UNIT - 1

INTRODUCTION OF IOT
WEIGHTAGE TOTAL MARKS: 16M (2 Shorts & 1 essay)

1.1 INTRODUCTION:

1.1.1. Define IOT

1.1.2. List Features

1.1.3. Evolution of Connected Devices

1.1.4. List Advantages

1.1.5. List Disadvantages

1.1.6. List the components of IoT

1.1.7. List Applications IOT

1.1.8. List various connecting technologies

1.1.9. Sensors

1.1.9.1. Need of sensor

1.1.9.2. Features of Sensors

1.1.9.3. Classify Sensors based on output, on data types

1.1.10. Define actuator

1.1.11. List types of Actuators

1.1.12. Explain IoT Solutions Architecture

1.1.13. List IOT challenges

1.1.14. Explain IoT Ecosystem

1.2 Various Connectivity Technologies in IOT:
1.2.1 6LoWPANs Technologies
1.2.1.1 List Features

1.2.1.2 List Applications

1.2.1.3 List Advantages

1.2.1.4 List Addressing

1.2.1.5 List and explain different packet format

1.2.1.6 Explain 6LoWPAN protocol stack architecture

1.2.2 Describe Routing protocols (RPL, CORPL, LOADng)

1.2.3 RFID Technologies
1.2.3.1 What is RFID

1.2.3.2 List features

1.2.3.3 List Applications

1.2.3.4 List Advantages

1.2.3.5 Explain Working principle.

` UNIT-1: INTRODUCTION OF IOT (INTERNET OF THINGS)

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Internet of Things (IoT) is the networking of physical objects that contain electronics embedded within their
architecture in order to communicate and sense interactions amongst each other or with respect to the external
environment. In the upcoming years, IoT-based technology will offer advanced levels of services and practically
change the way people lead their daily lives. Advancements in medicine, power, gene therapies, agriculture, smart
cities, and smart homes are just a very few of the categorical examples where IoT is strongly established.

How IoT Device Works?

❖ Sensors collect data from the surroundings (like temperature, motion, etc.).
❖ The device sends the data to the internet using Wi-Fi or Bluetooth etc.
❖ The data is processed in the cloud or mobile app.
❖ A decision is made based on the data (like turning ON a light).
❖ Actuators perform the action (like opening a door or switching ON a fan).
❖ The user can also control the device using a mobile phone or computer.
❖ All these steps happen automatically and quickly.

1.1.1 DEFINE IOT

❖ IOT Stands for INTRENET OF THINGS
❖ Internet of things (IOT) = INTERNET + THINGS (It means connecting “things” (device) to the “internet”.
So, they can work smartly.)
The Internet of Things (IOT) is a network of physical devices that are connected to the internet and can collect, share
and exchange data. These devices use sensors, software and communication technologies to work smartly and
automatically without much human involvement.
EXAMPLES:
1. Smartwatch – Tracks steps, heart rate, sleep and sends data to your phone.
2. Smart Bulb – Turns ON/OFF using mobile or when motion is detected.
3. Smart Fan – Automatically adjusts speed based on room temperature. Etc..
1.1.2 Features of IOT
1. Connectivity

❖ IoT devices use technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or mobile data to stay connected.
❖ This connection allows real-time communication and remote control.
Example: A smartwatch sends heart rate data to your phone using Bluetooth.

2. Scaling (Scalability)

❖ IoT systems support adding many devices without slowing down.

❖ No need to rebuild the system when adding new devices.
Example: A smart city can keep adding sensors for traffic, pollution, etc.

3. Sensing

❖ Sensors in devices collect data like temperature, light, or motion.

❖ This real-world data helps devices act smartly.
Example: A smart fan senses heat and turns on automatically.

4. Analyzing

❖ IoT devices analyze collected data to find useful patterns.

❖ Helps in making better decisions and improving performance.
Example: A fitness band shows sleep and step reports after analyzing your activity.

5. AI (Artificial Intelligence)

❖ AI allows IoT devices to learn from data and get smarter over time.
❖ It enables features like voice control, predictions, and auto-decisions.
Example: Alexa learns your music taste and plays your favourite songs when asked.

6. Active Engagement

❖ Devices respond immediately to user commands or environmental changes.

❖ They send alerts, updates, or take actions instantly.
Example: A smart doorbell sends a mobile alert when someone rings it.

7. Integration

❖ IoT connects hardware, software, cloud, and networks into one system.
❖ Ensures smooth communication and coordination between devices.
Example: A smart fridge tracks food using sensors and shows it in an app.

8. Security

❖ IoT uses encryption, passwords, and updates to protect data and devices.
❖ Prevents hacking and ensures only authorized access.
Example: A smart lock opens only with the right fingerprint or mobile command.

9. Automation

❖ Devices perform actions automatically based on conditions or schedules.

❖ Reduces manual work and saves time.
Example: Smart lights turn on at night without you touching a switch.
10. Endpoint Management

❖ All devices can be monitored and controlled from one app or system.
❖ Makes it easy to update, manage, or fix multiple devices.
Example: Google Home app lets you manage all smart devices in your house.

1.1.3 Evolution of connected devices

1. Standalone Devices (Before 1990s)

• Devices worked independently without any network.

