Animal Husbandry

7th Edition

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 1

 Copyright © 2020 by Agri Coaching Chandigarh
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2 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Index

S. No. Topic Page Number

1. Common animal husbandry terms 5
2. Institute related to animal husbandry 9
3. Scientific names of common animals 9
4. Terminology used in animal husbandry 10
5. Body temperature, pulse rate and respiration rate 11
6. Chromosome number in animals 12
7. Cattle dentition 12
8. Tools used in animal husbandry 13
9. 20th livestock census 14
10. Animal breeding 15
11. Gestation period, Oestrous cycle, heat period 16
12. Animal breeds 19
13. Buffalo breeds 22
14. Goat breeds 25
15. Sheep breeds 26
16. Housing & feeding of animal 28
17. Digestive system of cattle (ruminants) 33
18. Common diseases of animal 36
19. Common medicines and uses for animals 45
20. Poultry 48
21. Dairy science 53
22. Important facts 60

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 3

4 Agri Coaching Chandigarh
COMMON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY TERMS
❖ Balanced ration: Ration that contains all the nutrients in right proportions and quantities is
called balanced ration.
❖ Bull Calf: A male calf under one year of age.
❖ Bull: It is uncastrated sexually matured male of the species.
❖ Bullock: Castrated male ox.
❖ Bovine – pertaining to cattle/ relating to cattle
❖ Ovine - Pertaining to sheep
❖ Caprine- Caprine is a term relating to goats.
❖ Equine- is a term relating to horses, mules, zebras, and asses.
❖ Calf starter: Concentrate feed offered to the young calves after 2 weeks of age.
❖ Calf: A young animal of bovine species under one year of age.
❖ Calving – the act of parturition in cattle.
❖ Parturition: Act of delivery in animals.
❖ Casting: It is throwing down the animal and securing the limbs for various purposes like
surgical operations, castration, hoof trimming, shearing etc.
❖ Castration: It is the removal of testicles.
❖ Challenge feeding: The practice of feeding higher levels of concentrate to challenge the cow
to reach her maximum milk production.
❖ Concentrates: Feeds that contain less than 18% crude fiber are called concentrates such as
grains, oilcakes, grain by products etc.
❖ Cow: It is a female of bovine species that has calved at least once.
❖ Crisscrossing or Rotational crossing: Mating of a hybrid to three established breeds in a
rotational manner (AFO 2021)
❖ Cross breeding: A system of breeding between two established breeds.
❖ Culling: Removal of undesirable or unproductive animals from herd
❖ Conception: Conception rate is a measure of a cow’s fertility at service or the successful
union of male and female in reproduction process.
❖ Deticking: Removal of the external parasites like ticks, lice, mites present on the body surface
of animal.
❖ Deworming: Removal of the internal gastrointestinal parasites from the body.
❖ Disbudding: Removal of the horn buds of the calf by mechanical or chemical methods to
arrest growth of horns.
❖ Energy feeds: Feeds containing less than 20% crude protein are called energy feeds.
❖ Free martin: When twin calves of different sexes are born, the bull calf is normal whereas
the heifer calf is sterile. The sterile heifer calf is called freemartin.
❖ Gestation period: The period of pregnancy in animals.

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❖ Grading up: Systems of breeding in which pure bulls are used for improvement in non-
descript females for several generations. (Detailed description in the lecture of Breeding
system)
❖ Heifer calf: A female calf under one year of age.
❖ Heifer: A female individual that has not yet calved.
❖ Inbreeding: A system of breeding between very closely related animals. (JRF)V
❖ Intercalving period: Number of days between two successive calving.
❖ Lactation Curve: The graphical representation of the rate of milk secretion during lactation
is called Lactation Curve.
❖ Lactation length: The time interval between the dates of calving to the date of drying the
animal expressed in days.
❖ Dry period: The time interval between date of drying off the cow to the date of next calving.
❖ Maintenance ration: A ration given daily to the animal to maintain in resting nonproduction
condition with good health.
❖ Pasture: Fodder crops grown on the land for grazing animals.
❖ Production ration: A portion of the ration given daily in excess of maintenance requirement
for purpose of growth, production and work.
❖ Protein supplements: Feeds that contain 20% or more protein are called protein
supplements.
❖ Ration: The total amount of feed that an animal is offered during a 24 hour period of time is
called ration.
❖ Roughage: Feeds that contain more than 18% crude fiber are called roughage such as hay,
silage, fodder etc. (JRF)
❖ Scrub Bull: It is non-descript type of stray village cattle.
❖ Selection: The process of including certain animals in a population for becoming parents of
next generation.
❖ Service period: The period between parturition to successful conception expressed in days is
known as service period.
❖ Service: This term indicates the process in which mature male covers the female.
❖ Springer: a female bovine showing signs of advanced pregnancy.
❖ Steer: castrated male beef/dairy animal.
❖ Silage: Freshly cut green forages cut and offered to the animals.
❖ Stud Bull: Bull that is used for breeding purposes.
❖ Test cross: Mating of a crossbred back to its recessive parent.
❖ Weaning: Separation of the calf from the cow and feeding them artificially. If weaning is
practiced 4 days after calving, then further ration has to be fed as per the schedule described.

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❖ Puberty: The stage of the female in which the ovary is fully developed and the process of
egg formation begins in it. In this stage the female becomes pregnant.
❖ Estrus Cycle: The physical events between two heating periods are called Estrus cycle.
During this period, animals provide a safe environment in their body for embryo development
by conceiving.
❖ Estrus period: The state in which a female animal is willing to mate with a male.
❖ Teaser Bull: is used to identify heating period.
❖ Ovulation: The exit of the mature ovum from the ovary is called oviposition or ovulation.
❖ Gestation period: The period from conception to delivery of a female animal is called
gestation period.
❖ Sire: The male parent (Father) of the Calf.
❖ Dam: The female parent (Mother) of the Calf.
❖ Inbreeding depression: Inbreeding depression is the reduced survival and fertility of
offspring of related individuals.
❖ Hay: Hay is a stored forage that is essentially characterized by having low moisture
content(less than 16%).
❖ Silage: Green grass is a good source of vitamin A which is present in the form of Carotene.
Green fodder can be preserved as silage stored for long period (upto 6months). Silage is a
type of fodder made from green foliage crops which have been preserved by fermentation to
the point of acidification. Silage has 65-70% of moisture content
❖ Ensiling: Process of making silage. In the ensiling process, the absence of oxygen, leads to
the fermentation of water soluble carbohydrates to produce organic acids which increase
acidity of the material (pH about 4.0).
❖ Flushing: The term describes a temporary but purposeful increase in nutrition/ feed around
breeding time. Its objective is to boost ovulation, conception and embryo implantation rates.
Flushing may also increase the proportion of females that exhibit estrus.
❖ Grooming: Grooming refers to the process of cleaning animals so that their coats are free of
dust, dirt, manure and sweat.
❖ Scrub bull: A bull which is not having good progeny record non descriptive bull.
❖ Weaning: Separation of calf from the mother after parturition is known as weaning.
❖ Free Martin: It is infertile female cattle with masculinized behavior and non-functioning
ovaries.
❖ Animal Terminology (Sheep):
❖ Ram: uncastrated male sheep (NABARD-2021)
❖ Wether: castrated male sheep
❖ Cosset: lamb raised without help of its mother.
❖ Ewe: female sheep.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 7

❖ Lamb: young sheep.
❖ Ewe Lamb: female sheep less than 12 months old
❖ Lambing: act of parturition in sheep.
❖ Buck: male sheep
❖ Ram Lamb: male sheep less than 12 months old (NABARD-2021)
❖ Terminology (Poultry):
❖ Rooster: Adult male (uncastrated) chicken.
❖ Roasters: mature chickens used for meat.
❖ Capon: castrated male chicken.
❖ Cock/Cocks: Adult male (uncastrated) chicken.
❖ Hen: female chicken.
❖ Pullet: Young female chicken
❖ Broiler: young chickens raised for meat (NABARD-2021)
❖ Layers: chickens developed to produce large numbers of eggs.
❖ Laying: act of parturition in chickens.
❖ Brood: This indicates a group of chicks of same age raised in one batch.
❖ Brooding: This is a process of rearing the young chickens from 1 day old stage to 5 to 6
weeks of age during which, heat is to be provided (RRB SO-2021)
❖ Brooder: Basically, this is a device for providing artificial heat.
❖ Broody: This Indicates a hen which has stopped laying eggs temporarily.
❖ Moulting: It is the process of shading old feathers.
❖ Culling: It is nothing but removing unwanted birds (sick or diseased or useless) from the
flock.
❖ Debeaking: Debeaking, beak trimming (also spelt beak-trimming), or beak conditioning is
the partial removal of the beak of poultry, especially layer hens and turkeys. Most commonly,
the beak is shortened permanently, although regrowth can occur.
❖ Incubation Period: Egg incubation is the process by which an egg, of oviparous (egg-laying)
animals, develops an embryo within the egg. (Incubation period for chicken eggs is 20 to 21
days.
❖ Silent heat: A sub estrus or silent heat in cattle, is defined as the lack of behavioral estrus
symptoms, although the genital organs undergo normal cyclical changes. The incidence of
silent heat varies from 10% to 40% between different herds.
❖ Anestrous: It is the period of sexual quiescence (dormancy) between two periods of sexual
activity in cyclically breeding mammals.
❖ Prolapsing of uterus: In the cow, the vagina and the uterus are separated by the cervix.
Prolapsing of uterus means the uterus slips down into or protrudes out of the vagina

8 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Endometritis: Endometritis is a mild, chronic infection of the uterus (Produces inflammation
or irritation). It is very common, affecting up to 40% of post-calving cows. The uterus
contains pus and there may be discharge from the vulva. The cows do not seem sick and will
still eat, milk and cycle normally.
❖ Colostrum: Colostrum is the first form of mammary gland secretion that is released by the
mammary glands after giving birth.
❖ Lactogenesis: The initiation of lactation, called lactogenesis while Lactation describes the
secretion of milk from the mammary glands.

INSTITUTE RELATED TO ANIMAL HUSBANDRY:

Institute Name ➢ Location
Central Goat Research Institute (CGRI) ➢ Makhdoom, Mathura (U.P.)
Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute ➢ Avikanagar (Rajasthan)
(CSWRI)
Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB)➢ Hisar (Haryana)

National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources Karnal (Haryana)

Central avian Research Institute (CARI) Izzatnagar 1979 (U.P.) (AFO-2018)
Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI) ➢ Izzatnagar (U.P.)
National Dairy Development Board (NDDB) ➢ Anand (Gujarat)
National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI) Karnal (Haryana), 1923/1955
National Equine Research Centre Hisar, Haryana.
National Camel Research Centre ➢ Bikaner, Rajasthan
Indian Grassland and Forage Research Institute ➢ Jhansi, UP

SCIENTIFIC NAMES OF COMMON ANIMALS:

Common Name Scientific Name
Cow Bos taurus/Indicus

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 9

 Water Buffalo/ Asian water buffalo Bubalus bubalis
Swamp Buffalo Bubalus carabanensis
Goat Capra aegagrus hircus
Sheep Ovis aries
Dog Canis lupus
Horse Equus ferus caballus
Domestic Pig Sus scrofa domesticus
Donkey Equus africanus asinus
Dromedary Camel Camelus dromedarius
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
Fowl Gallus domesticus

TERMINOLOGY USED IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY

Detail Cattle Buffalo Sheep Goat Pig Horse
Species Bovine Bovine Ovine Caprine Swine or sus Equine
Group Herd Herd Flock Flock/band Drove/Herd/ Pack
Stock
Adult Male Bull Buffalo Ram/Tup Buck Boar Stallion
Bull (Nabard-
2021)
Adult Cow Buffalo Eve Doe Sow Mare
Female
(AFO-2020)
Young Bull calf Buffalo Ram lamb/ Buckling/ Boarling Colt
Male bull calf Tup lamb Male Kid
Young Heifer Heifer Eve Lamb/ Goalting Gilt Filly
Female calf calf Gimmer
Lamb
New-born Calf Buffalo Lamb Kid Piglet Foal
calf

10 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Castrated Bullock/ Buffalo Wether/ Wether Hog/Stag/ Gelding/G
Male Steer bullock Wedder Barrow eld
Sterilized- Spayed Spayed Spayed Spayed Spayed Spayed
Female
Female Calf at Calf at Suckling Suckling Suckling Foal at
with its foot foot foot
offspring
Parturition Calving Calving Lambing Kidding Farrowing Foaling
(AFO-2021)
Mating Serving Serving Tupping Serving Coupling Covering
(AFO-2020)

BODY TEMPERATURE, PULSE RATE AND RESPIRATION RATE

Kind of Temperature Rate per minute
animal
0 0
C F Pulse Respiration
Buffalo 38.3 101 44-50 15-20
Dairy cow 38.5 101.4 50-60 20-25
Goat 39.8 103.8 70-90 12-30
Sheep 39.1 102.4 70-90 12-30
Pig 39.1 102.4 70-80 10-16
Chicken 41.7 107.2 128-140 12-28
Camel 36.3 97.4 32-50 5-12

➢ Note :- Respiratory rate is measured by placing the hand on the muzzle. Pulse rate is measured
in per minute. The pulse rate in cows and buffaloes is measured by the coccygeal artery (under
the tail).
➢ Formula to convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius = (°F − 32) × 5/9
➢ Formula to convert degrees Celsius to degrees Fahrenheit = (0°C × 9/5) + 32

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 11

 CHROMOSOME NUMBER IN ANIMALS:
Animal Chromosome (2n)
Cow 60
Buffalo (i) Swamp 48
(ii) water 50
Goat 60
sheep 54
camel 74
Horse 64
chicken 78
pig 38

CATTLE DENTITION:
❖ Cattle first develop 20 temporary teeth, known also as deciduous, milk, or baby teeth.
❖ These temporary teeth eventually fall out and are replaced with 32 permanent or adult
teeth as an animal matures. Temporary teeth are easily distinguishable from permanent
teeth. They are much smaller and whiter than permanent teeth.
Temporary teeth: 8 incisors, 12 Premolars, No molars
Permanent teeth: 8 incisor, 12 premolars, 12 molars (RRB SO-2019)
FINDING THE AGE OF ANIMALS:
1. General Appearance: - Young animal has shiny eyes, horns small and shiny, skin
drawn, developed ions, medium sized teeth and agile nature.
2. Seeing the hoof: - It is detected by looking at the condition of the hooves. The hooves
of young animals are small and shiny.
3. By horn:- Formula :- 2+ Number of rings on horn
The first ring on the horns is formed on the horns of the animal in the third year after
birth after this a ring is formed every year. It is wrong to estimate the age by this
method because with the help of sand, the cattle keepers gnaw the rings made on the
horns.

12 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 4. By teeth :- It is the most suitable method to determine age of animals.
I C PM M
Teeth Formula :- + + +
I C PM M
0 0 3 0
Temporary :- + + +
4 0 3 0
0 0 3 3
Permanent :- + + +
4 0 3 3

➢ Molar teeth do not emerge temporarily in cows and buffaloes. Straight out
permanent.
➢ The age of the animal is determined only by the incisor teeth only. Canine teeth are
not found in ruminant animals.

TO FIND THE AGE OF COW AND BUFFALO :-

➢
Permanent incisor teeth Age

Ist Pair 2 years 3 months

IInd Pair 3 years
1
IIIrd 3 years
3

1
IVth 4 years
2

SOME OF THE TOOLS USED IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY:

Name Use
Burdizzo's Castrator (JRF) It is used to castrate male animals.
Bull nose ring Nose ring to control a bull
Catheter For urination when cows stop urination
Cattle Cradle A device to stop a cow from drinking its own milk

Lactometer It is used to determine the relative density of milk .It has a

mark from 0 to 40.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 13

 Trocar & Canula In Afra (acidity) disease, a hole is made in the womb to
remove gas from the animal's rumen.

