The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social and Community Studies

ISSN: 2324-7576 (Print), ISSN: 2324-7584 (Online)

Volume 20, Issue 1, 2025
https://doi.org/10.18848/2324-7576/CGP/v20i01/1-24

Original Research

Non-citizens’ Continuity of Citizenship in the

Baltic States

Cassadee Orinthia Yan, Maslow Quest Foundation, Cook Islands

Received: 01/13/2024; Accepted: 04/26/2024; Published: 09/13/2024

Abstract: This article offers a comprehensive view of research about complicated matters pertaining to
citizenship for non-citizens in the Baltic states. By incorporating views of law, policies, societal norms, and
economy, the study explores the consequences and possible advantages of addressing and the continuity
and continuity of citizenship It resolves matters related to political and social stability, immigrants, and also
legal liabilities while taking into account economic challenges and stressful nature by many social welfare
systems. The article concludes with a call for more research on the actual situation of homeless people,

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

when they have no shelter, no sense of home, and no love. Finally, the study proposes that granting
citizenship to non-citizen minority groups in the Baltic states ought to be considered in light of certain
norms such as fairness, humanitarian principles, and communal harmony. It highlights the need for input
from various stakeholders to resolve this complex problem.

Keywords: Citizenship, Baltic States, Non-Citizens, Political Stability

Introduction

The citizenship trajectories of the Baltic states—Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—are

intricately intertwined with their turbulent histories, characterized by Soviet dominance,
subsequent self-government, and evolving citizenship policies. A naturalization process was
in place, and citizenship was granted to cohorts in the aftermath of the dissolution of the
Soviet Union. However, subsequent changes to citizenship policies rendered many ethnic
Russian and Russian-speaking minorities ineligible to obtain citizenship. This led to a
significant proportion of the population in the Baltic states lacking citizenship, preventing
their participation in communal matters. The practice of excluding non-citizens is deemed
unsustainable, and urgent action is required to ensure that non-citizens in the region
continue to acquire citizenship. This study conceptualizes and deconstructs the
intertwining historical, legal, and economic factors that have led to the long-standing
hardships experienced by people without citizenship.
Despite initiatives designed to address this issue, scholarly research has revealed a
significant deficiency in understanding the consequences of perpetuating the
marginalization of non-citizens and the potential benefits of ensuring continuous

1
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

citizenship for this group. This work aims to address the lack of research on the
uninterrupted maintenance of citizenship for non-Baltic state citizens and undertakes a
comprehensive analysis of the pro and con arguments in this issue. This study contributes
significantly to the development of the field by investigating an urgent and complex
challenge in migration and nationality. It provides critical insights into the possible
advantages and drawbacks of such decisions by exploring the political, historical, human
rights, economic, and social facets governing the acknowledgment of non-natives as legal
citizens in the Baltic states. Furthermore, the article expresses the need for non-natives to be
awarded citizenship from a legal standpoint, contributing to the ongoing discourse on
human rights, justice, and social cohesion.

Background

The phenomenon of statelessness is not unique to the Baltic nations; similar issues have
been chronicled in other regions of the world, such as the Middle East and North Africa,
where statelessness is a prevalent concern (UNHCR, Nordic and Baltic Countries, n.d.). As

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

per the report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR),
statelessness is a widespread concern at the global level, affecting around 89.3 million
individuals worldwide as of 2021. The state of being stateless can have noteworthy
consequences, as it involves the denial of essential rights, such as education, health care, and
employment, among others (UNHCR, Nordic and Baltic Countries, n.d.). The complex
issue of non-citizenship is further complicated by the historical and geopolitical conditions
of the Baltic states. The historical background of the Baltic nations is marked by
subordination to external powers, with the Soviet Union serving as a notable example
(Kuczyńska-Zonik 2017).
Today, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania are often viewed as “post-communist” countries;
however, their experience with communism differs significantly from that of other “post-
communist” states because these three countries were forcibly a part of the Soviet Union
(Pettai 2019) for nearly fifty years. Their prolonged forced annexation did not
fundamentally address the underlying “anti-Russian” sentiment that is still influential in the
Baltic states’ contemporary political atmosphere. In fact, in 2016, Lithuania temporarily
banned Russian media outlets that breached pre-existing media laws and restricted Russian
media production content on Lithuanian TV (Horchakova 2022). This “anti-Russian”
sentiment has arguably transformed into discriminatory or restrictive immigration and
naturalization policies being reviewed in this article.
When the Soviet Union was divided into numerous independent states, including
Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, a complex array of citizenship regulations were adopted as a
process of state-building that persists to this day (Peyrouse 2008). Ivanauskas, Keršanskas,
and Kasčiunas (2017) note that the issue of bestowing citizenship on non-citizens in the

2
 YAN: NON-CITIZENS’ CONTINUITY OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE BALTIC STATES

Baltic states is closely tied to the historical context of Soviet dominance and subsequent
autonomy from the same. During Soviet control, a substantial number of Russian citizens
were offered inducements to migrate to the Baltic states. The ethnic makeup of Latvia and
Estonia altered considerably during the Soviet era due to policies of collectivization,
industrialization, and Stalinist repression. This gave rise to massive demographic shifts and
caused significant population movements, shaping these countries’ societies in profound
ways during the post-1945 period (Zmiyenko 2018).
Later, in the early 1990s, the Baltic states achieved independence from the Soviet Union,
and a significant number of individuals who identified as ethnic Russians continued to reside
in the Baltic states (Vorotnkov and Habarta 2021). However, the citizenship laws were devised
to prevent a significant proportion of Russian ethnicities and linguistic minority groups from
acquiring citizenship, resulting in the emergence of a sizable stateless population (Lähdesmäki
et al. 2021). A feasible path to citizenship continuity must be significantly enhanced to
facilitate non-citizens’ exercise of fundamental political and civil rights.

Methodology

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

This study is located within a textual analysis framework. Data was collected by
comprehensively analyzing academic articles, journals, past research, and official
documents associated with citizenship continuity to non-natives in Estonia, Latvia, and
Lithuania. Pertinent materials were assessed based on their relevance to the topic to tackle
human rights, political stability, historical context, legal aspects, economic aspects, and
social and integration dynamics in these countries by thoroughly scrutinizing available
sources. Discussions around the research question were evaluated to harness insights for
legal and political implications. This data collection and analysis mode was selected because
it offers a more nuanced comprehension of the problem at hand in the Baltic nations.

Historical Context: Legacy of the Soviet Union and Statelessness

In the early 1990s, the Baltic nations achieved independence from the Soviet Union. When
they were under Soviet control, a substantial number of Russian citizens were offered
inducements to migrate to the Baltic states. After independence was restored, a significant
proportion of individuals who identified as ethnic Russians continued to reside in the Baltic
states (Vorotnkov and Habarta 2021). This population movement is reflected in today’s
demographic image, where 27.5 percent of Estonia’s population consists of individuals who
are not Estonian citizens, according to the 2023 iteration of Estonia counts. Despite the
ethnic diversity, long-term hatred against Soviet Russian dominant governance has fueled
the regional ethnic tension against ethnic Russians and Russian-speaking minority
communities, who are perceived as potential security threats to the Baltic states.