• No communication between machines.
Example: Traditional TV, calculator, alarm clock.

2. Networked Devices (1990s)

• Devices were connected in local networks (LAN).

• Mainly used in offices and labs.
Example: Computers connected through Ethernet cables.

3. Internet-Enabled Devices (2000s)

• Devices began connecting to the internet using wired or Wi-Fi connections.

• Could send and receive data from remote locations.
Example: Desktop computers, early smart TVs, internet modems.

4. Smart Devices (2010s)

• Devices became "smart" by using sensors, software, and cloud services.

• Could analyze data and interact with users.
Example: Smartphones, smartwatches, smart TVs, smart home assistants.

5. IoT Devices (Present – 2020s)

• Devices are now part of the IoT ecosystem – connected, automated, and intelligent.
• Use AI, cloud, real-time communication, and machine learning.
Example: Smart home systems, fitness bands, connected cars, smart agriculture sensors.

6. Future – Hyper-Connected World (Beyond 2025)

• Billions of devices will be connected using 5G, edge computing, and AI.
• Everything from clothes to cities will become "smart."
Example: Smart cities, wearable health tech, AI-driven robots.
1.1.4 List Advantages

1. Automation

❖ Devices perform tasks on their own without human help.

❖ Based on data or conditions, they take smart actions.
Example: Smart fan turns on automatically when the room gets hot.

2. Time Saving

❖ Automating daily tasks reduces human effort and saves time.

❖ No need to do repeated or routine work manually.
Example: Smart vacuum cleans the house on schedule without help.

3. Remote Access

❖ You can control or monitor devices from anywhere using mobile apps.
❖ Helpful when you're away from home or office.
Example: Turning off smart lights from your phone while traveling.

4. Real-Time Monitoring

❖ Devices continuously check and report current conditions.

❖ Allows live tracking and quick response.
Example: Smartwatch shows your heart rate live during exercise.

5. Improved Safety and Security

❖ Devices send alerts or take actions to protect people and property.

❖ Prevents theft, accidents, or system failures.
Example: Smart CCTV sends an alert when it detects unusual motion.

1.1.5 List Disadvantages

1. High Cost

❖ Initial setup of IoT devices and systems is expensive.

❖ Maintenance and updates can also add to the cost.
Example: Smart home gadgets like sensors, smart locks, and hubs can be costly.

2. Depends on Internet
 ❖ IoT fully relies on internet connectivity to work.
❖ Without the internet, devices may stop functioning or responding.
Example: Smart door lock won’t open via app if the Wi-Fi is down.

3. Job Loss in Some Areas

❖ Automation can reduce the need for manual labor in industries.

❖ This may lead to job loss in sectors like factories, warehouses, etc.
Example: Smart machines replacing workers on assembly lines.

4. Complexity and Compatibility

❖ Setting up and managing IoT systems can be complicated.

❖ Different devices may not work well together if not compatible.
Example: A smart bulb from one brand may not connect with another brand's app.

5. Privacy Issues

❖ IoT devices collect and share personal data.

❖ If not protected, this data can be misused or hacked.
Example: A hacked security camera may leak private video footage.

1.1.6 List the Components of IOT

1) Sensors / Devices

❖ Sensors are electronic devices that detect changes in the environment such as temperature, light or motion
and convert these physical signals into digital data for the IOT system to use.
❖ Sensors act as the eyes and ears of the IOT system by gathering real-world data.
❖ They monitor environmental factors like temperature, humidity, light intensity, motion, and pressure.
 ❖ They are responsible for real-time monitoring, which is important for quick decision-making.
❖ Sensors play a vital role in automating tasks.
Ex: Turning on lights when someone enters a room.

2) Connectivity:

❖ Connectivity is the method through which IoT devices send data to each other or to the cloud for
processing and storage.
❖ It is the communication link between sensors/devices and data processing units.
❖ Connectivity can be through wired (Ethernet) or wireless technologies like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
❖ It supports real-time data transfer for instant actions or alerts.
Ex: Wi-Fi for connecting smart home devices like cameras and lights.

3) Data Processing:

❖ It is the step where the raw data from sensors is analyzed, filtered and converted into meaningful information
to support decision-making.
❖ Processing involves cleaning data by removing errors and irrelevant parts (filtering).
❖ It reduces the amount of data sent over the network, saving bandwidth.
❖ Results of processing can trigger actions, notifications or alerts.
Ex: Cloud processing to predict weather based on sensor data.

4) Cloud

❖ Cloud is a place on the internet where data is stored and processed.

❖ It helps IoT devices to store, access, and manage data from anywhere.
❖ It acts like the brain of the IoT system.
❖ It is useful for saving large amounts of data safely.
❖ Cloud also supports remote access and data backup.
❖ Ex: In smart farming, sensor data like soil moisture and temperature is stored in the cloud and analyzed to
decide when to water the crops.

