Unit 4
Russia
Introduction:
Russia, officially known as the Russian Federation, is the largest country in the world by land
area. It spans across Eastern Europe and Northern Asia, covering around 17.1 million square
kilometers and stretching through 11 time zones. It shares borders with 14 countries and touches
both the Arctic and Pacific Oceans. Moscow is the capital and serves as the political, economic,
and cultural hub of the country.
Russia has a complex history, including periods of monarchy, communism under the Soviet
Union, and later a shift towards democracy after the USSR collapsed in 1991. Today, it is a
federal republic with a presidential system. President Vladimir Putin, who has been a dominant
political figure for over two decades, leads the country and focuses on national unity, strong
military power, and enhancing Russia’s global influence.
Russia’s political system is described as a federal, multi-party democracy, but in practice, most
of the power lies with the president. The national parliament, called the Federal Assembly,
consists of two parts: the State Duma (lower house) and the Federation Council (upper house). In
recent years, Russia has faced both domestic and international challenges, especially after
annexing Crimea in 2014 and starting military action in Ukraine in 2022. These actions led to
widespread global criticism and severe economic sanctions.
Socially, Russia is very diverse, home to over 190 ethnic groups and languages. While Russian
Orthodox Christianity is the main religion, Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism are also practiced. The
government gives importance to education and healthcare, and the country has a strong tradition
in science and culture.
Economically, Russia is rich in energy resources and is a leading exporter of oil and natural gas.
However, the economy has suffered in recent years due to international sanctions and global
instability.
Currently, Russia’s global position is tense. Ongoing conflicts and its strained relationship with
Western countries have affected its diplomatic ties. Still, Russia remains a major global power
due to its military strength and energy resources. Under President Putin, the government focuses
on security and influence, but is often criticized for suppressing political opposition and limiting
freedoms at home.
Russia’s Political Traditions and Constitutional Development
After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Russia had to build a new political and legal
system that matched its new democratic goals. The earlier 1977 Soviet Constitution was based
on communist principles and did not allow for multiparty democracy, personal freedoms, or a
market economy. So, Russia needed a new constitution to guide it in a new direction.
In 1993, under President Boris Yeltsin, a new constitution was created during a period of
political instability and a power struggle between the president and the parliament. This led to
the parliament being dissolved and even military action. Despite the crisis, the new Constitution
was approved through a national referendum on 12 December 1993 and came into effect on 25
December 1993.
The 1993 Constitution made Russia a federal, democratic, and multiparty republic. It
established a clear separation of powers between three branches of government:
• Executive – Led by the President and Prime Minister
• Legislature – Federal Assembly (State Duma and Federation Council)
• Judiciary – Supreme Court, Constitutional Court, and other courts
The President is the head of state with strong powers. The Prime Minister, appointed by the
President, is the head of government.
The Constitution guarantees important rights like freedom of speech, religion, equality, and
access to education and healthcare. It also set up the Constitutional Court, which checks
whether laws follow the Constitution.
The Constitution has two parts:
1. Main section with 137 articles
2. Transitional section with temporary rules
It is the supreme law in Russia—no law or action can go against it. However, in practice, issues
remain, especially with too much power in the presidency and weak political institutions. Still,
the Constitution is a major step in Russia’s political development.
Main Features of the Russian Constitution
1. Written and Rigid: It is a written document, adopted by a referendum in 1993, and is
difficult to change.
2. Federal Structure: Russia has 85 federal units, including republics, regions, provinces,
federal cities, and autonomous areas.
3. Presidential System: The President is very powerful and appoints the Prime Minister.
4. Separation of Powers: Power is divided among:
o Legislature – Federal Assembly (State Duma & Federation Council)
o Executive – President, Prime Minister, and Cabinet
o Judiciary – Supreme Court and Constitutional Court
5. Supremacy of the Constitution: No law can go against the Constitution.
6. Fundamental Rights: Guarantees rights like:
o Freedom of speech and religion
o Equality
o Access to education, healthcare, and social security
7. Secularism: The state and religion are separate. No religion is official.
8. Multiparty Democracy: Many political parties are allowed. Elections are held
democratically.