Tattooing machine It is a device for marking by putting numbers in the ears of

animals.
Vaginal Speculum (योनी विक्षण hysterectomy
यंत्र)

20TH LIVESTOCK CENSUS

➢ From the year 1919-20, animal census is done after every 5 years in the country.
➢ It includes the total count of all the domesticated animals.
➢ After independence, the first animal census was done in 1951. While the first animal
census was done in 1919
➢ India has the first place in milk production and number of buffaloes.
➢ Uttar Pradesh has maximum livestock in India and at second place it is Rajasthan.
➢ Cow - India has the second place in the world.
➢ Madhya Pradesh has the largest number of cows in India.
➢ According to the 20th Livestock Census Report, there has been an increase of 4.6% in
the total livestock in the country.
➢ Livestock in 2019 - 53 crore 57 lakh (535.78 million)
Animal Total No. (Million) First in the country

Goat 20.84 Rajasthan

Cow 13.9 West Bengal
Buffalo 13.7 Uttar Pradesh
Sheep 7.9 Telangana
Camel 2.13 Rajasthan
Pigs Assam
Donkey 0.23 Rajasthan

14 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

ANIMAL BREEDING
➢ Breeding: the mating and production of offspring by animals is known as breeding.
➢ When breeding is between animals of the same breed it is called inbreeding, while crosses
between different breeds are called outbreeding.
❖ Types of Breeding
➢ Inbreeding/ Close Breeding: Mating of closely related animals in the same breed such as
brother – sister mating, parents offspring mating. When the mates have common ancestors -
within 4 generations this results in inbreeding.
• Advantage: A pure line of a particular breed can be maintained
• Disadvantage: Loss of vigor, size, production fertility problems (Inbreeding depression)
➢ Out breeding: Mating of unrelated animals in the different breeds but with no common
ancestor for a minimum of 4-6 generations.
➢ Out-crossing: This is the practice of mating of animals within the same breed but having no
common ancestors on either side of their pedigree up to 4-6 generations.
➢ The offspring of such a mating is known as an outcross. It is the best breeding method for
animals that are below average in productivity in milk production, growth rate in beef cattle,
etc. A single outcross often helps to overcome inbreeding depression.
➢ Line Breeding: Mating of half-brother and half-sister, Cousin, increase homozygosity and
decrease heterozygosity (AFO-2020)
➢ Crossbreeding: In this method, superior males of one breed are mated with superior females
of another breed. Crossbreeding allows the desirable qualities of two different breeds to be
combined. Hisardale is a new breed of sheep developed in Punjab by crossing Marino rams
and Bikaneri ewes. (RRB SO-2019)
➢ Triple cross: In this method three breeds are crossed in a rotational manner it is also called
rotational crossing.
➢ Back Cross: Mating of a cross breed back to one of the pure parents. (JRF)
➢ Test Crossing: Breeding of the dominant phenotype with the homozygous recessive
phenotype (parent) is known as a test cross. The F1 hybrid is crossed with a recessive
genotype.
➢ Grading up: It is mating of pure-bred males of a established breed with nondescript females
successively over several generations to produce a progeny that resembles and performs
similar to the pure breed. Godavari breed of buffalo is developed by crossing of the local
buffalos of coastal region of Andhra Pradesh breed with Murrah breed over several
generations. (RRB SO-2021)
➢ Rotational crossing: In rotational crossing, males from one of the pure breeds are used in
alternate generations to breed the cross bred females. This rotational crossing could be

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 15

 between two breeds is called crisscrossing ((AFO-2021) and among three breeds is called
triple crossing.
➢ Interspecific hybridization: In this method, male and female animals of two different related
species are mated. In some cases, the progeny may combine desirable features of both the
parents, and may be of considerable economic value, e.g., the mule
Outbreeding Outcrossing
1. Out breeding is breeding of unrelated 1. It is the cross of unrelated individual,
animals. same breed, no common ancestor
2. It can involve outcrossing or cross
breeding or interspecific hybridization.

GESTATION PERIOD, OESTROUS CYCLE, HEAT PERIOD

Animal Age of Puberty Gestation period Oestrous cycle Heat period
(In months)
Cow 24- 30 285 21 Days 18 hours
Buffalo (AFO- 28-30 310 21 Days 24 hours
2020)
Sheep 9-14 145-150 15-18 Days 1-3 Days
Goat 8-10 150-152 20 Days 2-3 Days
Camel 36-48 391 10 Days 3-5 Days
Swine 8-10 114 21 Days 1-5Days

OESTROUS CYCLE

Proestrum:(2 days)

Oestrum: (1 day)

Metoestrum :( 4
days)

Diestrum: (14 days)

16 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Proestrum: (2 days) Period of building up growth of graffian Follicle which helps for the
nourishment of ovum fluid contains hormone called “oestrogen”. It causes changes in uterus,
blood supply.
❖ Oestrum: (1 day) during which the female is ready to receive male.
❖ Metoestrum:(4 days) Implantation of the embryo takes place, corpus luteum takes place.
Prevents the growth of graffian follicle thereby arrests oestrus cycle. (RRB SO-2018)
❖ Diestrum: (14 days) further development of uterus takes place. If the animal has not
conceived involution of uterus take place.
❖ Estrus Period: Pro estrus: 2 or 3 days, Estrus: 12 to 18 hours, Ovulation: 12 to 16 hours after
end of estrus, Estrous cycle: 21± 3 days

Symptoms of Heat in Animal

➢ The animal will be excited condition. The animal will be in restlessness
and nervousness.
➢ The animal will reduce the intake of feed and milk production.
➢ Peculiar movement of limbo sacral region will be observed.
➢ The animals which are in heat will lick other animals and smelling other
animals.
➢ The animals will try to mount other animals
➢ The animals will stand still when another animal try to mount. This period
is known as standing heat. This extends 14-16 hours.
➢ Frequent maturation (urination) will be observed.
➢ Swelling of the valva will be seen.
➢ The tail will be in raised position.

RECOMMENDATION FOR TIMING OF INSEMINATION:

Cows showing oestrus Should be inseminated Too late for good results
In morning Same day Next day
In afternoon Morning of next day or early After 3 p.m.
afternoon

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 17

 CASTRATION
❖ Making the animal unable to reproduce is generally known as castration.
❖ Precaution: Castration should be performed during cold season and strictly avoid rainy
season for fear of fly problems.
❖ Optimum Age: Young animals: within 3 months (Surgical method and elastrator)
❖ Adult animal: within one year of age (Closed method – Burdizzo castrators)
❖ Methods of castration:
1. Burdizzo method
➢ It is also known as bloodless castration.
➢ This method is safe, quick and less chance of getting infection.
2. Open or surgical method
➢ Scrotum is opened and testicles are removed, aseptically and the wound is treated with
antiseptics.
3. Rubber ring or elastrator method
➢ A strong and tight rubber ring placed around the cord at an early age of calf.
➢ Optimum age: below 3 months.
❖ Semen collection methods:
❖ Artificial vagina (A.I.)
➢ A.I. was first attempted in India in 1939 by Dr. Sampath kumar at the palace dairy
farm, Mysore.
➢ The first buffalo calf through A.I. was born in 1943 at the Allahabad Ag. Institute in
U. P. in India.
➢ Internal temperature of vagina is around 40–45°C
➢ Sperm are viable for 24 hours in the female reproductive tract whereas the ovum
remains fertile for only about 10 hours after ovulation.
❖ Storage of frozen semen:
(a) -79o C by using solid CO2 (dry ice) and alcohol
(b) -196o C by using liquid nitrogen (mostly used)
(c) -296o C by using liquid helium

18 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

ANIMAL BREEDS
CATTLE:
❖ The genus Bos, is classified into Bos indicus (Tropical, humped cattle) and Bos taurus
(temperate, hump-less cattle)
❖ Milch Breeds / Milk Breeds: The cows of these breeds are high milk yields and the
male animals are slow or poor work animals. The milk production of milk breeds is on
the average more than 1600 kg per lactation (1500-2500)
❖ Dual Purpose Breeds: The cows in these breeds are average milk yielder (500 kg to
1500 kg) and male animals are very useful for work.
❖ Draught Breeds: The male animals are good for work and Cows are poor milk yielder
(less than 500 kg per lactation). A pair of bullocks can haul 1000 kg. Net with an iron
typed cart on a good road at walking speed of 5 to 7 km per hour and cover a distance of
30 - 40 km per day.
➢ Average life of cow and buffalo is: 18 years
➢ Highest lactation length: Holstein Friesian (Exotic), Sahiwal & Gir (Indigenous)
➢ Sweetest Milk: Sahiwal
➢ Best draught capacity: Hallikar
➢ Highest milk production: Sahiwal, Holstein Friesian (Exotic)
➢ Highest disease resistency: Gir
➢ Best dual-purpose breed: Haryana(AFO-2017)
➢ Smallest of the dairy types of cattle (Exotic): Jersy
➢ Largest dairy breed: Holstein Friesian(AFO-2015)
➢ Most dwarf breed of cattle is: Vechur (Smallest is jersey)
CATTLE BREEDS:
Milch purpose Dual purpose Draft purpose

Sahiwal Ongole Amritmahal

Red sindhi Haryana (Nabard-2021) Nagori
Gir Kankrej Khillari(AFO-2020)
Deoni Gaolao Kangayam
Tharparkar Hallikar
Mewati Malvi
Dangi Siri
Nimadi (RRB SO-2021) Purnea
Rathi Alambadi

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 19

 Nimari Ponwar
Nellore & Rathi Burgur
Bachur
Kherigarh
Umbalachery
Pulikulam

S. Breed Origin Famous Character Milk AFC Calving

No Name Yield (mon Interval
ths) (Days)
1. Sahiwal Pakistan, Best indigenous breed-Loose 1400- 37-48 430-580
Haryana, skin & reddish dun or pale red 2500
Punjab, colour
Rajasthan
2. Gir Gujarat Half-moon appearance 1200- 45-54 515-600
1800
3. Red Sindhi Pakistan Red colour, thick horns with 2500- 39-50 425-540
blunt points 3400
4. Deoni Hyderabad Resembles Gir in most of the 1000- 35 447
characters 1200
5. Amritmahal Karnataka Grey colored and very active
famous for power of
endurance
6. Kangayam Tamilnadu Famous for Jallikattu game in 40
Tamilnadu
7. Siri Sikkim and Long hairs on the hump 50
Bhutan
8. Hallikar Karnataka Excellent drought breed 55-60
9. Malvi Madhya Also known as breed of zebu 900- 36-42
Pradesh cattle 1200

20 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

10. Nagori Rajasthan Famous for pulling tanga 900- 36-48
1200
11. Tharparkar Pakistan Lyre shaped horn 1800- 36-48
2600
12. Haryana Haryana, Best dual-purpose
Punjab, UP breed(AFO-2017)
13. Kankrej Gujarat Sawai-chal
14. Ongole Andhra Famous for beef in Brazil
Pradesh
15. Gaolao Maharashtra Used for milk and transport 1000-
, Madhya purpose 1200
Pradesh,
Chhattisgarh
16. Dangi Gujarat The skin of this breed secretes
an oil element which enable it
to tolerate heavy rains
17. Karan – Developed HF x Tharparkar 3700 30-32 425
Fries (AFO- at NDRI
2018) (AFO-2018)
18. Karan - Developed Sahiwal x Brown Swiss 3500 45
Swiss(AFO- at NDRI
2017)
19. Fries -Wal HF x Sahiwal 3800
20. Sunandini Kerala Non-descript cattle with 2500 32 395
jersey/ Brown Swiss /HF bull
21. Sujata Jersey x Sahiwal 2800

22. Phule- Mahatma Combinations of HF, Jersey, 3000-

triveni Phule Krishi Gir 3500

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 21

 Vidyapeeth,
Rahuri
23. Holstein - Netherland Highest milk producer in the 6000- 24-27 390
Friesian world 7000
24. Jersey Jersey Highest fat content 4000- 25-30 390-420
island of 5000
France
25. Brown - Switzerland Second heaviest cattle breed 5000 28-30 390-420
Swiss after HF
26. Ayrshire Scotland Most beautiful, over – active 4600 26-27 390
and difficult to manage
27. Guernsey Guernsey 4000- 26-27
island 5000

BUFFALO:
❖ Types of Buffaloes:
1. Swamp buffalo: (Bubalus carabanesis)
• It is exotic buffalo, body colour copper and dark brown, mainly used for drought animals
e.g., karabaow, sui-new, sinhala etc.
• Swamp buffaloes are found in the south-west regions and are powerful for carrying
loads.
• Chromosome number 2n = 48
2. River buffalo: (Bubalus bubalis):
• It is known as Indian buffalo, Milk buffalo or water buffalo
• Body colour mostly black except Bhadawari and Surati which is copper colored.
• Indian buffalo or water buffalo are found in the plains and low hill areas of India.
• Chromosome number 2n = 50
➢ Buffaloes are the main source of milk supply in India. (Buffalo contribute maximum in
overall milk while in world maximum production is given by cow)
➢ There are seven main species of Indian buffalo which are known for their milk quality.
➢ The flesh of a dead buffalo calf is shiny, it is called flax.
➢ Heaviest buffalo - Jafarabadi
➢ Lightest buffalo – Surti

22 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Maximum milk production – Murrah (AFO-2016)
➢ Longest gestation period - Mehsana
➢ Most prolific buffalo – Toda
➢ Sweet and fragrant milk – Toda
➢ Most beautiful buffalo - Murrah
➢ Maximum Fat – Bhadavari (AFO-2017)
➢ Sickle shaped horn: Surti (AFO-2021)
➢ Sword shaped horns: Nagpuri
CLASSIFICATION OF BUFFALO BREEDS :
Murrah Group Gujarat group Uttar Pradesh Central Indian South Indian
group group group
Murrah Surti Bhadawari Nagpuri Toda (TN)
Nili-ravi Jaffarbadi, Tarai Pandhapur South canara
(Karnataka)
Kundi Mehsana Sambalpuri
Godavari Manda
Kalahandi
Jerangi

S. Breed Origin/ Features Milk Fat AFC Calving

No Distributio Yiel % Interval
. n d
1. Murrah Haryana, highest lactation, tightly 1500 7% 45-47 450-500
Punjab curved horn - (AFO-
2500 2017)
2. Nili Ravi Punjab Peculiarity of the breed 1500 45-50 500-550
is the wall eyes -
1850

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 23

 3. Jaffarbad Gujarat Funnel shaped teats, 1000 9- 480
i heaviest Indian breed, - 10%
also known as mini 1200
elephant. (JRF)
4. Bhadawa Uttar Copper colored with 800- 6- 50
ri Pradesh, two white lines 1000 12.5
Madhya “chevron” in neck
Pradesh
Highest fat content
5. Surti Gujarat Small buffalo 900- 8-12 40-50 400-500
economical milk 1300
producer
Sickle shaped horns
6. Nagpuri Maharashtra Sword shaped horns 700- 7 45-50 450-550
1200
7. Mehsana Gujarat Cross of murrah x Surti 1200 40-45 450-550
-
1500

IMPORTANT DETAIL:

S.NO Particulars Indigenous Exotic / Buffaloes

Crosses
1 Age at puberty 24 months 12-15 months 24-30 months
2 Age at first mating 30 months 18-20 months 30-36 months
3 Optimum weight at first 250 kg 180-275 kg 300-350 kg
mating
4 Oestrus cycle length 17-24 days 21±3 21 days
5 Duration of oestrus 18 hours 18 hours 18 hours
6 Time of ovulation 12-16 hour after end of oestrus
7 Optimum time of Late heat (The best time for artificial insemination
insemination occurs in the last part of heat.)
8 Conception rate 60 per cent

24 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 9 Services per conception 1.5-1.75

10 Gestation period 280-290 days 305-318 days

11 Dry period 60 60 60
12 Calving to first heat 40 days 40 days 40 days
13 Calving to first service 60 days or less

14 Caving to conception 85 days

15 Lactation length 305 days
16 First service pregnancy 65 %
rate
17 60-90 days non-return 70 %
rate
18 Abortion rate Less than 5%
19 Breeding age of bull 2-2 ½ year
20 Number of service per 2-3 per week
week
21 Milk yield 1500-2000 3500-5000 1500-3000
22 Birth weight 25 25-35 30-40

GOAT: Capra hircus, F. Bovidae

➢ Goat is very economic to rearing also known as poor man’s cow & enemy of vegetation.
➢ Pashmina is the finest natural fiber obtained from Changthangi & Chegu (Kashmiri)
goat breeds, and it is used in winter clothes
➢ Morocco fine leather is prepared from goat skin.
➢ Mohair white wool like hairs from angora breed of goat.
➢ Milch: Barbari
➢ Dual purpose: Beetal (AFO-2022), Jamunapari, Tellicherry
➢ Meat and skin – Black Bengal, Kanni adu
➢ Meats, skin and milk – Marvari, Malabari (Tellicherry), Sirohi, Surti
➢ Meat hair and skin – Gaddi, Kutchi, Marwari(Black face)
➢ Milk meat and skin – Beetal, Jamunapari
➢ Fur: Pashmina, Kashmiri
➢ Exotic: Toggenberg, Alpine, Sannen (AFO-2022), Anglo Nubian, Boer, Angora

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 25

 S. Breed Origin Characters Daily Milk Age at
No. First
Kidding
1. Jamunapari Uttar Large folded pendulous 2- 20-25
Pradesh ear, roman nose, tuft of 2.5kg/day
long hairs in the buttocks,
highest lactation length
(AFO-2020)
2. Beetal Punjab Similar to Jamuna Pari , 1-2kg/day 20-22
Dual purpose breed of
milk + meat (AFO-2022)
3. Barbari UP, Haryana Suitable for stall feeding 1-
1.5kg/day

4. Black West Bengal Shorter and most prolific 53kg/ 90-120

Bengal among Indian breed lactation
Great demand in high
class shoe making
5. Chegu Himachal Used for draught purpose 187 days
Pradesh
Horns are bent upward,
backward, outward with
one more twists
6. Tellicherry Kerala Purpose for meat and 1-2 kg/day
better reproductive
capabilities
7. Osmanabadi Maharashtra Good quality meat 3.5 kg /day 19-20

SHEEP: Ovis aries

➢ Sheep belongs to the family Bovidae, Genus Ovis and Species- aries.
➢ Sheep are mostly reared for meat and wool.
➢ Water requirement adult sheep 2 – 4 liters.

