Chapt er 4

Dualistic Theism,
a Religion Orien ted
Edµcation Philosophy

In general, we may think of most supernatural Christian educational

philosophies as being either monistic idealisms or dualistic theisms.
(Monism and dualism are explained in Chapter 1, page 16.) The posi-
tion of dualistic theism is represented by Roman Catholicism and many
Protestaf\t sects, although others are monistical idealists in their orien-
tation. (Idealism is treated in Chapter 2.) Traditional Jewish views on
education also have much in common with this position. However,
since Jewish views center on teachings of the Old Testament along
with other sources and Christian views center on those of the New
Testament, Jewish and Christian theologies are somewhat different.
Space doe·s not permit our attempting to present the various theistic
educational philosophies. Hence, we present the Roman Catholic po-
sition as representative of the various positions. We are mindful that
there are significant theological differences among the various dualistic
theistic positions. So, the following few paragraphs will prese_n t the
basic difference between the Roman Catholic position and that of Prot-
estant dualistic-theistic educational philosophies; thus enabling tl~e
reader to apply 1nuch of the content of this chapter to an understand-
ing of either viewpoint.
Because of their shared . source, there is much in common between
the educational philosophies of various .ftJndamentalist Protestant sects
and Roman Catholicism. The greatest difference between Protestant
and Roman Catholic religious systems is that, whereas Protestants tend
to look directly to the Bible as their major source of authority and in-
 64 DUALISTIC THEJSA,
. 'Y{

· · R Catholics are more prone to look to their Church at\d

~pira~ontl' ho~anc·hy for authority which these leaders have received
its pries y 1erar . , .
from their contemplation and Bible reading. . .
Protestants, beginning in the sixteenth century: e~gaged in a ~rotest
against what they considered to be abuses w1thm the established
·h h d they sought either reform or replaceme nt of those abuses.
c urc , an
,,·Although the various Protestant sects repr~sent a·-grea t -d'·rvergence. of
beliefs, there are some principles upon which there has been consid~
erable Protestant consensus through the years. The greate_st of these
principles is that, in all areas of life, G~d m~st _be recognized . as the
ultimate sovereign power.- Two other ma1or pn~c1ples are the pr~e~thood
of all believers and the authority of the Bible. The pnesthood of all believers
means that each person has direct access to God and may also serve as
his neighbor's priest. The authority of the Bible establishe s the .need
for each person to read and understan d the Bible for himself as a guide
to life.
Protestants, first of all, are committed to education by virtue of
their being protestants. In order to read the Bible, to know the
nature of their calling in the world, to understan d better their
relationship with men and God, the protestant must search dili-
gently,. must develop his own capacities as far as possible, must
seek to replace ignorance with knowledge, and immaturit y with
maturity. 1
The educational philosophy espoused by Roman Catholic leaders is
called neo-Thomism after its developer, Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225-
1274). In the thirteenth century, St. Thomas deyeloped his theistic phi-
-losophy by drawing mainly from the Christian tradition and earlier Ar-
istotelian thought. His philosophy essentially was a synthesis of early
Christian beliefs with Aristotelian logic and metaphysics. St. Thomas,
by applying Aristotelian teachings to the tenets of the then traditional
Christianity, switched the mainstream of Christianity from an early
idealistic emphasis to its current dualistic position. In general, this phi-
losophy, even today, is the principal basis for Catholic theistic educa-
tional philosophy. Present day neo-Thomistic theism is Thomism up-
dated to the twentieth century by keeping it consistent with the ideas
of St. Tho~as and simul~a~eously striving to make it compatible with
modern science and by giving greater emphasis to the social dimension
of human living. .
Theism embra_ces th_e fundamental beliefs that God, for a purpose, J
. .,-·_. ,cr~,~~ed humankin d with a human nature consisting of a material hu-
. man body and ~n immaterial immortal soul, in His own image, and
?e~tow~d up~n. it the power of divine grace; thus the expression· dual-
istic t~ezsm. Divine grace means that humankin d has been destined for
 65
DUALISTIC THEISM ...
a supe rnatu ral end, unio n with God, anci li:as been endo wed with a
s, to
gift, gra~e, that will enab le each perso n, throu gh faith and work
.
· attain it. are
· Because Adam and Eve sinne d in the Gard en of Eden , peop le
born into the worl d depr ived of a supe rnatu re. Hence, they are
to re-
deprived of ~.u p~rn atura l life. But,__ the desti ny of hum anki nd is•
the
turn to the estat e of their lost inhe iitan ce . .Thro ugh ac~eptance of
e,
teachings of the Chtir ch, every perso n can be resto red to a divin
peo-
supe rnatu ral life. ·The -Chu rch. has the respo nsibi lity of gujd ing
their
ple back to their lost supe rnatu ral estat es. Peop le regai ned
t.
supe rnatu ral poten tialit y throu gh the deat h and resur recti on of Chris
n
So, .the desti ned fulfillment of .nee- Thom ism is imm ortal Being in unio
. with God.
a-
The theistic position, that God both trans cend s natu re and is imm
.
nent in it, shou ld be distin guish ed from both deism and pant heism
Deism is the position that God trans cend s natu re, but is in no way
nat-
imm anen t in natur e. God created the natur al univ erse, inclu ding
s
ural laws , then with drew from the doin gs of natu re. Pantheism hold
the
that God is imm anen t in, but not trans cend ant to, natu re; He and
univ erse are one and the same.
Duri ng the l 960s, spea rhead ed by the Second Vatican Council, Pope
an
John XXIII set a course of church reform aime d to push the Rom
l
Catholic Chur ch more into the mids tream of twen tieth -cen tury socia
the
living. While chur ch institutions retai ned their prim ary posit ion,
r-
people of the Chur ch and the larger society were given great er impo
an
tance than in the past. For example, the liturgy was chan ged in
tly
attem pt to conv ert wors hipp ing Catholics from spec tator s of pries
ers.
activities to active participants, and priests bega n to face wors hipp
sm
and recite ·the mass in the language of the peop le. Thus , Catholici
its
has attem pted to meet mod ern hom an n:e·e ds, with out modifying
H-\~ i~e,,;M'
basic creed or struc ture . _ 0