9. Local Self-Government: Local governments have the power to make decisions on local
issues.
10. Social Welfare: Citizens are assured services like free education, pensions, and
healthcare.
11. Independent Judiciary & Judicial Review: Courts can review laws to ensure they
follow the Constitution.
12. Respect for International Law: If Russian law conflicts with international law,
international law is followed.
13. Amendment Procedure: The Constitution can be changed, but some parts—especially
on federal structure and rights—are very hard to amend.
Social Dimension of Russia
Russian society has undergone major changes since the fall of the Soviet Union, moving from a
state-controlled collective system to a more diverse and modern social structure.
Soviet Legacy: During the Soviet era, society was built on collectivism and state control. After
1991, Russia moved toward individual freedom and modern values, but the transition was
challenging.
Cultural Diversity: Russia is home to many ethnic groups, but the dominant religion is Russian
Orthodox Christianity. Other religions like Islam, Buddhism, and Judaism are also practiced.
Urban vs Rural Life: In big cities like Moscow and St. Petersburg, people live modern, fast-
paced lives influenced by the West. In rural areas, traditional lifestyles still continue.
National Identity and Pride: Russians are proud of their cultural heritage, history, and values.
The government often uses this pride to promote unity and patriotism, especially during difficult
times.
Social Changes: Globalization and urbanization have brought modern ideas, especially among
the younger population. However, there is still a strong presence of conservative and traditional
values in society.
Human Rights Concerns: Critics argue that political control under Putin has limited freedom of
speech, press, and opposition , weakening democratic rights in society .
While Russian society reflects a mix of tradition and modernity, the centralization of political
power and limits on democratic freedoms continue to shape its social landscape.
Economic Dimension of Russia
Russia’s economy has transformed significantly after 1991, shifting from a centrally planned
system to a market-based economy with a strong focus on natural resources.
Post-Soviet Transition: After 1991, Russia shifted from a planned socialist economy to a
capitalist market system. Privatization created wealth for a few (oligarchs), but left many in
poverty, increasing inequality.
Energy-Dependent Economy: Russia’s economy depends heavily on exports of oil and natural
gas. This brings in major income but also makes the economy vulnerable to changes in global
energy prices.
Impact of Sanctions: Due to the Ukraine conflict and other political issues, Western countries
imposed sanctions on Russia. This led to reduced foreign investment and rising prices within the
country.
Government Response: The Russian government is working to reduce dependency on Western
markets and focus on self-reliance and building new trade relations, especially with Asia.
Economic Inequality: A small group controls much of the country’s wealth, while a large
portion of the population still faces economic struggles, especially in rural areas.
Challenges: Russia still faces challenges like lack of economic diversity (too much focus on
energy), unemployment in some regions, and the need for investment in technology and
innovation.
Despite efforts to modernize and diversify, Russia’s economy still faces major challenges due to
its dependence on energy exports, global sanctions, and rising inequality.
Party System in Russia
Russia’s party system has gone through many changes since the collapse of the Soviet Union in
1991. Although it is officially a multiparty democracy, in reality, it functions as a controlled
multiparty system. This means that while many political parties exist, real power lies with one
dominant party: United Russia, which is closely linked with President Vladimir Putin.
United Russia plays a central role in supporting the government and shaping national policies.
Other major parties like the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (KPRF), the Liberal
Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR), and Just Russia also take part in politics but have
limited influence.
Opposition parties and independent candidates face many obstacles such as lack of media access,
administrative pressure, and strict election rules. The electoral process is often criticized for
being unfair and tightly controlled by the government. Civil society and independent media try to
bring balance, but their role is restricted in the current system.
Overall, Russia’s party system is dominated by the ruling party, gives limited space to the
opposition, and reflects the centralization of power around the president.
Main Features of Russia’s Party System
1. Controlled Multipartyism: Though many parties exist, the system is tightly managed
and controlled by those in power.