3
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

For various reasons, the Baltic states’ citizenship laws have been criticized as
discriminatory, preventing a significant proportion of Russian ethnicities from acquiring
citizenship. For instance, in Estonia, the citizenship language requirements have been
condemned for their prejudiced nature against non-citizens who lack Estonian fluency. The
high level of Estonian proficiency required makes it difficult for non-native speakers to
attain citizenship (Mihăiță 2017). Only a few stateless people qualify for citizenship as a
result of the language requirement and other strict eligibility standards for naturalization
(Zmiyenko 2018).
Indeed, legal formalists who uphold traditional norms and procedures would find
procedural justice within these standardized language requirements if they were to be
implemented objectively. However, legal formalism, when brought to the issue of
statelessness, would mean reinforcing the already exclusionary policies that have blocked
the pathway to citizenship for stateless individuals. It is simply a perpetuation and
reinforcement of existing social marginalization of the non–Estonian-speaking minorities.
Therefore, even if language requirement is made into law as part of the naturalization
requirement for all, considering the historical contexts, it is recommended to consider

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

substantive justice by allowing for a certain level of elasticity or exceptions within the
formalized legal requirements for people of historically disadvantaged groups. These non–
Estonian-speaking naturalization applicants could be inhabitants that have lived inside the
Estonian territory since years before its independence, might have no entitlements to any
other citizenships due to conflicting citizenship regulations between states during the
Soviet Union disintegration, or simply do not have access to Estonian learning resources.
Unbiasedly, without considering the specific circumstances, requiring a 70-year-old Russian-
speaking stateless citizenship applicant who migrated into the now-Estonian territory from
the Soviet Union forty years ago to be proficient in Estonian is an ethnically biased policy.
As many sociologists contend, color blindness is counterproductive to ethnic equality and
perpetuates racism (Bailey et al. 2017; Cutler 2015; Robbins 2004). Here, I am endeavoring
to highlight the granting of citizenship to non-citizens and address the stateless issue in the
Baltic states. This should be seen as an important step in redressing historical wrongs. A
plan to end statelessness cannot be feasible or effective, acknowledging and considering the
historical disadvantages the disadvantaged have been through.
Additionally, since their separation from the Soviet Union in the 1990s, the Baltic states
have consistently expressed their concern regarding Russian intervention and espionage.
According to Davymuka (2021), there are documented instances of Russian intelligence
agencies attempting to recruit non-citizens of the Baltic states, especially those with ethnic
connections to Russia, for the purposes of intelligence gathering or espionage. Concerns
have been expressed regarding the potential risks involved in considering citizenship for
non-citizens who may be susceptible to such recruitment considering this development.
There is also the concern that awarding citizenship to non-citizens could make it easier for

4
 YAN: NON-CITIZENS’ CONTINUITY OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE BALTIC STATES

terrorist organizations to move into the area (Veebel and Markus 2015). The Baltic states are
more sensitive to the possibility of terrorist attacks than other European countries because
they are members of the European Union (EU) and NATO. Citizenship for non-natives is
said to enhance the potential for terrorist infiltration, particularly when these non-natives
have connections to extremist organizations or nations that are antagonistic to the Baltic
states. These national security concerns have developed into prevalent arguments against
the continuous granting of citizenship to non-citizens in the Baltic states (Banasik 2023).
There is an argument that granting citizenship to non-citizens could potentially lead to the
infiltration of the region by foreign agents and terrorist organizations. Given the historical
context of Russian influence and intervention in the Baltic states, this argument carries
significant weight (Weissmann 2019). These concerns have resulted in strict immigration
and citizenship policies that have come to the attention of the international community.
There have been reports of human rights violations against the Russian-speaking
populations in Latvia and Estonia, which have led to international investigations of
citizenship policies and practices in the Baltic nations (Fehervary 1993). Despite the changes
made to the law to deal with this problem, there are still many difficulties in ensuring that

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

stateless people are treated fairly and justly. This is particularly true when we try to help
stateless people become citizens and allow them citizens’ rights.
It is important to highlight that terrorism and foreign infiltration are not limited to
non-citizens as potential targets. According to Veebel and Markus (2015), it is conceivable
for foreign agents or extremist organizations to attract and radicalize individuals, making
them more susceptible to the influence of the organizations or agents that recruited them.
Limiting the right to citizenship for non-citizens may enhance the possibility of
radicalization and alienation because it can generate sentiments of marginalization and
social exclusion. In addition, the practice of denying citizenship to non-citizens based on
the perceived, rather than proven or found, risk of foreign infiltration and terrorism can
potentially reinforce negative stereotypes and prejudices toward certain ethnic or linguistic
groups, particularly those with ties to Russia (Sergunin 2021). The scenario that has been
outlined has the potential to cause societal tensions, which in turn would damage the
region’s social cohesiveness and stability.
Given the ethnic tensions within the Baltic states, state sovereignty and national
security are often used to justify the implementation of exclusionary immigration policies.
In general, prioritizing state sovereignty over individual human rights is a dangerous
direction in public governance. It is important to consider the efforts to end statelessness
and open the pathway for citizenship in the Baltic states as an important step in redressing
and combating the ongoing effect of rhetoric on state sovereignty above human rights by
challenging the prolonged discriminatory immigration and nationality policies against
stateless people in the name of protecting their state’s sovereignty. The advancement of the
Baltic states toward a more inclusive and fair society that respects the rights and dignity of

5
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

all individuals, regardless of their heritage or social affiliation, can be aided by the provision
of unambiguous legal status to non-citizens and the certainty that they are entitled to
citizenship. This will help move the Baltic states closer to a society that respects human
rights and dignity.

Statelessness as a Violation of Human Rights

According to Duffy (2022), citizenship is a status conferred on a person who is a complete

member of a society. Everyone upon whom the status is bestowed is equal in terms of the
duties and rights with which their status is gifted. Duffy asserts that there are no universal
precepts that govern these accrued duties and rights, although each society must develop an
image of an ideal nationality against which attainment can be gauged and upon which
ambition can be channeled. Such an idea that citizenship is an entitlement to rights and
recognition of social beings has made citizenship part of the human rights discussion. In
1948, the United Nations declared that the concepts underlying human rights should be
universal, indivisible, and inalienable and that these principles should apply to all people

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

regardless of their nationality. People who cannot secure a citizenship status and who are
not recognized as citizens of any state run the risk of having their fundamental human
rights denied. This also infringes on their basic entitlements (Osler 2020). Owen (2018)
discusses the issue of the right to citizenship rights. He emphasizes the challenges of
nationality, human rights, and statelessness. His research exposes the complex interplay
between these three issues, illustrating that statelessness can rob individuals of their basic
human privileges. The author immerses himself into the legal structures and global
conventions that have the purpose of solving non-citizenship and fostering individuals’
access to nationality to protect their fundamental human rights. According to Owen, it is
imperative to safeguard and acknowledge people’s citizenship rights because doing so
warrants human dignity and legal fairness.
Hannah Arendt’s interpretation of the “right to have rights” in a structured society, as
described by Franco, Monsalve, and Borras (2015), is commonly mentioned to support the
classification of citizenship as a fundamental human right. Franco cites Arendt’s
interpretation as “the right to have rights” in an organized society. The fundamental
entitlement of all individuals to be acknowledged as members and participants of society
and government, with their rights dutifully honored and safeguarded within such a
framework, is referred to as the idea of the “right to have rights” (Kreide 2022).
It is, therefore, believed to be a violation of fundamental human rights to deny
citizenship to anyone who is stateless. In accordance with the provisions of Article 15 of the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, every individual possesses the inalienable right to a
nationality, which encompasses both the ability to acquire and keep a nationality. It is a
violation of non-citizens’ fundamental rights to leave them stateless (Janoski 2021). Because

6
 YAN: NON-CITIZENS’ CONTINUITY OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE BALTIC STATES

of being stateless, it may have a significant impact on their capacity to acquire fundamental
conveniences, such as education, medical services, and work prospects. It also diminishes
their capacity to participate in civic affairs and exercise their political rights, such as the
right to vote, to run for public office, and to enlist in the military, as observed by “Political
Governance and Citizen Rights” (2022). Consequently, a group of people are discriminated
against and excluded from society by being denied the same rights and opportunities as
other members of society. Such exclusion and discrimination damage social solidarity and
the legitimacy of public governance. In society, a formation of responsibilities among
individuals, a fulfillment of “moral tasks of responsibility,” a sense of morality toward
others, and the resulting social solidarity are where the governing institutions derive their
power and legitimacy (Jelin 2019). In other words, the protection of its people’s rights is the
foundation of the legitimacy of the existence of the government. Considering the
importance of citizenship in safeguarding non-citizens’ fundamental rights and eliminating
discrimination, Article 7 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, which emphasizes
the essential principles of impartiality in legal proceedings and the lack of prejudice, has
declared a violation of human rights in denying citizenship to non-citizens.