• • .• - r
rs~
" ~ J'\,; o+t4
Duah shc Theism: The Nature o~ Reality o ;1-\~
all
For dualistic theists, first of all, an all powerful, all knowing, and
ul-
benevolent supe rnatu ral God exists. This divine being, God, is the
timate auth or and ruler of everything. Absolute reality is the existence
st is
and presence of God, Christ, and their crPated Church. Jesus Chri
and
God and man in one person, and God is both one and three: ·G od
ral
. Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Whereas change characterizes the natu
can
order of things, God i~ cha~ge.Iess. Furth~,t~ ,Q;re, what . peop le
y,
~now a~out man and his destiny from theology, sci~nce,, . philo soph
sin-
aesthetic experience, and common sense, .are inter prete d to form a
gle harm onio us mosaic. . . .· · ·· · .
 . . ./ DUA LIST IC THEISM.
66 ~-'
World
.D~-alistic thei sm adhe res to a realistic ontology, \ t hold s tha~ the
mos t part, ,
·exists inde pend entl y of hum an -kno wled ge of it~ and for _the
y real, and 1
it can be kno wn as it is. Both min d and matt er are genu inel
-matter ,
both are the creations of God. So, this phil osop hy is a mind
synthe-
dualism, but one that emp hasi zes the orde rly coor dina tion and
... _ . __. . -
-~-~~~---• \~.,sis of p~ysical ~nd menta! aspects ~f reality. ing chs-· . .
Dualistic theists recognize the existence of a num ber of seem
and mea-
continuities or antin omi es in their thin king such as eter nity
morals, Di-
sure d time, chur ch and state, spiritual religion and social
onsibility,
vine Grace ·and natu re, faith and works, free dom and resp
rent con-
and cont e_mplatiori and action. But, · they over com e the appa
r synthe- ~
trasts and oppo sitio ns _by forming syntheses of them . Thei
ses, how ever , consist of combinations of opposites, not of emer
gent con- ~
· cepts·.
roys
Since grace _tran sfor ms and elevates natu re but neit her dest
ing
. nor nega tes it, it is not surprising to find a similar tens ion runn
of a
thro ugh out the natu ral order and requiring the reso lutio n
ed
num ber of appa rent antinomies. Time and eter nity , the sacr
com-
and the prof ane, the person and the com mun ity, the civic
dom
mon wea lth and the Church, action and cont emp latio n, free
and resp onsi bilit y-. in each case it is necessary to affirm both ele-
in a(1·
ment~ . and to µnify them in life itself, so that they coexist
de-; j
harm_ony !hat overcomes contrasts and oppo sitio ~s wi~hout
stray ing eith er of two com plementary values or diss olvi ng them ; 1
2
both into ·a lifeless mix.
creation,
So, while ther e are essential differences betw een God and
particulars,
Supern<;1ture and natu re, spirit and matter, univ ersa ls and
accordant
and subs tanc e and accidents,. these dualities are weld ed into· ·
wholes. ·
a thing
/ For Aristotle, from who m St. Thomas got man y of his ideas,
ifY) and
~ nto _bei~g thro u~~ the u~ion of its form, whic h i ~
ta char-
matter, which is potentiality. In its prod uctio n, a thin g assu inet
basic what-
acter of its_own , an essence so the essence of anyt hing was its
ness.
✓ . St. Tho ~~s, in synt hesi zing of Aristotle and Chri
stianity, was more
tnte reste d 1n the fact that things exist than in wha t they are,
their what-
to the
ness. So, for h~m, the problem of essence was mad e seco ndar y
prob lem of existence; the root ingr edie nt of all thin gs was
existence.
mas it was
Hen ce, __whe reas actuality for Aristotle was form, for St. Tho
-is the
existence·; --God and Being are one and the same. But, God also
When es-
ultim ate uni~ n of wha tnes s (essel)c~ and isne ss (existenc~).
world con- '-
senc e and existence come together, there resu lts Being. The
DUALISTIC THEISM 67
sist~ of both mind and things; their unifying .force is Being or God. So,
St. fhom~ s demote d essence to the principle of potentiality, and pro-
moted existen ce to the principle of actuality.