2. Dominance of United Russia: United Russia is the most powerful party and has strong
backing from the president and government.
3. Control Over Opposition: Opposition parties and candidates face legal and political
pressure. Their activities are often restricted.
4. Weak and Limited Opposition: Parties like KPRF, LDPR, and Just Russia exist but
don’t have real independence or strong influence.
5. High Electoral Barriers: Strict laws and procedures make it hard for new parties and
independent candidates to contest elections.
6. Presidential Influence: The president plays a major role in shaping party politics.
Without the president’s support, a party cannot gain national importance.
7. Media Control: State media mostly supports the ruling party. Independent media has
very limited reach.
8. Regional Dominance: United Russia also dominates at the local and regional levels,
making it hard for opposition to grow.
9. Election Irregularities: Elections in Russia are often accused of being unfair, with
reports of rigging, manipulation, and voter pressure.
10. Centralized Power Structure: The entire party system revolves around the president
and ruling party, with limited checks and balances.
Major Political Parties of Russia
Russia has a multiparty system, but only a few parties play a significant role in national politics.
These parties differ in their ideologies, but most operate within a system where the ruling party
holds strong influence. Below are the key political parties:
United Russia: Formed in 2001, United Russia is the ruling party and dominant party and has
strong ties with President Vladimir Putin. Its ideology promotes nationalism, conservative
values, and political stability. It holds a majority in parliament and exerts influence over regional
governments. Often referred to as the “party of power,” it maintains its dominance with the help
of state control over media and administrative institutions.
Communist Party of the Russian Federation (KPRF): Main opposition to United Russia,
established in 1993. It continues the legacy of the Soviet Union and is based on Marxist-Leninist
ideology. The party supports socialist principles like income equality and state control over
major industries. Its supporters are mostly older citizens and rural populations who are nostalgic
for the Soviet era. KPRF criticizes capitalism and the growing economic inequality in Russia.
Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR): founded in 1991. It is known for its right-wing
nationalist views and promotion of traditional Russian values. The party, once led by the
outspoken Vladimir Zhirinovsky, is famous for its extreme and controversial speeches. Though it
presents itself as an oppositeion, it often aligns with the Kremlin’s positions, leading many to call
it a “controlled opposition.”
A Just Russia: formed in 2006, supports the ideas of social democracy and social justice. It
attempts to position itself between United Russia and the Communists. Though it occasionally
backs government policies, it still claims to represent an opposition voice. Its focus is on welfare,
equality, and reforms, but like other parties, it operates within a system where true opposition is
limited.
ELECTORAL SYSTEM OF RUSSIA
Russia’s electoral system is a complex political framework established under the Constitution,
national laws, and regulated political processes. Although the system appears democratic on
paper, it has often been criticized for excessive centralization of power, restrictions on
opposition, and a tightly controlled electoral process. Russia conducts elections at multiple
levels—presidential, parliamentary (State Duma and Federation Council), regional, and local. An
in-depth analysis of these processes sheds light on the functioning of Russia’s democratic and
administrative structure.
Structure of the Election System of Russia
The foundation of Russia’s election system lies in the 1993 Constitution, which declares the
country a federal republic and recognizes a multiparty system. The electoral framework functions
at three levels:
1. Presidential Elections
2. Parliamentary Elections
3. Regional and Local Elections
Presidential Elections: The President is the most powerful figure in Russia, holding authority
over the government, military, and foreign policy. The President is directly elected by the people.
Election Process:
o Presidential elections are held every six years.
o A candidate must be over 35 years of age and must have lived in Russia for the last 10
years.
o A candidate needs to secure over 50% of votes to win. If no candidate achieves this, a
second-round runoff is held.
Challenges and Criticism:
• The fairness of elections is frequently questioned.
• Opposition candidates often face disqualification or obstacles during campaigns.
• State-controlled media and the administrative system are used in favor of the ruling
party’s candidate.
