PS6 Reviewer

J. Montilla

Lesson 1 2. Types of Elections

A. By Level
Political communication • Local Elections: For mayors, city councils, etc.
• It is the process by which information, messages, and • State/Provincial Elections: Governors, state legislators.
ideas related to politics are created, shared, and • National Elections: Presidents, parliaments, congresses.
interpreted among individuals, groups, institutions, and B. By Type
the public. • Presidential: Voters elect the head of state (e.g., the
• It involves how political actors (like politicians, U.S., France).
governments, political parties, and activists) • Parliamentary: Voters elect representatives who then
• Use various forms of communication—such as select the head of government (e.g., UK, India).
speeches, social media, advertisements, debates, and • Referendums: Citizens vote directly on specific issues or
news media—to influence public opinion, shape policy, laws.
and gain or maintain power. • By-elections: Held to fill a vacancy in office between
regular elections.
Key Elements of Political Communication:
Senders: Politicians, media outlets, governments, interest 3. Voter Eligibility and Rights
groups, and citizens. Eligibility typically includes:
Messages: Political ideas, policies, campaign slogans, and • Minimum age (often 18+)
ideological positions. • Citizenship
Channels: Traditional media (TV, newspapers, radio), • Residency in the voting area
digital platforms (social media, websites), and • Registration (in most democracies)
interpersonal communication. Voter Rights:
Audience: Voters, citizens, specific demographic groups, • To vote freely and without intimidation.
or political elites. • To run for office (if qualified).
Purpose: Persuasion, information, mobilization, or public • To access unbiased information.
engagement. • To challenge unfair elections.

Political participation 4. Voter Turnout and Participation

• It refers to the various ways in which citizens engage in Factors Affecting Turnout
political activities and express their opinions to influence • Socioeconomic status: Higher income and education
government decisions and policies. often mean higher participation.
• It is a fundamental aspect of democracy, enabling • Age: Older people tend to vote more.
individuals to contribute to the political process and hold • Political interest and trust.
leaders accountable. • Ease of voting: Registration systems, voting days/hours,
mail-in ballots.
Forms of Political Participation: Increasing Participation
1. Conventional Participation • Voter education campaigns
• Voting in elections • Simplifying registration
• Joining political parties • Making election day a holiday
• Attending political meetings or rallies • Online voting in some countries
• Campaigning for a candidate or cause
2. Unconventional Participation 5. Election Process
• Protests and demonstrations • Candidate Nomination: Individuals or parties select their
• Civil disobedience candidates.
• Petitions and boycotts • Campaigning: Public rallies, debates, advertisements.
3. Digital Participation (increasingly important today) • Voter Registration: Eligible voters sign up to participate.
• Online activism • Voting: Takes place at polling stations, by mail, or
• Social media campaigns electronically.
• Signing e-petitions • Vote Counting: Usually done transparently and with
• Engaging in political discussions online oversight.
Importance of Political Participation: • Results Announcement: Winners are declared and
• Strengthens democracy certified.
• Ensures government accountability
• Promotes representation of diverse interests 6. Role of Technology in Elections
• Encourages informed citizenship Advantages
• Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs): Faster counting,
ELECTIONS AND VOTERS fewer errors.
• Online Voter Registration.
1. Election and Voters • Data Analytics in Campaigns.
• Election: A formal process by which citizens choose • Social Media for voter outreach.
individuals to hold public office. Concerns
• Voters: Citizens who are eligible and registered to vote • Cybersecurity risks.
in elections. They participate in shaping their government • Misinformation spread online.
and policies. • Privacy and data misuse.
 PS6 Reviewer
J. Montilla