5) User Interface (UI):

❖ The User Interface is the platform where users interact with IoT systems, view data, receive alerts, and
control devices.
❖ UI can be in the form of mobile apps, web dashboards, or voice assistants.
❖ It provides a visual representation of data using graphs, charts, or simple status indicators.
❖ Users can control devices remotely, such as switching lights or adjusting temperature.
❖ UI must be user-friendly and accessible to ensure easy operation by anyone.
 Ex: Amazon Alexa app to control smart home devices with voice commands.
1.1.7 List Applications of IOT

1. Smart Homes
2. Smart Education
3. Smart Cities
4. Smart Healthcare
5. Smart Agriculture
6. Smart Transport
7. Smart Refrigerators
8. Smart Traffic Management
9. Smart Fire Alarms
10. Smart Parking

1.1.8 List various connecting technologies

Connecting technologies are the ways that devices talk to each other and share information.
There are two main types:
1) Wireless Technologies
2) Wired Technologies

1) Wireless Technologies

Wireless technologies allow devices to communicate without using cables, by sending radio signals.
WIFI – Connects devices over short distances, like in homes or offices.
Example: Using WIFI to connect your phone or laptop to the internet.
Bluetooth – Used for nearby devices.

Example: Connecting your wireless earphones to your mobile.

Cellular Networks (3G, 4G, 5G) – Allow communication over long distances.

Example: Making a phone call or using mobile data on your phone.

Zigbee and LoRaWAN – Use low power and work well with small devices over long distances.

Example: Used in remote controls, small wireless devices in factories

NFC (Near Field Communication) – Works when two devices are very close.

Example: Tapping your phone on a scanner to make a payment.

2) Wired Technologies
Wired technologies use physical cables to connect devices. These connections are fast and stable, but not flexible because
the devices must be connected with wires.

Ethernet – Connects devices using a cable to the internet.

Example: Plugging a LAN cable into your computer.

USB (Universal Serial Bus) – Connects devices for charging or data transfer.

Example: Phone charging cable, or connecting a keyboard to a computer.

PLC (Power Line Communication) – Sends internet using the electrical wiring in buildings.

Example: Getting internet in another room through a power plug.

Fiber Optic Cable – Uses light to send internet through thin glass cables.

Example: Internet cable that connects to your building or modem.

1.1.9 Sensors

A sensor is an electronic device that detects changes in the environment like temperature, light, sound, motion,
or pressure. It converts these changes into electrical signals or data, which can be understood by machines or
computers.

How Does a Sensor Work?

Detection: The sensor detects a physical change, like heat, light, or movement.

Conversion: This physical change is converted into an electrical signal like voltage or current.

Signal Processing: The signal is sent to a processor, which reads the signal and decides what to do next (store,
display, or act).

TYPES OF SENSORS

1.Temperature Sensor: Measures heat or cold.

Example: AC turns ON when the room is hot.
2.Light Sensor: Measures light intensity.
Example: Street lights turn ON when it’s dark.
3. Motion Sensor: Detects movement of people or objects.
Example: Security light turns ON when someone walks.
4. Humidity Sensor: Measures moisture in the air.
Example: Used in weather forecasting or smart farms.
5. Gas Sensor: Detects harmful gases like LPG, CO, etc.
Example: Alerts you in case of a gas leak in the kitchen.
6. Smoke Sensor: Detects smoke and fire.
Example: Fire alarm rings when there is smoke.
7. Pressure Sensor: Measures pressure in air, water, or gas.
Example: Car tire pressure monitoring system.
8. Sound Sensor: Detects sound or noise levels.
Example: Smart mic activates when you say “Hey Alexa.”
9. Infrared Sensor (IR): Detects objects using infrared light.
Example: TV remote uses IR to change channels.
10. Touch Sensor: Detects touch on a surface.
Example: Mobile screen or elevator buttons.
1.1.9.1 Need of Sensor
Sensors are very important in today’s technology because they help machines and systems “sense” the
environment just like humans do.
Why do we need sensors?
1. To collect data from the environment
Ex: A temperature sensor checks how hot or cold a place is, like a thermometer used at home.
2. To automate systems
Ex: Lights turn on automatically when motion is detected, like in washrooms of malls.
3. To save energy and increase efficiency
Ex: In offices, lights turn off when no one is present in the room.
4. To improve safety and security
Ex: Gas sensors detect gas leaks in kitchens and prevent accidents.
5. To enable smart technologies
Ex: In automatic doors, sensors detect human presence and open the door.

1.1.9.2 Features of Sensors

1. Data Collection
Sensors capture real-world data such as temperature, humidity, motion, light, sound, and pressure.
Ex: A room thermometer measures room temperature.
2. Connectivity
Sensors transmit data via wired or wireless protocols for analysis and decision-making.
Ex: A heart rate sensor in a fitness band sends data to your mobile phone.
 3. Interconnected Systems
Sensors create networks where data is shared for optimized operations.
Ex: In weather stations, different sensors share data like temperature, wind speed, and humidity to give
accurate weather forecasts.
4. Automation
Sensors continuously collect data, enabling businesses or homes to automate actions.
Ex: Automatic Street lights switch on in the evening and off in the morning based on sunlight
detection.
5. Sensitivity
Sensors can detect even small changes in input.
Ex: A smoke detector senses even a small amount of smoke and sounds an alarm.

1.1.9.3 Classify Sensors Based on Output and Data Type

1) Classification Based on Output

This classification is based on the kind of electrical signal a sensor produces — either continuous or discrete.

