M50 ring road transporting those from the GDA in and out of Dublin city.
These commuters are now subjected to rush hour on the M50 that last eight hours a
day.

51
A strong response regarding this statement was evident from one participant. The
participant already settled living within the Kildare region and had accepted the
length of the commute to live in an affordable area, settling with the idea to include
the expense of the travel. Other researchers have also expanded on this factor, that
the decision for residential placement is not only influenced by the voyage to work,
but by the “cost and quality of housing, the quality of the neighbourhood, and the
access to schools, family, and friends; and a trade-off will be made between the
factors” (Lyons & Chatterjee, 2008, p. 188). Subsequently, Stutzer and Frey (2008, p
339) also emphasised in the way that people will forgo the short distance commute
to live in a desired area and the burden of commuting is chosen when compensated
with the anticipated career or job.

As previously stated in the literature, workers dislike their long commutes, but the
cost of moving or finding another employer is higher; which can be balanced out by
their enjoyment for the non-work components of urban life (Rouwendal & Nukamp,
2004, p293). A response from one participant challenged this statement in that she
would accept the level of expense to live closer to her workplace, with the view
stemming from her previous employment and the current distance she is now
entailing. The participant was happy to move closer to the workplace and accept the
expense to potentially forgo the long-distance travel.

The primary research highlighted the element of isolation of business parks and the
negative aspect of the location of the business park in Bray in relation to the public
transport station in the town center. The factor limiting the participants to the most
reliable form of transport i.e. the car, which in turn increases road congestion and
leaving participants to sit longer hours in the car. A unanimous response with regards
to improving cycling infrastructure and access to a variety public transport modes
was clear. Participants were comfortable to take other modes if this factor was
available. Even though there is very little literature available regarding the
relationship between isolation of business parks and industrial estates and the
effects this can have on the employee. What is known, however, are mobility
management plans.

52
These incentives have arisen over the past two decades in relation to the
development of industrial estates and the lack of transport these business zones
provide. This was evident back in 2001, when the Eastlink business park noted this
very point and established a mobility management plan. A guide produced as part of
the ‘Way to Go’ research project, co-funded through the European Commission’s
SAVE II programme (2001). The guide reported that several organisations are viewing
mobility management as a means of improving accessibility to their site, improving
organisation image and making it easier to recruit and retain staff. What these
mobility management plans can counteract are what have been stated by
participants; if easy access was available to a wider variety of public transport sources
or cycling paths were safe, participants would be happier with the wider variety of
choice to their daily commute. Relating back to the mobility management report
(2001) stating the additional external benefits of mobility management plans should
not be ignored. Benefits to the wider community include reduced congestion and
overspill parking into adjacent residential areas, and environmental improvements
such as enhanced air quality and reduced noise.

An aspect that links strongly to commuting and the effects on wellbeing, is the factor
of control or the lack of control the commuter has when either driving or relying on
public transport timings and speed (Schaeffer et al, cited in Novaco 2009). The
research analysed by Stutzer and Frey (2008, p. 343) links into commuting. The
authors stated that commuting can be more stressful when people are not in control
of certain factors that can crop up on the drive to work e.g. due to traffic congestion
or when under considerable time pressure (Stutzer and Frey 2008, p. 343). The
frustration was evident among the participants, especially those travelling the largest
distance. One participant stated the frustration she experienced when stuck in traffic,
that she was stuck in a cycle of empty hours. The experience of the travel-to-work,
which cannot be considered as leisure, but equally cannot be considered work in the
sense of paid employment (Wheatley, 2012, p. 815), was certainly evident in this
instance This aspect can bring a huge strain to the individuals’ mood and wellbeing.

53
Others stated if the journey was shorter more could be done at home other than
stuck in a car or on a bus for longer than expected. Other research has suggested that
commuting stress can be reduced in many ways. These are ensuring the predictability
of the journey, reducing the duration of the journey and increasing the control of the
journey as analysed by McLennan and Bennetts (2003, p185). Again, a strong
response by one participant, stated if he experienced a constant movement to his
journey, he would arrive to the workplace in a ‘better frame of mind’.

