1.

Modals and the Meaning of Modals

Modals are auxiliary verbs that express necessity, possibility, permission, ability, advice, and
deduction. Common modals: can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would, ought to.

Modal Meaning Example

Must Strong obligation / deduction You must wear a seatbelt. / He must be tired.

Should Advice You should eat more vegetables.

Might/May Possibility It might rain tomorrow.

Can Ability / Permission She can swim. / Can I go now?

Could Past ability / polite requests I could read at 4. / Could you help me?

📝 Exercises:

1. You ___ be exhausted after the flight.

2. ___ I borrow your pen?
3. You ___ eat so much junk food. (advice)
4. They ___ be at home – the lights are off.
5. I ___ ride a bike when I was five.
6. He ___ be the thief – he was abroad!
7. You ___ study harder if you want to pass.
8. I ___ lift that box alone yesterday. (past ability – negative)
9. ___ you like a coffee?
10. You ___ not park here. (prohibition)
11. ___ we go now? (suggestion)
12. I think it ___ snow later.
13. If you’re tired, you ___ take a break.
14. He ___ swim faster than anyone in his class.
15. That ___ be his car – it’s too small.
16. You ___ wear a helmet – it’s the law.
17. ___ I ask you a question?
18. They ___ be on holiday – I saw them at the airport.
19. I ___ see very well before I got glasses.
20. You ___ call your grandmother more often.
2. Modals + Infinitives

✅ Explanation:

Use modal verbs + base infinitive for present/future. Use modal verbs + be + verb in ing for
present/ongoing actions. Use modal + have + past participle to talk about the past. Use modal +
have + been + verb in ing to talk about ongoing past actions.

Tense Structure Example

Present may/must/could + base She may be at home.

Present ing Modal + be + verb in ing

She must have left

Past may/must/could + have + past participle
early.

Past ing

📝 Exercises:

1. She must ___ (work) late again.

2. You should ___ (tell) me the truth.
3. They might ___ (argue) earlier – they looked upset.
4. He could ___ (win) if he had trained more.
5. I may ___ (leave) my phone on the bus.
6. He must ___ (jog) when it started raining.
7. She must ___ (take) the wrong train.
8. They could ___ (watch) a movie at this moment.
9. He might ___ (sleep) – it’s very quiet.
10. You might ___ (walk) your dog when I passed by.
11. We must ___ (wait) at the wrong gate.
12. She can’t ___ (drive) – she doesn’t have a license.
13. You should ___ (apologize) earlier
14. He might ___ (not finish) the work on time.
15. She must ___ (study) all night – look how tired she is.
16. He may ___ (write) emails all morning.
17. They may ___ (plan) a surprise.
18. You can't ___ (talk) about me!
19. He could ___ (try) to fix it himself.
20. She must ___ (clean) the kitchen – it’s spotless!

3. Conditionals (1st, 2nd, 3rd, Mixed)

✅ Explanation:

Type Use Structure Example

1st Real future If + present, will If it rains, we’ll stay in.

2nd Unreal present If + past, would If I were rich, I’d travel.

If I had studied, I’d have

3rd Unreal past If + past perfect, would have
passed.

If I had slept, I wouldn’t be

Mixed Past condition, present result If + past perfect, would
tired.

📝 Exercises:

1. If it rains, we ___ (stay) home.

2. If I won the lottery, I ___ (travel) the world.
3. If she had studied, she ___ (pass) the exam.
4. If I had eaten breakfast, I ___ (not be) hungry now.
5. If you call me, I ___ (answer).
6. If he were taller, he ___ (be) a basketball player.
7. If they had arrived earlier, we ___ (see) the show.
8. If I ___ (have) more time, I’d help you.
9. If you ___ (not forget) your umbrella, you wouldn’t be wet.
10. If you eat too much, you ___ (feel) sick.
11. If he ___ (study) harder, he’d pass.
12. If I had known, I ___ (not go).
13. If I ___ (be) you, I’d quit.
14. If they ___ (ask), we would have helped.
15. I would go if I ___ (have) money.
16. If she had taken a taxi, she ___ (not miss) the train.
17. If he trained more, he ___ (win) more races.
18. If I had listened, I ___ (understand) it now.
19. If I were you, I ___ (apologize).
20. If we ___ (leave) earlier, we wouldn’t be late now.

4. I Wish / If Only / Would Rather

✅ Explanation:
  I wish / If only + past simple → present regrets
(I wish I knew the answer.)