➤ Analog Sensors

• These sensors give a continuous output signal, meaning the output can have any value within a range.
• Example: Temperature sensor in a fever thermometer – the mercury or digital reading changes
gradually based on body temperature.

➤ Digital Sensors

• These sensors give a discrete (fixed) output signal, usually ON (1) or OFF (0).
• Example: Motion sensor used in automatic doors – it gives an ON signal if a person is present,
otherwise OFF.

2) Classification Based on Data Type

This classification depends on the type of data the sensor measures — physical or chemical.

➤ Physical Sensors

• These measure physical properties like temperature, pressure, or light.

• Example:
 o Thermometer for measuring temperature in homes or hospitals.
o Light sensor in a mobile phone that adjusts screen brightness.

➤ Chemical Sensors

• These detect chemical substances or changes in chemical concentration.

• Example: Gas sensor used in kitchens to detect LPG leaks or smoke during a fire.

1.1.10 Define Actuator

An actuator is a device that performs an action like moving, turning, opening, closing, or
controlling something based on a signal from a controller (like a microcontroller or IoT device).

In short:
Sensors collect data → Controller decides → Actuator takes action

1.1.11 Types of Actuators

1. Hydraulic Actuator

A hydraulic actuator is a type of actuator that uses pressurized liquids (usually hydraulic oil) to produce mechanical
motion. It works based on Pascal’s law, which states that when pressure is applied to a fluid in a closed system, it is
transmitted equally in all directions. These actuators are very powerful and are used in applications that require heavy
lifting or strong mechanical force. They can produce linear or rotary motion depending on the design. Hydraulic
actuators are generally slower than pneumatic ones but more powerful and stable.

Examples:

• JCB machines lifting soil at construction sites

• Hydraulic cranes lifting heavy materials
• Car lifts in service centers

2. Pneumatic Actuator

A pneumatic actuator uses compressed air or gas to produce mechanical motion. When pressurized air enters a chamber,
it pushes a piston or diaphragm which results in linear or rotary motion. Pneumatic actuators are commonly used in
industries for tasks that require quick, light-to-medium force operations. They are faster than hydraulic actuators and
require less maintenance because they use air instead of oil. However, they are less powerful compared to hydraulic
actuators and not suitable for heavy-duty operations.
Real-Life Examples:

• Automatic bus or train doors

• Air brakes in heavy vehicles like trucks

3. Electric Actuator

An electric actuator converts electrical energy into mechanical motion, either rotational or linear. It typically consists
of an electric motor, gears, and linkages, and is commonly used in home automation systems, smart devices, and
robotics. These actuators are easy to control, clean, quiet, and do not require fluid or air. They are ideal for low to
medium force applications and are widely used in IoT systems because they can be easily connected to microcontrollers
and programmed for automated tasks.

Real-Life Examples:

• Smart door locks (open/close through app)

• Electric fans, lights, or appliances controlled by sensors

4.Thermal Actuator

A thermal actuator works by using heat energy to create movement. These actuators usually contain materials that
expand or change shape when heated, triggering a mechanical action. Some use wax, bi-metallic strips, or special
thermal-sensitive liquids.They are mostly used in temperature-sensitive environments where actions need to be
performed automatically based on heat levels. These actuators are simple, automatic, and require no complex control
systems.

Real-Life Examples:

• Fire sprinklers that release water when the surrounding temperature rises
• Geysers that shut off heating when water is hot

5. Magnetic Actuator

A magnetic actuator works using magnetic fields, either from a permanent magnet or more commonly from an
electromagnet (a coil that becomes magnetic when electric current passes through it). It produces a pulling or pushing
force to cause mechanical movement or to activate a switch.These actuators are often used for contactless switching,
locking mechanisms, or sound-producing devices. They are fast, reliable, and are frequently found in security systems
and control circuits.

Real-Life Examples:
 • Maglocks (magnetic door locks) in hotels and offices
• Buzzers that make sound in alarms or alerts

1.1.12 Explain IOT Solutions Architecture

The Internet of Things (IoT) architecture is generally divided into 4 layers:

1.Sensing Layer (Perception Layer)

❖ It is the first layer in IoT.

❖ Responsible for collecting physical data from the environment using sensors and actuators.
❖ Monitors parameters like temperature, light, pressure, humidity, motion, etc.
❖ Can use wired or wireless communication to send data to the network layer.

Examples:

1. Temperature sensor
2. Gas sensor
3. Motion detector

2. Network Layer

❖ This layer transfers data collected from the sensing layer to the processing center.
❖ Provides connectivity and communication between devices and cloud systems.
 ❖ Uses technologies like:

➢ WIFI
➢ Bluetooth
➢ Zigbee
➢ 4G/5G
➢ Ethernet

❖ Includes devices like gateways, routers, switches.

Security: It may also include encryption and authentication to protect data.

3.Data Processing Layer (Middleware Layer)

❖ This layer processes and analyzes the raw data from sensors.
❖ It includes:

➢ Data storage systems

➢ Analytics tools
➢ Machine Learning algorithms

❖ Helps in extracting useful insights and automated decision-making.