The final factor evolving from the primary data in relation to commuting within the
GDA and its effect on the employee’s wellbeing, was the factor of travelling at
different times of the year and how season effect the travel and their mood. The
participants’ responses mainly linked to how though and lengthy the commutes are
in the winter months compared to the summer. A Swedish study has been conducted
where valence to the commute was analysed during the summer and winter months
(Olsson, Gärling, Ettema, Friman and Fujii, 2013), in respect that different aspects of
weather effect the mood of the participants and was not factoring in the time of year.
During the winter month’s in Ireland the volume in traffic is dense compared to the
summer months, which mainly relates to the lack of the school traffic and the holiday
period during the summer months

6.3 Understand if different modes of transport have an impact on the feelings

experienced by the employee during the daily commute

The second aim of the research project was to gain an understanding of different
modes of transport and the impact this may have on the feelings of employees.
Interesting findings concluded to show comparisons between the different modes of
transport i.e. active and public transport and then to compare to other transport
systems of other countries.

Previous studies have found the car remaining as the dominant mode due to
perceived lack of reliability, inconvenience, and the escalating cost of public
transport (Pooley et al., 2005 cited in Wheatley, 2012, p. 818).

54
This was evident throughout the focus groups, the car has remained as the main
reliant to employees, due to the lack of other modes of transport available in the
area but also due to the reliability of public transport. Again, it related to the findings
that most participants will rely on, the car, due to the isolation of the business park
and to remain in control of their journey to and from the workplace. The link between
the finding and the research has disagreed with previous authors who have
highlighted the positive aspect to commuting. The positive effect of commuting is
the potential use of public transport as an alternative workplace. This allows the time
spent commuting to be productive from an organisational and individual perspective
(McLennan and Bennetts, 2003, p180). The negative response from the participants
was in relation to carry out work tasks on any mode of transport. Not only was motion
sickness highlighted the lack of space offered by public transport forms and how this
would cause more strain to themselves, along with the working tasks.
The two themes emerging from the thematic analysis conducted from the data
collected on three focus groups. These sub-themes are in relation to comparison
among people travelling within the GDA, were the feeling of empathy towards other
colleagues was emphasied. The second sub-theme of comparison associated
between travelling within other countries compared to the GDA. The researcher felt
it important to state that the literature was not yet identified to discuss these
thematic elements but for future research it may be a possible to analyse further.
They were of importance has the interesting factor was linked to previous
experiences and hence the possible feeling of empathy towards others. There could
be on the other hand an element of not knowing the unknown.

55
6.4 Understand the relationship of commuting and the work-life balance of
employees

The final aim set to discover the relationships between the commute and the work-
life balance of the employee. The research found that the need for improved
flexibility to the employee was needed. Travelling the large, congested roads around
the GDA was not sufficient to the employee’s flexibility traits any longer.

For many, travel-to-work creates mobility and flexibility, acting as a bridge between
work and home. However, it is also a potential source of constraint and conflict
(Wheatley, 2012 p815). This statement was proven correct by participants, especially
those travelling the largest distance. The participants highlighted when they were
subjected to longer working hours, their journeys home would add to the lengthy
time and therefore impact on their personal time after work.
This left a participant stating about the lack of time to either cook the dinner, interact
with family to then consider the cycle of work and travel to begin again the following
day.
The practical implication for those employees, especially travelling the longer
distance, would be the case for the organisation to introduce a wider choice of
working hours to the employees. Therefore, the employees have a wider window to
travel to and from the workplace to avoid the pain of commuting, as stated by one
participant, ‘empty hours’. It is not unknown that flexibility has positive impacts, as
evidence has suggested, higher levels of satisfaction with work, indicative of
perceived improvement, have been reported among those using flexible working
arrangements (Wheatley, 2012; Kelliher and Anderson, 2008; Hyman and Summers,
2004, p424). A positive relationship to these suggestions was evident as participants
agreed to the fact of teleworking and improved flexible hours would strengthen the
divide between work and home life.

56
Another point to consider and has been emphasised in many studies, the transition
that can occur between the workplace and home, or vice versa, in the mornings, from
home to the workplace. These transitions, disconnection or buffer times have been
analysed by the author Van Hooff. Van Hooff (2015, p133) analysed the recovery
status of the employee/commuter. It was found that relaxation during the commute
from work to home was positively related to serenity after returning home from
work, also after taking commuting time into account. For stressful delays, as
expected, an opposite pattern of results was found. These results support the
assumption that experiencing relaxation during the commute home is beneficial for
employees’ recovery status, whereas experiencing a stressful delay impedes this
process (Van Hooff, 2015, p133). This statement was echoed by majority of
participants, especially those using the mode of car-pooling. It allowed the
participants to share thoughts about the work-day in the evening but then to
transition into conversations about the normal activities of their personal life. There
was a positive tone noted when participants spoke on this subject. Another
participant even voiced that he would prefer a longer journey, just for the fact to
switch off before or after the working day.