Dualis tic Theism : The Nature of Human Motiva tion

D~alistic;.thei~:(lJ, .. like ,classical realism, a~.sµm~s tlla t p~ple _are rational
a~ s, but 1~ additio n it ascribes to them immortaf°souls. Their pui-
po~e on earth 1s basically theological in nature. A human being is an
animal endow ed with reason, a sinful wound ed creatur e called to di-
vine. life a_nd the freedom of grace, and a free individ ual in intimate
relation ~1th. God; a human being holds himsel f or herself i~ check by
the e~ercise of person al intelligence and wilL A persQn. is. a fusion of
~ al,_ ru.,e o~al, and spiritua l reality. So, people are.b~ -ac~~ tiona_l ·:\
1
animal ~ 1n which soul, mind, and body are united as one. -
The bad-active assump tion harmon izes with-v arious dualistic theisms.
There are, howev er, two quite distinctly differe nt positions in regard
~o the nature of the badnes s. The most extreme positio n-is total deprav-
ity as develo ped by John Calvin and the -P uritans . For example, Jona-
than Edwar ds, an eightee nth century Connec ticut Calvinist minister,
argued that people are wholly under the power of sin •and utterly un-
able, withou t the interpo sition of sovereign grace,· to do anythin g that
is good. A less extrem e position is represe nted by Roman Catholicism
and many Protest ant groups . They think ·that, with the fall of Adam,
people lost their Godlike supern ature, but they still have a human na-
ture to begin life with, and this human nature is blessed with a good- i
ness of intent that vies -with original sin for the control of the moral life P
of each person .
A child, . from the momen t of conception, is a person who has a
physica l body and lives in a material world, but who also has a spiri-
tual soul. For this reason -a person is fundam entally diff_erent from the
materia l univer se and anythin g in it. Whe.reas one's body is natural,
one's soul is spiritua l and immortal. But, one's body is a real material,
not merely a though t in the mind of God, as is the position of idealism.
Every individ ual has not only an animal dimens ion, but also is a self-
contain ed center of intelligence and freedom that is destine d never to
be destroy ed . Each individ ual represe nts a combination of eternity and
time, religion and morals, grace and natu~e, fait~ ~nd works, freedom
and respon sibility , contem plation and action, sp1nt and fle~h, lu~.man
essenc e .and person al history;. Human p~ocesses are not _mech~n1cally
determ ined and are not potentially explainable by -laws ?f physics and
chemis try; they are not merely some sort of .cortcentrahon of force or
-energy .within a larger-physical .field. . .. .
 I \

68 DUALISTIC THEISM
People, as rational creatures and body-soul units, have the powers
of understanding and free will. Their final end is happiness to be
achieved fully only by union with God. It is the dual capacity of v
tho~ght and freedom that makes people human. All persons are capa.""
ble of free choice, but the actual fullness of their freedom is a mark of
maturity that is developed only by time and effort. So, in addjtion to
-having, ~ ,kind of- intelligence .that ,does not exist below them in the ani~
mal kingdom, people have free wills. Having spiritual souls fundamen-
tally different from any ·aspects of the physical universe gives them a
value beyond anything else in the world.
As free agen'ts, ·persons are personally responsible for their own sal-
vation. Through Christ, they are able once more to find grace and with
it the means of achieving their supernatural destiny (See page 72 for a
definition of grace). Newborn babies, having the inborn weaknesses of
human ·nature, have been temporarily deprived of supernatural life .
. However, ·they are not depraved. So through faith and works they may
achieve a supernatural life for themselves. Yet, from birth, their fallen
p ad-active substantive minds continue a~ti~e l.!ntil they are curbed.
,,,.

Dua~is_!ic Theism: The .Nature and Source of Truth and Knowledge

~ , for theistic supernaturalists, is the apprehension of a reality that
is p~ nt, universal, and absolu~ . Since theology is made central
to philosophy, !r!!.fu is. consiaered to be c~nformity o(_!_houghts to
-· things as they eternally ar~, their essence or reality. Reality is what
· exists independent of the mind, and knowledge is a value in itself and
· an end in itself. T ruths are eternal only insofar as they exist in the
mind of God. -
There are many truths in human intellects, but in the divine intellect
there is one primary overarching truth, .which each existent thing re-
flects in its own way. All truth is anchored_in God in such a way that
one true proposition cannot contradict another. Hence, pll truth forms
a unity. However, whereas God's existence can be sho~ by reason,
we cannot, in any way, completely grasp God's essence. "Truth resides
in the human intellect, but also in things insofar as they are designed
and sustained by the divine intellect_ . Truth has eternity in God's
3
intellect, not in man's. "