4.Application Layer

❖ This is the topmost layer that interacts with the end user.
❖ It provides a user-friendly interface to control and monitor devices.
❖ Includes mobile apps, dashboards, web portals, etc.
❖ Supports:

➢ Data visualization
➢ Reports & Notifications
➢ Device control

Examples:

1. Smart home apps (like Alexa/Google Home)

2. Smart health monitoring apps
1.1.13 List IOT Challenges

1. Security Challenges in IoT

❖ IoT devices collect personal data, and if not protected, hackers can steal that data.
Example: A smart camera can be hacked to see inside your home.
❖ Many devices use weak or default passwords, which are easy to guess.
Example: A smart lock with the password “0000” can be broken into.
❖ Some devices do not get regular software updates, making them vulnerable.
Example: An old smart bulb without updates can be easily attacked.
❖ If data is not encrypted, it can be read or changed during transmission.
Example: A smart fridge sending info over open Wi-Fi is not safe.
❖ Many users are unaware of how to protect their IoT devices.
Example: People may not know they should change the default password on their smart TV.

2. Design Challenges in IoT

❖ IoT devices often use small batteries, so they must be designed to save power.
Example: A smart farm sensor needs to work for months without charging.
❖ Devices from different brands may not work together properly.
Example: A smart fan from one brand may not connect with a voice assistant from another brand.
❖ IoT devices generate a large amount of data, which is difficult to manage.
Example: A smart hospital collects a lot of patient data every day.
❖ Some IoT applications require fast responses, which can be hard to design.
Example: A fire alarm system must send alerts immediately when it detects smoke.
❖ Devices should be easy to use by everyone, including people with no technical knowledge.
Example: A farmer may find it hard to use a smart irrigation app with a complex design.

3. Deployment Challenges in IoT

❖ Some areas do not have good internet connectivity, which affects IoT performance.
Example: A smart water pump in a village may not work due to poor signal.
❖ Setting up IoT systems can be expensive at the beginning.
Example: Installing smart boards and sensors in a classroom costs a lot.
❖ Devices placed outdoors or in high locations are difficult to maintain.
Example: Fixing a sensor on a smart streetlight is not easy.
❖ Devices must be able to survive heat, rain, and dust in outdoor environments.
Example: A traffic sensor must work even during heavy rain or summer heat.
 ❖ IoT systems create a lot of data, which needs to be stored and managed properly.
Example: A smart city project generates huge amounts of data every day.

1.1.14 Explain IOT Ecosystem

An IoT ecosystem is a complete environment where devices, software, networks, cloud, and users work together to
collect data, share it, process it, and take action — all automatically!

Sensors/Devices → Network → Cloud/Server → Application/Dashboard → Actuators/Output

1. Sensors / Devices (Input Layer)

Function: Sense/collect data from the environment.

Examples:

• Temperature sensor
• Light sensor
• Motion detector
• Smartwatch (heart rate)
Example: Smart fridge detects food is spoiling (gas sensor).

2. Network (Communication Layer)

Function: Send data from device to cloud or server.

Technologies:

• Wi-Fi
• Bluetooth
• Zigbee
• 4G/5G
• LoRa

Real-life: Data from your smartwatch goes to mobile via Bluetooth.

3. Cloud / Server (Processing Layer)

Function: Analyze, store, and make decisions with data.

Features:

• AI/ML analysis
• Data storage
• Logic-based decision making

Real-life: Cloud checks “room is hot” → decides to turn on AC.

4. Application / Dashboard (User Interface Layer)

Function: Show output, control device, and get alerts.

Examples:

• Mobile apps
• Smart home dashboards
• Notification systems

Real-life: Your app shows “AC is ON” and lets you turn it OFF.

5. Actuators / Output (Action Layer)

Function: Take action based on decision.

Examples:

• Fan turns ON
• Alarm rings
• Door opens
• Water pump starts

Real-life: Smart door automatically opens when it detects your face.

1.2 Various Connectivity Technologies in IOT

1.2.1 6LoWPANs Technologies

6LoWPAN Stands for IPv6 over Low Power Wireless Personal Area Networks

It is a communication protocol that enables small, low-power, and low-cost devices to connect to the internet using IPv6
over IEEE 802.15.4 wireless networks. It is specifically designed for devices with limited memory, processing power, and
energy. It compresses large IPv6 packets to fit into small frame sizes and supports efficient communication in IoT
environments.

❖ Low-power Wireless Personal Area Networks over Ipv6.

❖ Allows for the smallest devices with limited processing ability to transmit information wirelessly using an
Internet protocol.
❖ Allows low-power devices to connect to the Internet.
❖ Created by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) - RFC 5933 and RFC 4919.

It acts as a bridge between the Internet (IPv6) and wireless embedded devices, making it possible for smart devices
like sensors to send and receive data through the internet.

Example: A temperature sensor in a smart home can send temperature readings to a mobile app via 6LoWPAN, using
very little power and data.
1. Introduction to Diagram:

❖ The diagram shows how IoT devices (nodes) using IPv6 are connected to the Internet and Cloud through
an Edge Router.
❖ This is an example of a 6LoWPAN (IPv6 over Low Power Wireless Personal Area Network) system.

2. Components of the Diagram:

a. Nodes with IPv6 Address (Left side):

❖ Represent small IoT devices like sensors, smart lights, etc.