57
6.5 Limitations and Implications for further Research
The researcher found there to be limitations when analysing the data of the current
project.

Due to the three-month time scale, resourced to the research project, it allowed the
researcher to conduct the analysis using one method, being of a qualitative nature.
Comparing to previous research in the realm of the commuting world, some used
longitudinal studies, to which participants were advised to fill diary entries for the
duration of three-week studies. Therefore, if the resources and time were allocated
to the researcher of this project, the method of analysis to stem to a three-week
study to understand deeper how the daily commute influences employees. This
would give the researcher real-time information with the possibility of analysing
situational wellbeing coupled with commuting

The focus groups used for the study were highly populated with either single
participants with no children or married participants with no children. If extra time
was allocated to the project the researcher would incorporate a in which all
participants had the demographic of being a parent under strict routines. In the
opinion of the researcher, this would allow for further in-depth knowledge of the
subject in relation to commuting and working time flexibility on work - family life.
There would also be the potential to conduct a questionnaire based survey to look at
the wider picture before, conducting the in-depth view.

In combining the three research areas of commuting, wellbeing and work-life

balance. On reflection, the researcher would advise to either further analyse the
categories of commuting and wellbeing together or commuting and work-life
balance. Time was of the essence during the research project, to have a time-scale
of six to twelve months would allow the research to delve deeper into the literature,
along with themes that emerged and could not be linked fully to any recent
literature. In this case the unexplained emerging themes could fill gaps to what is
missing in the literature.

58
The researcher only later into the analysis of the literature phase of the dissertation
happened upon a recent study by Sposato, Röderer and Cervinka (2012). The study
looked at the impact of several factors on the stress that commuters experience and
clarified relations between the said variables (control, predictability, impedance and
stressor to the journey), to which previous research only investigated the variables
as a separate entity. The researchers devised a model of source on commuting stress
(Diagram 1). What was evident from the study were commute characteristics, i.e.
impedance, predictability and costs to the commute and stressors link to control and
environmental stressors.

Diagram 1: Model of commuting stress source (Sposato, Röderer and Cervinka, 2012, p. 586)

The researcher of this dissertation project believes that using the thoughts of Sposato
et, al 2012, would be of huge interest. Linking the themes emerging from this
research project and understanding in relation to the model of diagram 1, would
allow further and insightful avenues to understand the role of commuting in Irish
society.

59
 Chapter 7

Conclusion and Future Research

7.1 Conclusion to the Study

The research and its purpose was to investigate under an exploratory manner the
relationships between commuting and the effects this phenomenon has on the
employee wellbeing and work-life balance. The main area of interest was of those
travelling from within the greater Dublin area. Therefore, to achieve the results the
researcher adopted a qualitative method using three focus groups travelling within
the greater Dublin area. Each focus group varied by distance travelled to and from
work daily. Data collected was presented in the form of themes that arose from the
findings and from which the following conclusions and recommendations have been
made.

Objective 1: Examining the effects commuting within the GDA has on the employee
and their wellbeing

Those employees commuting within the greater Dublin area (Wicklow, Kildare,
Meath and the city centre of Dublin) had various traits and experiences of the
variables as described in the literature i.e. control, distance and impedance to the
commute. The factors highlighted to impact on the daily commute and wellbeing of
the employees were of: isolation of business parks, lack of control when commuting,
seasonality and expenses to consider when commuting. It was clear from the study
both negative and positive emotions tied in with these factors

Objective 2: Understand if different modes of transport have an impact on the

feelings experienced by the employee during the daily commute

The responses allowed the researcher insights into the following emerging themes;
feelings associated with different types of commuting and the comparisons
associated between different modes of transport to lead to a choice of one mode
over another to have less of an effect on an individual’s wellbeing.

60
It was evident from the results that the negative relationship lay with the mode of
private car but when driving alone. Those using car-pooling as an option expressed
joy in relation to communication with others. Those using active transport, i.e. cycling
or walking were happy with the choice of mode, but during the winter months the
effect took a negative tone. The two themes highlighted upon empathy for other
colleagues commuting long-congested routes and the comparison of previous travel
on public transport in other countries. The research could not be linked to these
findings but could be of interest for future research.