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

Citizenship comprises both pragmatic and cognitive components. As seen through an
instrumental lens, the state has traditionally exercised authority over political participation
by defining permissible forms of socio-political participation and establishing the
qualifications for participation. A notable strategy for achieving this objective is through
the establishment of political community inclusion through citizenship, which confers
specific rights and protections not afforded to non-citizens (Pettinicchio and de Vries 2017).
Not only does statelessness imply exclusion from political communities, but it can also
result in marginalization in the legal sphere due to the lack of legal protections and limited
access to justice-seeking channels. In Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, the period following
the dissolution of the Soviet Union was marked by a significant preoccupation with
statelessness, as a significant proportion of the population was left without citizenship
(Jeromin 2022). Ensuring the perpetuation of citizenship during political transition and
state-building is an often neglected but crucial topic.
While the right to citizenship is fundamental to an individual’s rights, the
considerations of state rights should also not be neglected in the discussion of statelessness.
As stated by the UNHCR in 2023, the state has the authority to regulate its borders and
supervise the entry and exit of individuals within its territorial boundaries. A state’s decision
to grant or not grant citizenship to any individual is a reflection of its sovereignty.
Therefore, it is essential to recognize that citizenship is a privilege that requires stringent
adherence to a country’s laws and traditions. Laws and traditions often imply rights and
responsibilities. In comparison with those who have fulfilled their responsibilities, granting
citizenship to those who have not may be viewed as unjust (Hegazy 2018).

7
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

Challenges: State Sovereignty and Value in International Community

Statelessness is a problem area in international law, and the rights incumbent on the non-
refugee stateless are poorly defined (Fehervary 1993). In general, international law allows
states broad discretion in framing their own nationality law and deciding who shall be
citizens under the general principle of sovereignty. Pourmokhtari (2013) asserts that the
concept of state sovereignty has been exploited to maintain Western dominance over non-
Western states on numerous occasions. Western countries have recognized the
independence of the Baltic states and their competence to rule themselves and operate their
own public policies. However, the persistent incompatibilities between national laws of
states have resulted in hundreds of thousands of stateless persons. Although the cause of
massive statelessness in the Baltic states can reasonably be attributed to the breakup of the
former Soviet Union, it should be noted that experts concluded that statelessness was a
problem of increasing magnitude while states’ actions and inactions continued to
perpetuate the incidence of statelessness, even before the breakup of the former Soviet
Union (Fehervary 1993).

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

The point made by Kochenov and Kochenov (2017) regarding the necessity of
including citizenship continuity in a wider discussion on EU citizenship is especially
pertinent in the Baltic states. Conventional understanding of what it means to be a
sovereign nation is being tested by the concept of citizenship in the EU. According to
Kochenov and Kochenov (2017), some academics argue that it constitutes a paradigm shift
toward supranational governance. As the debate continues, the EU has not imposed a
universal framework regulating member countries’ nationality laws as of now,
acknowledging the sovereignty and jurisdiction of nationality laws of its member states.
However, the EU has some policies that influence the naturalization process and non-
citizens’ rights in their member countries (Bellamy 2017). Some of these guidelines reflect
the EU visions, common values of freedom of movement, and the protection of human
rights (Heindlmaier and Blauberger 2017). The negotiations between the EU and its
member states regarding public policies exemplify well the unavoidable influence that all
states face in the international community. Although the Baltic states, as with any other
sovereign state, have absolute discretion on their execution of nationality laws and
naturalization policies, their nationality laws are influenced by the international laws and
interstate laws they sign.
The ongoing tension between the sovereignty of member states and the supranational
authority of the EU in regard to statelessness issues can be theorized and illustrated under
legal pluralism. Legal pluralism is a legal theory that describes the coexistence of two or
more legal systems in the same social atmosphere. Given that EU member states are
operating their own different and separate legal systems along the regulations guided by the
EU (Gelazis 2004), the legal atmosphere within the EU is of legal plurality, further

8
 YAN: NON-CITIZENS’ CONTINUITY OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE BALTIC STATES

complicating the efforts to address statelessness uniformly within the EU’s borders. In a
legally pluralistic environment, any changes to public policies, including complicated
citizenship issues and statelessness, would require well-coordinated action, collaborations,
and complementary endeavors from the corresponding stakeholders. The internal tension
within the EU toward refugees, statelessness, and immigration, in general, makes it harder
to solve the statelessness problem by defining a unified approach to effectively interpreting
refugee laws and human rights protection (Kfir 2014). Also, the changing and developing
nature of the refugee crisis and population movement requires continuous discussions and
teamwork between the institutions of the EU, the countries of the EU, and organizations
with global scope that address the challenges arising from emerging scenarios and
supporting firm solutions.
A positive outcome is that the EU has meaningfully impacted the statelessness situation
in the Baltic states within the mentioned limitations. For instance, in Latvia, the EU’s
accession process has played a crucial role in shaping citizenship laws and policies in
candidate countries. Because of the accession negotiations, Latvia was obliged to liberalize
its citizenship laws by 1998 to tackle the problem of stateless individuals as a barrier to EU

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

incorporation (Zmiyenko 2018).

Political Stability

Political stability is essential for sustaining a robust democracy and a safe society (Bello Hutt
2022). Individuals who feel marginalized from the political sphere may experience feelings
of dissatisfaction and disappointment, which could contribute to political unrest and
instability. In fact, Polese et al.’s (2020) research on the Baltic states highlights the non-
citizens’ sense of disenfranchisement and marginalization resulting from political exclusion
as a potential contributing factor to the emergence of social tension and instability.
Thus, ensuring paths to citizenship and naturalization can contribute to political
stability. According to Smirnov (2020), the emergence of the elite class in the Baltic states is
explicable by the principle of state continuity, which prioritized the Euro-Atlantic trajectory
as the primary objective of their foreign policy. According to Smyth, Sobolev, and Soboleva
(2013), granting non-citizens citizenship and the right to vote in national elections would
facilitate their active participation in the political process and allow them to participate
fully in society. Adopting this measure has the potential to reduce the likelihood of political
unrest and instability by establishing an official channel for individuals to convey their
opinions and participate in the decision-making process for policies that affect their welfare.
Naturalization would not only grant non-citizens the opportunity to exercise their rights to
vote but would also grant them the opportunity to hold certain governmental positions that
they would otherwise be unable to. They could then take part in political processes and
influence the formulation of laws. According to Brown and Eckersley (2018), incorporating