7. Issues in Elections Mixed-Member Proportional (MMP):

Election Fraud - Used in: Germany, New Zealand.
• Ballot stuffing - Voters cast two votes: one for a candidate and one for a
• Tampering with machines party.
• False voter identities - Ensures both local representation and proportionality.
Voter Suppression Parallel Systems:
• Limiting polling places - Used in: Japan, Russia.
• Strict ID laws - Two separate systems operate side by side but don’t
• Voter roll purges adjust to achieve proportionality.
Misinformation and Fake News 3. Choosing an Electoral System:
• Spread on social media Key Considerations:
• Targeted disinformation campaigns Representation: Does the system reflect the population's
Lack of Trust diversity?
• Allegations of rigging Stability: Does it lead to strong, stable governments?
• Biased electoral commissions Simplicity: Can voters understand it easily?
• Foreign interference Accountability: Can voters identify and evaluate their
representatives?
ELECTORAL SYSTEMS Inclusiveness: Does it allow smaller parties or minority
An electoral system is a set of rules that determines groups to have a voice?
how elections are conducted and how votes are 5. Recent Trends and Reforms
conducted and how votes are counted to allocate seats in ❑ Growing calls for electoral reform in countries like the
a legislature or to elect a president. UK and Canada to improve representation.
❑ Increased use of technology in voting and counting.
Major Types of Electoral Systems ❑ Debates over gerrymandering and fair districting in
majoritarian systems.
A. Plurality/Majority Systems
1.First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) LAW IN DEMOCRACIES
❑ Used in: UK, USA, Canada, India (for Lok Sabha).
❑ Voters select one candidate; the one with the most Democracy - it is a system of government where power is
votes wins. vested in the people, either directly or through elected
❑ Pros: Simple, fast results. representatives. It is built on key principles like popular
❑ Cons: Can lead to unfair representation (a party can sovereignty, rule of law, equality, accountability, and
win with less than 50% of the vote). protection of rights.
2.Two-Round System (Runoff)
❑ Used in: France, some presidential elections. The Rule of Law means that everyone, including
❑ If no candidate gets a majority (50%+), a second round government officials, is subject to and accountable under
is held between the top two candidates. the law.
❑ Pros: Ensures majority support. Laws must be:
❑ Cons: More costly, voter fatigue. • Publicly known
3.Alternative Vote (Instant Runoff Voting) • Equally enforced
❑ Used in: Australia (House of Representatives). • Consistently applied
❑ Voters rank candidates; if no majority, lowest-ranked • Independently adjudicated
candidates are eliminated and votes redistributed. • Respectful of fundamental rights
❑ Pros: Reduces "wasted" votes.
❑ Cons: Can be complex to count. Functions of Law in a Democracy
A. Protects Rights and Freedoms
B. Proportional Representation (PR) • Ensures freedom of speech, freedom of religion, right to
1.Party List System vote, and equality before the law.
❑ Used in: South Africa, Israel, most of Europe. • Prevents abuse of power by the state.
❑ Voters choose a party; seats are allocated based on the B. Provides Stability and Order
proportion of votes each party receives. • Defines acceptable behavior and consequences.
❑ Pros: Fairer representation of all political groups. • Helps resolve disputes peacefully through the courts.
❑ Cons: Weak link between voters and individual C. Holds Government Accountable
representatives. • Laws regulate the conduct of public officials and limit
2. Single Transferable Vote (STV) government power.
❑ Used in: Ireland, Malta. • Constitutional courts or supreme courts can review laws
❑ Voters rank candidates; a quota system is used to elect for legality and fairness.
multiple representatives. D. Facilitates Fair Elections
❑ Pros: Highly proportional, strong voter choice. • Election laws ensure free, fair, and regular elections.
❑ Cons: Complex counting system. • They govern campaigning, voter eligibility, and election
C. Mixed Systems (Hybrid) disputes.
❑ Combine elements of both majoritarian and proportional E. Encourages Civic Participation
systems. • Legal frameworks support the creation of civil society
organizations, political parties, and free media.
 PS6 Reviewer
J. Montilla