26 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Wool potential: 3.5 - 5 kg - exotic breeds, 1 - 2 kg - Indian breeds
❖ Indigenous Breed of sheep
➢ Superior carpet wool: Magra, Chokla, Nali, Bikaneri
➢ Coarse wool – Marwari, Coimbatore, Bellari,
➢ Good quality wool: Gurez, Bharwal, Gaddi, Ramper Bushiar
➢ Apparel wool breeds: Hissardale, Nilgiri, Kashmir Merino, Keezhakaraisal
➢ Hairy Meat breeds: Trichy Black, Ramnad White, Malpura, Vembur, Madras, Nellore,
and Mandya
❖ Exotic Breed of sheep
➢ Fine Wool Breeds: Merino, Rambouillet, Polwarth
➢ Mutton: South down, Dorset, Suffolk,
➢ Dual purpose: Corridale
➢ Pelt: Karakul

S. Breed Origin Characters Wool

No. Production

1. Neelagiri Tamilnadu Wool purpose breed

Ears are broad and drooped out
2. Deccani Andhra Small and Hardy 4.5kg
Pradesh and wool/sheep
Well adapted to poor pastoral
Tamilnadu
conditions
Chiefly for mutton
3. Nellore Andhra Tallest breed of sheep in India
Pradesh
Resemble goat in appearance
4. Marwari Rajasthan Hardy, Yielding coarser wool 0.9-
1.8kg/sheep
High tolerance to disease and
worms
5. Gaddi Jammu Superior, fine and lustrous wool 1.13kg
/sheep

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 27

 6. Mandya Karnataka Typical reverse U shaped from year
end
Good quality mutton
7. Trichy black Tamilnadu Smaller and black coloured breed
8. Kashmir Kashmir 2.80kg
Merino
9. Merino Spain Best fine wool breed

10. Rambouillet France Excellent fine wool fleece

11. Polwarth Australia Cross of Lincoln x Merino
12. South down England Smallest of the meat breed
13. Cheviot Scotland Superior and effective meat
producer
14. Corridale New Zealand Cross of Lincoln x Merino

HOUSING & FEEDING OF ANIMAL:

FLOOR SPACE REQUIREMENT
FOR COWS AND BUFFALOES
TYPE OF FLOOR SPACE MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF
ANIMALS REQUIREMENT (M2) NO. OF THE SHED
ANIMALS (CM)
/PAN
Covered area Open area 175 cm in
medium and
Bulls 12.0 12/24 1
heavy rainfall
Cows 3.5 7.0 50 and 220 cm in
dry areas
Buffaloes 4.0 8.0 50
Pregnant cows 4.0 8.0 1

28 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Young calves 1.0 2.0 30

Old calves 2.0 4.0 30

HOUSING SPACE RERQUIREMENT FOR CROSS BRED CATTLES

(ACCORDING TO NABARD NORMS)
AGE GROUP MANGER STANDING OR OPEN SPACE (sq. mtr)
SPACE COVERED
(METRE) AREA (sq. mtr)

4-6 months 0.2-0.3 0.8-1.0 3.0-4.0

6-12 months 0.3-0.4 1.2-1.6 5.0-6.0

1-2 years 0.4-0.5 1.6-1.8 6.0-8.0

Cows 0.8-1.0 1.8-2.0 11.0-12.0
Pregnant cows 1.0-1.2 8.5-10.0 15.0-20.0
(AFO-2018)
Bulls 1.0-1.2 9.0-11.0 20.0-22.0
FOR CALVES
AGE OF FLOOR SPACE REQUIREMENT NUMBER OF CALVES /PAN
CALVES
COVERED OPEN
(Months) AREA (m2) AREA(m2)

0-3 1.0 2 24
3-6 1.5 3 16
6-12 2.0 4 12

TYPES OF HOUSING

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 29

 1. Single Row: Maximum 12-16 animals can be kept together. The slope of the animal
shelter is kept in the opposite direction of the animal's mouth.
2. Double row: - When the number of animals is more than 16.
(a) Tail to tail method :-
➢ Shed size = 31 × 10.45 M2
➢ Maximum 28 animals can be kept in a group.
➢ This method is the best method in double row.
➢ There is a drain made for excretion of feces and urine.
➢ Two manger space are made.
(b) Head-to-Head Method:-
➢ Shed size = 31 × 10.36 M2
➢ It can hold a maximum of 50 animals.
➢ There is a high risk of diseases in it.
➢ The cattle shed is raised from the middle.
➢ It consists of one manger space and two drains.

FOR SHEEP (INDIAN CONDITION)

AGE GROUP COVERED AREA (sq. OPEN AREA (sq. Mtr)
Mtr)
Up to 3 months 0.2-0.25 0.4-0.5
3-6 months 0.5-0.75 1.0-1.5
6-12 months 0.75-1.0 1.5-3.0
Adult animal 1.5 3.0
Male, pregnant or 1.5-2.0 3.0-4.0
lactating ewe/doe

30 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

FOR GOAT
TYPE OF ANIMAL FLOOR SPACE REQUIREMENT (Sq. SHED
mtr)
Adult goat 1.25-1.5 LONG AXIS
EAST –
Pregnant doe & bucks 2.0
WEST
Kids (3-6 months) 0.7-0.9
Kids (6-12 months) 1.0

FEEDING SCHEDULE OF ANIMALS

FOR GROWING ANIMALS

Age Approx. Concentrate Grasses (kg)

(months) Body mixture (kg)
weight (kg)
6-9 70-100 1.5-1.75 5-10

9-15 100-150 1.75-2.25 10-15

15-20 150-200 2.25-2.50 15-20

Above 20 200-300 2.50-2.75 15-20

FOR DAIRY ANIMALS

Type of Feeding Green fodder Dry fodder Concentrate (kg)
animal during (kg) (kg)
CROSSBRED COWS
6-7 Liters Lactation 20-25 5-6 3.0-3.5
milk/day days
Dry days 15-20 6-7 3.0-3.5

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 31

 8-10 Liters Lactation 25-30 4-5 0.5-1.0
milk / day days
Dry days 20-25 6-7 4.0-4.5
Milking cows
20-30 4-6 1.25 + 1 kg for every 2.5 -3.0
kg of milk
Bull (400-500 kg body weight)
20-25 3-5 2.5-3

Note: The total food should have 60% dry and 40% wet portion. The green or wet fodder
must have 25% leguminous herbage and 75% monocot grasses.

FEEDING AND WATERING SPACE REQUIREMENT

Type of animal SPACE PER TOTAL MANGER TOTAL

ANIMAL (cm) LENGTH IN A PAN FOR WATER
100 ANIMALS (cm) TANK
LENGTH
IN A PAN
FOR 100
ANIMALS
(cm)
Adult cattle and 60-75 6000-7500 600-750
buffaloes
Calves 40-50 4000-5000 400-500
DIMENSIONS OF FEED MANGER
Type of animal WIDTH (cm) DEPTH (cm) HEIGHT
OF INNER
WALL (cm)

32 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Adult cattles and 60 40 50
buffaloes
Calves 40 15 20

CONCENTRATE & ROUGHAGES DIFFERENCE:

Concentrate Roughages

10 % Moisture and 90% Dry matter Dry fodder--10 % Moisture and 90%Dry
matter, Green Fodder---80-90 % Moisture
and 10% Dry Matter

Highly Digestible Comparatively less digestible

Crude fiber less than 18% More than 18%

Nutritive Value/unit mass is high Low

Compact in Nature Bulky

Keeping quality -High Variable : Dry Fodder – High, Green

fodder- Less/low

NUTRIENT CONTENT IN ANIMAL & POULTRY MANURE:

Nutrient Highest Lowest
N Poultry>Sheep=Pig Horse>cattle
P Poultry>Pig Horse>cattle
K Pig>sheep>Poultry Horse>cattle
Ca Poultry>Horse Cattle>sheep
Mg Cattle>Poultry Pig> Horse
S Poultry>Pig Horse>sheep
Highest Lowest
Cattle N>K S

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 33

 Sheep N>K S
Pig K>N Mg
Horse N>K S
Poultry Ca>N S

➢ N, P, Ca, S: Highest in poultry. (AFO-2018)

➢ K: Highest in Pig
➢ Mg: Highest in cattle & Lowest in pig.
WATER REQUIREMENT:
➢ Non-heat stressed non-lactating cattle may drink 5-6%body weight per day. Water
consumption may increase by 12% or more of body weight per day during heat stress.
➢ Animals will consume 2 to 5kg of water for every 1 kg of dry feed consumed when they
are not heat stressed.

Animal Liters/day
Dairy cattle 38-110
Beef cattle 22-66
Sheep and goat 4-5
Chickens 0.2-0.4

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF CATTLE (RUMINANTS)

1. The digestive organs of ruminants consist of mouth, oesophagus, rumen, reticulum,
omasum and abomasum, small intestine, and large intestine.
2. The cow takes food into the mouth. The food taken in by the animal after mixing with
saliva enters into the rumen through oesophagus.
3. Cattle stomach has four compartments such as:
➢ Rumen: In the rumen the feed is subjected to microbial fermentation. In ruminants this
enlarged part is represented by the rumen which is the biggest compartment in their four-
chambered stomach. The temperature of rumen is 38- 40°C. This is ideal for the growth
of micro-organisms, and they flourish as if grown in an incubator. (BHU)
➢ Reticulum: It is a smaller sac partially separated from rumen. This organ has a thick wall
resembling honeycomb. The contents of rumen and reticulum mix freely. Reticulum is

34 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 connected to omasum, the third compartment of stomach through an opening on the right
side of reticulum.
➢ Omasum: This organ has many layers of muscular leaves giving it the resemblance to a
book. After fermentation the ingest passes through the reticulo-omasal orifice into the
omasum. With the help of the muscular leaves having horny papillae the ingesta is
squeezed out. Water and fatty acids so squeezed out are absorbed. (JRF)
➢ Abomasum: it is the true stomach in the ruminant. From this organ onwards the
digestion taking place in ruminants is similar to that of non-ruminants. (JRF)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 35

 COMMON DISEASES OF ANIMAL:

Category Diseases
Diseases caused by bacteria Anthrax, black quarter, brucellosis, mastitis,
Haemorrhagic septicemia, calf scours, pneumonia.
Diseases caused by viruses Foot and Mouth, Rinderpest.
Diseases caused by protozoan Coccidiosis (AFO-2020), Babesiosis, Anaplasmosis,
organisms Theileriosis, Trypanosomiasis, Trichomonads.
Diseases caused by parasites Round worms (Nematodes), Tapeworms (Cestodes),
Liver flukes (Trematodes).

Important Nutrient and Deficiency Symptoms:

Nutrient Deficiency symptoms
Vitamins
Water insoluble
Vitamin A (Retinol) Xerophthalmia
Vitamin D (Cholecalciferol) Rickets, Osteomalacia
Vitamin E (Tocopherol) Muscular dystrophy
Vitamin K (Fano quinone) (Delayed clotting)
Water soluble
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Polyneuritis
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin (AFO-2022) Curled Toe paralysis
Nicotinamide Dermatitis, Enteritis
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Anaemia, Convulsion
Pantothenic acid Goose stepping
Folic acid Anaemia

36 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Choline Slow growth, Fatty liver
Biotin Dermatitis, Loss in weight
Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) Westing sickness
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid) Scurvy
Minerals
Calcium Rickets, Osteomalacia, Milk fever, Pica
Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine, Dehydration (AFO-2020)
Sulphur
Magnesium Hyperirritability
Iron Anaemia
Zinc Parakeratosis
Copper Sway Back
Manganese Perosis
Iodine Goitre
Cobalt Coast disease
Molybdenum Molybdenosis
Fluorine Florosis
Selenium Dagnala disease (Toxicity), Alkali disease

TABULAR DETAIL OF ALL IMPORTANT DISEASES:

Disease How contacted Incub First signs Animal Nature of

ation affected preventive
perio treatment
d

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 37

 Rinderpest Direct contact or 3-15 High fever, blood- Cattle and Vaccination
with material days stained diarrhoea buffalo,
contaminated with sometimes
discharge from sheep and
lesions goats
Foot & Direct contact or 3-8 Salivation, sores on All Segregation
Mouth with material days feet and tongue, domestic and other
disease contaminated with lameness animals sanitary
discharge from measures,
lesions vaccination
Contagious Direct contact From Frequent, painful, Cattle Annual
bovine 4 subdued cough, vaccination,
pleuro- weeks prolonged, destruction
pneumonia unthriftiness, of affected
deaths at frequent animal
intervals

Anthrax Water and food 1-3 Sudden death or Cattle, Annual

contaminated with days very high fever buffaloes, vaccination
blood and or sheep,
excretions or by longer goats and
wound infection horses
Black Water and food 2-5 Gas gangrene, Cattle and Biannual
quarter contaminated with days death before 48 sheep vaccination
blood and hours
excretions or by
wound infection
Trypanoso Infective flies Few Intermittent fever, All Chemicals,
miasis days unthriftiness domestic Eradication
(Surra, tod animals of flies
Nagana some
etc.) weeks

38 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Contagious Food, water, etc. 21 Abortion, full-time Cattle and Vaccination
abortion contaminated by days still births, buffaloes before
discharged and buffaloes retained breeding
aborted foetus afterbirths
Bovine Food, water, etc. 1-4 Fever, red and Cattle, Vaccination
piroplasmos contaminated by weeks black urine sheep and before
is (Red- discharged and goats breeding
water, aborted foetus
Texas fever
etc.)
Pleuro- Direct contact or 2-6 Fever, nasal Goats Sanitary
pneumonia through material days discharge Segregation
of goats contaminated with
nasal discharge
Sheep pox Inhalation and 2-7 High fever, Sheep Vaccination
through broken days discharge from
skin of material eyes and nose
contaminated with
discharge
Swine pox Directed by eating 6-9 High fever, Pigs Sanitary
or inhaling days blotched skin, segregation
material diarrhoea and
contaminated destruction
of affected
animal
Fowl plague Direct contact by 6-9 Sudden death or Pigs, duck Sanitary
eating or inhaling discharge from and geese segregation
material eyes and nose,
contaminated inability to stand

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 39

 Fowl Direct contact by 2-5 Sudden death or Pigs, duck Sanitary
cholera eating or inhaling days discharge from and geese segregation
material eyes and nose,
contaminated inability to stand

Fowl Infective ticks 1-2 Intense thirst, Duck and Tick

spirochaeto days profuse diarrhoea, geese elimination
sis gasping, sneezing

Fowl Inhalation of Diarrh Intense thirst, Duck and Improved

pneumonia spores from oea profuse diarrhoea, geese sanitation
infected litter, food Gasping, sneezing
etc.

Fowl pox Direct contact 3-15 Rough, brown, Poultry, Vaccination

days wartlike, sores on turkeys, twice yearly
the head, sore some times
mouth and eyes suinea
fowls,
ducks and
geese
Avian Type A viruses 3-14 Swelling of head wild neither be
Influenza days and wattle, bluish aquatic prevented
(Zoonotic) comb, dullness, birds with vaccine
Respiratory not be
discharge, treated
Bleeding in the successfully
muscles and legs
Classical By Virus 2 to Inactive and Pigs Modified
Swine Fever 14 drowsy with live vaccines
days arched back, (MLV)
Huddling,
vomiting, high
fever anorexia and

40 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 constipation, hair
loss

Exotic By Virus (Infected 2-15 Depression, Poultry Live virus

Newcastle chicken, days Diarrhoea, birds vaccines
Disease Paramyxovirus, (avera respiratory system both from
Contamination of ge 5- affected, lentogenic
water) 6) (La Sota, F,
B1) and
mesogenic
(H, R2B,
Mukteshwar
)
Lumpy Viral (LSDV) 2 to 5 nodular skin cattle and Hygiene and
Skin Disease (vector- weeks lesions of 10-50 water sanitization
Disease borne pox disease) mm in diameter, buffaloes
Lachrymation and
(not affect
nasal discharge,
humans)

➢ Zoonotic diseases: - Anthrax, Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, and Rabies

➢ Milk fever: caused because of low calcium level after calving.
➢ Ketosis: Disturbance of carbohydrate metabolism in high producing dairy cattle– hypo
glycaemia and appearance of ketone bodies. Usually appear in good milkers from 7 days to
six weeks after calving.
➢ Bloat (tympany): Is a disease of ruminants in which rumen and reticulum is over
distended with the gases of fermentation.

VACCINATION FOR DAIRY ANIMALS:

Sl. Name of Disease Age at first dose Subsequent dose
No

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 41

 1 Foot and Mouth 4 months and above (Booster Six monthly
Disease (FMD) dose after 1 month)

2 Haemorrhagic 6 months and above Annually in endemic areas.

Septicaemia (HS)

3 Black Quarter (BQ) 6 months and above Annually in endemic areas.

(BHU)

4 Brucellosis 4-8 months of age Once in a lifetime

(Only female calves)

5 Theileriosis 3 months of age and above Once in a lifetime. Only

required for crossbred and
exotic cattle.