9
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

several different points of view into a decision-making process can serve as a mechanism to
help strengthen political stability in any environment. Also, maintaining political stability
is essential for fostering economic expansion and attracting foreign investment. It is widely
believed that foreign investment plays an essential role in the growth path of developing
economies by augmenting domestic capital (Zangina, Hassan, and Harun 2019). Investors
have a greater propensity to invest in politically stable nations (De Castro, De Jesus, and
Agustin 2022) because they establish a reliable and secure environment for investors’
financial resources. Conversely, political instability can discourage investment and slow
down an expanding economy.
The belief that the provision of permanent citizenship to non-citizens in the Baltic
states is part of a larger discussion on citizenship education suggests that the method of
teaching and comprehending citizenship is pertinent to this topic. Özbek and Köksalan
(2015) have identified three distinct perspectives on citizenship that are useful in this area.
This text includes the perspectives of citizens who undertake personal responsibility,
citizens who engage in active participation, and citizens who place a premium on justice.
According to Özbek and Köksalan (2015), the concept of individual accountability in

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

citizenship requires individuals to assume the responsibility of understanding their rights
and responsibilities as community members. Individuals can act as change agents and take
ownership of their impact on the community when they assume responsibility for their
actions. Civic engagement and participation in the democratic process are valued
contributions to society Sabates-Wheeler et al. (2020). Active participation can play an
important role in shaping the community and furthering the common good. In contrast,
individuals who prioritize justice tend to exhibit a propensity for social justice and equality,
recognizing the significance of addressing social injustices and striving toward a more
equitable society (Veugelers and de Groot 2019). The notion that citizens are obligated to
advance the progress of their communities and improve the well-being of all their members
is shared by all three perspectives on citizenship. The issue of maintaining citizenship status
for non-citizens in the Baltic states is significant from multiple perspectives, as it raises
concerns regarding the responsibilities and obligations of citizens and non-citizens in
promoting social justice, equality, and civic engagement in these societies.
The issue of bestowing citizenship to non-citizens in the Baltic republics is a topic of
broader discourse on citizenship education, as it poses obstacles to the teaching and
understanding of citizenship in these nations (Carpinelli 2019). Diverse conceptualizations
of citizenship underscore distinct principles and goals emphasized in the field of citizenship
education. Due to the emphasis on individual accountability and autonomy, a focus on the
personally accountable citizen may not be conducive to resolution in the context of
extending citizenship to non-citizens. Alternately, prioritizing justice for citizens could
involve reducing social inequalities and fostering a more equitable society. This may make
it easier to resolve the issue of granting citizenship to non-citizens. Kochenov and Kochenov

10
 YAN: NON-CITIZENS’ CONTINUITY OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE BALTIC STATES

(2017) makes the case that the awarding of citizenship to non-citizens in the Baltic nations
is a part of a larger conversation about citizenship in the EU. The foreign identities of non-
citizens further complicate the issue, which has substantial ramifications for the concept of
cultural distinction (Teo 2021). This is because non-citizenship status has significant
implications for the concept of cultural differentiation. According to Kuchina (2016), the
topic of dual citizenship and sovereignty extends beyond the confines of legal
categorization and incorporates the idea of national sovereignty. This perspective highlights
how important it is to have a solid knowledge of the implications of dual citizenship on the
sovereignty of states.
In the Baltic states, the question of whether or not to grant citizenship to those who are
not citizens has been deeply entangled with the topic of national sovereignty, especially to
those who are citizens of another nation. According to Kuchina (2016), the concept of dual
citizenship presents a challenge to the idea of a coherent national identity and raises worries
over the potential erosion of nation-state sovereignty. When viewed from this vantage
point, the issue of continual preservation of citizenship is not merely a legal concern; rather,
it has substantial ramifications for the power of the state. This is because citizenship is

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

something that must be maintained continuously. Particularly in Latvia and Estonia, the
question of whether to open the path for naturalization has been a regular topic of political
discussion and conflict. Challengers suggest that citizenship for non-natives can be seen as a
potential challenge to the social and linguistic power of the dominant population, which
can lead to unfavorable sentiments toward communities that are minority groups. Some
people believe that providing citizenship to non-citizens in the Baltic republics could make
ethnic and linguistic divisions that already exist in the region worse, which would be
detrimental to social cohesion and stability. Oppositely, supporters, scholars suggest that
the fact that the Russian-speaking minority in the Baltic nation does not have citizenship
status has resulted in discrimination and marginalization, which in turn has contributed to
tensions and protests. After all, when citizenship is directly linked to the entitlement of
such rights and privileges, the bargain on who can and who cannot be a citizen of a nation
becomes a competition for social resources. According to social conflict theory, competition
for power, wealth, and status leads to societal conflict (Esteban, Mayoral, and Ray 2012).
The debates in Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania over citizenship rights to non-citizens should
nevertheless be interpreted as bargains about a competitive edge in entitlement to social,
legal, and political rights.

Social Integration

In the Baltic states, offering citizenship for non-citizens is believed to enhance social
cohesion, integration, political stability, and respect for human rights. According to the
UNHCR (UNHCR, Nordic and Baltic Countries, n.d.), the lack of legitimacy for

11
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

individuals who are not recognized as citizens can lead to a sense of exclusion and
marginalization in society. The possibility of such occurrences could lead to social unrest
and political instability. The concept of continuity of citizenship refers to the principle of
extending the same rights and protections to non-citizens as to citizens (Shmatenko 2024).
Individuals would be equipped with the tools necessary to actively partake in various
societal endeavors and make significant contributions to the progress and growth of their
respective communities through this strategy.
Teo (2019) argues that granting citizenship to non-citizens may cultivate a sense of
belonging and introspection, thereby fostering greater collective cohesion and stability.
Citizenship confers specific benefits, such as the ability to partake in the electoral process
and run for public office, allowing individuals to effectively participate in the decision-
making processes of their respective societies. The development of a sense of connectedness
has the potential to increase an individual’s propensity for positive social engagement. From
the perspective of social positioning theory, citizenship—the attachment to rights and
responsibilities to a nation—can be interpreted as the organizing structure of the social
constitution in which people are organized. Since people, as social beings, position

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

themselves through their access to rights, obligations, and duties in a society (Harré 2012),
the meaning of their social being cannot be detached from their citizenship. The experience
of the Polish ethnic minority in Lithuania well illustrates the connections between social
being and citizenship. The issue at hand has been an ongoing source of concern for the
Polish minority residing in Lithuania, who have encountered obstacles in obtaining
Lithuanian citizenship and have been subjected to discriminatory practices in several areas,
including education, employment, and political participation (Sotirovic 2020). The
contentious nature of the issue is evident from its discussion at the highest levels of
government, as evidenced by the Polish president’s mention of it in bilateral conversations
with his Lithuanian counterpart (Musaev 2022). Thus, citizenship policies have framed
complex power dynamics and social hierarchies within the society.
To understand the attempts of post-Soviet Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania to promote
social cohesiveness, the ethnic and linguistic divisions that have emerged because of Soviet
rule must be taken into consideration. These divisions have been brought about because of
Soviet occupation. Muiznieks, Rozenvalds, and Birka (2013) undertook a study exploring
the one-of-a-kind conditions that prevail in the Baltic states and their reaction to the
pressure exerted on them by the international community to develop integration and social
inclusion policies. The authors emphasize the significance of numerous elements, including
the impression of danger, the historical backdrop, linguistic and citizenship laws, and socio-
economic disparity, in the process of cultivating a sense of connection among Russian
speakers toward their individual Baltic state. According to the claims made in this article,
the Baltic republics, particularly Latvia, have not yet put into place any methods to combat
the growing socio-economic inequality that poses a risk to the long-term stability of social