Parliamentary Elections
The Russian Parliament is bicameral, consisting of:
1. State Duma (Lower House)
2. Federation Council (Upper House)
State Duma:
o It has 450 members elected through direct elections.
o 225 members are chosen through proportional representation (party list system), and 225
through single-member constituencies.
o A party must secure at least 5% of the vote to enter the Duma, which makes it difficult for
smaller or independent parties.
Federation Council:
o Composed of two representatives from each federal region—one appointed by the
regional legislature and one by the executive authority.
o These members are not directly elected.
Regional and Local Elections
o Elections for governors, city councils, and local bodies are held directly.
o However, the ruling party, United Russia, also maintains dominance in these elections.
Key Features of Russia’s Electoral Processes:
o Multi-Party System: Although Russia formally has a multiparty system, United Russia
dominates the political landscape. Opposition parties face significant limitations.
o Control of the Election Commission: The Central Election Commission (CEC) manages
the election process. It is often accused of partiality in favor of the ruling party.
o Propaganda and Media Use: State-controlled media is extensively used by the ruling
party. Opposition parties struggle to access equal media representation.
o Electoral Barriers: Barriers in registration and campaigning restrict new candidates.
Allegations of voter manipulation and unfair practices are common.
o Voting Technology: Voting is conducted manually and electronically. Despite the use of
modern technology, concerns about transparency remain.
Challenges in the Electoral System:
1. Lack of Freedom and Fairness: Elections lack the competitive fairness seen in healthy
democracies. Opposition parties face obstacles to effective participation.
2. Political Pressure: Opposition candidates are often disqualified or targeted legally.
Prominent critics of the government may face arrest or charges.
3. Rigging and Irregularities: There are allegations of manipulation in the electoral process
from Voting to the results. International organizations have also raised questions on the
transparency Of Russia’s electoral processes.
In conclusion, although Russia’s electoral system appears democratic in structure, it operates in a
highly centralized manner with limited space for genuine opposition. The dominance of
President Vladimir Putin and the United Russia party heavily influences the electoral process. To
enhance democratic credibility and public trust, large-scale reforms are essential. If implemented
effectively, these reforms could bring greater transparency, fairness, and legitimacy to Russia’s
political system.
FEDERAL SYSTEM OF RUSSIA
The federal system of Russia is officially defined as a “federal republic” under the 1993
Constitution. It is designed to accommodate the country’s vast geography, diverse population,
and multiethnic composition. Russia consists of 89 federal subjects, including republics, krais,
oblasts, federal cities, autonomous oblasts, and autonomous okrugs. However, despite the federal
structure, the system exhibits strong centralization and authoritarian characteristics, with
significant powers concentrated in the office of the President.
Key Features of Russia’s Federal System:
1. Composition of Federal Subjects:
o Russia has 89 federal subjects divided into various categories:
▪ 21 republics (with their own constitutions, languages, and cultural
identity)
▪ 9 krais
▪ 46 oblasts
▪ 3 federal cities (Moscow, St. Petersburg, Sevastopol)
▪ 1 autonomous oblast
▪ 4 autonomous okrugs
o This division reflects Russia’s ethnic, cultural, and geographical diversity.
2. Autonomy of Federal Units:
o Republics enjoy nominal autonomy with their own constitutions and official
languages.
o However, real autonomy is limited due to centralized federal control and
presidential influence over regional governance.
3. Centralization of Power:
o The Russian federal system is characterized by a strong central government.
o The President wields extensive powers, including control over regional governors.
o Since the early 2000s, under Vladimir Putin, direct elections of governors were
replaced by presidential appointments to ensure loyalty, though direct elections
were later reintroduced under tight control.
4. Vertical Power Structure:
o The “vertical of power” principle enforces strict hierarchical control from the
federal center down to regional and local governments.
o Regional governments depend heavily on federal funding and policies, limiting
their decision-making freedom.