6 Anthrax 4 months and above Annually in endemic areas.

7 IBR 3 months and above (Booster Six monthly (vaccine presently

dose after 1 month) not produced in India)

8 Rabies (Post bite Immediately after suspected 7,14,28 and 90 (optional) days
therapy only) bite. (Booster dose on/after after first dose.
4th day)

VACCINATION SCHEDULE FOR BUFFALOES:

Infection Primary Revaccination

FMD (Bovilis Clovax, 3 months onwards Every 44-48 weeks after 2nd booster
Raksha) vaccination
Haemorrhagic Septicemia 6 months and Annually and in adverse climatic
(Galghotu/Ghurrka), Raksha HS above conditions like unseasonal rains and
vaccine cyclones, etc.
Rabies (Raksharab, 3 months and 3 years, annual vaccination
Prophylactic) above recommended in endemic areas

COMMON DISEASES OF SHEEP AND GOAT:

42 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Disease Cause Symptoms Prevention and Remarks
control

Blue Mainly during Reddening and Potassium Mostly affects

tongue the rainy season swelling of nose permanganate in 1 sheep and goat
(BT) caused by and oral mucosa, liter of water and and cattle are
Arthropod-borne Congestion of wash the mouth 2 very rarely,
orbi virus in the conjunctival to 3 times a day endemic in India,
family of mucous with this solution, Transmission
Reoviridae. membranes, First vaccine at 3 through semen
Dyspnoea, months of age then and placental
snoring and once in a year route is possible.
Pneumonia

Peste-des- Contagious viral Fever, loss of First vaccine at 3 markedly evident

Petits disease appetite, months of age then in goat and sheep
Ruminants (Moribillivirus stomatitis, once in a year are less
(PPR) of gastroenteritis susceptible
Paramyxoviridae and pneumonitis.
family)
Sheep pox Chronic viral Pox lesions First vaccine at 3 Use disinfectants
disease (Capri throughout the months of age then like ether (20%),
pox virus, pox skin, papules once in a year in chloroform and
viridae family) rhinitis, feb-march formalin (1%),
conjunctivitis phenol (2%)
Anthrax Bacteria Bacillus Sudden death, Use disinfected by animal body
anthracis Bloat, edema 3% per acetic acid should not be
or 10% caustic opened,
soda or 10%
formaline.

VACCINATION SCHEDULE FOR SHEEP AND GOAT:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 43

 S. No Disease Vaccine
1. Tetanus Within 48 hrs after birth
2. FMD 2nd month of age repeated once in 6 months. (AFO-
2020)
3. Sheep and goat pox 6 months of age repeated annually, vaccination in
endemic area.
4. Anthrax 6 months of age repeated annually, vaccination in
endemic area.
5. Enterotoxaemia 6 months of age repeated annually, vaccination
should be completed before onset of monsoon.
6. PPR 6 months of age repeated annually, vaccination in
endemic area.
7. Blue tongue 6 months of age, repeated annually.

POULTRY DISEASE
Category Diseases
Parasitic (external) Lice, mites, tick and fleas
Parasitic (internal) Round worms, tapeworm and hexamitiasis
Protozoan Coccidiosis in chicken, leucocytozoonosis
Bacterial Pullorum, Typhoid, Paratyphoid, fowl cholera, Diarrhea

Viral Ranikhet disease, Marek's disease (JRF) ,fowl pox, infectious

bronchitis, infection bursitis, avian encephalomycytis, leukosis,
chronic respiratory disease, Hepatitis etc.
Fungal Aspergillosis, Moniliasis

NUTRITIONAL DISEASE
Rickets Vitamin — D Deficiency (JRF)
Curled toe paralysis Vitamin B2 Deficiency
Crazy chick Vitamin - E deficiency
Perosis Mn deficiency

44 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Parakeratosis Zn deficiency
Skin Disease Eye disease- B2 deficiency

Piglet anemia Iron deficiency

Osteomalacia P Deficiency (JRF)

VACCINATION SCHEDULE:
S. NO Age Name of the vaccine
1. 1st day Marek's Disease vaccine
2. 7th day Ranikhet Disease F Strain/Lasota (AFO-
2020) RD killed.
3. 14 to 16 days (II week) Infectious Bursal disease(live) IBD(killed)

4. 21 to 24 th day (III week) Infectious Bronchitis

5. 30 to 35 days Ranikhet disease-Lasota strain
6. 42 to 45 day Infectious Bursal disease (live)
7. 56 to 70 days (8-10 th week) Ranikhet disease "K" (Mesogenic)
8. 84 to 91 days (12 - 13th Fowl Pox vaccine
week)
9. 91 to 98 days (13 to 14th Infectious Bronchitis Vaccin
week)
10. 126 to 133 days Ranikhet disease K" (Mesogenic)
11. After peak production , Ranikhet Disease Vaccine "Lasota"
every 8 Weeks

COMMON MEDICINES AND USES FOR ANIMALS:

1. Antibiotics: Chemicals that are obtained by fungi or bacteria and inhibit the growth of other
micro-organisms and kill them. Example- Penicillin, Streptomycin, Chloramphenicol etc.
2. Antiseptic: Chemicals that inhibit the growth of bacteria but do not kill them. Example –
Boric acid, Dettol, Iodine, Potassium permanganate etc.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 45

 3. Disinfectant: Drugs that destroy pathogens along with their spores. Examples: Phenyl, lime,
carbolic acid (phenol) etc.
4. Purgatives: Medicines or substances that cause diarrhoea when fed.
a. Laxatives: These cause common diarrhoea.
b. Drastic Purgatives: Borium Chloride, Croton Oil (Crotonis oleum).
c. Simple Purgatives: Magnesium Sulphate (volume of large animals 500-600 ml.
and small animals 50-60 ml.), Linseed oil, Castor oil (volume of large animals 250-
400 ml.), Sodium Sulphate
5. Stimulant: Those substances make the body feel excited. Example- alcohol, camphor,
caffeine
6. Astringent: Substances that close the blood or fluid by causing contraction in blood vessels,
mucous membranes. Tincture iodine, alum used externally to stop diarrhoea. catechu, opium
for internal use.
7. Massaging Oil: Used in massaging (for relief in fatigue) Example- Mustard oil, Turpentine
oil, Sesame oil.
8. Anti Pyrectics: Aspirin, Quinine, Salicylic Acid.
9. Anti Expectorant: Opium, Belladonna
10. Antidotes: These drugs are given to reduce the effect of poison. Example- iron salt for
cyanide toxin.
11. Anaesthetics: Given to make the body unconscious or unconscious. Example – chloroform,
nitrous oxide, ether
12. Caustics: These substances destroy the tissues by burning. Example- Potassium
permanganate, copper sulphate (blue tart), zinc sulphate, salt, alum etc.
13. Emetics: Vomiting starts after taking these substances. Example- Copper Sulphate, Zinc
Sulphate, Salt, Alum etc.
14. Anthelmintics: These substances or medicines get rid of parasites present in the body.
Example- Finovice, Turpentine oil, Copper sulphate, Nicotine sulphate.
15. Deodorants: Phenyl, Bleaching Powder.
16. Parasiticides: Destroys the parasites present on the skin. Example- methyl parathion,
phenyl, copper sulphate etc.
17. Narcotics: Cannabis, opium, chloroform, chloral hydrate, ether, nitrous oxide, etc.
18. Antacid (Reduces gas) - Medicines which provide relief from gas produced in the stomach.
Example- Hing, Ajwain, Fenugreek, Fennel, Cumin.
19. Germicides:- Phenol, Phenyl, Lysol, Lime, Carbolic Acid (Phenol)
Drug use method:

46 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

1. Phenyl (Bactericide) – Its 1% solution is used in Foot and mouth disease (FMD) to wash
the hooves of animals and for cleaning the animal house.
2. Carbolic acid (phenol) – bactericidal and antibacterial
➢ Its 5% solution is used for cleaning in cattle sheds.
➢ Its 1% solution is used in washing wounds.
➢ Use 2% solution to destroy external parasites.
3. Potassium permanganate (red drug /KMNO4) – Antibacterial
➢ Its 1% solution is used to sterilize instruments and instruments used in veterinary
medicine and hands.
➢ Use 2% solution on snake bite area.
4. Lysol- Antibacterial
➢ Its 2% solution is used for surgical instruments, animal husbandry cleaning and uterus
washing.
➢ Magsulf or Magnesium Sulphate / MgSo4 – Laxative
➢ To clean the stomach of large animals (cow, buffalo) give 250-400 grams.
➢ Give 50-100 grams to clean the stomach of small animals (sheep, goat).
5. Castor oil- 600-1200 grams are given to large animals and 50-125 grams to small animals
to clean the stomach
6. Alcohol- 500 ml of 5% concentration per animal (large) is given to the animals to remove
fatigue and to remove cold.
7. Sulphate of copper (Blue Stone)- Anthelmintic and antiemetic
➢ Use of its 1% solution to destroy the internal parasites in cow-buffalo 250-300 ml. and
for sheep and goat, 50-70 ml quantity is used.
➢ Its 1% solution is used for footbath or washing of hooves of animals in hoof mouth
disease (F.M.D.).
➢ The harmful insects are destroyed by spraying 2% solution of blue phlegm in the
contaminated pastures.
8. Alum- Its 2-5% solution is used in washing the wounds of disease, uterus in F.M.D.
9. Turpentine oil- 30-60 ml quantity of it is mixed with other oils and fed to the animal.
Massaging the chest with this oil provides relief in pneumonia.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 47

 POULTRY
❖ Chromosome number in chicken (2n) : 78
❖ Incubation period (days): 21 days
❖ Age at sexual maturity (weeks): 18-20
❖ Broiler - A young chicken (usually 9 to 12 weeks of age), that has tender meat with soft
pliable, smooth-textured skin and flexible breastbone cartilage of either sex.
❖ Brood- A group of chicks hatched out from the same batch of eggs.
❖ Brooder - A device for providing artificial warmth to the chicks.
❖ Brooder House - A house used for rearing chicks from day-old with arrangements for
artificial heating and light.
❖ Chicken- Birds including chicks, broilers, layers, pullets, cocktails, and cocks.
❖ Chick - Includes day-old chicks only,
❖ Cock - A cock is a mature male chicken with coarse skin, toughened and darkened meat and
hardened breastbone tip.
❖ Feeder (Feed Hopper) - A specially designed trough or utensil where feed for chicken is
kept.
❖ Heavy Breeds - Dual purpose or meat type breeds, such as Rhode Island Reds, Plymouth
Rocks and New Hampshire, weighing at the age of sexual maturity 2.50 kg or more in case
of females and 2.95 kg or more in case of cock.
❖ Layer - A female chicken above the age of 150 days in case of light breed and 175 days in
case of heavy breed.
❖ Layer House - A house in which laying chickens are kept.
❖ Laying Nest - A box or cage where the chickens lay eggs.
❖ Perches or Roosts -A circular or rectangular bar placed horizontally above the floor for the
chicken to roost at night.
❖ Incubation: Providing temperature and humidity for normal development of embryo in egg.
It may be artificial or natural. A machine which provides all these is called incubator.
Incubation period in chicken is 21 days. Temperature requirement for incubation is 37.2-
37.7 ℃.
❖ Hatching: Process of breaking out of an eggshell after completion of incubation.
Temperature requirement for hatching is 37.5 – 37.8 degree C then 19-21 days after 36.9 –
37.5 degree C
❖ Debeaking: It is important to remove only one third of the upper beak taking care to
avoiding tongue. It is usually practiced at the age of 10-14 days and repeated at the age of
14-16 weeks. Debeaking should never be done with penknife.

48 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

POULTRY RELATED TERMS

Detail Poultry
Species Chicken
Group Flock
Adult Male Cock
Adult Female Hen
Young Male Cockerel
Young Female Pullet
New-born Chick
Castrated Male Capon
Act of Parturition Laying
BREED OF POULTRY:
Class Breed Name

Asiatic Aseel (AFO-2015), Kadaknath, Ghagas, Chittagong, Naked Neck,

Brahama, Cochin, Long Shan. Birds of this class mature late and sit for a
long time and are lethargic.

American Plymouth Rock, New Hampshire, Rhode Island Red, Rhode Island
White. The breeds of this class are best for meat and eggs.

English Sussex, Orphington, Australop, Cornish, Dorking. Breeds of this class

are best for meat production.

Mediterranean Minorca, Leghorn, Ancona, Blue Andulusian, Spanish. The breeds of

this class are best for egg production.

BREEDS BASED ON UTILITY:

Utility Breed

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 49

 Layer Leghorn, Minorca, Long Shan

Broiler/Meat type Orphington, Cornish

Dual purpose Plymouth Rock, Rod Island Red, New Hampshire

Sports/ Game purpose Aseel

Exhibition purpose Silky, Frizzled, Bantams, Hamburg, Nacked neck

Native (desi) Kadaknath, Chittagong, Naked Neck

HOME TRACT OF CHICKEN BREEDS:

Species Origin
Ankaleshwar Gujrat
Aseel Chhattisgarh, Orissa & Andhra Pradesh
Bursa Gujrat & Maharashtra
Chittagong Meghalaya and Tripura
Danki Andhra Pradesh
Harringhata Black West Bengal
Ghagus Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka
Kadaknath Madhya Pradesh
Kalasthi Andhra Pradesh
Miri Assam
Nicobari Andaman & Nicobar
Punjab Brown Punjab & Haryana
Mewari Rajasthan

COMPOSITION OF EGG:
Egg average weight 56-57 gm.
Egg contains yolk 30%
White or albumen 58%
Shell 12%

50 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

NUTRIENT COMPOSITION (ON EGG WEIGHT):
Protein 12%
Fat 11%
Minerals 12%
Water 65%
Calories 148 cal/100 gm.

GRADING OF EGGS BY WEIGHT:

Extra-large 60 gms/egg
Large 53-59 g.
Medium 45-52 g.
Small 38-44 g.

GRADING OF EGGS BY AGMARK:

A-grade Clean, unbroken shell, air cell, 4mm depth, clear, firm white well
centered yolk free from defects.
B-grade Clean, moderately tainted shell, air cell 8 mm depth, slightly off centered and
shape visible

No grade Eggs classified as loss or no grade is edible - contaminated by

smoke, chemical and other foreign materials, which may affect the character
and appearance.

SYSTEM OF POULTRY REARING

❖ There are three systems of poultry keeping:
1. In the free-range system of keeping poultry is common in the rural parts of the country.
Deforested land was used 200 birds/acre allotted. In an ordinary land 100 birds/Acre was
allotted.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 51

 2. In the semi-intensive system, the birds are provided with a night shelter surrounded by
open but fenced runs for the day. As few as six to as many as 200 can be kept in are acre
of land in this system.
3. In the intensive system the birds are totally confined with arrangements for feeding,
watering, nesting, etc., inside the house itself. This system is widely practiced in India.
❖ Intensive system has two types:
a. Deep litter system (RRB SO -2021)
b. Cage System
❖ Types of cages & Minimum area is required / bird.
1. Single: 1 /sq.ft.(AFO-2018)
2. Multiple: 0.75 sq.ft.
3. Colony: 0.5 sq.ft.
HOUSING FOR LAYERS:
Floor space 2 sq.ft.
Feeder space 4 sq.ft.
Water space 2 sq.ft.
Temperature required 10-24 degree C

HOUSING FOR BROILER:

0-4 weeks 4-8 weeks
Floor space ½ sq. ft. 1 sq. ft.
Feeder space 3 sq. ft. 6 sq. ft.
Water space 2 sq. ft. 4 sq. ft.
Temperature required 21 -25 degree C

52 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

DAIRY SCIENCE:
➢ Milk may be defined as the entire lacteal secretion of the mammary glands of mammals
obtained by the process of milking during the period following at least 72 hours after
calving or until milk is free from colostrum.
➢ Milk protein has a biological value of 90 per cent.
➢ The unique milk sugar lactose, which is made up of glucose and galactose.
➢ Milk is a poor source of iron and vitamin C
➢ The fat-soluble vitamin A, D E, K in milk depends on their availability in the feed.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MILK:
Acidity and pH 0.14 to 0.18%, 6.5 to 6.7 (JRF)
Specific gravity 1.018 to 1.036
density of milk 1.027 to 1.033 kg/cm3

Viscosity 2.0 cP (centipoise)

Surface tension 50 dyne/cm

Freezing and boiling points 0.575ºC, 100.17ºC.

AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK (IN %):

Species Water Fat Protein Total SNF Lactose
solids
Cow 86.61 4.14 3.58 13.19 9.25 4.96
Buffalo 82.76 7.38 3.60 17.24 9.86 5.48
Goat 87.00 4.25 3.52 13.00 7.75 4.27
Sheep 80.71 7.90 5.23 19.29 11.39 4.81
Camel 87.61 5.38 2.98 12.39 7.01 3.26
Mare 89.04 1.59 2.69 10.96 9.37 6.14
Ass 89.03 2.53 2.01 10.97 8.44 6.07

Highest lactose Mare> Ass> Buffalo

Highest Water Mare> Ass> Camel

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 53

 Highest fat Sheep
Highest Protein Sheep
Highest SNF (AFO-2018) Sheep
Highest ash Sheep

FSSAI STANDARDS FOR DIFFERENT MILK:

S. No. Type Fat SNF
1 Toned Milk (TM) Minimum 3.0 Minimum 8.5
2 Double Toned milk (DTM) Minimum 1.5 Minimum 9.0
3 Standardized milk Minimum 4.5 Minimum 8.5
4 Skimmed milk (SM) Not more than 0.5 Minimum 8.7
5 Full cream milk (FCM) Minimum 6.0 Minimum 9.0
6 Recombined Milk Minimum 3% Minimum 8.5%.
7 Buffalo Milk Minimum 5-6% Minimum 9%
8 Cow Milk Minimum 3-4% Minimum 8.5-9%
9 Goat or Sheep Milk Minimum 3.5 Minimum8.5-9%
10 Mixed milk Minimum 4.5 Minimum 8.5
11. Butter Minimum 76
12 Goat and sheep milk Minimum 3-3.5 Minimum 9.0 %

MILKING METHODS:
➢ MILKING: Milking is defined as the critical and laborious process which involves hormonal
reflex. The art of milking performed within 5-8 minutes. Normally milking is done twice a
day. Milking methods are:
➢ FISTING/FULL HAND METHOD: It is the best method of hand milking though most of
the milkmen follow knuckling method. (BHU,Pre-PG)

54 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ KNUCKLING METHOD: Many milkers tend to bend their thumb against the teat canal and
drag the milk out. This practice should be avoided as it is injurious to the teat.
➢ STRIPPING: This method is followed where the length of the teat is small; it is normally
practiced towards the end of milking in order to evacuate the milk completely
➢ MACHINE MILKING: A calf and the machine do the harvesting of milk in a similar
fashion. One milking machine for – 10 animals yielding 10 liters / day will be economical to
maintain.
MILK PROCESSING
1. Homogenization: to prevent creaming, or the rising of fat to the top of the container of milk.
The process of homogenization breaks the fat particles into smaller particles. (AFO-2021)
2. Pasteurization:
Temperature Time Pasteurization Type
63°C 30 minutes Batch Pasteurization (LTLT)/ Holding or
Batch method (JRF)
72°C 15 seconds High Temperature Short Time
Pasteurization (HTST)/ continuous system
or flash pasteurization
135°C-145°C 2 (1-5) seconds Ultra-high temperature (UHT) Sterilization

➢ Thermization: The milk is heated to 63-65oC for 15 seconds and rapidly chilled to 4oC
MILK PRODUCTS:
Fermented Product Non-Fermented Product
Butter Skim, Toned, Double Toned & Full cream Milk
Butter Milk Evaporated Milk, Flavoured milk
Ghee Dry Milk Powder
Curd Sweetened condensed milk
Yogurt Recombined, Filled & Reconstituted Milk
Shrikhand Cream & Colostrum
Cheese Khoa, Rabri
Chhaina
Ice Cream

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 55

 COW GHEE STANDARDS:
S.No. Value of cow's ghee Value

1. Richard Maisel Value (AFO-2021) 26-28

2. Saponification value 222-226

3. Refractive index 1.4157 to 1.4566

4. Oleic acid < 1.5%

5. Water <0.5%

6. Iodine Number 26 to 35

7. Polenske Number 12 to 24

VARIOUS MILK TEST:

Test Name Used for

Clot on boiling test (COB) Stability of milk for heat processing

Alcohol Test Detect abnormal milk (Colostrum or mastitis milk)

Sediment Test To identify dust/dirt in milk

Resazurin Reduction Test Bacteriological quality of milk (Dye reduction/detection)

(RRT)

Lactometer test Determination of adulteration of milk by adding water

Methylene Blue Reduction Bacteriological quality of milk (Dye reduction/detection)

Test (MBRT)

Alcohol–alizarin test To check suitability of milk for high heat treatment and
its acidity.

Alkaline Phosphatase To check adequately pasteurization (Dairy farming)

56 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

MILK FACT:
❖ India holds number one position in its annual milk production among the other countries
of the world.
❖ India has the highest annual growth rate of around 5-6% in milk production unmatched
by any country of the dairy world.
❖ Per capita availability of milk was 252 grams per day in 2007-08 while in 2018-19 the per
capita milk availability has been increased to 394 grams/day.
❖ Among all the states the highest per capita availability of milk is in Punjab.
❖ Highest milk production is in UP followed by Rajasthan.
❖ India is the largest producer of milk.
❖ India is also the second largest producer of cow milk followed by USA.
❖ Uttar Pradesh is the highest milk producing state in India.
❖ The White Revolution, also known as Operation Flood, was launched in 1970.(RRB SO-
2021)
❖ Cows spend 6-7 hours a day eating. The average cow chews at least 50 times per minute.
❖ It takes a person 1 hour to milk 6 cows by hand. However, if required, a person can milk
100 cows in an hour with modern milking machines.
❖ Talking, singing or whistling to the sheep, cow, goat or buffalo as it is being milked makes
it relax and the milk is let down better.
❖ Milk is one of the rare food sources of Vitamin D.
❖ Milk also contains phosphorus, potassium and Vitamin K2.
❖ Milk is sweet because of presence of lactose.
❖ We can digest lactose due to special enzyme called lactase found in our body.
❖ The natural yellow colour of cow milk comes mainly from beta-carotene found in the grass
where the cows graze on. Our body converts beta carotene into vitamin A when cow milk
is ingested. (AFO-2020)
❖ In case of buffalo milk beta carotene is already converted into vitamin A in the animal body
itself. Thus, buffalo milk appears white.
❖ Colostrum has less fat but more protein. Major protein of milk is Globulin and total protein
in colostrum is 20-21%.
❖ Lactose is used as a coating and filler material in pharmaceutical industry for manufacturing
of pills or tablets.
❖ Milk is better for cooling your mouth after eating spicy food. Milk contains casein, a protein
that cleanses burning taste buds.
❖ Rosalic acid test: Add 4 drops of freshly prepared alcoholic solution of 1% Rosalic acid to
the above mixture and mix gently

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 57

 ❖ Pink colour: presence of either sodium hydroxide potassium hydroxide or calcium
hydroxide
❖ Rose red colour: Presence of sodium carbonate or sodium bicarbonate
❖ Brownish colour: Absence of any of these neutralizers.
➢ Detection of urea in milk: Take 2ml of milk and add 2ml of p-dimethyl amino
benzaldehyde reagent
➢ Development of distinct yellow colour denotes the presence of urea.
➢ The presence of buffalo milk in cow milk can be detected by Hansa test.
➢ The art of milking performed within 5-8 minutes.
➢ A cow is expected to show estrus in 30-40 days after calving.
➢ Animals giving up to 10 liters of milk should be milked twice a day. The Frequency needs
to be increased to thrice in case of production ranging from 12-15liters.
➢ Major milk protein is casein (80%)
➢ Total calories in 100 ml milk is 79.02.
➢ Casein content of cow milk : 3.0%
➢ Casein content of buffalo milk : 4.3%
➢ Lactose content of cow milk : 4.5%
➢ Lactose content of buffalo milk : 4.8%
➢ Highest body weight in Indian cow : kankrej
➢ Highest fat percent in exotic breeds of cow : Jersey
➢ Wallowing is a common behaviour of : Buffalo
➢ Highest milk fat percent found in breed of buffalo is : Bhadawri (8-13%)
➢ Highest milk producing buffalo breed : Murrah
➢ Respiration rate of buffalo : 15-20 per minute
➢ Heat period of cow and buffalo is : 18-36 hrs
➢ Oxytocin hormone responsible for : Milk let down (AFO-2020)
➢ Hormone responsible for stopping lactation – Adrenaline (RRB SO-2021)
➢ Hormone responsible for milk production: Prolactin
➢ Goat is called : Poor man's cow
➢ Salted smoked meat of pig is known as : Bacon
➢ Livestock insurance scheme was started during : 2005-06
➢ Testosterone is also known as : Male hormone
➢ Rinderpest is also known as : Cattle plague
➢ Fat percentage of salted butter is : 80 %
➢ Minimum dry period of cow should be : 40 days
➢ Best breed of buffalo in the world is: Murrah
➢ Saanen is called : Milk queen of goat world

58 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Milk fever disease is due to deficiency of : Ca (AFO-2016)
➢ First milk produced by female is called : Colostrum
➢ Verghese Kurien, known as the "Father of the White Revolution/ Operation Flood.
➢ Every year November 26 is celebrated as National Milk Day in India. The day is being
observed since 2014 to commemorate the birth anniversary of the Father of India's White
Revolution, Dr Verghese Kurien. He is also nicknamed as “Milkman of India”.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 59

 IMPORTANT FACTS:
❖ Which animal resistant to tuberculosis is: Goat
❖ Marek's disease is found in: poultry
❖ Which breed of poultry is originated from Dhar district of M.P.: Kadaknath
❖ Desi cow milk is known as A2 milk (healthier choice) while milk of exotic cow is known as
A1 milk.
❖ The fat content of butter is generally about 80%.
❖ Operation Flood: Operation Flood I (1970 – 1981), Operation Flood II (1981 –1985),
Operation Flood III (1985-96)
❖ The frozen semen can be stored in the Liquid Nitrogen -196 ℃
❖ Good quality semen is produced in the age of 22-24 months.
❖ The ideal system in India at present is having 5-6 batch of broiler at any time.
❖ The main breed of backyard Poultry are Kalinga Brown, Mumbai Desi, Rhode Island Red
and CARI Nirbheek.
❖ List of ruminant and non-ruminant animals:
❖ Ruminating mammals include cattle, goats, sheep, giraffes, yaks, water buffalo, deer,
camels.
❖ Non-Ruminant: Humans & primates, swine, equines, reptiles, avian.
❖ Meat of Different animals:
Animal Term
Cow or Bull Beef
Pig Pork
Sheep Muton
Goat Chevon
Chicken Chicken

❖ The hard meat of poultry is called tender.

❖ Chicken meat is known as white meat.
❖ The exotic breed of pig mainly comprises Hampshire, Large White York Shire, Duroc,
Landrace, and Tamworth. Popular indigenous pig breeds include Ghungroo, Niang Megha,
Ankamali, Agonda Goan, and Tany-Vo.
❖ 0.33 ha. Area of land is cultivated by the animals. The power rating of a full-grown bullock
a pure Indian draught breed is 0.70 HP average is 0.5 HP only.
❖ A 35 HP tractor can plough about 2.5ha of land in an eight-hour shift and consume about
5 L diesel / hr.

60 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Highest percentage of fat in exotic breed is found in Jersy breed it produces more than 5%
fat.
❖ Second highest Fat is found in buffalo.
❖ Highest protein is found in sheep.
❖ Bluetongue disease is a noncontagious, insect-borne, viral disease of ruminants, mainly
sheep and less frequently cattle, goats, buffalo.
❖ Deoni is a milch breed.
❖ The protein content of colostrum is 6-7 times as that of normal milk. Normal milk has 3.5
to 4 % protein while cow’s colostrum has 21% protein and buffalo colostrum has 23%
protein. (Make sure to answer the question according to options)
❖ The first scientific research in artificial insemination of domestic animals was performed on
dogs in 1780 by the Italian scientist.
❖ Grazing habit (on bushes) of goat is known as Browsing, Goat is also known as enemy of
vegetation.
❖ Cows can be rebred in 9-12 weeks after parturition.
❖ Ovulation is the process of shedding of ovum from the Graffian follicle. In the case of cow,
usually a single ovum is capable of undergoing fertilization only for a period of 5-10 hours.
Therefore, the time of mating insemination in relation to ovulation is important for effective
fertilization.
❖ Which of the following breeds is the highest milk producer in the world: Holstein-Friesian
(AFO 2015)
❖ Aseel is breed of: Hen(AFO 2015)
❖ Milk fever is also known as: Parturient paresis (AFO 2016)
❖ Which of the following Indian sheep breed is known for producing superior quality carpet
wool: Chokla (AFO 2016)
❖ Chokla is a hornless breed of sheep.
❖ Which of the following indigenous buffalo has high content of buttermilk fat : Murrah
(AFO 2016)
❖ Hen required how much sq/ft as per NABARD norms: 1 sq ft (AFO 2017)
❖ Dual purpose breed of cow in India: Haryana (AFO 2017)
❖ Highest % of fat in Buffalo breed: Bhadawari (AFO 2017)
❖ Feed is given to the new-born calf. What is daily weight gain of well-fed crossbreed calf:
400 grams (AFO 2018)
❖ In murrah Buffalo what is the age at first calving: 42-45 months (AFO 2018)
❖ Which Institute had discovered the vaccine for Ranikhet disease: Indian veterinary
Research Institute (AFO 2018)
❖ Which institute formulated vaccines on Rinderpest: IVRI (AFO 2018)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 61

 ❖ What is the floor space required for “Broiler Poultry (sq. ft.)”: 1 Sq. Feet (AFO 2018)
❖ What is the floor space required for pregnant cow: 100-120 Sq. Feet (AFO 2018)
❖ Which Institute had developed Karan Fries breed: NDRI, karnal (AFO 2018)
❖ Central Avian Research Institute, Izatnagar was established in which year: 1979 (AFO 2018)
❖ Highest Ca is present in which manure: Poultry (AFO 2018)
❖ Highest SNF content is found in which animal milk: Sheep (AFO 2018)
❖ Which poultry breed has highest weight at the age of 5 weeks: Aseel (AFO 2018)
❖ Number of poultry batches can be reared in a year: 7 (AFO 2018)
❖ Which institute has developed Goat pox & Ranikhet vaccine: IVRI (AFO 2019)
❖ Act of mating in sheep: Tupping (AFO 2020)
❖ What is that place which is used for feeding of lamb, calves and piglet but not used for adults
is known as: Creep (AFO 2020)
❖ Let down of milk is due to which hormone: Oxytocin (AFO 2020)
❖ Which among the following cattle breeds is indigenous draught purpose while cows are poor
yielder: Khillari (AFO 2020)
❖ Which is not bacterial disease in Pig: Coccidiosis (AFO 2020)
❖ Name of the vaccine used for Ranikhet: Lasota (AFO 2020)
❖ Highest lactation length of which goat: Jamunapari (AFO 2020)
❖ Which sheep breed of northwest India known for best quality white wool: Magra (AFO
2020)
❖ What is the average gestation period of buffalo: 316 ± 5 (AFO 2020)
❖ Yellow colour of milk due to: Carotenoid (AFO 2020, RRB SO-2019)
❖ Young female pig who had not given the birth to any offspring till now: Sow (AFO 2020)
❖ FMD vaccines is given to sheep at an interval of 6-month (AFO 2020)
❖ Sodium deficiency in cow symptom and causes what: Dehydration and fluid reduction
(AFO 2020)
❖ Feed conversion ratio in broiler chicken: 1.5 to 1.9 (AFO 2020)
❖ Mating of wider degree relation not closer one and result in uniformity is known as: Line
breeding (AFO 2020)
❖ Type of emulsion found in MILK: Oil in water(AFO 2020)
❖ Act of Parturition in sow: Farrowing (AFO 2021)
❖ Zoonosis is: Transmission of disease from Animal to human (AFO 2021)
❖ These features are of which buffalo.This buffalo has sickle shaped horns. This buffalo is
greyish brown or black in colour: Surti (AFO 2021)
❖ For which of the following R.M. test is used: Ghee (AFO 2021)
❖ A process in which large fat globules are broken in smaller particles is known as:
Homogenization (AFO 2021)

62 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Amplifier host of Japanese encephalitis is Pig (AFO 2021)
❖ Which of the following housing system is used in commercial layer farming Cage system
in poultry having dimensions of 14×16 inches or height 17 inches: battery cage (AFO 2021)
❖ As per FSSAI Standards, SNF of cow milk is: 8.5 (AFO 2021)
❖ Buffalo milk is more whiter than cow milk: Because Carotene is converted into colorless
vitamin A (AFO-2021)
❖ Two well developed breeds are crossed Alternatively will be known as: Criss cross(AFO
2021)
❖ Secretion of milk by glandular secretory tissue of milk animals & their collection in the
various system terminating its let down – specific stimuli: Lactation (AFO 2021)
❖ Which among the following is a drought breed of cattle where cows are less milker, but bulls
are best for cart & field purpose: Krishna valley (AFO 2022)
❖ Which goat breed from Switzerland also known as milk queen in world: Sanen (AFO 2022)
❖ Curled toe paralysis in chicken due to: Vit -B2 (AFO 2022)
❖ Dual purpose breed of goat for meat + milk: Beetal (AFO 2022)
❖ Advance pregnancy symptom in cattle when embryo is out: Lapsing of uterus and vagina
(AFO 2022)
❖ Exotic, cross breed cow & buffalo for 5th month of pregnancy how much concentrate (other
than maintenance) should be given: 1.5 kg (AFO 2022)
❖ Prevention of brucellosis disease in goats can be done by taking the measures like: Isolation,
vaccination, blood test, culling of affected animals (AFO 2022)
❖ Which instrument is used to determine water content in milk: Lactometer (Dairy Farming)
❖ What is the purpose of pasteurization in milk: To destroy most of the pathogenic
microorganism's disease-causing bacteria (Dairy Farming)
❖ Test done to identify incomplete pasteurization in milk: Alkaline test (Dairy Farming)
❖ What is the Incubation period Of Surra disease: 5-30 days (RRB SO 2019)
❖ This animal is a Cross of Bikaneri ewes and merino rams is: Hisardale (RRB SO 2019)
❖ Friesian is a breed of: cow (RRB SO 2019)
❖ For the prevention of ascaris in calves of upto 6 weeks which of the following formulation
will be given: Piperazin salts (RRB SO 2019)
❖ In swine, which among the following is the intracellular parasite resulting in bloody
diarrhoea in swine: Coccidiosis (RRB SO 2019)
❖ Number of permanent cheek teeth in cow (molar + premolar): 24 (RRB SO 2019)
❖ Which among the following is not a bacterial disease: Bluetongue disease (RRB SO 2019)
❖ For which among the following disease the vaccination is not prepared yet: Milk fever (RRB
SO 2019)
❖ Yellow colour of cow milk is due to: Carotene (RRB SO 2019)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 63