. Sources of Truth , ,. ,,
V The three recognized sources of truth are revelation, self-eviden~ u- ·\:
·~ !1,. ~~d sl:ience.~. ~-~yelation is the highest source of truth known to
man. It 1s 6asecton faith and the conviction that revealed truth comes
from God -and that God has entered human history and is actively en-
 DUALISTIC THEISM 69
an
gaged in shap ing events. Since God reveals hims tlf through hum
or
intellects, if there is conflict betw een revealed and eitht : intuitive
. · ,. . .
scientific truth , revelation carries the day.
Self-evident truth is immediately appr ehen ded by intellects; it is in-
it-
tuited by mind s. Since mind s reach out and._grasp truth in and by
i~
self, self-evident truth s need not be tested in action. Any first princ
gh
pies not gain e~ by · ·insp ired revelation ·mus t ... bf ..gained ..throu
intuition. Such principles are truth grasp ed for the sake of truth.
Scientific truth is synthetic, it requires che~kable evidence to supp ort
h,
it, and it is not a sour ce of ultimate truth . The eternal verities (trut
and
good ness , and beau ty) are available throu gb revelation, intuition,
vali-
logical reaso ning , but they are not necessarily eithe r available or
date d thr9 ugh scientific investigation~ ·
. --
Means of Ach ievin g· Truth · ·· · ·
Ther_e are . wo disti nct orde rs of gaining sue erna tural k~owledge {taitl)y /
an reas onw and two type s of natu ral know ledg e (bodily sen.so~
aled ·~
perie~,a....,'!S nd intelligence). "Faith is believing all that God has reve
from
beca use he has reve afed it." Revealed truth is a basic disclosure
4

God in His natu re and His place for hum an beings.

Thro ugh reaso n, a hum an mind can work its way to absolute truth
both
or a prior i l<nowledge. So, Being or God is accessible -through
doc-
faith and reaso n. Reas on can show that the mysteries of Christian
tions
trine are plausible; that is, they are free from inter nal contradic
met-
and harm onio us with established knowledge. It also can sugg est
, do
apho rs and analo gies that, while not explaining ·revealed mysteri~s
lute
cast som e light upon them . Christian thou ght finds perfect, abso
.
unity in the Sour ce of the universe, but not in the univ erse itself
faith,
Thro ugh dedu ctive reaso ning from the know ledg e supp lied by
peop le can achie ve indirect or a posteriori kno~ ledg e. : _. .
Ther e is a difference ·in natu re betw een the sens es and the intellect,
C.
gi- ) w~
but both are a mea ns of achieving truth . Whe reas _senses are ·biolo
cally centered-, -th-e intellect, in essence, is spiritual. U:hro13gh our sens
es ; ~.J ...
cf
we know parti cu~ s; tJlrou gh our intellects we grasp universa1stan
1
~,

his ( PM
com pare parti cu1ar s by relating them to one anot her. "1-hrough
, sin- "1-L- ....
sens es, whic h are inde ed bodily pow ers, a ·man know s individual
But (?,) ·
gula r objects of a mater~al 1:at ~re- the color and_ scent of_ this rose.
ps ~~~
thro ugh his mind , which 1s itself hum an but 1mmatenal, he gras
.. . .
I
un1versa I' aspe c t s. "5
•

is~' ~ v
Intelligence com es from · God and is a pow er of the soul. Since it
and · N
wha t mak es us .hum an, we shou ld exercise it. It has both passive
non-
active roles. Intellect, then , is a nonm ateri al pow er that gra$ps·the
or-
·material esse nce of things. Since know ledg e trans cend s the sens ory
 70 . DUALISTIC THEISM l
. der, it "is an unfortun ate mistake to define human thought as an orga
of respons e to the stimuli and situations of the environm ent. "
6
n
Maritain recognizes two basically different states of intelligence, nat-
ural intelligence and intellectual virtues. Natural intellige!!ce operates at
the 1.evel o~ universal knowledge; this level is neither scientific nor spec-
ulative. Natural intelligence consists of the right opinions about the
natute and·ineanin g of-·knowledge. Intellectual virtues consist of intel-
ligence that is scientifically formed and equippe d:~the arts, the sci-
ences, and "wisdom ."

Tests for Truth

The tes~ for rey~aled truth is ~ivine inspiration . The Church through
the .Pope or the Bible tells people what is true, and the people have
little or no desire to check it. "The essence of Catholicism is that the
Pope, · when .speaking ex cathedra, states a theologi7cal position because
it is true; it is not true because he proclaims it. " Hence, the test for
such absolute , universal truth is its metaphysical roots.
· The test for ~ ientific_traj!"t is a statemen t's corre~po nden~e to preex-
isting natural laws. Such truth consists of correspo ndence between in-
tellects and objects, and it is possible for people, as scientists, to know
· - things -as they really are.

Dualisti c Theism: The Nature and Source ·o f Human Values

The value system ·of theists is based on the conviction that a universal
moral "natura l" law has been established by God and that we can un-
derstand much of it through reason. ·For theists, a value system based
on naturalistic, humanistic ethics is inadequate. Certain absolute values
have beeri revealed to people by God. Thus, 'their essence is in no w-ay
conting ent on the variations of culture, custom, or local practice. These
values are interpre ted by the priesthood; God's earthly intermediates.
v So, the erl!!!ary aim of education, in its broades t sense, is formation o~
a moral life and its accompanyin virtues and values in such way as to
deve op a a1t ful relations 1p with God.
"If the existence of the One who is the Absolute Being and the Ab-
solute Good is not recognized and believed in, no certitude in the un-
conditional and obligatory value of moral law and ethical standards can
be validly established and efficaciously adhered to. " It is, therefore,
8