12
 YAN: NON-CITIZENS’ CONTINUITY OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE BALTIC STATES

cohesion. There is a correlation between social cohesion and a reduction in the likelihood
of intergroup conflicts occurring within communities that are linguistically and ethnically
diverse. According to the findings of Muiznieks, Rozenvalds, and Birka (2013), increasing
social cohesiveness can be accomplished by decreasing the risk of conflicts occurring
between various racial, ethnic, and linguistic groups.
Muiznieks, Rozenvalds, and Birka (2013) have documented instances of tension and
conflict between the majority and minority populations in the multi-ethnic and
multicultural societies that make up the Baltic states. While formal compliance with the
EU’s minority rights regime had been adopted, it has been reported that these measures had
not noticeably altered the minority rights conditions in the Baltic states (Ananda and
Dawson 2024). The practice of denying citizenship to non-citizens has the potential to
exacerbate existing conflicts and foster ambiguity and mistrust among various segments of
society. Lähdesmäki et al. (2021) conducted research indicating that non-citizens are unable
to participate in social welfare or health-care systems, resulting in negative effects on their
social rights and general welfare. Excluding individuals based on their citizenship status can
give the impression of social inequality and disparity. Therefore, it is imperative that the

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

Baltic states acknowledge the continued existence of non-citizen citizenship as a crucial
element of both social cohesion and integration.
The act of granting citizenship to non-natives in a certain region could be seen as a
technique to promote cultural homogeneity and minimize cultural diversity in the Baltic
region from certain points of view. This is because citizenship confers the right to vote and to
hold public office. Alijeva (2017) believes that the implementation of citizenship policies that
encourage cultural assimilation could eventually lead to the disintegration of the traditional
identities and cultures of minority communities. Citizenship policies promote cultural
assimilation. This problem arises because of the widely held belief that one must demonstrate
that one has satisfied the language and cultural requirements of the dominant community to
qualify for citizenship. This reasoning affects the Baltic region, which includes Estonia and
Latvia and has a large Russian-speaking population without citizenship.
Kochenov (2019) claims that the granting of everlasting citizenship to non-citizens is a
complex topic, with some persons voicing fears that it might represent a threat to the
cultural legacy of the Baltic nations and produce political instability. According to this
point of view, the Baltic republics can maintain their distinct national identities and past
historical legitimacy because they have managed to keep their citizenship intact. Grytsiak
and Khlopchyk (2022) are concerned about the potential influence that insufficient
participation by non-citizens in social and political matters could have on democratic
processes and social cohesion in their respective countries. According to those who are
opposed to the practice of granting citizenship to those who are not already citizens of that
nation, the protection of a nation’s cultural identity and heritage is crucial to ensuring that
the nation continues to exist as a cohesive whole. Eggers, Grages, and Pfau-Effinger (2019)

13
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

claim that if non-citizens in the Baltic states were granted continuance of citizenship, they
would be eligible for social welfare benefits. As a result of the eligibility requirements being
broadened to include non-citizens, those who were previously unable to make use of these
services will now be able to do so, and there will be a potential rise in demand. If the social
welfare systems in the region come under strain because of the predicted rise in demand,
this will result in inadequate resources to fulfill the growing need.
In addition, the provision of social welfare benefits to non-citizens has the potential to
cause resentment among citizens, who may perceive that their tax dollars are being used to
support non-citizens who do not make equivalent economic contributions (Merkley and
Loewen 2020). This resentment might be a result of the citizens’ perception that their tax
dollars are being used to assist non-citizens who do not make comparable economic
contributions. This circumstance has the potential to incite social upheaval and erode popular
support for the continuation of citizenship for people who are not citizens of the US.
It is essential to acknowledge that the possible strain on social welfare systems should
not be used as a rationale for denying continuous citizenship to non-citizens. This is
because such a justification would violate the principle of equal treatment under the law.

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

The preceding argument highlights the need for efficient resource allocation and planning
to guarantee that social welfare initiatives are equipped to satisfy the requirements of all
inhabitants, regardless of nationality. This can be accomplished by ensuring that social
welfare initiatives are well planned. This highlights how important it is to address the
underlying problems that contribute to the need for social welfare, such as unemployment
and poverty, which affect citizens and non-citizens in the same way.

Legal Aspects

Ius postliminii is a concept that deals with the reinstatement of the rights and standing of
individuals who were previously held hostage during a conflict and were later liberated
(Karski 2014). This doctrine is relevant to the question of preserving citizenship for non-
citizens in the Baltic states. The doctrine might be applicable to emigrants from the former
Soviet Union who settled in the Baltic states after the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991. The
problem at hand involves people who were made stateless not because of their own
conscious decision to renounce their citizenship but rather because of the establishment of
new nation-states (Zaslavsky 2018). The acknowledgment of legal and historical obligations
to ensure the continuity of citizenship for non-citizens is of utmost significance for the
Baltic states. This recognition is of critical importance for the Baltic states. Implementation
of such procedures makes it possible to defend the rights of non-citizens and ensure that
their legal standing is restored in accordance with the ius postliminii theory (Shlapentokh
2017). Both these goals can be accomplished simultaneously. According to Karski (2014),
democratic nations’ dealings with both their domestic population and foreign people

14
 YAN: NON-CITIZENS’ CONTINUITY OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE BALTIC STATES

require a technique that is consistent with the values of justice and impartiality. The
methodology in question is consistent with the aforementioned methodology.
Regarding the potential legal ramifications of granting citizenship to non-citizens of
the Baltic region, there are various points of view. The prospective legal and political
implications of granting citizenship to non-citizens in the Baltic states are viewed differently
by scholars (Mälksoo 2022). It has been suggested that an abrupt influx of individuals with
diverse cultural backgrounds and divergent political viewpoints may have the potential to
disrupt the existing legal and political frameworks, leading to a state of instability and
uncertainty (Estevens 2018).

Economic Aspects

Citizenship that is granted to non-citizens can diminish the amount of competition that
exists in the labor market. This phenomenon can be linked to the enhanced opportunities
that are available to non-citizens, who formerly had restrictions placed on their ability to
pursue these chances (Scheibelhofer 2022). As a direct consequence of this, these persons

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

may now have more employment stability and may be eligible for benefits from social
welfare programs. It is possible that this phenomenon may result in a workforce that is
more secure and satisfied, which will contribute to an increase in productivity and
economic growth. It’s possible that granting citizenship to people who aren’t already
citizens may make it easier for residents of Baltic states to have a feeling of belonging and
kinship with one another. The promotion of social cohesion and the alleviation of social
tensions both have the potential to have a beneficial effect on economic growth. The
provision of permanent citizenship to those who are not already residents of the Baltic
states has the potential to produce economic benefits for the region as well as for the
residents of those states. Research conducted by Bromley (2022) on the process of
negotiating trade agreements in the Baltic region reveals the intricacy of the economic
repercussions that would result from allowing non-citizens in the Baltic states a continuous
status of citizenship. Bromley’s study was conducted in the year 2022. The study places a
strong emphasis on the relevance of international business partnerships and the impact that
these partnerships have on the economic environment. The statement highlights the value
of adaptation in the face of shifting circumstances, such as the disintegration of the Soviet
Union and the subsequent formation of new independent states. Specifically, the statement
cites the example of the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
The research that Hazans (2016) conducted on migratory trends in the Baltic states
suggests that providing citizenship to non-citizens may have adverse effects on the
economy. The phenomenon of “brain drain,” which refers to the exodus of highly educated
workers from a given area, has had a detrimental impact on the local economy. A lack of
available workers, a fall in overall productivity, and an increase in joblessness are some of

15
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

these issues. Citizenship for non-citizens may have the unintended consequence of
compounding the situation by providing an incentive for highly trained people to leave the
country. This could result in further economic strain for the country. Additionally,
providing citizenship to non-citizens has the potential to have adverse consequences on the
economy by encouraging migration from surrounding nations. The probable difficulties
that may arise because of the advantageous positioning of the Baltic republics within
Europe are notable. The prospect of a sizable rise in the number of immigrants has the
potential to exacerbate the economic challenges that the Baltic states are currently facing,
heighten the level of competitiveness in the labor market, and place additional demands on
the various social welfare systems. Therefore, while the malleable nature of citizenship and
nationality throughout history may have benefited merchants and facilitated international
trade deals, the complicated economic ramifications of providing citizenship to non-citizens
must be carefully studied in the modern day. This is because granting citizenship to non-
citizens can have significant long-term effects on a country’s economy.