Objective 3: Understand the relationship between commuting and the work-life

balance of employees

From the responses, two sub-themes emerged: Disconnection between work and
home life and Flexibility. The information expressed the relationship and linked well
to the literature. The outcome from the findings had a strong affiliation to suggestion
to evolve the aspect of flexibility in the work place. In this case the participants felt
their work-life balance could be further improved while also alleviating the strain of
the commute on the employee. If it was possible to extent the work hours either side
of the 9 to 5 core hours, the participants felt they could then work around the forever
populated congested roads they are subjected to daily.

In conclusion, the research question and the objectives established had a sole
purpose to explore the wonders of commuting and to explore the effects the activity
may have had upon employees’ wellbeing and work-life balance. While, in parallel to
also understand the current commute of the greater Dublin area. All three concepts
of employee commuting, wellbeing and work-life balance were effectively analysed
in relation to the effect commuting can have on the individual.

61
7.2 Future Research

After concluding the study and affirming that commuting does have to some degree
an effect to an employee’s wellbeing and work-life balance. There are future
possibilities to further commuting research from an Irish perspective.

It is fair to say that this research was conducted using the exploratory nature of
qualitative research but to further emphasise these effects the use of a mixed
method analysis would allow the research to further into a larger population of those
commuting daily.

Mobility management programmes are available for use in any industrial or business
parks wishing to incorporate transport for those isolated from any means of
transport. Therefore, to achieve an efficient service for those employee’s, a large
survey could be circulated to quantify information for companies budgeting for
future investment into means and ways for their employees to attend daily work in
a stress-free manner.

As this research study was conducted during the summer months, it could be an
opportunity to use the analysis method developed for this research project and
repeat during the winter months.

Following from here is would also be interesting to take the study or the premise of
the study to national level. Only a small sample was used and specific to a certain
segment of the GDA, therefore it would be interesting to extend the research to a
larger population of the GDA, with the potential to bring to a national level. Of
course, separating to the quantitative surveys used by the National Transport Survey
annually.

62
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Appendices

67
Appendix 1: Pilot Study working questions and ideas

Pilot Study Questions – Aim to Refine

The aim is to place the questions under headings/themes and include sub-questions under
the main for or 5 questions.
1. What mode of transport do you take to and from work? Why?
2. How work-life balance impacts on the wellbeing of employees of X facility
3. How commuting within the great Dublin area impacts on the well-being of
employees of X
4. Is commuting by car a necessity or taken for granted (use because it’s easier)
5. What is your choice of transport to travel to work?
6. Do you travel alone? Why?
7. If not, why do you car-share? Do you find this is more of a stress?
8. Do you ever consider your safety on your daily commute to work? – will this link to
people with families or people in general
9. During the past month, has there been a stop to your commute? If so, why, what,
when and for how long?
10. Do you ever feel strain in the evenings before heading home? Whether it’s to meet
family life tasks, exercise regimes, others?
11. What are your perceptions when it comes to travelling at different stages of the
year? Do you feel of a different mood? – Seasons into account
12. Do you feel the organisations offers open flexibility
13. The new national framework for Ireland, Healthy Ireland, is there a way we can
integrate this into the corporate setting?
14. Is there an understanding of well-being amongst the staff? Do they understand
what it entails or even considered it?
15. Have you travelled the distance and moved close to work because of the
commute?
16. Have you considered finding a new job to be closer to home and why?
17. Have you considered walking or cycling to work?
18. If the infrastructure was built in the area surrounding our facility in Bray, would you
consider walking, cycling to work?

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Appendix 2: Example of email sent to potential participants

Date 5th July 2017

Dear potential participants,

As some of you may know, I am currently at completion of my Master’s degree (MSc

in Management). The course is now at the stage of dissertation level, involving focus
group (group interview) analysis to take part as part of the project.

The focus group session, in which, I am conducting on the 17th July at 11am, will host
those participants living 15 to 30km from the facility here in Bray.

The background to the research will analyse the main question of the dissertation:
[Working Title]: The perspective of full-time employees from a Research and
Development facility commuting within the Greater Dublin Area: How does
commuting effect employees Wellbeing and Work-Life Balance

The focus group analysis will allow me, as the researcher, to understand if commuting
contributes to a negative or positive way of thinking while considering employees
Wellbeing and Work-Life Balance. The focus group session will last no more than 45
minutes and recording of the session will take place. You, as a potential participant
are under no obligation to take part if you feel uncomfortable or unwilling to take
part in a group interview environment.