❖ Each node has a unique IPv6 address.
❖ Communicate using 6LoWPAN protocol.
❖ Form a mesh network (devices can forward data for each other).

Example: Smart bulb, smart thermostat, motion detector.

b. Mesh Network (Interconnected Lines):

❖ Shows that all devices are interconnected.

❖ Supports multi-hop communication (data travels through multiple devices if needed).
❖ Increases range and reliability of the network.

Example: If one path fails, data can take another route.

c. Edge Router (Middle Block):

❖ Acts as a bridge between local network and the Internet.

❖ Receives data from the nodes.
❖ Converts it for use on the Internet and Cloud.
❖ Supports IPv6 communication.

Example: Like a Wi-Fi router connecting your phone to the internet.

d. Cloud (Right Side):

❖ Stores and processes the sensor data.

❖ Can be accessed from anywhere using Internet.

Example: Checking your home’s temperature from your office

e. IP Enabled Devices (Computer, Sensor):

❖ Devices like smartphones or PCs that can access cloud data.

❖ Can send commands or receive reports.

Example: Turning on a smart fan from your mobile.

3. How Data Flows (Step-by-step):

1. Sensor node collects data (e.g., temperature).

2. Sends data wirelessly using 6LoWPAN to Edge Router.
3. Edge Router forwards the data to the Internet.
4. Data reaches the Cloud.
5. User accesses the data through IP-enabled devices.

1.2.1.1 Features of 6LoWPAN

1. IPv6 Support: Devices can use IPv6 addresses to connect to the Internet.

2. Low Power Use: Works well with battery-powered devices like sensors.

3. Small Size Packets: Sends small data packets, saving energy and speed.

4. Header Compression: Shrinks IPv6 data headers to use less memory.

5. Mesh Networking: Devices can pass messages through each other (multi-hop).

6. Internet Friendly: Easily connects to Internet using standard IP protocols.

7. IEEE 802.15.4 Support: Works with short-range, low-power wireless networks.

8. Scalable: Supports many devices in one network.

9. Flexible Addressing: Uses 16-bit (local) or 64-bit (global) addresses.

10. Used in IoT: Perfect for smart homes, smart cities, health devices, etc.

1.2.1.2 Applications of 6LoWPAN

1. Smart Homes
 2. Smart Farming
3. Smart Cities
4. Industries
5. Health Monitoring
6. Environment Monitoring
7. Smart Meters
8. Building Automation
9. Asset Tracking
10. Disaster Alerts

1.2.1.3 Advantages of 6LoWPAN

1. Works with IPv6

2. Uses very less power
3. Good for small devices
4. Can connect to the Internet
5. Devices can talk in a group (mesh)
6. Sends data quickly
7. Can support many devices
8. Safe and secure
9. Works in low signal areas
10. Best for smart IoT systems

1.2.1.4 Addressing in 6LoWPAN

What is Addressing? (In IoT/6LoWPAN)

Definition: Addressing means giving a unique identification number or code to each device in a network so that data
can be sent to or received from the correct device — just like a house address helps the postman deliver your letter
to the right home.

1. IPv6 Addressing: Each device gets a unique 128-bit IPv6 address.

2. 64-bit Extended Addressing (EUI-64): Based on the device’s hardware MAC address.

3. 16-bit Short Addressing: Used within a local network (smaller and faster).

4. Link-Local Addressing: Used to communicate within the same network link.

5. Multicast Addressing: Used to send data to multiple devices at once.

6. Broadcast Addressing: Sends data to all devices in the network.

1.2.1.3. List and explain6LowPAN Packet Format:

Header Type: Dispatch Header

❖ Dispatch: Initiates communication

❖ 0,1: Identifier for Dispatch Type
❖ Dispatch: 6 bits Identifies the next header type
❖ Type Specific Header: Determined by Dispatch header

Header Type: Mesh Addressing Header:

❖ 1,0: ID Mesh Addressing Header

❖ V: '0' if originator is 64-bit extended address, '1' if 16-bit address
❖ F: '0' if destination is 64-bit address., '1' if 16-bit address.
❖ Hops Left: decremented by each node before sending to next hop

Header Type: Fragmentation Header

 1.2.1.4. Explain 6LowPAN Protocol STACK architecture:

1. Physical Layer: Sends raw data as electrical/radio signals

❖ Defines the hardware connection (wires or wireless signals).
❖ Uses IEEE 802.15.4 standard (low power, short range).
❖ Transmits bits (0s and 1s).
❖ Works in the 2.4 GHz ISM band (like Wi-Fi).
❖ Enables device-to-device communication.
❖ No error correction, just transmission.

Real-life Example: A motion sensor sending data wirelessly to a gateway.

2. Data Link Layer (MAC Layer): Organizes how data is sent over the medium
❖ Ensures reliable transmission between two connected nodes.
❖ Uses MAC addresses for local identification.
❖ Handles framing, error detection, and acknowledgment.
❖ Manages medium access using CSMA/CA (like taking turns to talk).
❖ Detects and avoids collisions.
❖ Power saving mechanisms (turn radio on/off).

Real-life Example: Two smart lights taking turns to send updates to the controller.