5. Inequalities Among Regions:
o Wealthier and resource-rich regions (e.g., Tatarstan, Chechnya) have negotiated
special agreements granting them greater autonomy.
o Poorer and remote regions remain dependent on federal assistance and have
weaker political influence, leading to regional disparities.
6. Legal and Institutional Framework:
o The 1993 Constitution and federal laws outline the rights and responsibilities of
federal subjects.
o However, interpretations and implementations often favor federal authorities.
o The judiciary, including the Constitutional Court, lacks full independence and is
subject to federal influence.
7. Management of Ethnic and Cultural Diversity:
o Many federal subjects are ethnically and culturally diverse, posing challenges to
national integration.
o Conflicts such as those in Chechnya underscore tensions within the federal system
between local identities and federal policies.
8. Impact of Centralization on Regional Politics:
o Regional leaders are closely monitored and controlled by the central government.
o Political pluralism and decentralization remain weak, limiting regional political
autonomy.
SEPARATION OF POWERS IN RUSSIA
The principle of separation of powers is a fundamental aspect of Russia’s constitutional
framework, intended to divide state authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial
branches. This division aims to prevent the concentration of power in one branch and to ensure a
system of checks and balances. However, in practice, Russia’s separation of powers shows
significant centralization, especially with the dominance of the executive branch under the
President.
Legislative Branch of Russia:
The legislative branch of the Russian Federation is known as the Federal Assembly. It is a
bicameral legislature, meaning it consists of two houses – the State Duma (Lower House) and the
Federation Council (Upper House). Established by the Constitution of 1993, the Federal
Assembly is responsible for enacting federal laws, approving the budget, overseeing the
executive, and shaping national policies. Though it functions within a formal democratic
structure, its powers are often overshadowed by the strong influence of the executive branch.
STATE DUMA (LOWER HOUSE)
Composition:
o The State Duma has 450 members (deputies).
o Half (225 deputies) are elected through Proportional Representation (party-list system).
o The other half (225 deputies) are elected through Single-Member Constituencies (first-
past-the-post system).
Tenure:
o Members of the State Duma are elected for a term of 5 years.
Election:
o Elections are direct and universal, meaning all Russian citizens above the age of 18 can
vote.
o Political parties must cross a 5% electoral threshold to win seats under the proportional
system.
Functions:
1).Legislative Functions:
o Proposes and passes federal laws.
o Sends passed bills to the Federation Council for approval.
2).Approval of Budget:
o Examines, debates, and approves the federal budget submitted by the government.
3).Approval of Prime Minister: Gives consent to the President’s nominee for the post of Prime
Minister.
4).Control Over the Executive:
o Can express a vote of no confidence in the government.
o Can call for a hearing of ministers and hold them accountable.
5).Impeachment Process:
o Can initiate impeachment proceedings against the President with a two-thirds majority,
followed by Federation Council approval.
6).Constitutional Amendments:
o Participates in passing amendments to the Constitution.
FEDERATION COUNCIL (UPPER HOUSE)
Composition:
o Consists of 2 representatives from each federal subject (currently 89 federal subjects) =
178 members total.
o One member is appointed by the regional legislature.
o One member is appointed by the regional executive (governor).
Tenure:
o No fixed term.
o Members serve at the discretion of the regional authorities who appoint them.
o When regional leadership changes, their appointees can be replaced.
Election/Appointment:
o Members are not directly elected by the people.
o Appointed through a nomination process by the regional governments.
Functions:
1).Legislative Review:
o Reviews and approves or rejects laws passed by the State Duma.
o Has the right to veto or return laws for revision.
2).Approval of Presidential Decrees:
o Must approve decrees of emergency or martial law issued by the President.
3).Military Powers:
o Authorizes the use of Russian Armed Forces abroad.
4).Judicial Appointments:
o Approves the President’s nominees for judges of the Constitutional Court, Supreme
Court, and Prosecutor General.
5).Constitutional Amendments:
o Participates in the process of amending the Constitution.
6).Territorial Integrity:
o Approves changes in internal boundaries of federal subjects or their status.