an Q,_blig·a tion for ~ ools and colleges, not only to enlighten students
on moral matters, but also to allow them to receive full religious edu-
cation. Christia ns are summon ed both to life in time,. -on the earth
made by God, and life in the age-to-come, union with God. "Althoug h
9
the mind cannot reach God immediately, the heart can . . . . "
DUALISTIC THEISM 71
The Doctrine of Original Sin
Dualistic theists make much of the original sin doctrine. For them,. hu-
mankind has had a common beginning .and a common nature, hence
a universal history. The first generation of people broke their loving
relationship with God, and thereby lost their supernature. However, the
Roman Catholic Church and many protestant churches differ from the
Calvinists, who . thought.--that people ..ar.e born totally depraved...of any- ,..,
thing good. Roman Catholics and others do not accept the concept of
human depravity; they think that, even after the fall, people still re-
tained a unique human nature that contained .much goodness, but
through the sins of Adam and Eve they had lost their benign superna-
ture .
. Since humanity, through primordial sin, lost the original bond of
divi~e friendship and the gi.fts th_a t ·went with it, all people begin life
in a sinful condition. This original sin is a moral ·disorder because it
alienates people from God and embodies a willful preference to pursue
their own purposes. So, eatthly people have ·a divided nature involving
_poth sin and goodness. The Apostle Paul wrote in Romans-7:15, ". ' ..
I really want to do what is right, but I can't. I do what I don't want
t o-what-I hate.':'"' . ·
· Christian theists believe that Christ, through His·death ·and resurrec-
tion, overcame original sin, so people, with Christ's help, cah vanquish
their personal sin. Christ died for all people so that, through their faith
in Him, · they all might share in .His resurrection. All persons are born
without the gift of redemption, but they have·the ·means·of reestablish-
ing friendship with God through an encounter with Him. ·
Through baptism, people are inserted into the Christian community,
and through the other sacraments, they maintain and strengthen their
Christian · commitment . In the sacrament of penance or .confession,
they examine their consciences, confess their sins, and perform the as-
signed penances.

Hierarchy of ·V alues
10
Maritain describes a hierarchy of Christian values as. follows:
1. Knowledge and love of what is above time. Thisis superior to,
and embraces and quickens, knowledge and love of what is within
time.
2. Charity, within which one loves God and embraces all people in
this love, is the highest form of ,love.
3. In the intellectual realm, wisdom, which knows things eternal
· and creates order and unity in the mind, is superior. to science or
knowledge gained through .particular cases. · · · . · · · · . ·· ·
.4. · The s_Eeculative i n telle_ct, which knows -for the sake of knowing,
comes before the·practical intellect, which knows for the sake of action.
 DUALISTIC. THEISM
72
ly
i'he practical intellect involves appr ecia tion of secular or earth
s. i
in build-
valu es-- ~rts , sciences, technology, and ente rpris es involved
>I
I

life.
ing civilization as both the supp ort and expr essio n of hum an '
,1
,,
. II'
'
1

.
Levels of Con te~p latio n
imp orta ~,c~ of cont e~p latio n i~ ~hri stian lives.
Theists .e mph asiz e JJ:1~ _
matters as
Ce>ntemplation consists of men tal conc entr ation on ·sp1ntual
reality and
a form of privat_e devo tion . It is the intellectual gras ping of
emplation f
enjo yme nt of know ledg e for its own sake. · For theists, _cont
activity of f
-has three interr~lated levels of mean~ng: (1) a .natura~ inwa rd
n in the
min d that creates a disposition of crec1tivity for cont emp latio
manifested
othe r two senses; (2) prayerful stud y of divi ne matt ers as
umes the
by Christ and proclaimed ·in the scriptures, such stud y pres
ial, loving
pres ence of grace; (3) pray er in the pure st sen se-a reverent
the mind
awa rene ss of .the pres ence of God; an upw ard- mou ntin g of
and loving ·
and. hear t .to God, "Th e hear t ·of Christian life 11is know ing 1
in Chri st, the Divi ne Wor d." This leve l of conte m-
.God, _particularly
rior to the f
-plation requii:es the divine assistance called grace; it is supe }
othe r two.levels.
ople by God
~: .. Grace consists of unm erite d divin e assistance given to.pe
ral pow-
for their rege nera tion or sanctification . God enha nces the natu
actually or
ers of intelligence and will with grace. Each pers on is eith er
, as one
-potentially a synt hesi s of natu re and grace. Christian educ ation
ing people
of its mos t imp orta nt aims, fosters this synt hesi s by help
become. mor e awa re of its existence_~nd importance.