Research Shortcomings

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

Although some studies have been conducted on the issue of statelessness in the Baltic states,
considerable gaps remain in our understanding of the implications and possible benefits of
awarding continuous citizenship to non-citizens in the region. This is the case even though
some of the states in the region have already taken steps to address the issue. There is an
immediate need for more research to be conducted on the experiences and points of view of
those who are not citizens of the Baltic states. This research investigates the reasons behind
individuals’ decisions to retain their non-citizen status, their encounters with prejudice and
exclusion, and their thoughts on the benefits and drawbacks of keeping their non-citizen
identities. The current study has the potential to improve policymakers’ awareness of the
needs and concerns of non-native individuals in the region. As a result, the study could make
it easier for policymakers to formulate policies that are more suitable to the demands of non-
native individuals. In addition, there is a demand for comparative research on the topic of
non-citizenship in a variety of countries and areas all over the world. This endeavor can enable
the discovery of the most successful techniques and fruitful tactics for promoting the social
integration and inclusion of non-citizens, and it has the potential to do so by making it
possible to uncover such techniques and strategies. This study can provide useful insights
regarding the benefits of non-citizens retaining citizenship as well as the limits that come
along with it. In addition, it may be of assistance in addressing the concerns and objections
that have been voiced by persons who are opposed to the measures that are being taken.
It is vital to conduct additional research on the potential economic, social, and political
benefits of safeguarding the non-citizen citizenship status of individuals in the Baltic states.
These benefits might be realized by maintaining the non-citizen status of individuals in the

16
 YAN: NON-CITIZENS’ CONTINUITY OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE BALTIC STATES

Baltic states. The emergence of research in this field has the potential to hasten the benefits
and downsides of these policies being identified, providing policymakers with useful
information that can be used during the deliberation process. The potential economic gains
that may result from increasing the employment of non-citizens could be the subject of a
prospective research domain. This could be the case if the employability of non-citizens is
improved. In addition, it is possible that it would be good to study the potential political
gains that could follow from encouraging stronger social cohesiveness and political stability
in the region. This could be viewed as desirable for several reasons.
There has been a notable lack of research conducted on the continuity of citizenship for
non-citizens in the Baltic states. Additional studies are required to gain a complete
understanding of the viewpoints and experiences of non-citizens in the region, to discover
optimal techniques and effective rules, and to evaluate the potential benefits and drawbacks
of maintaining non-citizenship continuity.
Another limitation of these perspectives is the likelihood of the author to oversimplify
intricate matters. These perspectives capture the benefits and disadvantages of awarding
citizenship to non-natives in Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. However, these perspectives

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

may oversimplify the underlying complexity. Making a conclusion about a topic whose
verdict depends on reviewing political, legal, and social dimensions presents many
challenges that demand extraordinary scrutiny. Therefore, the author’s arrival at
conclusions might obscure the intricacies involved in this discourse.

Conclusion

An exhaustive study of a wide range of legal, political, and social aspects must be conducted
to arrive at a conclusion on whether to make the path to citizenship and naturalization
more attainable in the Baltic states. The issue is intricate and complex. A contentious
subject is whether non-citizens should be allowed to apply for citizenship in the country in
which they have continuously resided. Some individuals contend that taking such a step
could result in the loss of one’s cultural identity and the escalation of political conflicts.
Conversely, many believe it has the capacity to foster a sense of belonging, integration, and
communal cohesion among its participants.
An argument has been offered here that supports the acknowledgment of the
uninterrupted continuity of citizenship for non-citizens in the Baltic states. This argument
is supported by the concepts of fairness, fundamental human rights, and communal
cohesiveness. The recognition of citizenship is strengthened by several different aspects,
including legal, political, and societal factors. Significant characteristics that warrant the
recognition of citizenship include postliminii, democratic inclusion and involvement, and
social integration. These are the three dimensions of postliminii.

17
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

To conclude further, the issue of statelessness in the Baltic states, which have been
independent of the Soviet Union, has deepened since it is historically, demographically, and
legally based. Despite the EU’s attempt to confront this urgent human rights problem,
complications endure due to discrepancies in citizenship regulations, legal pluralism, and
the marginalization of ethnic minorities. Effective solutions to citizenship require extensive
policy reforms, trans-border cooperation, and a commitment to fundamental human rights
for all residents and non-citizens.
It has the potential to promote the implementation of democratic norms, preserve
human rights, and develop equity within the society if the continuous citizenship status of
non-citizens in the Baltic republics is recognized. As a result, it is essential for the decision
makers and any other stakeholders to conduct an exhaustive investigation of the arguments
and work toward a solution that is driven by consensus and that is to the collective
advantage of all members of society.

AI Acknowledgment
The author declares that generative AI or AI-assisted technologies were not used in any way

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

to prepare, write, or complete essential authoring tasks in this manuscript.

Conflict of Interest
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

REFERENCES

Alijeva, Lilija. 2017. “Left behind? A Critical Study of the Russian-Speaking Minority Rights
to Citizenship and Language in the Post-Soviet Baltic States. Lessons from
Nationalising Language Policies.” International Journal on Minority and Group
Rights 24 (4): 484–536. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718115-02404004.
Ananda, Aurelia, and James Dawson. 2024. “Cultural Liberalism in Eastern and Western
Europe: A Societal Antidote to Democratic Backsliding?” Journal of European Public
Policy 31 (3): 801–824. https://doi.org/10.1080/13501763.2023.2179101.
Bailey, Zinzi D., Nancy Krieger, Madina Agénor, Jasmine Graves, Natalia Linos, and Mary
T. Bassett. 2017. “Structural Racism and Health Inequities in the USA: Evidence
and Interventions.” Lancet 389 (10077): 1453–1463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-
6736(17)30569-X.
Banasik, Mirosław. 2023. “Russian Federation’s Threats to the Baltic States.” Online Journal
Modelling the New Europe (41): 139. https://doi.org/10.24193/OJMNE.2023.41.06.
Bellamy, Richard. 2017. “Evaluating Union Citizenship: Belonging, Rights and
Participation within the EU.” In Citizenship Rights, edited by Jo Shaw, 514pp.
London: Routledge.

18
 YAN: NON-CITIZENS’ CONTINUITY OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE BALTIC STATES

Bello Hutt, Donald. 2022. “Rule of Law and Political Representation.” Hague Journal on the
Rule of Law 14 (1): 1–25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40803-021-00163-5.
Bromley, Hugo. 2022. “Political Economy in the Baltic Borderlands: Commercial Interests
and the Anglo-Russian Treaty of Commerce, 1766.” Studia Historica Gedanensia
13:70–90. https://doi.org/10.4467/23916001hg.22.005.17425.
Brown, Chris, and Robyn Eckersley, eds. 2018. “International Political Theory and the Real
World.” In The Oxford Handbook of International Political Theory, 3–18. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Carpinelli, Cristina. 2019. “The Citizenship Policies of the Baltic States within the EU
Framework on Minority Rights.” Polish Political Science Yearbook 48 (2): 193–221.
https://doi.org/10.15804/ppsy2019201.
Cutler, Kelly J. 2015. “A Review of Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the
Persistence of Racial Inequality in America (4th Ed.).” Multicultural Perspectives 17 (4):
235–237. https://doi.org/10.1080/15210960.2015.1088310.
Davymuka, O. O. 2021. “Strategic Assessment of Modern Security Threats by the Baltic-Black
Sea Region States.” Politicus (2). https://doi.org/10.24195/2414-9616.2021-2.16.