 ❖ One of the linkages of Agriculture and livestock is used of organic matter. which of the
following nutrients is lowest of cattle manure: Sulphur (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Oestrus cycle is very important in cattle breeding, and it has phases of different duration. In
which of the following phase implementation of embryo takes place: Met Oestrum (RRB
SO 2018)
❖ Different breeds of cattle have separate Intercalving period. What is the Intercalving period
of Surti breed: 400 - 500 days (RRB SO 2018)
❖ Milk composition of each mammal is different which of the following species has lowest
SNF: Goat
❖ In which country major historical development of the breed Holstein occurred: Netherland
(RRB SO 2018)
❖ One of the linkages of Agriculture and livestock is used of fertilizer which of following
nutrient is highest in poultry manure: Nitrogen (RRB SO 2018)
❖ The process by which mammary glands acquire the ability to secrete milk will be known as:
Lactogenesis (RRB SO 2021)
❖ Cow get excited & disturb at the time of milking. Hold up of milk cause due to release of:
Adrenalin(RRB SO 2021)
❖ In union budget 2021-2022, there is enhancement of agricultural credit (in which animal
husbandry, dairy and fisheries will be the focus areas) to16.5 Lakh crore in 2022 (RRB SO
2021)
❖ Which poultry breed produces black color meat: Kadaknath (RRB SO 2021)
❖ The first secretion of mammary gland following parturition is known as: Colustrum (RRB
SO 2021)
❖ Which amino acid is present in A1 milk at 67th position of molecular chain but absent in A2
milk at same position: Histidine (RRB SO 2021)
❖ On the basis of body weight, how much colostrum is needed to feed a newborn calf: 1/10
(RRB SO 2021)
❖ The housing system of poultry in which the litter material is accumulated with poultry
manure until it reaches a depth of 8-12 inch will be referred to which among the following:
Deep litter (RRB SO 2021)
❖ Application of heat to chick during their early stage of life is: Brooding (RRB SO 2021)
❖ A new buffalo breed is evolved by grading up of local buffalo of coastal Andhra Pradesh
with Murrah breed is which among the following: Godavari RRB SO 2021)
❖ The White Revolution, also known as Operation Flood, was launched in year: 1970 (RRB
SO 2021)
❖ Which of the following is dual purpose cattle breed: Nimadi (RRB SO 2021)
❖ Haryana cattle breed belongs to: Dual Purpose (NABARD 2021)

64 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ In terms of interest subvention scheme for KCC to fishery and animals husbandry, interest
subvention of 2 % per annum provide short term loan upto: 2 lakh (NABARD 2021)
❖ Which chicken breed is sold as White meat and chicken breast: Broiler (NABARD 2021)
❖ The male sheep for breeding purpose is known as: Buck (NABARD 2021)
❖ Which of the following method is used for the commercial egg production: commercial
poultry (NABARD 2021)
❖ Feed the Colostrum to calf within 15 minutes of calving, the calf should be fed with
colostrum at the rate- 1/10th of body weight and buffalo calves at the rate -1/15th of body
weight.
❖ Well-fed cross bred calves on an average should gain 400 grams a day or 2.5 to 3 kilograms
per week.
❖ Disbudding is carried out either by the use of hot iron, caustic sticks and electrical dehorning
cone. Both the buds are destroyed at the early age (within 3 to 10 days).
❖ Shoeing of bullock used in road work should be done once in a month, if used for field work
then once in two months.
❖ In India wool production in maximum in: Rajasthan 35%
❖ The removal of tail in sheep is called: Docking
❖ Percentage utilization protein within animal body: Biological value
❖ The wool of angora breed of goats, soft white wool in great demand for clothing is called:
Mohair
❖ Milk carbohydrate fermentation takes place by bacteria: Streptococcus lactis
❖ Conversion of milk into curd takes place by bacteria: Lactobacillus thermophillus
❖ National Nutrition Institute (NNI) situated at: Hyderabad
❖ NDDB established in the year: 1965 (ANAND)
❖ Indian Dairy Corporation (NDC) is situated at: Anand (Gujrat)
❖ The animal resistant to tuberculosis is: Goat
❖ The avian breed known for fighting sports is: Aseel
❖ Indian goat famous for chevon quality is: Black bengal
❖ The optimum time to inseminate a cow during estrous is End of estrous
❖ The best site for semen deposition during artificial insemination in cattle is: Mid cervix
❖ A cow should be given pregnancy ration after how many months of pregnancy: 6
❖ Udder secretion immediately after calving is called: Colostrum
❖ According to the legal standard, the moisture content in butter must not exceed: 20%
❖ The breed of poultry bird is useful for both meat and egg production: Rhode Island Red
❖ Water percentage of cow milk is approximately: 87%
❖ Rickets disease caused by: Ca/ P deficiency
❖ Osteomalacia disease caused by: Ca/ P deficiency

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 65

 ❖ Milk fever disease caused by: Ca deficiency
❖ Anaemia disease caused by: Fe deficiency
❖ Pica disease caused by: P deficiency
❖ Wilson disease caused by: Cu deficiency
❖ Grass tetany disease caused by: Mg def./K toxicity
❖ For hay making fodder should be rich in: Proteins
❖ Cannibalism is seen in poultry due to: NaCl deficiency
❖ Jersey cow of goat is Nubian
❖ _______breed of poultry is excellent for broiler purpose: Plymouth Rock
❖ _______is a Himalayan region breed of sheep: Gaddi
❖ _______is excellent layer: White Leghorn
❖ _______breed have copper colour body coat: Bhadawari
❖ ______ Breed of sheep is known for superior carpet wool: Chokla
❖ _______breed have minimum milk fat percentage: Nilli ravi
❖ A barbari goat kids in january and is successfully mated again in April what will be her inter
kidding period: 8 months
❖ A castrated male chicken is called: Capon
❖ A farmer should purchase layer chicks in the month of: February to April
❖ A goat which never give milk is Angora
❖ A male animal with one or both the testicles retained inside the abdominal cavity is called
as: Cryptorchid
❖ A pregnant cow does not come in heat because: Corpus luteum is present
❖ A ram remains in full breeding vigour during the age of 2.5 to 5 year
❖ Among Indian breeds of sheep which one produces good quality of milk: Sonadi
❖ Amount of feed offered to an individual for a specific period is known as: Ration
❖ An apparatus used for keeping chicken warm: Hover
❖ Angora is a well-known breed of: Goat
❖ At one time a full mature ram ejaculates semen volume of about: 1 ml
❖ Avivastra is cross of: Merino and Chokla
❖ Best carpet wool obtained from ……… breed: Magra (AFO-2020)
❖ Best drought breed of cattle is: Amrit mahal
❖ Best drought breed of Rajasthan is: Nagori
❖ Best hay formed from: Lucerne
❖ Black face is character of: Mandya
❖ Both sexes bearded in………………. breed: Black Bengal
❖ Carotene is precursor of: Vitamin – A
❖ Castration of male pig should be done in the age of 3-4 weeks

66 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ Cheddar and cottage are the name of: Cheese
❖ Cheese contains about …….. percent of water: 40.3
❖ Chevon is the name of ………. Meat: Goat
❖ Conversion factor for milk is: 6.38
❖ Crazy chick disease is caused due to the deficiency of: Vitamin E
❖ Creep ration for pigs should contain ……. % Crude protein: 20
❖ Crude fibre in pigs diet must not be more than: 10
❖ Dehorning of female goat should be done at: 12 days age
❖ Dental caries in claves is caused by deficiency of: Fluorine
❖ Dry matter requirement for zebu cattle is: 2-2.5 kg/100 kg wt.
❖ Excellent source of mineral is: Mollasses
❖ Excess feeding of grass causes: Deficiency of Mg
❖ Feed requirement of a hen in total economic life is: 55 kg
❖ Feeding cow with green fodder: Decrease the fat globule size
❖ Feeding extra concentrates to pregnant sheep is known as: Flushing
❖ Feeding of cotton seed to buffaloes: Has no effect on fat content in milk
❖ From which sheep no wool is obtained: Nellore
❖ Generally, colour of switch of tail of buffalo is: White
❖ Goat like sheep is: Nellore
❖ Heaviest and most powerful cow breed: Kankrej
❖ If a farmer has 1 lakh of white leghorn birds, what would be the annual egg production:
220 lakhs
❖ Highest FCR (Feed conversion ratio) is found in Poultry and Swine.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 67

AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING
Seventh edition

68 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Copyright © 2020 by Agri Coaching Chandigarh
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, distributed, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, including photocopying, recording, or other
electronic or mechanical methods, without the prior written permission of the
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we have used all authentic source however if any kind of loss or damage happen due to
the use of this content author will not be responsible for the same. For permission
requests, write us at info@agricoaching.in or contact us at below address:

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Contact Number: 9828822277

www.agricoaching.in

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 69

 About Agri Coaching Chandigarh:

We guide the students in a way that focuses on the concepts and not just facts. Conceptual
along with factual study is always important for the students so as to be able to answer or solve
any type of question related to the subject. Agri Coaching Chandigarh is moving towards
attaining excellence in the field of competitive exams such as NABARD, IBPS-AFO, RRB-
SO, ADO, AAO, ADA, BHU, Pre-PG, Supervisor and others competitive exams and we are
always ready to shape your knowledge and concepts as per the exam you are willing to appear
for.
हमारा लक्ष्य हमारे छात्रों का मार्ग दर्ग न कुछ इस तरह से करना है कक उनका संघर्ग हमेर्ा उन्हें चयन कक
तरफ ले जाये। क्योंकक किना मार्ग दर्ग न के अभाव में व्यकि कदर्ाहीन नाव की तरह हो जाता है। क्योंकक
छात्र के चयन मे दो िातें सवाग किक महत्वपर् ू ग होती है। प्रथम -छात्र द्वारा ककिन पररश्रम एवं दूसरा, जो प्रथम
के ही समान महत्व रखता है –
“कुर्ल मार्ग दर्ग न”, जो छात्रों के हार्ग वकग को स्मार्ग वकग में तब्दील कर दे ।
“सुप्तस्ये कसंहस्य मुखे नहीं प्रकवर्कन्त मर्
ृ ा:”
अथाग त् , सोए हु ए कसंह के मुख में अपने आप कहरर् प्रवेर् नहीं करता । उसी प्रकार ककसी भी सफलता प्राकप्त
हे तु छात्र का प्रयत्नर्ील होना कनतांत आवश्यक है । ”ककिन पररश्रम” ही सफलता का प्रथम सोपान
(सीढ़ी) है ।
अक्सर यह कवकदत होता है कक प्रकतभार्ाली से प्रकतभार्ाली छात्र ककिन पररश्रम के उपरांत भी प्रकतयोर्ी
परीक्षाओं में सफलता से वंकचत रह जाते हैं । ऐसा कुर्ल मार्ग दर्ग न के अभाव के कारर् होता है । इस
आलोक में प्रकतयोर्ी परीक्षाओं के कनत्य पररवकतग त हो रहे र्ैली को समझकर छात्रों का उकचत मार्ग दर्ग न
कर उन्हें सही कदर्ा में पररश्रम हे तु प्रेररत कर सफलता प्राकप्त कराना हमारा मल
ू आिार है ।

70 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 71
 Index

S.No. Topic Page No.

1 General introduction 73
2 Tractor 74
3 Status of farm power in India 75

4 Selected equipment for seedbed preparation 76

5 Harvesting and threshing 78
6 Concept of farm mechanization 79
7 Classification of heat engines 82
8 Power transmission system 84
9 Two stroke and four stroke engines 85
10 Various plough 89
11 Implements for intercultural operations 91
12 Sprayers 91
13 Protected cultivation 95
14 Threshing & WINNOWING 100
15 Grain drying & storage 101
16 Fruits and vegetables cleaning 103
17 Food standards and regulations 105
18 Occurrence of groundwater 106
19 Surveying 108
20 Top engineering facts 114

72 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Agricultural engineering is the engineering discipline that studies agricultural production and
processing. Agricultural engineering combines the disciplines of mechanical, civil, electrical
and chemical engineering principles with a knowledge of agricultural principles according
to technological principles.

SOURCES OF FARM POWER:

1) HUMAN POWER-An average man can develop maximum power of about 0.1 hp for doing
farm work. A strong man can develop maximum power of about 75 watts (about 0.1 hp) for
doing farm work. The average human power availability in sustained working are as follows:

Male : 60 watts
(0.06 kW)

Female : 48 watts
(0.048 kW)

Children : 30 watts
(0.030 kW)

2) ANIMAL POWER
➢ Power developed by an average pair of bullocks about 1 hp for usual farm work.
➢ The average force a draft animal can exert is nearly one-tenth of its body weight.
➢ 1 HP=750 watt
3) MECHANICAL POWER:

These engines are two types:

(a) Spark ignition engines (Petrol or Kerosene engine)
(b) Compression ignition engines (Diesel engines)

The thermal The thermal

efficiency of petrol efficiency of diesel
engine varies from 25 engine varies from 32
to 32 per cent to 38 per cent

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 73

 TRACTOR

Tractor are available in following classes, depending upon horsepower (hp):

20 to 30 hp – About 25% of the total production of tractors in India.

31 to 40 hp – About 60% of the total production of tractors in India.

41 to above – About 15% of the total production of tractors in India.

❖ Tractor production started in India in 1961. The first tractor manufacturer “M/S Eicher
Goodearth” Produced “Eicher” tractors at Faridabad.
❖ Average command area of a tractor (26.1 kW) is about fifteen hectares. For calculating power
availability from tractor on the farm, a weighted average of 26.1 kW power per tractor is
considered.

SELECTION OF TRACTOR:

1. LAND HOLDING: Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to

consider 1 hp for every 2 hectares of land. In other words, one tractor 20 – 25 hp is suitable
for 40 hectares farm.
2. CROPPING PATTERN: Generally, 1.5 hectare/hp has been recommended where
adequate irrigation facilities are available and more than one crop is taken. So, a 30 – 35 hp
tractor is suitable for 40-hectare farm.

POWER TILLER

For calculating power availability from power tiller on the farm, a weighted average of 7 kw
per unit is considered. Average command area of a power tiller (7.46 kw) is five hectares,
where one pair of bullocks can command about two hectares only.
✓ Came in the world - 1920
✓ Introduced in India - 1963 ( AFO 2018)
✓ Japan is the first country to use power tiller on large scale.
✓ Tyre pressure: 1.1 to 1.4 kg/cm2 or 15.5 to 20 psi

74 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

STATUS OF FARM POWER IN INDIA

❖ About 75% farm holding belong to small and marginal farmers.

❖ About 25% belong to semi, medium and large farm holders.

AVERAGE COMMAND AREA

One pair of
draught animals:
2 ha
Power tiller (7.46
kw): 5 ha

Tractor (26.1
kw):15 ha

For 1000 hectares of cultivated land, the bullocks, power tiller and tractors are generally
required as follows:

Bullocks: 500 Power

Tractor:67
pairs tiller:200

Studies have shown that about 54% energy in crop production comes from direct sources
like:

Mechanical Electrical
power power

Human Draught
power animals

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 75

 The remaining 46% power comes from indirect sources like:

Fertilizers Chemicals

Farm
Seeds yard
manures

ANIMAL DRAWN IMPROVED IMPLEMENTS

❖ The field capacity of traditional implements is about 0.3 – 0.4 ha/day and thus work output
is low.

Q. What is the field capacity (ha/day) of indigenous plough?

(a)1.5 (b) 1.0 (c) 2.5 (d) 0.4 (e) 0.1

ROTAVATOR: Tractor drawn rotavator is an energy efficient equipment, it saves 32-35%

time and energy in heavier soils.

SELECTED EQUIPMENT FOR SEEDBED PREPARATION

S. No. NAME OF IMPLEMENT WORK CAPACITY

ha/h h/ha
Tractor operated
1. M.B Plough 0.20-0.25 4-5
0.30-0.35 3-4
2. Disc Plough 0.20-0.25 4-5
0.30-0.35 3-4
3. Disc Harrow (16 disc) 0.40-0.50 2-2.5
4. Cultivator (9-11) 0.40-0.50 2-2.5
5. Rotavator 0.2 5
6. Sweep cultivator 0.35 3-3.5

76 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Note:

➢ Field capacity can be asked in exam in different units.

➢ In India working hour per day is 8.