Dualistic Theism: The Purpose of Education

A •

wha t they
DuaUstic theists dedu ce the ultimate aim of educ ation from
s. This aim
cons ider to be the true natu re and dest iny. of- hum an-being
perfect
is ·to ·''coo_perate with Divine grace in · forming the true and
which was
_Christial)." .It entails peop le reclaiming the life of grace,
12

lop super·
lost thro ugh tl}e fall of Adam. Hence, educ atio n shou ld deve
ce with
natu ral pers ons who judg e, thin k and act rightly, in accordan
eve grace
reas on illuminated by supe rnat ural guid ance , so as to achi
free from mortal sin.
and sal- ,
The purp ose of educ ation , then , is the p ropa gatio n of faith
al, moral,
vatio n of sol!ls. It enco mpa sses physical, spiritual, intellectu
ating, reg·
indi vidu al, and social aspects of life with the purp ose of elev
principles.
ulating, and perfecting it in keeping with eternal, Divine
the highe st
So; · peop le· -sho uld · be educ ated ··in · such way as to educ e
An edu·
possiQle fulfillment of their po1':ers of intelligence and will.
and ·travels
cate d pers on is a matu re thinker, -who wor ks with othe rs
towa rd God.
 DUALISTIC ·THEISM I
. "A true [theistic] education aims at the formation of the human pe'"-
73

son with respect to .his ultimate goa.l, and simultaneous ly with 'respect
to the good of those societies of which, as a man, he is a member, and
13
in whose responsibiliti es, as an adult, he will share. ~' So, education
should help every person achieve eternal salvation by striving for the
glory of God ·both on earth and hereaH,e r in heaven, and make his way
on earth by loving both God and. hi~ • neighbor. The· dual nature. of
human beings as immortal .souls and members of society, re quires both
supernatural .a nd natural education. -To-summari ze, the twofold pur-
pose of theis!ic educatiol), is 1(1) ~he development .of~ ~e int~rior life ~
whose most important element.will be a prayerful farruhanty with ·God,
and (2) the development of the capacity for contributing to ·the welfar~
of others, particularly through one's work:"
14
;/ -~ J'f I

Dualistic Theism: The Nature of the Learning Process ; .

Dualistic- theists, in actual practice, often employ various psychologies
of learning. But the various theories are frequently made· subservient
to mental discipline and faculty psychology. Learning is primarily' intellec-
tual and moral; it involves people's minds and hearts. Theists,· like
classical realists., .assume that learning is accomplished by active minds.
But, they differ from classical realists in that, whereas classical realists
assume the minds of babies to be morally neutral, theists· assume ·them
to be inclined to-w ard moral badness; they, however, are not totally
depraved of any goodness. ·
The central idea in mental discipline is that the mind, envisioned as
a substance, or its various faculties lie dormant until they are exercised
through the active efforts of the person whose mind is involved. Fac-
ulties such as memory, will, re~ n, and persevera~ce are the ".qtus-
cles f the · 9." Like physiological muscles, they are ·streng1:hened : _.-
through · xercise and subsequently operate automatically. ··Hence, ·
learning is a matter of strength~ning, or disciplining, the faculties of
the mindL which combine to produce intelligent behavior. Just as ex-
ercising an arm develops the biceps, exercising the mental ·faculties
makes them more powerful. . · ·
· According to /f11ental discipline learning th~ rudiments of- the var-
ious faculties are in each individual from birth, and learning is a process
of developing these germinal, u~derdeveloped faculties ~nto· powers or
capabilities. When teachers are questioned concerning the value of stu-
dents' studying their particular subject and they reply, '2t Sharpens the
~ d and improves the memo; y," or "it cultivates theJeasor1i,~g ,taC:
ulty," they are thinking of learning as the product of_!llental discipline .... "· '·-·
that ·is transferred to other learning .situations by a ·generally exercised
mental capacity. Consequently, they think that they are building in
 11
74 DUALISTIC THEISM 1

their students great reservoirs of intellectual power that will automati,

- cally go into operation in any subsequent mental activity.
_The various ·faculties Lan be developed through training and can he, ~
come capable of effective perfor~ance in all areas in which they are
involved. The training of the faculty ·of memory through memorizing
. e:v.en. ..nonsense syllables ._pr~~µmably , t~proves one's memory for
names, for meaningful material, and for anything that calls for mem-
1

ory. Likewise, it is assumed-· that after training in ~ asoning through a

study of _geometry, a person can reason effectively in realms of philos-
ophy, mathematics, social issues, and housekeeping.
Learning, then, for dualistic theists is a process of correctiv~ ci-
-plinin o · ls . · - and bodies. From Aristotle comes the dic~m
t at, "All teaching and all _learning ·are constituted out of pre-existing
knowledge ~ Hence, t!_l~ are n2.._}nnate idea§. While self-evident
truths· or principles are not innate, they can be Rnown im~ediately and
with certainty through intuition, as soon as the terms in which they
- are formulated are known. For example, a person or a thing cannot, at
the··same time, both be and not qe.
Through employment of the uniquely ·human abstracting function,
:. knowledge or t earning_ h?s a sensory beginning, but an intellectual
_end.J ntelligenc_e is the power that does the abstracting. Existent reality
_ provides:the intelligible, and learners provide the intelligence. Human
thinking begins, not with difficulties, but with already gained insights. ·
It ends with new insights whose truth has been established either by
. rational deduction or experimental verification. The intellect forms con- 1