3. Network Layer: Provides routing and addressing using IP

❖ Uses IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6).
❖ 6LoWPAN adapts Ipv6 to fit small devices with:
o Header compression
o Fragmentation
o Mesh routing
❖ Ensures each device has a unique IP address.
❖ Routes data from source to destination across multiple nodes.
❖ Supports multi-hop routing (packet travels through other devices).

Real-life Example: A smart lock sends status updates to a mobile app using its Ipv6 address.

4. Transport Layer: Manages communication between devices (end-to-end)

❖ Mainly uses UDP (User Datagram Protocol) for lightweight communication.
 ❖ Sometimes uses TCP, but it’s rare in 6LoWPAN due to overhead.
❖ No connection setup needed (UDP is fast and simple).
❖ No guaranteed delivery (saves power and memory).
❖ Handles multiplexing – multiple conversations over one device.

Real-life Example: Soil moisture sensor sends data to the server every 10 minutes using UDP.

5. Application Layer: Interfaces with user software to provide services

❖ Hosts IoT applications like:
o Smart home control
o Health monitoring
o Environmental sensors
❖ Uses application protocols like:
o CoAP (Constrained Application Protocol)
o MQTT (Message Queuing Telemetry Transport)
❖ Data is displayed to the end user (mobile/web dashboards).
❖ Converts data into meaningful information (e.g., low battery warning).
❖ User can also send commands (e.g., turn off light, open door).

Real-life Example: You check your smart watch to see your heart rate — that’s application layer in action.

1.2.2 Describe ROUTING protocols (RPL, CORPL, LOADng)

6LoWPAN Routing Considerations:

❖ Mesh routing within the PAN space.

❖ Routing between Ipv6 and the PAN domain
❖ Routing protocols in use: LOADng protocal & RPL

RPL PROTOCOL:
 RPL stands for Routing Protocol for Low-Power and Lossy Network. It is a distance-vector protocol that supports a
variety of Data Link Protocols. RPL builds a Destination Oriented Directed Acyclic Graph (DODAG) which has only one
route from each leaf node to the root. All the traffic in this DODAG is routed through the root. Initially, each node
sends a DODAG Information Object (DIO) announcing them self as a root. This information travels in the network, and
complete DODAG is gradually built. When a new node wants to join the network, it sends a DODAG Information
Solicitation (DIS) request and root responds back with a DAO Acknowledgment (DAO-ACK) confirming the join.

RPL Routing in 6LoWPAN:

❖ Distance Vector Ipv6 routing protocol for lossy and low power networks.
❖ Maintains routing topology using low-rate beaconing.
❖ Beaconing/link rate increase on detecting inconsistencies (e.g node/link in a route is down).
❖ Routing information included in the datagram itself.
❖ Proactive: Maintaining routing topology.
❖ Reactive: Resolving routing inconsistencies.
❖ RPL separates packet processing and forwarding from the routing optimization objective, which
help in Low power Lossy Networks (LLN).
❖ RPL supports message confidentiality and integrity.
❖ Routing optimization objectives include
❖ minimizing energy
❖ minimizing latency
❖ satisfying constraints (w.r.t. node power, bandwidth, etc.)
❖ RPL operations require bidirectional links.
❖ In some LLN scenarios, those links may exhibit asymmetric properties.
❖ It is required that the reachability of a router be verified before the router can be used as a parent

CORPL (Cognitive RPL)

Definition

CORPL is a smart version of RPL that uses cognitive radio technology to improve data communication in wireless
sensor networks.
It helps IoT devices choose the best and least congested communication channel by sensing the environment and
dynamically avoiding interference.

In simple words, CORPL allows devices to think and act smartly before sending data, so that they can save energy,
avoid noise, and send data reliably in a crowded wireless network.

How CORPL Works – Step by Step

 1. Network Starts: The gateway/root node begins the network and other devices join to form a DODAG.
2. Channel Sensing: Each device checks which wireless channels are free, busy, or noisy using cognitive
sensing.
3. Best Channel Selection: A device selects the best channel with the least interference.
4. Data Sending: The device sends data through the cleanest path to the next node.
5. Dynamic Adjustment: If the selected channel gets disturbed, the device quickly switches to another
better one.
6. Final Delivery: Data reaches the gateway/root through the most efficient path.

Example (Real-Life)

In a smart city, hundreds of sensors (like pollution monitors, cameras, etc.) send data to a control center.
If all use the same path or channel, it becomes slow and noisy.

But if CORPL is used:

• Each device chooses a free channel

• Avoids interference
• Delivers data smoothly and faster

It’s like Google Maps showing you a shortcut to avoid traffic — but for wireless signals.

LOADng PROTOCOL:

LOADng is an acronym for Lightweight On-Demand Ad hoc Distance Vector Routing Protocol – next generation.
Derived from AODV and extended for use in IOT.
The AODV (Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector) routing protocol, which is essentially a distance vector routing
technique, served as inspiration for this protocol.

Working principle of LOADng:

The working of the LOADng protocol is described below:

Network route discovery in both directions between a source and a destination.

Establishing and maintaining a path between the source and the destination.

Only when data must be sent or a route to the destination is down does the network generate control and signaling
traffic.