 I wish / If only + past perfect → past regrets

(If only I had studied more.)

 Would rather + past simple → preference about others

(I’d rather you came earlier.)

📝 Exercises:

1. I wish I ___ (have) more time.

2. If only she ___ (listen) to me!

3. I’d rather you ___ (not smoke) here.

4. He wishes he ___ (be) taller.

5. I’d rather we ___ (go) out tonight.

6. If only I ___ (not say) that to her.

7. I wish it ___ (not rain) tomorrow.

8. She wishes she ___ (know) the truth earlier.

9. I’d rather they ___ (stay) longer.

10. If only we ___ (take) that job offer.

11. I wish I ___ (can) drive.

12. I’d rather you ___ (help) me now.

13. If only I ___ (study) harder in school.

14. He wishes he ___ (speak) French fluently.

15. I’d rather you ___ (not tell) anyone.

16. If only I ___ (bring) my umbrella.

17. I wish you ___ (stop) complaining.

18. I’d rather we ___ (not argue) about it.

19. If only we ___ (know) about the meeting.

20. I wish I ___ (be) more confident.

5. Reported Speech

✅ Explanation:
We change direct speech to reported speech by shifting tenses back:

Direct Reported

"I am tired" He said he was tired.

"She will come" She said she would come.

Pronouns, time expressions, and modal verbs may also change.

📝 Exercises:

1. Mary said, “I will finish the project tomorrow.”

2. Tom said, “We are watching a movie right now.”
3. She said, “I saw Jane at the supermarket.”
4. He asked, “Did you enjoy the concert?”
5. Anna said to me, “You should speak to the manager.”
6. The teacher said, “Don’t forget to do your homework.”
7. Jack said, “My parents are coming to visit next week.”
8. Lucy asked, “Where are you going?”
9. He said, “I can’t find my keys.”
10. She said, “I’ve been working all morning.”
11. They said, “We have never been to London before.”
12. David asked, “What time does the train leave?”
13. The doctor said, “Take this medicine twice a day.”
14. Emily said, “I’m meeting my friend at 5 p.m.”
15. She said, “I was feeling very tired yesterday.”
16. John said to me, “Please help me with this exercise.”
17. He said, “I won’t be able to attend the meeting.”
18. She asked me, “Do you know how to fix this?”
19. They said, “It’s raining heavily outside.”
20. My brother said, “I’ll call you when I arrive.”

6. Patterns After Reported Speech

✅ Explanation:

Certain verbs in reported speech require specific structures:

Verb Pattern Example

advise to + infinitive He advised me to see a doctor.

suggest -ing form / that She suggested going out.

promise to + verb He promised to help me.

tell / ask someone + to verb She told me to be quiet.

📝 Exercises:

1. "You should study." → He advised

2. "Let’s go home." → She suggested
3. "Be quiet!" → He told
4. "Don’t touch that!" → She warned
5. "Can you help me?" → He asked
6. "I'll come early." → She promised
7. "Take an umbrella." → He advised
8. "Please sit down." → The teacher asked
9. "Don't forget your keys." → She reminded
10. "Go to the doctor." → He urged
11. "Stay calm." → The officer told
12. "Let’s not argue." → He suggested
13. "Call me later." → She told
14. "Leave now!" → He ordered
15. "Don't be late." → They warned
16. "Can I borrow your pen?" → She asked
17. "I’ll never lie again." → He promised
18. "You must listen carefully." → The teacher told
19. "Don’t make a mess!" → She warned
20. "Let’s go hiking." → He suggested

7. Relative Clauses

✅ Explanation:

Relative clauses add information about nouns using who, which, that, whose, where, when.

 Defining: gives essential info. (The man who called is my uncle.)

  Non-defining: adds extra info. (My uncle, who lives in Paris, is visiting.)

📝 Exercises:

1. The girl ___ is talking to the teacher is new.

2. I have a friend ___ speaks five languages.

3. This is the house ___ I was born.

4. The book ___ you lent me is great.

5. That’s the teacher ___ class is difficult.

6. She met a man ___ works at NASA.

7. The restaurant ___ we ate was excellent.

8. My sister, ___ lives in London, is visiting.

9. Is this the film ___ won an award?

10. I remember the day ___ we met.

11. The students ___ passed were very happy.

12. There’s the artist ___ paintings I admire.

13. The town ___ he grew up is beautiful.

14. The dog ___ barked all night kept us awake.

15. The boy ___ bike was stolen is here.

16. The concert, ___ was free, was amazing.

17. That’s the café ___ we had coffee.

18. She wore the dress ___ she bought last week.

19. The train ___ we were on was late.

20. The woman ___ husband is a chef is my neighbor.

8. Participle Clauses

✅ Explanation:

Participle clauses reduce relative or adverbial clauses using a participle form.