cepts -by abstracting universals from particulars. People then use these
concepts in future judgments. The judging function combines the par-
ticular and the universal, sense and intellect, and concrete and ab-
stract. Through this process, "A whole person knows a whole thing." 16 '
So, "this is a horse" means this particular object that ( can see and
touch has the nature of horseness, a universal found wherever there
are horses.
Concepts, then, are abstracted universals; we can utilize them in
b~th judglnents and deductions. A universal is any trait or relationship t
that is able to characterize more than ·one particular instance. To ab-
stract is to apprehend mentally the nature and value of something
. apart from all of its material and fndividual conditions. d
Theists emphasize that new gains and discoveries· should be used, t,
not to shatter and reject what has been acquired from the past, but to
augment the perennial truths that are carried over from the past. They a
strive ·to· mainhiiri 'a cifreful course· between denying the possibility_ of Y
' objective knowledge and asserting that such knowledge comes easily,
without stringent intellectual discipline.
I DUALISTIC THEISM .
Dualistic Theism; The Nature of the Teach
ing Process

h, is to _move children and

The primary aim of theistic teachers, as suc
th fro m the ir dep riv ed nat ura l sta te tow ard a divine, sup ern atu ral
you
ng wit h other aspects of
one, to develop the ir religious ma tur ity alo
per son al-s oci al gro wth , and to har mo niz e the two. So, a theistic
their
utions .of religious faith and
teacher combines han non io~ sly the contrib
ate wis dom· and integrate
educational phi los oph y so as to com mu nic
cultural kno wle dge ..
of edu cat ion are. every-
For . theistic teachers, the basic principles
, different mechanisms ma y ·
where, and at all times, the same. Ho we ver
d in .im ple me nti ng the se pri nci ple s. Tea chers .use the various
be use
con sta ntl y direct the ent ire
techniques of mo der n edu cat ion , bu t the y
tual ·pow ers and develop-
process tow ard aw ake nin g stu den ts' intellec
l disciplining process.
me nt of the i! sen se of tru th thrc;,ugh a menta
cipline are largely a ma t-
Educational practices cen ter ed on mental 'dis
orous mental exercises in
ter of tra ini n or disci linin mi nds wit h vig
ematics, and p~ re science
r; ligion, the £las~ics, gr~mmar, logic, ma t
kes a per son equally effecfiv_e
- on the ass um pti on tha t suc h trai
in all are a.s wh ere a giv en faculty .is to·_be
nin g ma
dist~/
em plo yed] To a _me nta l
lina rian , the dir ect util ity of a sub jec t is of onl y secondary impoli
cip
tance; exercise of the me nta l faculties is wh
primary val ue of science or an oth er dis rjp
-
at cou nts most. Hence, th
jipa ry subject is the tra ini ng
in me nta l pow ers ·or facul-
effect 1t as on the mi n s of stu den ts. Certa
ed and developed ·in the
ties such as tenacity and logicality, exercis
to carry over automatically
stu dy of a disciplinary subject, are expected
l pow ers are required.
to all asp ect s of life wh ere in the same menta
ically active, the . principal,
. Since peo ple . are as~umed to be psycholog
not the dom ina nt, age nt in the edu cat ional process is ,no t the
but
n stu den ts' acquisition of
·teacher }?ut the stu den t. Teachers· cent~r upo
tion of the ir ·mi nds -so as to
knowledge and the . solid disciplined forma
the stu den ts' int uit ive pow ers . In tea ching, adu lts lead stu de nts ,
free
k~ w by co·nveying to the m
~ m wh at the y kno w to wh at the y do not
't the y ·know. The y get stu- /
new 'sets of relations am ong the thi ngs .tha
use the ir mi nds to und ers t tha t they did not un-
den ts to
of questions and their cor-·-
. erstand before. atechetica drill i n the form
insic mental powers and
rect ans we rs is often use d for training of intr
to promote an aw are nes s of Go d's presence.
e in nature. ~ contem-
Knowledge, fundamentally, is contemplativ
ucation, in · its finest and
plate me ans to see and tQ enjoy seeing. Ed
·contemplative capacities of
nighes t achievements, ten ds to develop ~he
an mi nds . "C hri stia n con tem pla tio n, bei ng rooted in love; sup·e r~
hum
ve ·or truth-grasping learn-
abounds in act ion ." Ge nui ne .contemplati
17
 76 DUALI STIC THEISM

ing fails in.its very nature if it does n·o t develo p in youth both Critical ~/
~ctivify and a kind of thirst and angui sh whose rewar d will be the very
joy·of percei ving truth. ..
Since God provid es man's spiritu al intelligehce, He is the principal
teache r. Just as nature is the princi pal healer , God is the principal
teache r. .Teachers, howev er, . can .,pre~~_n t sele~~! d _sense data to help
learne rs' minds abstra ct the correct ideas. But, more impor tant, teach-
ers can lead learne rs from the know n to the unkno wn by rational dis-
course . In teachi ng,. art imitat es nature by develo ping -and extending,
but not copyin g it. "A teache r is a physic ian of the mind, depen dent
18
upon its natura l operat io.ns. " · ·

In theistic perspe ctive, "what matter s most is to develo p in the child

the 'intuit ivity' of the mind and its spiritu al discri minat ory and creative
·e nergie s. The educa tional ventur e is a ceasel ess appea l to intelligence
and free will in the young person ." In the educa tional ·task, the ser-
19

vice of adults -to youth requires from them first love and then author-
- ity. This author ity should be genuin e, not arbitra ry power . Genuine
- autho rity of ·teachers is intellectual author ity to teach and moral au-
. thority to be respec ted and listene d to. "For the child is entitle d to
expec t from them what he needs: to be positiv ely guide d and to learn
20
what he is ignora nt of."