Separation of Powers and Legal Institutions Law vs. Rule of Law

- authoritarian states often claim to follow the “rule of law”.
BRANCH FUNCTION LEGAL
- but in practice, it's rule by law—law used as a political
INSTITUTION
weapon.
EXECUTIVE Enforces laws President,Prime - contrast with democratic legal norms.
Minister,Cabinet Consequences for Citizens
- arbitrary detention.
LEGISLATIVE Make laws Parliament/Con - lack of legal recourse.
gress - restricted freedoms.
- culture of fear and silence.
JUDICIARY Interprets laws Courts, Judges Resistance and Legal Reform
- underground legal advocacy.
- role of international law and human rights groups.
Constitutional Law - is the supreme law.
- cases of legal professionals pushing back.
-​ structure of the government.
-​ powers and limits of each branch.
CONCLUSION:
-​ basic rights of citizens.
- law in authoritarian states is primarily a tool of control.
- lacks transparency, fairness, and justice.
Laws in Action
- understanding these systems is key to promoting human
❑ Civil Rights Laws: Protect against discrimination.
rights and accountability.
❑ Freedom of Information Laws: Let citizens access
public information.
FEDERALISM
❑ Anti-Corruption Laws: Prevent abuse of public office.
A system of government in which the same territory is
controlled by two levels of government.
Threats to the Rule of Law in Democracies - corruption,
political interference in courts, unjust laws targeting
National Gov’t - responsible for the federal governance,
minorities or critics, and weak enforcement of rights.
governing the issues that affect the entire territory.
Local Gov’t - local concerns.
Importance of Legal Education and Awareness
- both have a certain level of autonomy.
❑ Democracies require informed citizens.
❑ Knowing the law helps people exercise their rights,
Key Element of Federalism — Separation of Power
participate in governance, and challenge injustices.
Executive Branch - includes president, has Veto power.
Legislative Branch - Senate/Congress.
Lesson 2
Judicial Branch - Courts.

LAW IN AUTHORITARIAN STATES

THREE ADVANTAGES OF FEDERALISM IN THE
PHILIPPINES
Authoritarianism is a political system characterized by
1. DECENTRALIZATION - local gov’t can decide for
strong central power and limited political freedoms. In
themselves.
authoritarian regimes, leaders often maintain control
2. ECONOMIC EFFECT - (pros of federal gov’t) the
through repression, censorship, and the absence of
federal system allows local gov'ts to have more power
democratic processes, such as fair elections and an
over their resources.
independent judiciary.
3. LESS DEPENDENCE ON METRO MANILA - (eg.
when it comes to finding a job and establishing
Characteristics of Authoritarian Legal Systems
businesses).
- centralized power in the executive.
- weak judicial independence.
LIST OF PROS OF FEDERALISM
- laws as tools of control, not protection.
1. STATE CONTROL
- limited civil liberties and political rights.
- allowed to put into motion certain policies that affects
Role of Law in Authoritarian Regimes
them. (eg. death penalty)
- legitimizes the ruler’s authority.
2. FOCUS ON LARGER ISSUES
- suppresses dissent and opposition.
- with responsibilities being dispersed into their
- regulates media, assembly, and speech.
branches the one that holds higher position can focus
- often used to create a facade of legality.
more on larger issues.
Legal Institutions
3. DISPERSED POWER
Courts: often lack independence; judges may be
- one of the biggest advantages of federalism is the power
appointed for loyalty.
that one group can hold.
Police and military: enforce law with broad powers.
Legislature: rubber-stamp body with little real lawmaking
LIST OF CONS OF FEDERALISM
power.
1. WEALTH FACTOR
Examples of Authoritarian Legal Practices
- wealthy states get richer, and poorer state may end up in
China: use of national security laws to suppress dissent.
poverty.
Russia: legal persecution of political opponents.
2. CONFUSION WITH GOV’T RULE
North Korea: absolute control through decree and
- local and national
ideological law.
- causes confusion
 PS6 Reviewer
J. Montilla