Type Form Example

Present Verb-ing Students living in the dorm must follow rules.

Past Past participle The books written by Tolkien are famous.

Perfect Having + past participle Having finished the work, she left early.

They are used to express:

 Cause (Feeling tired, I went to bed.)

 Time (Having eaten, he left.)

 Condition (Given enough time, I’ll finish.)

📝 Exercises:

1. Students ___ (live) abroad often experience culture shock.

2. The car ___ (park) outside is mine.
3. ___ (see) the results, he smiled.
4. ___ (walk) to work, I met Sarah.
5. The people ___ (injure) in the crash were taken to hospital.
6. ___ (be) a teacher, I enjoy helping others.
7. ___ (not know) what to say, she remained silent.
8. The man ___ (sit) next to me was snoring.
9. ___ (complete) the project, we submitted it.
10. The dog ___ (rescue) last week is doing well.
11. ___ (spend) all day studying, he felt tired.
12. ___ (arrive) late, she missed the beginning.
13. The emails ___ (send) yesterday were important.
14. The child ___ (play) in the yard is my niece.
15. ___ (lose) his keys, he had to call a locksmith.
16. ___ (see) the film before, I knew what would happen.
17. ___ (hear) the news, she cried with joy.
18. The man ___ (arrest) was innocent.
19. ___ (finish) the meal, we paid the bill.
20. The flowers ___ (grow) in the garden are beautiful.

9. Expressing Past Ability

✅ Explanation:

To express ability in the past, we use:

  Could – general past ability
(I could swim at five.)

 Was/Were able to – specific past situations

(She was able to solve the problem.)

 Managed to – successful past attempts

(They managed to escape.)

 Couldn't / Wasn’t able to – inability

(I couldn’t remember his name.)

📝 Exercises:

1. I ___ (can) read when I was four.

2. She ___ (manage) win the race.
3. We ___ (not be able to) find the keys.
4. He ___ (be able to) speak French when he lived in Paris.
5. I ___ (not manage) fix the computer.
6. They ___ (could) climb the mountain last year.
7. She ___ (be able to) solve the problem.
8. I ___ (not can) understand the accent.
9. He ___ (manage) catch the train on time.
10. I ___ (can) sing very well as a child.
11. We ___ (be able to) find a good hotel.
12. She ___ (not manage) open the jar.
13. They ___ (could) play piano when they were young.
14. I ___ (be able to) finish before the deadline.
15. He ___ (not can) remember her name.
16. We ___ (manage) complete the project together.
17. She ___ (could) draw amazing pictures in school.
18. He ___ (not be able to) attend the meeting.
19. I ___ (manage) book the last two seats.
20. They ___ (could) run faster when they were younger.

10. Emphatic Structures

✅ Explanation:

Emphatic structures help add emphasis. Common forms:

  Cleft Sentences:

o It was John who broke the vase.

o What I need is a break.

 Do / Does / Did + base verb (for emphasis in present/past):

o I do like your idea!

o She did apologize.

 Inversion for emphasis:

o Never have I seen such beauty.

o Only after leaving did I realize.

📝 Exercises:

1. It ___ (be) Tom who helped me.

2. What I need ___ (be) some peace and quiet.
3. I ___ (do) want to go!
4. She ___ (did) finish the project.
5. Only then ___ (he/understand) the truth.
6. Never ___ (I/see) such a thing!
7. It was my brother who ___ (break) the window.
8. What he likes most ___ (be) chocolate.
9. I ___ (do) try to call you.
10. Not only ___ (she/be) late, but she also forgot the report.
11. It was Sarah who ___ (organize) the trip.
12. I ___ (did) see him yesterday!
13. What they want ___ (be) better pay.
14. Hardly ___ (they/arrive) when the show started.
15. It wasn’t me who ___ (make) the mistake.
16. She ___ (does) love her job.
17. Rarely ___ (we/experience) such storms.
18. What I hate most ___ (be) dishonesty.
19. Only after he apologized ___ (she/forgive) him.
20. I ___ (did) tell you not to touch it!