SELECTED EQUIPMENT FOR SOWING AND PLANTING

S. No Name of the implement Work Capacity

Ha/h h/ha
A. Power tiller operated
1. Seed-cum-fertilizer drill 0.164 6 – 6.5
0 – 21 5 – 5.5
B. Tractor operated
1. Seed-cum-fertilizer drill 0.75 1.25 – 1.5
2. No-trill-drill 0.75 1.25 – 1.5
3. Strip-till-drill 0.25 4–5
4. Sugarcane cutter planter 0.25 4
1. Potato planter 0.25 4

WEEDING AND INTERCULTURAL EQUIPMENT

S. No. Name of the implement Work Capacity

Ha/h h/ha
Power tiller operated
1. 3 tyned cultivator/sweep 0.2 5
D. Tractor operated
1. 9 – 11 tyned tiller 0.45 2 – 2.5
2. 5 tyned sweep 0.45 2 – 2.5

WEEDING AND INTERCULTURE

❖ Khurpi is the most versatile hand hoe for removal of weeds.

❖ It takes 300 – 700 man-hours to cover one hectare, depending upon crop, soil and weed
infestation.
❖ Use of long handle weeders (wheel hoe and peg type weeders) reduce this weeding time to
25 – 110 hours per hectare.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 77

 EQUIPMENT FOR SPRAYING AND DUSTING OPERATIONS

S. NO. NAME OF THE WORK CAPACITY

IMPLEMENT ha/h h/ha
A. Manually operated
1. Hand compression sprayer 0.095 10.5
2. Lever operated Knapsack 0.095 10.5
sprayer
3. Foot sprayer 0.165 6
4. Duster 0.25 4
5. Controlled Droplet sprayer 0.22 5
B. Power operated
1. Knapsack sprayer cum-duster 0.22 5
2. Stationary power operated 0.35 3
sprayer
C. Tractor operated
1. Tractor operated sprayer 0.5 2
D. Self-propelled
1. High clearance sprayer 0.5-1.0 1-2

HARVESTING AND THRESHING

❖ Harvesting and threshing consumes about 10-35% of the total energy for farming.

EQUIPMENT FOR THRESHING OPERATION

S. NO. NAME OF THE IMPLEMENT SIZE WORK CAPACITY

A. Power operated
1. Power operated thresher 5-10 hp 200-500
2. Paddy thresher 5-15 hp 200-1000
3. Maize thresher 5-15 hp 500-2000
4. Groundnut thresher 10-15 hp 500-1000

❖ Most of the farmers use threshers, which are operated by 5 – 15 hp engine or electric
motors
❖ Reaper binder: The harvesting capacity is 0.25 – 0.35 ha/h.

78 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ❖ Olpad thresher: Olpad thresher is said to have its origin at a small place named Olpad in
Gujarat state.
❖ Groundnut Thresher: It can be run by 5 hp electric motor. Its capacity may be 400 kg
pods/hr.
❖ Threshing efficiency: The threshed grain received from all outlets with respect to total grain
input expressed as percentage by mass.

Paddy Thresher: The capacity may be 250 – 1000 kg/hr.

ROTO TILLAGE

❖ There is saving of 60 – 70 percent operational time and 55 – 65 percent fuel consumption

with single rotavation, compared to conventional method of seedbed preparation.

SUGARCANE SETT CUTER PLANTER

❖ It is operated by a 45 hp tractor.
❖ It can cover about 0.20 ha/h in smooth field.

RICE SEEDER

❖ The seed rate depends on the rate of revolution of drums and is normally 50 -70 kg/ha.

POTATO PLANTER

➢ The field capacity of two ridges varies from 0.20 to 0.40 ha/h with
➢ Depth of planting of 100 – 200 mm.

RICE TRANSPLANTER

❖ Self-propelled rice trans planter (8 rows, single wheel, driven by 3 hp diesel engine) with
three persons transplant nearly one hectare a day using mat type seedlings.

CONCEPT OF FARM MECHANIZATION

❖ The main concept of farm mechanization is to apply the principles of engineering and
technology to do the agricultural operations in a better way to increase crop yield.
❖ This includes the development, application and management of all mechanical aids for field
operation, water control, material handling, storage and processing.
❖ Mechanical aids include:
➢ Hand tools,
➢ Animal drawn implements,
➢ Power tillers,

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 ➢ Tractors,
➢ Engines,
➢ Electric motors,
➢ Grain processing and
➢ Hauling equipment’s.
❖ The level of farm mechanization in India stands at about 40-45%.
❖ This level of farm mechanization is still low as compared to the countries such as the U. S.
(95 %), Brazil (75%) and China (57%).
❖ Use of improved implements has potential to increase productivity up to 30 per cent and
reduce the cost of cultivation up to 20 per cent.

GOV CONTRIBUTION TO INCREASE LEVEL OF FARM MECHANIZATION

❖ Sub Mission on Agricultural Mechanization (SMAM)

➢ Centrally sponsored scheme for promotion of farm mechanization.
➢ launched by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare in the year 2014-15 for a
period of five years.
➢ Increasing the reach of farm mechanization to small and marginal farmers and to the regions
where availability of farm power is less
NOTE – Subsidies under this scheme will be added your current affairs part.

EMERGING TRENDS IN FARM MECHANIZATION

Small engines 1 to 3 hp for handheld and knapsack power operated equipment for pruning, hedge
trimming, tree felling, cutting of bushes, tea harvesting, spraying and dusting are preferred.

CALORIFIC VALUE OF FUELS

S. NO. FUEL CAORIFIC VALUE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

(%)
1. Biogas 4500 kcal/m3 60
2. Cow dung cakes 2130 kcal/kg 11
3. Petrol 11100 kcal/kg 25-32
4. Diesel 10550 kcal/kg 32-38

Sr. No Name of fuel Calorific value, kcal/kg

1 Light Diesel Oil (L.D.O) 10300
2 High speed diesel oil (HSD) 10550

80 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 3 Power kerosene 10850

RENEWABLE ENERGY

➢ It is the energy mainly obtained from renewable sources of energy like sun, wind, biomass
etc.
➢ Biogas energy, wind energy and solar energy are used in agriculture and domestic purposes
with suitable devices.
➢ This type of energy is inexhaustible in nature.

WIND ENERGY

❖ The minimum wind speed of 10 km/hr is considered to be useful for working windmills for
agricultural purpose.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

➢ On an average, the temperature of the earth increases by 300C per kilometer as one moves
inward.
➢ The first commercial geothermal power station was erected in Larderello in Italy in 1904.
➢ In India, geothermal resources in the form of steam and hot water are known to exist along
Ladakh and in parts of Himachal Pradesh.
TIDAL ENERGY

➢ They arise twice a day.

➢ The first commercial tidal power station in the world, was constructed in France in 1965,
across the mouth of La Rance estuary.
➢ In India, tidal power could probably be generated in Kutch and in Hoogly River.
WAVE ENERGY

➢ Wave energy plant using OWC method is being built in Kerala.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES

1. Based on combustion of fuel:

External combustion engine

Internal combustion engine

a) External combustion engine-

➢ Here, the working medium, the steam, is generated in a boiler, located outside the engine
and allowed into the cylinder to operate the piston to do mechanical work.

b) Internal combustion engine-

➢ In internal combustion engine, the combustion of fuel takes place inside the engine
cylinder and heat is generated within the cylinder.

➢ This heat is added to the air inside the cylinder and thus the pressure of the air is
increased tremendously.

➢ This high-pressure air moves the piston which rotates the crank shaft and thus
mechanical work is done

2. Based on fuel used:

Diesel engine – Diesel is used as fuel

Petrol engine – Petrol is used as fuel

Gas engines – propane, butane or methane gases are

used

3. Based ignition of fuel-

Spark ignition engine (Carburetor type engines)

Compression ignition engine (injector type engines)

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a) Spark ignition engine – a mixture of air and fuel is drawn into the engine cylinder. Ignition
of fuel is done by using a spark plug.

➢ The spark plug produces a spark and ignites the air- fuel mixture.
➢ Such combustion is called constant volume combustion (C.V.C.)

b) Compression ignition engine –

➢ In compression ignition engines air is compressed into the engine cylinder.

➢ Due to this the temperature of the compressed air rises to 700-900 oC. At this stage diesel
is sprayed into the cylinder in fine particles.
➢ Due to a very high temperature, the fuel gets ignited. This type of combustion is called
constant pressure combustion (C.P.C.) because the pressure inside the cylinder is almost
constant when combustion is taking place.

4. Based on working cycle-

Four stroke cycle engine

Two stroke cycle engine

a) Four stroke cycle engine- When the cycle is completed in two revolutions of the
Crankshaft, it is called four stroke cycle engines.
b) Two stroke cycle engine- When the cycle is completed in one revolution of the Crankshaft,
it is called two stroke cycle engines.

POINTS ABOUT IC ENGINE:

❖ The end of the connecting rod connecting the piston is called small end.
❖ The other end of the connecting rod connecting the crank shaft is called big end.
❖ When piston is moved up and down, the motion is transmitted to the crank shaft by the
connecting rod and the crank shaft makes rotary motion.
❖ The crankshaft rotates in main bearings which are fitted the crankcase.
❖ A flywheel is provided at one end of the crankshaft for smoothing the uneven torque
produced by the engine.
❖ There is an oil pump at the bottom of the engine which contains lubricating oil for lubricating
different parts of the engine. The oil pressure in hydraulic pump caries from 150 to 200
kg/cm2.

As per ASAE standard PTO speed is 540 ± 10 rpm when operating under load.

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 ➢ It is estimated that a tractor engine requires to be operated at full load approximately 25 to
30 percent of the operating time. Most of the time, the engine is required to be operated
between 50 to 70% of the full load.
➢ The minimum specific fuel consumption occurs at speed of 1650 rpm.

POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

A power transmission system usually consists of the following parts:

❖ Clutch – The device that connects or disconnects two torque transmitting devices.
❖ Transmission – A device for transmitting power at a multiplicity of speed and torque.
❖ P.T.O. Drive – The parts that transmit torque from the engine to the PTO spline on the rear
of the tractor.
❖ Differential – The device, usually in the axle housing, that allows the two wheels on an axle
to rotate at different speeds.
❖ Brake – The device, usually in the axle housing, that stops the motion of the tractor.
❖ Axle – The shaft and connecting parts that transmits torque from the differential or final gear
reduction to the wheels.

Engine –Crankshaft – flywheel – clutch – transmission box – differential – final drives –

axle – drive wheels.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF I.C. ENGINE/ FOUR STROKE CYCLE ENGINE / TWO

STROKE CYCLE ENGINE:

❖ The sequence of events taking place inside the engine is as follows:

Suction Compression Exhaust

Power stroke
stroke stroke stroke

1. Admission of air or air-fuel mixture inside the engine cylinder (Suction).

2. Compression of the air or air fuel mixture inside the engine (compression).
3. Injection of fuel in compressed air for ignition of the fuel or ignition of air-fuel mixture
by an Electric spark plugs to produce thermal power inside the cylinder (power).
4. Removal of all the burnt gases from the cylinder to receive fresh charge (exhaust).

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TWO STROKE CYCLE ENGINE (PETROL ENGINE):

❖ In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence of events i.e., suction, compression, power
and exhaust are completed in two strokes of the piston i.e., one revolution of the crankshaft.
❖ There is no valve in this type of engine. Gas movement takes place through holes called ports
in the cylinder.
❖ The crankcase of the engine is airtight in which the crankshaft rotates.

TWO STROKE AND FOUR STROKE ENGINES

No. Four stroke engines Two stroke engines

1 One power stroke for every two One power stroke for each revolution of
revolutions of the crankshaft. the crankshaft.
2 There are inlet and exhaust valves in the There are inlet and exhaust ports instead
engine. of valves.
3 Crankcase is not fully closed and airtight. Crankcase is fully closed and airtight.
4 Top of the piston compresses the charge. Both sides of the piston compress the
charge.
5 Size of the flywheel is comparatively Size of the flywheel is comparatively
larger. smaller.
6 Fuel is fully consumed. Fuel is not fully consumed.
7 Weight of engine per hp is high. Weight of engine per hp is
comparatively low.
8 Thermal efficiency is high. Thermal efficiency is comparatively
low.
9 Removal or exhaust gases easy. Removal of exhaust gases
comparatively difficult.
10 Torque produced is even. Torque produced is less even.
11 For a given weight, engine would give For same weight, two stroke engines
only half the power of two stroke engine. give twice the power that of four stroke
engines.
12 All types of speed are possible (high and Mostly high-speed engines are there.
low).
13 It can be operated in one direction only. It can be operated in both directions
(clockwise and counterclockwise).

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 Piston rings are of two types:
1. Compression ring and
2. Oil ring
➢ Oil ring: It control the distribution of lubrication oil in the cylinder and the piston.

➢ Crankshaft:It is the main shaft of an engine which converts the reciprocating motion
of the piston into rotary motion of the flywheel.
❖ Usually, the crankshaft is made of drop forged steel or cast steel.
➢ Flywheel is made of cast iron.
❖ Its main functions are stores energy during power stroke and returns back the energy
during the idle strokes, providing a uniform rotary motion of flywheel, pressure surfaces
for the clutch plate and Sometime the flywheel serves the purpose of a pulley for
transmitting power.
➢ Crankcase provides a reservoir for the lubricating oil. It is a mounting unit for such
accessories as the oil pump, oil filter, starting motor and ignition components.
➢ Camshaft is a shaft which raises and lowers the inlet and exhaust valves at proper times.
❖ The speed of the camshaft is exactly half the speed of the crankshaft in four stroke
engines.
❖ Camshaft operates the ignition timing mechanism, lubricating oil pump and fuel pump.
❖ It is mounted in the crankcase, parallel to the crankshaft.
➢ Scavenging: The process of removal of burnt or exhaust gases from the engine cylinder is
known as scavenging.

COMPARISON OF DIESEL ENGINE WITH PETROL ENGINE:

No. Diesel engine Petrol engine

1 It has got no carburetor, ignition coil and It has got carburetor, ignition coil & spark
spark plug. plug.
2 Its compression ratio varies from 14:1 to Its compression ratio varies from 5:1 to 8:1.
22:1
3 It uses diesel oil as fuel. It uses petrol (gasoline) or power kerosine
as fuel.
4 Only air is sucked in cylinder in suction Mixture of fuel and air is sucked in the
stroke. cylinder in suction stroke.
5 It has got ‘fuel injection pump’ and It has got no fuel injection pump and
injector injector, instead it has got carburetor and
ignition coil.
6 Fuel is injected in combustion chamber Air fuel mixture is compressed in the
where burning of fuel takes places due combustion chamber when it is ignited by
to heat of compression. an electric spark.

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 7 Thermal efficiency varies from 32 to Thermal efficiency varies from 25 to 32%
38%
8 Engine weight per horse-power is high. Engine weight per horsepower is
comparatively low.
9 Operating cost is low. Operating cost is high.
10 Compression pressure inside the Compression pressure varies from 6 to 10
cylinder varies from 35 to 45 kg/cm2 kg/cm2 and temperature is above 260°C.
and temperature is about 500°C.

IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF FUEL

S. No. Name of fuel Specific gravity Calorific value (kcal/kg)

1. Light diesel oil (L.D.O) 0.920 10300
2. High speed diesel oil (HSD) 0.820 10550
3. Power kerosene 0.827 10850
4. Petrol 0.730 11100

❖ The commercial diesel fuels have got cetane rating varying from 30 to 60.
❖ Best result is obtained when carburetor is so adjusted that air-fuel ratio is about 15:1.

TERMINOLOGY CONNECTED WITH ENGINE POWER:

➢ Bore- Bore is the diameter of the engine cylinder.

➢ Stroke - It is the linear distance traveled by the piston from Top dead Centre (TDC) to
Bottom dead Centre (BDC).
➢ Stroke-bore ratio -The ratio of length of stroke (L) and diameter of bore (D) of the
cylinder is called stroke-bore ratio (L/D). In general, this ratio varies between 1 - 1.45 and
for tractor engines, this ratio is about 1.25.
➢ Swept volume - It is the volume (A x L) displaced by one stroke of the piston where A is
the cross-sectional area of piston and L is the length of stroke.
Watt = Joule/sec. (4.2 Joules = 1 Calorie).
In metric unit the power can be expressed in kg.m/sec.
➢ Horsepower (HP) - It is the rate of doing work. Expressed in horsepower
Conversion factors from work to power
4500 kg m of work /minute = 1.0 hp
75 kg. m of work /second = 1.0 hp.
➢ Indicated horsepower (IHP) - It is the power generated in the engine cylinder and received
by the piston. It is the power developed in a cylinder without accounting frictional losses.