Executive Branch of Russia
The Executive Branch of Russia is the most dominant and powerful arm of the government. It
primarily includes:
1).The President (Head of State)
The President is the head of state and holds the highest executive authority holds supreme
authority over domestic and foreign affairs.
Tenure:
o The President of Russia is elected for a six-year term.
o A person can serve two consecutive terms, but there is no lifetime limit due to a
constitutional amendment passed in 2020, allowing President Putin to potentially stay in
power until 2036.
Election Process:
o The President is elected by direct popular vote.
o Any Russian citizen above the age of 35, who has lived in Russia for the past 25 years
and has no foreign citizenship or residence permit, can contest the election.
o To win, a candidate must secure more than 50% of the votes. If no candidate achieves
this, a runoff election is held between the top two contenders.
Powers and Functions of the President:
A).Constitutional Authority:
o Ensures the Constitution is upheld and followed.
o Represents the state both within the country and internationally.
B).Appointment Powers:
o Appoints the Prime Minister (with approval from the State Duma).
o Appoints federal ministers, heads of agencies, judges of higher courts, and prosecutors.
o Appoints governors and other key regional officials (sometimes indirectly).
C).Legislative Functions:
o Can issue presidential decrees and executive orders that have the force of law without
requiring legislative approval.
o Has the power to dissolve the State Duma under certain conditions.
o Can veto legislation passed by the Federal Assembly (though it can be overridden by a
two-thirds majority).
D).Foreign and Defense Policy:
o Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces.
o Directs foreign policy, negotiates international treaties, and represents Russia globally.
E).Emergency Powers:
o Can declare a state of emergency or martial law with approval from the Federation
Council.
2).The Government (Cabinet of Ministers)
Includes Deputy Prime Ministers, Ministers, and Heads of Federal Agencies. It is Responsible
for executing laws, managing federal property, developing the federal budget, and ensuring
national defense and public order. Works under the leadership of the Prime Minister, but its key
appointments are made by the President.
Powers and Functions of the Government:
A).Policy Implementation:
o Executes federal laws and presidential decrees.
o Develops and implements economic, social, health, education, and environmental
policies.
B).Budget and Finance:
o Prepares and presents the federal budget to the State Duma.
o Manages national fiscal policy and oversees taxation and spending.
C).Regulation and Oversight:
o Ensures the consistent application of laws across federal subjects.
o Supervises ministries, federal services, and agencies.
D).Accountability:
o Reports to both the President and the State Duma.
o Can be dismissed by the President at any time.
3).The Prime Minister:
The Prime Minister is the head of government, responsible for the day-to-day administration of
the country and leading the work of the Council of Ministers.
Election:
o Appointed by the President, subject to approval by the State Duma.
o If the Duma rejects the nominee three times, the President can dissolve it and call new
elections.
Tenure:
o The Prime Minister does not have a fixed term but serves at the pleasure of the President.
o The Prime Minister may remain in office as long as they retain the President’s confidence
and are not removed by a vote of no confidence in the Duma.
Functions of the Prime Minister:
o Heads the Government of the Russian Federation.
o Oversees the implementation of domestic and economic policy.
o Coordinates the work of federal ministries and agencies.
o Represents the government before the Federal Assembly.
Judicial Branch
The judicial branch interprets and applies the law and is theoretically independent, comprising
several courts:
Constitutional Court:
o Reviews laws and acts for their constitutionality and resolves disputes between federal
and regional authorities.
o Plays a critical role in ensuring that legislation complies with the Constitution.
Supreme Court:
o Serves as the highest court for civil, criminal, administrative, and other cases.
o Oversees lower courts and ensures uniform application of federal laws.
Lower Federal Courts:
o These courts handle most cases at regional and local levels.
While the judiciary is constitutionally independent, in practice it faces pressure and influence
from the executive branch. Judges are often appointed with presidential approval, and the courts
rarely challenge the government on politically sensitive issues. This limits the judiciary’s
effectiveness as a check on executive power.