The Subject Matter Emphasis of Dualistic Theis in

Dualistic theists believe that r. .eligious valu~ shoul d perme ate all parts
of the curriculum. So, educational subject matte r shoul d consis t of in-
tellectually disciplinary subjects· that elevate and regula te the moral,
menta l, and physical aspects o~ life. Christ ian doctri ne must pervad e
everyt hing that i~.taught . There is a Christ ian way to teach everything,
even the alphab et. Teachers consta ntly promo te an aware ness of God's
presence. School progra ms, in additi on to conve ntiona l subjec t matter,
include religious materials in the form of holy scriptu res, catechisms,
and explanations of Christian doctri ne and dogm a. ·
Whereas higher learnin g or gradu ate studie s deal with a world of
knowl edge . approp riate to intellectual virtues, basic Christian liberal edu-
cation deals with knowl edge that is apprOf)riate to natural intelligence,
1t is "educ ation for freedo m." It is direct ed towar d wisdo m and cen-
/ te~ed on the human ities. Its a· . is to develo p in people the capacit to
think correctly and ~ en joy truth and beauty . t s ou extend through
h,oth high school and college .
We grasp the 'ineariing of a"'science or an . art when we under stand its
object, nature , and scope, and. the partic ular specie s -of truth or beauty
it discloses to us. The 2bject_ive of basic liberal · educa tion is to see to it
that you~g person s grasp this'tr uth or beauty throug h the natura l pow-
I'
 DUALISTIC · THEISM 77
ers and gifts of their minds and the natural intuitive energy of their
reason backed up by their whole sensuous, imaginative, and emotional
dynamisms. · · · ,.
· Whatever type of curriculum is offered, first place must be reserved
for religion. T ri r urpose of education ,. is not mere! to teach ./
· iven sub'ects or disci lines, u o elp students unders real-
. i ·around them and see t at all realit 1s · The. .most
cruc1a eatures . of e uca 10n are not the procedural aspects, .but ·the
aim that is .espoused. Hence, there is a distrust of those novelties iri
education that originate in non-Christian circles. · ' ~Reality. is what-it is,
while the various disciplines, as such~ even theology, · are
21
abstractions. " So, abstraction takes student~ toward the intelligibility
of reality.
T!}e Junction of scienc~ is to organize its observations methad°kally
and systematically so that the ro erties of thin s ·c,IFl-~ ,ld us to an
understan 1ng o eir inner Aristotelian essences. . cienc is~
plethod of understandi~g the inner whatness of our universe. "~ s
and the natural sciences, if they are taught not only for the sake of ~
practical applications but essentially for the sake of knowledge, provide
man with a vision of the universe and a sense of the sacred, exacting, 1
unbending objectivity of the humblest truth, which plays an. essential
1 1
part in the liberation of the mind and in liberal education." 22

Footnotes
1
Merrimon Cuninggim, "A Protestant View of Education," in Philos-
ophies of Educa.tion, ed. Pl)ilip H. Phenix (New York: Wiley, 1961), pp.
67-68. . · ·
2
John W. Donohue, Catholicism and Education (New York: Harper &
Row, 1973), p. 124. .
3
Adrian M. Dupuis and Robert M. Nordberg, Philosophy and Educa-
tion: A Total View, 3rd ed. (Beverly Hills, Calif.: Benzinger, Bruce, and
Glencoe, 1973),. p. 31.
4
lbid ., p. 11. .
5
John W. Donohue, Catholicism and Education, p. 52.
6
Jacques Marjtain, ·"Thomist Views on Education," in Modern Philoso-
phies and Education, ed. Nelson B. Henry, (Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1955), p. 59. ·
7
· William Oliver Martin, Realism in Education (New York: Harper &

Row, 1969), p. 115. ·, . .

,~_Maritain, "Thomist Views on Education," p. 83.
9
Donohue, Catholicism and Education, p . 91.
10
Maritain, "Thom~st Views on Education," pp. 65-66.
11
Donohue, Catholicism and Education, p. 108.
 DUALISTIC THEISM
78
12Robert J. Henle, "A Roman Catholic View of Education," in Philo.
sophies of Education, ed. Philip H. Phenix (New York: Wiley, 1961 ),
p. 76.
13Dupuis and Nordberg, Philosophy and Education: A Total View,
p. 288. - . .
14Oonohue, Catholicism and Education, pp. 81-82.
15Dupuis -and Nordberg; ·Philosophy and Edutatio'fl: A -Total View, p. _38.
16
1bid., p. 33. ·
17
Maritain, "Thomist Views on Education," p. 65.
18
Dupuis and Nordberg, Philosophy and Education: A Total View, p. 35.
1
9Maritain, "Thomist Views on Education," p. 71. -
20
lbid., p. 69.
21 Dupuis and Nordberg, Philosophy and Education: A Total View, p. 9.
22
Maritain, "Thomist Views on Education," p. 78. · .

I
I
 79
DUALISTIC THEISM
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Maritain, Jacq ues. "Th omi st Views on Edu catio n." In Modern
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''