When all participants have agreed to take part I will forward the consent forms
individually for you to sign.

If you have any queries regarding the setup or structure of the focus group, please
do contact me at my usual address.

Thanking you all in advance.

Kind Regards,

Jessica

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Appendix 3: Consent Forms for Participants

The perception of full-time employees from a Research and Development facility

commuting within the Greater Dublin Area: How does commuting effect
employees Wellbeing and Work-Life Balance (working title)

Consent to take part in research

 I…………………………………. voluntarily agree to participate in this research study.

 I understand that even if I agree to participate now, I can withdraw at any
time or refuse to answer any question without any consequences of any kind.
 I understand data will be stored until 21st July 2022 (according to NCI research
ethics guidelines)
 I can withdraw my data (consent forms and original audio recordings and
transcripts) until the point that the thesis has been submitted on 25 th August
2017
 I have had the purpose and nature of the study explained to me by email and
I have had the opportunity to ask questions about the study.
 I understand that participation involves voicing my opinion to questions asked
within a group interview environment
 I understand audio-recording will take place during the group interview
 I understand that all information I provide for this study will be treated
confidentially and I will remain anonymous in any report on the results of this
research
 I understand that disguised extracts from my interview may be quoted in the
body of the thesis report, which is held on the premises of the National
College of Ireland.
 I understand that I am free to contact any of the people involved in the
research to seek further clarification and information.

Participant Signature and Date ----------------------------------------- --------------------

Researcher Signature and Date ------------------------------------------ ----------------------

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Appendix 4: Post-Pilot refined Questions for focus group sessions

Questions for Focus Groups

Week commencing 17th July 2017

Beginning of the session the researcher will ensure and explain to participants:

 All participants are comfortable with the statements highlighted in the

consent forms.
 A brief explanation on the back ground of the project i.e. That the premise is
based on the daily commute to and from the work-place and to see if this
influences employee wellbeing and employee work-life balance
 The session will be recorded from the time the researcher will ask the
questions.
 The recordings will only be heard by the researcher
 The researcher may call the participant by name during the group discussion,
for ease of later transcribing, but as participants you will remain anonymous
during the report writing or any writing that may happen thereafter.
 State that at any stage, any participant would like to leave, they have every
right to do so and the name of the organisations they work for will remain
confidential.
 Feel free to talk around the subject as much as possible, whatever comes to
mind and open the discussion, if however, the researcher feels like we are
going off in a tangent, the researcher might just draw participants back in or
stop you if the researcher feels they have enough information.
 The researcher will have the computer present, so please don’t feel ignored.
The researcher will let the participant talk and the researcher to listen

The questions will be used as a guide in the event participants are going off topic and
due to the short space of time questions need answering.

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The session to start with a quick ice breaker - The participants to answer three
questions, out loud…Where do you live i.e. area? How you get to work? Favourite
after work activity?

Section 1: Transport/Commuting

Participant X you said you travel by travel mode X, why is this your choice of?

1. Why is this your choice of transport to travel to and from work?

2. Have you considered other modes of transport?
3. How do you feel arriving into work and again arriving home from work after
your daily commute?
 Would you ever feel the strain of commuting either to or from work?

4. What do you do with your time while commuting to and from work?
 Would you carry out any work tasks during this time?

5. Do you find your journey is hindered or delayed on a regular basis, and if so,
how does this make you feel?
6. Have you moved/ considered moving closer to work to reduce your
commuting time?
7. How does your summer commute differ from your winter commute, if at
all?
8. Do people car-share in the mornings and/or the evenings? Why?
 Do you think there are any negatives to car-sharing?
Section 2: Health and Wellbeing

1. What does wellbeing mean to you?

2. What does wellbeing in the workplace mean to you?
3. Do you think commuting to and from work influences your wellbeing?
4. Does the thought of your commute home have a negative effect on your
work performance?
Section 3: Work-Life Balance

1. What does work-life balance mean to you?

2. Do you think this Work-Life Balance, is effected by daily commutes to and
from work?
3. Have you ever worked outside the flexible hours, either morning or evening,
to avoid traffic? If, so how often?
Do you feel less strain is experienced?
4. With traffic congestion rates steadily increasing, what could the company
offer to its employees to alleviate the stress of commuting.

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