LOADng routing mechanism

▪ Generation of Route Requests (RREQs) by a LOADng Router (originator) for discovering a route to a
destination,
▪ Forwarding of such RREQs until they reach the destination LOADng Router,
▪ Generation of Route Replies (RREPs) upon receipt of an RREQ by the indicated destination, and
unicast hop-by-hop forwarding of these RREPs towards the originator.
▪ If a route is detected to be broken, a Route Error (RERR) message is returned to the originator of that
data packet to inform the originator about the route breakage.
▪ Optimized flooding is supported, reducing the overhead incurred by RREQ generation and flooding.
▪ Only the destination is permitted to respond to an RREQ.
▪ Intermediate LOADng Routers are explicitly prohibited from responding to RREQs, even if they may
have active routes to the sought destination.
▪ RREQ/RREP messages generated by a given LOADng router share a single unique, monotonically
increasing sequence number.

6. RFID Technologies

1.2.3.1. What is Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) is a wireless communication technology that uses radio waves in the radio
frequency (RF) portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to automatically identify, track, and manage objects or
individuals. It works by using RFID tags, which store digital data, and RFID readers, which can read that data without
needing a direct line of sight.

Unlike traditional barcode systems that require scanning one item at a time and in close range, RFID technology allows
for the simultaneous identification of multiple items from a distance, even if the tags are hidden inside packaging
or containers. This makes it a fast, efficient, and reliable method for data collection and item management.
 The RFID system consists of three main components:

7. RFID Tag (or transponder):

A small chip attached to the object, containing an antenna and memory to store information.

8. RFID Reader (or interrogator):

A device that sends out radio waves to communicate with RFID tags and retrieve the stored data.

9. Database or Backend System:

Stores and processes the data received from the reader for further action or tracking.

RFID is used in a wide range of industries for inventory management, supply chain tracking, access control, asset
tracking, contactless payments, toll collection, and even in libraries and hospitals. It supports two types of tags:
Passive (no battery) and Active (battery-powered), offering flexibility based on distance and usage needs.

In summary, RFID is a modern and powerful identification technology that enables automated, wireless data
exchange between objects and systems, making it smarter, faster, and more efficient than traditional tracking
methods.

1.2.3.2. List Features

❖ Wireless Communication – Uses radio waves to send and receive data without physical contact.
❖ No Line-of-Sight Needed – Tags can be read even when hidden or placed inside objects (unlike barcodes).
❖ Long Reading Range – Passive tags: a few meters, Active tags: up to 100 meters
❖ Automatic Identification – Can identify and track objects automatically, without manual scanning.
❖ Fast Scanning – Multiple tags can be scanned at once, saves time.
❖ Passive and Active Types – Passive: No battery, Active: Battery-powered for long-range communication
❖ Stores More Data Than Barcodes – RFID tags can hold more detailed information than traditional barcodes.
❖ Reusable and Durable –Tags are made of strong material and can be reused many times.
❖ Secure Communication – Some RFID systems support encryption and secure data access.
❖ Real-Time Tracking – Enables continuous tracking of items in real time , useful in logistics and inventory.

1.2.3.3 List Applications

1. Inventory Management
2. Asset Tracking
 3. Access Control
4. Supply Chain Management
5. Library Management
6. Healthcare and Hospitals
7. Transportation and Toll Collection
8. Retail and Self-Checkout
9. Animal and Pet Tracking
10. Event Management

1.2.3.4 Advantages of RFID

1. Fast and automatic identification

2. No line-of-sight required
3. Can read multiple tags at once
4. Longer reading range
5. High data storage capacity
6. Durable and reusable tags
7. Real-time tracking
8. Reduces human errors
9. Improves inventory accuracy
10. Enhances security and control

1.2.3.5 Explain Working Principle of RFID:

Generally, RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC function. AIDC stands for Automatic Identification and Data Capture
technology which performs object identification and collection and mapping of the data.

An antenna is an device which converts power into radio waves which are used for communication between reader and
tag. RFID readers retrieve the information from RFID tag which detects the tag and reads or writes the data into the
tag. It may include one processor, package, storage and transmitter and receiver unit.

Types of RFID Tags

1. Passive Tags

❖ No built-in power source, relying on the RFID reader.

❖ Less expensive, longer lifespan, shorter read range (up to a few meters).

2. Active Tags

❖ Have their own power source (battery), allowing for a longer read range (up to hundreds of meters).

❖ More expensive, limited lifespan due to the battery.

3. Semi-Passive Tags

❖ Small battery powers the tag’s circuitry.

❖ Middle ground in terms of cost, range, and lifespan.

Working of RFID System

Every RFID system consists of three components: a scanning antenna, a transceiver and a transponder. When

the scanning antenna and transceiver are combined, they are referred to as an RFID reader or interrogator. There

are two types of RFID readers- fixed readers and mobile readers. The RFID reader is a network-connected

device that can be portable or permanently attached. It uses radio waves to transmit signals that activate the tag.

Once activated, the tag sends a wave back to the antenna, where it is translated into data.

The transponder is in the RFID tag itself. The read range for RFID tags varies based on factors including the

type of tag, type of reader, RFID frequency and interference in the surrounding environment or from other

RFID tags and readers. Tags that have a stronger power source also have a longer read range.

Prepared by,

T.L.S Pradeepthi