3. POTENTIAL FOR CORRUPTION ❖ Historical legacies: Colonialism, authoritarianism, or

- corruption can also occur at the local level and national civil conflict.
level due to the power and authority. ❖ Economic development: Poverty and inequality can
hinder democratic attitudes.
Lesson 4 ❖ Education and media: These play a critical role in
political socialization.
POLITICS AND SOCIETY ❖ Civil society: The presence or absence of civic groups
that engage people in democratic processes.
POLITICS (Power, Authority, Legitimacy, State,
Government) TYPES OF POLITICAL CULTURE
❖ The process of making decisions that apply to ❖ Parochial: Limited awareness or interest in politics;
members of a group or society. common in rural or marginalized areas.
❖ Involves the distribution of power, resources, and ❖ Subject: Citizens are aware of politics but largely
responsibilities. passive or submissive.
❖ Participant: Citizens actively engage in political
SOCIETY processes—ideal for democracy.
❖ A group of individuals who live together in a structured New democracies often shift between these types over
community. time.
❖ Connected by shared institutions, culture, and norms.
❖ Society influences and is influenced by political CHALLENGES FOR POLITICAL CULTURE IN NEW
decisions. DEMOCRACIES
- corruption and lack of transparency.
POLITICS AND SOCIETY - weak rule of law.
- explores how political systems interact with social - ethnic or regional divisions.
structures, cultures, and institutions. - populism and democratic backsliding.
- aims to develop the learner’s capacity to engage in - media manipulation and misinformation.
reflective and active citizenship, informed by the insights
and skills of social and political sciences. AUTHORITARIAN STATES
- the changing local, national and global environment
presents many challenges and opportunities for young CHALLENGES FOR POLITICAL CULTURE IN NEW
people. It also requires of them a range of skills, DEMOCRACIES
knowledge, values and attitudes so that they can achieve ❖ Authoritarian States are a crucial topic when exploring
their goals in this environment. politics and society, especially in contrast to democratic
systems.
POLITICAL CULTURE IN NEW DEMOCRACIES ❖ An authoritarian state is a political system where
- refers to the attitudes, values, beliefs, and emotional power is concentrated in the hands of a single ruler, a
attachments that people in recently established small elite, or a party, with limited political pluralism,
democratic nations have towards politics, political restricted civil liberties, and little to no democratic
institutions, and processes. This political culture can accountability.
deeply influence the stability and quality of democracy.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS:
POLITICAL CULTURE ❖ Centralized power: Authority rests in a leader or small
- is the collection of political attitudes, values, and beliefs group not constitutionally responsible to the public.
that shape political behavior. ❖ Limited political freedoms: Suppression of opposition
- plays a crucial role in democratic consolidation. parties, limited elections (or none), restricted media.
❖ Weak rule of law: Laws are manipulated to serve the
CHARACTERISTICS OF POLITICAL CULTURE IN NEW regime’s interests.
DEMOCRACIES ❖ Propaganda and censorship: Control over
❖ Fluidity and Uncertainty: Institutions and norms are information to maintain regime stability.
still developing; people may not yet trust or fully ❖ Lack of civil liberties: Freedom of speech, assembly,
understand them. and press are curtailed.
❖ Mixture of Old and New Values: Legacy of
authoritarianism often persists alongside new democratic TYPES OF AUTHORITARIAN REGIMES
ideals. ❖ Military Regimes: Led by the armed forces (e.g.,
❖ Weak Political Socialization: Citizens may lack Myanmar).
education and experience in democratic participation. ❖ One-Party States: A single political party dominates
❖ Personalism and Patronage: Trust is often placed in (e.g., China).
individuals rather than institutions. ❖ Personalist Regimes: Power centered around an
❖ Low Political Efficacy: People may feel their individual leader (e.g., North Korea).
participation doesn’t matter, especially if corruption or ❖ Theocratic Regimes: Political power is rooted in
instability is high. religious authority (e.g., Iran).

FACTORS INFLUENCING POLITICAL CULTURE IN

NEW DEMOCRACIES
 PS6 Reviewer
J. Montilla

TOOLS OF CONTROL
❖ Repression: Use of police, military, and surveillance to
silence dissent.
❖ Patronage and clientelism: Rewarding loyalty with
jobs, contracts, or favors.
❖ Control over institutions: Judiciary, legislature, media
used to reinforce power.
❖ Cult of personality: Leaders are glorified to legitimize
rule (e.g., Stalin, Kim Jong Un).

WHY AUTHORITARIANISM PERSIST

❖ Economic control: Regimes may deliver economic
growth to buy loyalty.
❖ Fear and coercion: Citizens fear retaliation for
resistance.
❖ Weak opposition: Fragmented or persecuted
opposition groups.
❖ Manipulated elections: Elections may exist but are
unfair or meaningless.

CONSEQUENCES FOR SOCIETY

- human rights abuses.
- limited civic engagement.
- suppression of innovation and dissent.
- social inequality and exclusion.
- brain drain as intellectuals and dissidents flee.

CASE STUDIES
❖ China: One-party authoritarianism with market
economy.
❖ Russia: Electoral authoritarianism under a strongman
leader.
❖ North Korea: Totalitarian control with dynastic
leadership.
❖ Saudi Arabia: Absolute monarchy with religious rule.

TRANSITION AWAY FROM AUTHORITARIANISM

- popular uprisings and protests (e.g., Arab Spring).
- international pressure and sanctions.
- economic crises.
- elite defections.
- however, democratization is difficult and not guaranteed.

CONCLUSION

Authoritarian states prioritize control over freedom,

using various tools to maintain dominance. Understanding
their nature is crucial for analyzing global politics and
efforts toward democracy and human rights.