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

De Castro, Sean Paul A., Genesis P. De Jesus, and Nicasio Angelo J. Agustin. 2022. “An
Exploratory Analysis of Related Macroeconomic Indicators as Determinants to
Economic Growth.” Journal of Economics, Finance and Accounting Studies 4 (1): 314–
339. https://doi.org/10.32996/jefas.2022.4.1.21.
Duffy, Simon. 2022. “Citizenship and Human Rights.” In Lived Citizenship for Persons in
Vulnerable Life Situations, edited by Kirsten Jæger Fjetland, Anita Gjermestad, and
Inger Marie Lid, 114–130. Oslo: Scandinavian University Press.
Eggers, Thurid, Christopher Grages, and Birgit Pfau-Effinger. 2019. “Self-Responsibility of
the ‘Active Social Citizen’: Different Types of the Policy Concept of ‘Active Social
Citizenship’ in Different Types of Welfare States.” American Behavioral Scientist 63
(1): 43–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764218816803.
Esteban, Joan, Laura Mayoral, and Debraj Ray. 2012. “Ethnicity and Conflict: Theory and
Facts.” Science 336 (6083): 858–865. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1222240.
Estevens, João. 2018. “Migration Crisis in the EU: Developing a Framework for Analysis of
National Security and Defence Strategies.” Comparative Migration Studies 6 (1): 28.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-018-0093-3.
Fehervary, Andras. 1993. “Citizenship, Statelessness and Human Rights: Recent
Developments in the Baltic States.” International Journal of Refugee Law 5 (3): 392–
423. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/5.3.392.
Franco, Jennifer C., Sofía Monsalve, and Saturnino M. Borras. 2015. “Democratic Land
Control and Human Rights.” Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability
15:66–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.08.010.

19
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

Gelazis, Nida. 2004. “The European Union and the Statelessness Problem in the Baltic
States.” European Journal of Migration and Law 6 (3): 225–242.
https://doi.org/10.1163/1571816043020048.
Grytsiak, Lesia, and Valeriia Khlopchyk. 2022. “Multiculturalism and the Dialogue of
Cultures in the Modern Global Society.” Grail of Science 22:219–223.
https://doi.org/10.36074/grail-of-science.25.11.2022.43.
Harré, Rom. 2012. “Positioning Theory: Moral Dimensions of Social-Cultural Psychology.”
In The Oxford Handbook of Culture and Psychology, edited by Jaan Valsiner, 191–206.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hazans, Mihails. 2016. “Migration Experience of the Baltic Countries in the Context of
Economic Crisis.” In Labor Migration, EU Enlargement, and the Great Recession,
edited by M. Kahanec and K. F. Zimmermann, 297–344. Berlin: Springer.
Hegazy, Ahmed. 2018. “Human Rights & Culture of Citizenship Critical View.” ‫ هرمس‬7
(4): 259–277. https://doi.org/10.21608/herms.2018.66239.
Heindlmaier, Anita, and Michael Blauberger. 2017. “Enter at Your Own Risk: Free
Movement of EU Citizens in Practice.” West European Politics 40 (6): 1198–1217.

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2017.1294383.
Horchakova, Veronika. 2022. “Strengthening the Transatlantic Partnership: Challenges and
Opportunities for the Baltic States.” In Teisinės Minties Šventė 2022: Studentu
Moksliniu Straipsniu Rinkinys, 96–106. Vilnius: Mykolo Romerio Universitetas.
Ivanauskas, Vilius, Vytautas Keršanskas, and Laurynas Kasčiunas. 2017. “Kaliningrad Factor
in Lithuanian—Russian Relations: Implications to the Security Issues of
Lithuania.” Lithuanian Annual Strategic Review 15 (1): 119–149.
https://doi.org/10.1515/lasr-2017-0006.
Janoski, Thomas. 2021. “General Perspectives: Citizenship Rights and Migration.” In
Handbook of Citizenship and Migration, edited by Marco Giugni and Maria Grasso,
178–193. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Jelin, Elizabeth. 2019. “Citizenship Revisited: Solidarity, Responsibility, and Rights.” In
Constructing Democracy: Human Rights, Citizenship, and Society in Latin America.
London: Routledge.
Jeromin, Jacqueline. 2022. Statelessness in Estonia and Latvia. Evanston, IL: Northwestern
University Press.
Karski, Karol. 2014. “ ‘Ius Postliminii’ jako Podstawa Uznania Ciagłości Przedwojennych I
Dzisiejszych Państw Bałtyckich” [‘Ius Postliminii’ as the Grounds for the
Recognition of Continuity Between the Pre-War and the Present-Day Baltic States].
Zeszyty Prawnicze 14 (1): 7–53. https://doi.org/10.21697/zp.2014.14.1.01.
Kfir, Isaac. 2014. “Refugee Law in Context: Natural Law, Legal Positivism and the
Convention.” SSRN Electronic Journal 45. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2493157.
Kochenov, Dimitry. 2019. Citizenship. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

20
 YAN: NON-CITIZENS’ CONTINUITY OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE BALTIC STATES

Kochenov, Dimitry, and Dimitry Kochenov. 2017. “Citizenship of the European Union and
Brexit.” In Kälin and Kochenov’s Quality of Nationality Index, edited by D. Kochenov
and J. Lindeboom, 216–221. Oxford: Hart Publishing.
Kreide, Regina. 2022. “Global (In)justice and the Human Right to Housing. A Practice-
Based Approach.” Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy 25
(1): 107–127. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698230.2020.1859225.
Kuchina, Mariya. 2016. “Threats to National Security of the Russian Federation.” SSRN
Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2860066.
Kuczyńska-Zonik, Aleksandra. 2017. “Non-Citizens in Latvia: Is It a Real Problem?” Sprawy
Narodowościowe. Seria Nowa (49). https://doi.org/10.11649/sn.1438.
Lähdesmäki, Tuuli, Katja Mäkinen, Viktorija L. A. Čeginskas, and Sigrid Kaasik-Krogerus.
2021. Europe from below: Notions of Europe and the European among Participants in
EU Cultural Initiatives. European Studies. Leiden, the Netherlands/Boston: Brill.
Mälksoo, Lauri. 2022. “Lauri Mälksoo, Review of Michael Riepl, Russian Contributions to
International Humanitarian Law: A Contrastive Analysis of Russia’s Historical
Role and Its Current Practice.” European Journal of International Law 33 (3): 1025–

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

1031. https://doi.org/10.1093/ejil/chac050.
Merkley, Eric, and Peter John Loewen. 2020. “Social Distancing as a Public Goods
Dilemma: High Economic Cost Reduces Voluntary Compliance.” OSF Preprints,
May 21, 2020. https://doi.org/10.31219/osf.io/yht9v.
Mihăiță, G., 2017. “Estonia’s Non-Citizens, Citizens of the European Union?.” In Claiming
Citizenship Rights in Europe, 116–129. New York: Routledge.
Muiznieks, Nils, Juris Rozenvalds, and Ieva Birka. 2013. “Ethnicity and Social Cohesion in
the Post-Soviet Baltic States.” Patterns of Prejudice 47 (3): 288–308.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2013.812349.
Musaev, V. I. 2022. “ ‘Polish Question’ in Lithuania and Problems of Polish-Lithuanian
Relations at the Turn of the Century.” Baltic Region 14 (3): 49–63.
https://doi.org/10.5922/2079-8555-2022-3-3.
Osler, Audrey. 2020. “Education, Migration and Citizenship in Europe: Untangling Policy
Initiatives for Human Rights and Racial Justice.” Intercultural Education 31 (5):
562–577. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2020.1794231.
Owen, David. 2018. “On the Right to Have Nationality Rights: Statelessness, Citizenship
and Human Rights.” Netherlands International Law Review 65 (3): 299–317.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s40802-018-0116-7.
Özbek, Ramazan, and Bahadır Köksalan. 2015. “Evaluation of Pre-Service Teachers’
Opinions Concerning the Objectives of the Citizenship Education.” Elektronik
Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 14 (54): 129–140. https://doi.org/10.17755/esosder.91761.

21
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

Pettai, Vello. 2019. “The Baltic States: Keeping the Faith in Turbulent Times.” Canadian
Journal of European and Russian Studies 13 (2): 39–63.
https://doi.org/10.22215/cjers.v13i2.2562.
Pettinicchio, David, and Robert de Vries. 2017. “Immigrant Political Participation in
Europe: Comparing Different Forms of Political Action across Groups.”
Comparative Sociology 16 (4): 523–554. https://doi.org/10.1163/15691330-12341436.
Peyrouse, Sébastien. 2008. The Russian Minority in Central Asia: Migration, Politics, and
Language. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
Polese, Abel, Oleksandra Seliverstova, Tanel Kerikmae, and Ammon Cheskin. 2020.
“National Identity for Breakfast: Food Consumption and the Everyday
Construction of National Narratives in Estonia.” Nationalities Papers 48 (6): 1015–
1035. https://doi.org/10.1017/nps.2019.131.
“Political Governance and Citizen Rights.” 2022. Journal of Legal and Political Studies 10 (1).
https://sites.google.com/a/univsul.edu.iq/journal-of-politics-and-law/issues/volume-
10-issue-01-2022?authuser=0.
Pourmokhtari, Navid. 2013. “A Postcolonial Critique of State Sovereignty in IR: The

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

Contradictory Legacy of a ‘West-Centric’ Discipline.” Third World Quarterly 34 (10):
1767–1793. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2013.851888.
Robbins, Christopher. 2004. “Racism and the Authority of Neoliberalism: A Review of
Three New Books on the Persistence of Racial Inequality in a Color-Blind Era.”
Journal for Critical Education Policy Studies 2 (2): 244–275.
http://www.jceps.com/wp-content/uploads/PDFs/02-2-09.pdf.
Sabates-Wheeler, Rachel, Nikhil Wilmink, Abdul-Gafaru Abdulai, Richard de Groot, and
Tayllor Spadafora. 2020. “Linking Social Rights to Active Citizenship for the Most
Vulnerable: The Role of Rights and Accountability in the ‘Making’ and ‘Shaping’
of Social Protection.” European Journal of Development Research 32 (1): 129–151.
https://doi.org/10.1057/s41287-019-00223-5.
Scheibelhofer, Elisabeth. 2022. “Migrants’ Experiences with Limited Access to Social
Protection in a Framework of EU Post‐National Policies.” Social Inclusion 10 (1):
91–112. https://doi.org/10.17645/si.v10i1.4660.
Sergunin, A. A. 2021. “Societal Security in the Baltic Sea Region: The Russian Perspective.”
Baltic Region 13 (3): 4–24. https://doi.org/10.5922/2079-8555-2021-3-1.
Shlapentokh, Vladimir. 2017. A Normal Totalitarian Society: How the Soviet Union Functioned
and How It Collapsed. New York: Routledge.
Shmatenko, Leonid. 2024. “Wiki Note: Continuous Nationality Rule.” Edited by Kabir A.
N. Duggal. Jus Mundi, April 29, 2024. https://jusmundi.com/en/document
/publication/en-continuous-nationality-rule#:~:text=(b)%20any%20juridical
%20person%20which,to%20the%20dispute%20on%20that.

22
 YAN: NON-CITIZENS’ CONTINUITY OF CITIZENSHIP IN THE BALTIC STATES

Smirnov, Vadim A. 2020. “The Role of the Elites in Choosing the Foreign Policy Priorities
of the Baltic States.” RUDN Journal of Political Science 22 (4): 603–616.
https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-1438-2020-22-4-603-616.
Smyth, Regina, Anton Sobolev, and Irina Soboleva. 2013. “A Well-Organized Play:
Symbolic Politics and the Effect of the Pro-Putin Rallies.” Problems of Post-
Communism 60 (2): 24–39. https://doi.org/10.2753/PPC1075-8216600203.
Sotirovic, Vladislav B. 2020. “Lithuania’s Minorities: Rights and Problems (III).” Oriental Review.
https://orientalreview.su/2020/11/03/lithuanias-minorities-rights-and-problems-iii/.
UNHCR, Nordic and Baltic Countries. n.d. “Statelessness.” Accessed January 20, 2024.
https://www.unhcr.org/neu/about/our-work-statelessness#:~:text=Statelessness
%20in%20the%20Nordic%20and%20Baltic%20countries&text=Nevertheless%2C%
20UNHCR%20estimates%2C%20based%20on,undetermined%20citizenship%20in
%20Estonia.
Teo, Terri-Anne. 2019. Civic Multiculturalism in Singapore. Cham, Switzerland: Springer
International Publishing.
Teo, Terri-Anne. 2021. “Multiculturalism beyond Citizenship: The Inclusion of Non-

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

Citizens.” Ethnicities 21 (1): 165–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796820984939.
Veebel, Viljar, and Raul Markus. 2015. “Europe’s Refugee Crisis in 2015 and Security
Threats from the Baltic Perspective.” Journal of Politics and Law 8 (4): 254–262.
https://doi.org/10.5539/jpl.v8n4p254.
Veugelers, Wiel, and Isolde de Groot. 2019. “Theory and Practice of Citizenship
Education.” In Education for Democratic Intercultural Citizenship, edited by Wiel
Veugelers, 14–41. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
Vorotnkov, V. V., and A. Habarta. 2021. “Migration from Post-Soviet Countries to Poland
and the Baltic States: Trends and Features.” Baltic Region 13 (4): 79–94.
https://doi.org/10.5922/2079-8555-2021-4-5.
Weissmann, Mikael. 2019. “Hybrid Warfare and Hybrid Threats Today and Tomorrow:
Towards an Analytical Framework.” Journal on Baltic Security 5 (1): 17–26.
https://doi.org/10.2478/jobs-2019-0002.
Zangina, Suleiman, Sallahuddin Hassan, and Mukaramah Harun. 2019. “An Analysis of the
Literature on Political Stability and Foreign Direct Investment.” International Journal of
Innovation, Creativity and Change 6 (10): 420–451. http://www.jceps.com/wp-
content/uploads/PDFs/02-2-09.pdf.
Zaslavsky, Victor. 2018. “The Soviet Union.” In After Empire, 1st ed., edited by Karen Barkey
and Mark Von Hagen, 73–96. New York: Routledge.
Zmiyenko, Oleksandra. 2018. “The EU: Power(less) in Statelessness? The Case of the Baltic
States.” Zhurnal Issledovanii Sotsial’noi Politiki 16 (4): 677–690.
https://doi.org/10.17323/727-0634-2018-16-4-677-690.

23
THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INTERDISCIPLINARY SOCIAL AND COMMUNITY STUDIES

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Cassadee Orinthia Yan: Managing Researcher, Social Impact Department, Maslow

Quest Foundation, Rarotonga, Cook Islands
Email: c@mq.org

Downloaded on Sat Nov 16 2024 at 07:10:11 UTC

24