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 ➢ Brake horsepower (BHP) - It is the power delivered by the engine at the end of the
crankshaft. It is measured by a dynamometer.
➢ Power take-off horsepower (PTO HP) - It is the power delivered by a tractor through its
PTO shaft. In general, the belt and PTO horsepower of a tractor will approximately be the
same. The PTO hp is around 80-85% 0f tractor engine power.
➢ Drawbar horsepower (DBHP) - It is the power of a tractor measured at the drawbar of a
tractor. It is that power which is available for pulling loads. It is around 50-55 % of engine
power.
➢ Frictional horsepower (FHP) - It is the power required to run the engine at a given speed
without producing any useful work. It represents the friction and pumping losses of an
engine.
IHP = BHP + FHP
➢ Wheels: Usually 2 to 4 ply pneumatic tyres are used in power tillers. The pressure of the
tyre ranges from 1.1 to 1.4 kg/cm2.
➢ White cast iron: It may be used for bearings of disc harrow gangs or wheel bearings for
implements. It may be used for mould boards also.
➢ Ductile cast iron: It may be used for gears, sprockets and plough shares.
➢ Low carbon steel: Low carbon steel contains less than 0.25% carbon. It is also called Mild
steel. It is used for nuts, bolts and other simple components of agricultural implements.
➢ Medium carbon steel: It contains 0.25% to 0.6% carbon. It is used for shafts, gears, axles
etc.
➢ High carbon steel: High carbon steel contains 0.6 to 1.5% carbon. It is used for plough
shares, blades, shovels, disc, coulters and cutting tools etc.
➢ Soft Centre steel: Mould board is usually made of this type of steel.

➢ Carburetor-

✓ The process of preparing air-fuel mixture away from the engine cylinder is called
carburetion.
✓ And the device in which this process takes is called carburetor.
✓ Carburetor is used to mix the air and fuel thoroughly, to atomize the fuel, to regulate the
air- fuel ratio at different speeds and loads on the engine, to supply correct amount of
mixture at different speeds and loads.

88 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

INDIGENOUS PLOUGH/ COUNTRY PLOUGH:

➢ Forms V shaped furrows with 15-20 cm top width and 12-15 cm depth. Its field capacity is
around 0.4 ha per day of 8 hours.
➢ A farmer has to walk about 66 km on foot while ploughing 1 ha land once by bullocks with
a country plough having 15 cm furrow width.

MOULD BOARD PLOUGH:

❖ Available for animals, power tiller and tractor operation.

❖ The shares are made of chilled cast iron or steel.
❖ MB plough, for tractor pull can work in per day 1.5- 2.0 ha.

➢ Harrows, rollers and pulverizes, rotary tillers, tools for mulching and fallowing, cage wheels
etc. Are secondary tillage implements.

TRACTOR MOUNTED MOULD BOARD PLOUGH

Two or three bottom plough is operated by a tractor of 35 – 50 hp and its field capacity varies
from 0.25 to 0.35 ha/h.

➢ Animal Drawn Potato Planter:

The effective field capacity is about 0.1 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Cultivator Seed Planter:
The effective field capacity is about 0.63 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Seed Fertilizer Drill cum Planter:
Its effective field capacity is about 0.30 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Ridge Seeder:
The field capacity is about 1 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted Direct Rice Seeder:
The effective field capacity is about 0.68 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted No –Trill Ferti seed drill:
Effective field capacity is about 0.46 ha/h.
➢ Power Tiller Operated Till Plant Machine:
It consists of main frame with standard hitch, seed/ fertilizer boxes, transport wheel, drive
wheel field capacity is about 0.18 ha/h.
➢ Star Weeder:
The effective capacity is about 0.007 ha/h.
➢ Animal Drawn Reaper:
The output of the machine is about 0.2 ha/h.
➢ Tractor Mounted 2 row Potato Digger:

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 The effective field capacity is about 0.3 ha/h.

DISC HARROW:

❖ Disc harrows have concave discs of size varying from 35-70 cm diameter.

❖ The spacing between the discs on the gang bolt ranges from 15 to 25 cm for light duty and
25 to 30 cm for heavy duty harrows.

Field efficiency :
About 70%.

Draft: About 400 N

Labour
requirement: 8 man
– h/ha

❖ Spike Tooth Harrow: It usually operates at shallow depth up to 5 cm.

❖ Spring Tooth Harrow:
➢ It works up to a depth of 150 mm in the field.
➢ The sections vary in width from 0.9 to 1.7m, adapted for use in rough and stony ground,
also called as quack grass, and Bermuda grass eradicator,
❖ Scraper:
The field capacity is in the range of 0.10 to 0.15 cubic meters.
❖ ACME HARROW:
Also known as blade harrow, curved knife-tooth harrow, pulverizer
❖ PATELA:
Wooden plank used for smoothening the soil and crushing the weeds.
❖ POWER HARROW – TRACTOR DRAWN:
Field capacity is around 1.5 ha/day.
➢ POTATO PLANTER (SEMI-AUTOMATIC): It may plant in 2-4 rows, Field capacity is
0.15-0.35 ha/hr.
➢ POTATO PLANTER (AUTOMATIC SEED DROPPING): It can plant in 2-4 rows.
Capacity is 6000- 14000 potatoes /hr.
➢ SELF PROPELLED PADDY TRANSPLANTER: Picks up 3 or 4 seedlings in each fork
at a time from the mat and plant them in the puddled soil, row to row spacing of 28 cm to

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 30 cm and plant to plant spacing of 14 to 16 cm, planting capacity of the machine is about
0.05 to 0.1 hectare per hour Power requirement is about 1.2 to 1.8 HP petrol engine.

IMPLEMENTS FOR INTERCULTURAL OPERATIONS

➢ Hand hoe: Depth 2-3 cm thereby weeds are cut, and soil is stirred, coverage is 5-7 cents
per day.
➢ Star type weeders: Suitable for weeding in dry lands, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Peg type weeders: Suitable for weeding in dry lands, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Wheel hoe: Tool for weeding and intercultural in row crops, coverage is 0.05 ha/day.
➢ Different types of cultivators are Disc cultivator, Rotary cultivator, Tine cultivator,
Tractor Drawn Cultivator, Trailed type cultivator, Mounted Cultivator.
➢ ANIMAL DRAWN CULTIVATOR:
✓ Sweep: By skimming action under the soil at a shallow depth of 2 to 3 cm, the sweep
blades cut the weeds. The coverage is 1.75 to 2.5 ha/day.
✓ Junior hoe: Coverage is 1.5 ha per day.
➢ ENGINE OPERATED WEEDER: It consists of a 3-hp engine (petrol start kerosene
run), field capacity is 0.75 – 1.0 ha per day, Depth of cut is 8-12 cm.

SPRAYERS

➢ COMPONENTS OF A SPRAYER: Pump, Tank, Agitator (device to stirs the solution),

Air chamber, Pressure gauge, Pressure regulator, Valves, Cut-off valve, By-pass valve,
Relief valve, Strainer, Nozzles, Spray gun, Spray boom, Over-flow pipe.

TYPES OF SPRAYERS

High volume sprayer (more than 400 litres /ha)

Low volume sprayer (5 to 400 litres/ hectare)

Ultra low volume sprayer (ULV) spray (less than 5

litres /ha)

Capacity Pressure Application Coverage

Rate

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 Hand atomiser 0.15 -0.30 45-100 l/ha
kg/cm2
Hand 10-12 L (filled 2-3.5 kg/cm2 45-100 l/ha
compression 75-80 %)
sprayer
Knap sack 10-15 L 3-12 kg/cm2 500 l/ha 0.5- 1 ha/day
(Hand
operated)
Rocker sprayer 14-18 kg/cm2 70-90 l/h (with 1.5 ha/day
one nozzle)
Foot and pedal 17-21 kg/cm2 110-135 l/hr 1 ha/day
operated (with one
nozzle)
Knap sack 12 L (Chem
motorised mist tank)
Blower cum
duster (1.2- 3
HP High speed
Engine)

Power sprayer 250-350 Pounds Deliver sol up to

(3 HP engine) 15 metre

❖ DUSTER: A duster essentially consists of ,

1. Hopper 2. Agitator
3. Feed control 4. Fan or blower
5. Delivery nozzle

❖ Harvesting tools and equipment are sickle, mower, Shoe, Ledger plate, Wearing plate,
Knife.
❖ COMBINE: It is a machine, which performs the functions of a reaper, thresher and
winnower.

THE FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS ARE:

1. Header 2. Reel 3. Cutter bar 4. Elevator canvas 5. Feeder canvas 6. Feeding drum 7.
Threshing drum 8. Concave 9. Fan 10.chaffer sieve 11. Grain sieve 12. Grain auger 13. Tailing
auger 14. Grain elevator and 15. Grain container.
➢ Combine harvester: A combine may be self-propelled type and PTO driven type,

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➢ Self-propelled type: This engine gives power for operating all the mechanisms as well as
for pulling the weight of the combine. Size varies from 2-4 m.
➢ PTO driven type: The power requirement of the combine may be taken on 8 HP/m width
of cut for pulled type machine and 12 HP/m width of cut for self-propelled machines.

RELATIVE DIFFICULTY IN TRANSPLANTING VARIOUS VEGETABLES:

NO. Easy to transplant Medium difficulty Difficult to transplant

1 Broccoli sprouts Cauliflower Watermelon
2 Brussels Celery Muskmelon
3 Cabbage Egg plant Squash
4 Tomato Onion Cucumber
5 Lettuce Pepper

AVERAGE FIELD SPEEDS, FIELD EFFICIENCIES, AND EFFECTIVE FIELD

CAPACITIES OF SOME FARM MACHINERY:

Machine Field Efficiency Effective Field Capacity

(%) (A/h)
Plow 85 4.8
Subsoiler 85 5.2
Chisel Plow 85 6.4
Offset Disk 85 6.8
Field Cultivator/Seedbed Conditioner 85 10.8
Planter, seed only 65 5.9
Sprayer 65 9.5
Mower Conditioner 83 6.3
rotary
Combine, soybeans* 73 5.0
self-propelled Forage Harvester 3 25
rows

ESTIMATING DRAFT REQUIREMENTS:

IMPLEMENT DRAFT PER UNIT WIDTH (KN/m)

Disc plough 5.0-6.0
Chisel plough 4.5-5.5
Blade plough 4.0-4.5
Scarifier 4.0-4.5

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 93

 Cultivator 3.0-3.5
Planter 2.5-3.5

ESTIMATION OF DRAWBAR POWER:

𝐩𝐮𝐥𝐥 (𝐤𝐍)
Drawbar power = x speed* (km/hr)
𝟑.𝟔 (𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭)

POINTS TO BE REMEMBERED

❖ The cheapest source of energy is renewable energy.

❖ Power available from a farm labour is 0.1 hp
❖ Solar energy is a Renewable energy.
❖ 1915-1919- Power take off was introduced
❖ 1936- 1937 – Diesel engine was used in tractor and pneumatic tires were introduced
❖ 1960-1961 – Tractor manufacturing was started in India by first manufacturer M/s Eicher
Good Earth
❖ 1981- Auto tractors were started.
❖ 1982- Universal Tractors was established
❖ Sowing behind the plough can be done by a device known as malobansa
❖ With ultra-low volume sprayer one hectare of crop can be treated in around 2.5 hour
❖ Width of operation in self-propelled paddy harvester is 1.0 metre, coverage is 1.5 ha/day.
❖ Self-propelled harvesting units- citrus harvester can harvest 200-400 trees in one hour. It
can harvest 95% of the crop from the tree.
❖ Tractor operated turmeric harvester has field capacity of the unit is 1.6 ha per day. It
saves 70 per cent in cost and 90 per cent in time when compared to manual digging and
extent of damage caused to the rhizomes is very much less (2.83 per cent).
❖ Nursery stock vegetable Trans-planter can plant at spacing as close as 5-8 cm in the row.
Planters are available to plant 2-6 rows at a time with 15-20 cm row spacing.
❖ CHISEL PLOUGH: Can efficiently work up to 60-70 cm depth. 10 to 15 horsepower (7
to 11 kW) per shank will be required.

94 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

PROTECTED CULTIVATION

Green House: A greenhouse is a framed or an inflated structure covered with a transparent or

translucent material in which crops could be grown under the conditions of at least partially
controlled environment and which is large enough to permit persons to work within it to carry
out cultural operations.

Greenhouse Effect: Phenomenon of increase in the ambient temperature, due to the formation
of the blanket of carbon dioxide is known as greenhouse effect.

➢ In general, the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 0.035% (345 ppm).
➢ During the daytime, the shorter wave radiation enters into the greenhouse and gets reflected
from the ground surface.
➢ This causes the increase in the greenhouse temperature.
➢ It is desirable effect from point of view of crop growth in the cold regions.

GREENHOUSE TYPE BASED ON SHAPE:

1. Lean-to type greenhouse: A lean-to design is used when a greenhouse is placed against the
side of an existing building
➢ It is typically facing south side and a total width of 7 to 12 feet.
2. Even span type greenhouse: The even-span is the standard type and full-size structure, the
two roof slopes are of equal pitch and width
➢ Several single and multiple span types are available for use in various regions of India.
➢ For single span type the span in general, varies from 5 to 9 m, whereas the length is
around 24 m.
➢ The height varies from 2.5 to 4.3 m.
3. Uneven span type greenhouse: This type of greenhouse is constructed on hilly terrain and
now-a-days as it is not adaptable for automation.
4. Ridge and furrow type greenhouse: Designs of this type of use two or more A-frame
greenhouses connected to one another along the length of the eave.
➢ The eave serves as furrow or gutter to carry rain and melted snow away.
➢ Effectively used in northern countries of Europe and in Canada and are well suited to the
Indian conditions.
5. Saw tooth type Greenhouse: These are also similar to ridge and furrow type greenhouses
accept that, there is provision for natural ventilation in this type.

GREENHOUSES FOR ACTIVE COOLING:

❖ During summer season, it is desirable to reduce the temperatures of greenhouse than the
ambient temperatures, for effective crop growth.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 95

 ❖ This greenhouse is designed in such a way that it permits a roof opening of 40% and in some
cases nearly 100%.
1. Wooden framed structures: In general, for the greenhouses with span less than 6 m, only
wooden framed structures are used (Pine wood)
2. Pipe framed structures: Pipes are used for construction of greenhouses, when the clear
span is around 12m
3. Glass greenhouses: Only glass greenhouses with glass as the covering material existed
prior to 1950.
4. Plastic film greenhouses: Flexible plastic films including polyethylene, polyester and
polyvinyl chloride are used as covering material in this type of greenhouses. The best
quality ultraviolet (UV) stabilized film can last for four years only.
5. Rigid panel greenhouses: Polyvinyl chloride rigid panels, fibre glass-reinforced plastic,
acrylic and polycarbonate rigid panels are employed as the covering material. High grade
panels have long life even up to 20 years.
6. Shading nets: They are characterized of high tear resistance, low weight for easy and
quick installation with a 30-90% shade value range.

LIGHT:

Green house crops are subjected to light intensities varying from 129.6klux on clear summer
days to 3.2 Klux on cloudy winter days. Photosynthesis does not increase at light intensities
higher than 32.2klux.

➢ UV light is available in the shorter wavelength range, i.e less than 400nm. Large of
quantities of it is harmful to the plants.
➢ Glass screens are opaque to the most UV light and light below the range of 325nm.
➢ Visible and white light has wavelength of 400 to 700nm.
➢ Far red light (700 to 750nm) affects plants, besides causing photosynthesis.

Relative humidity: For most crops, the acceptable range of relative humidity is between 50 to
80%.

Ventilation: Air temperatures above 35 0C are generally not suited for the crops in green house.

Carbon dioxide: Most crops will respond favorably to Co2 at 1000 to 1200 ppm.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR CONTROLLING GREENHOUSE ENVIRONMENT:

1. Fan-and Pad cooling system: The fan and pad evaporative cooling system has been
available since 1954 and is still the most common summer cooling system in green houses.

96 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 2. Fog cooling system: The fog evaporative cooling system, introduced in green houses in
1980, mean size of less than 10 microns using suitable nozzles.
3. Natural ventilation: The ventilators on the roof as well as those on the side wall accounts,
each about 10% of the total roof area.
4. Computers: Computer systems can provide fully integrated control of temperature,
humidity, irrigation and fertilization, CO2, light and shade levels for virtually any size
growing facility. to realize saving of 15 to 50% in energy, water, chemical and pesticide
applications.

PLANNING OF GREEN HOUSE FACILITY:

❖ Structural design: Greenhouse structures should be designed to resist a 130 km/h wind
velocity.
❖ Covering materials:

Covering material Life span

1. Glass and acrylic sheet 20 years
2. Polycarbonate and fiberglass-reinforced polyester sheet 5-12 years
3. Polyethylene 2-6 months
4. Polyethylene stabilized for UV rays 2-3 years

The ideal greenhouse selective covering material should have usable life of 10 to 20 years.

MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION OF GREEN HOUSES

a) Wood: Wood and bamboo are generally used for low cost poly-houses.
b) Glass: Widely used glass for greenhouse is:

(i) Single drawn or float glass (thickness of 3 to 4 mm)

(ii) Hammered and tempered glass (thickness of 4 mm) the most widely used

c) Polyethylene film: Polyethylene film was developed in the late 1930s in England and spread
around the middle of this century. Plastic film greenhouses are popular because the cost of
heating them is approximately 40% lower compared to single-layer glass or fiberglass-
reinforced plastic greenhouses.
d) Polyvinyl chloride film: PVC films are UV light resistant vinyl films of 0.2 to 0.3 mm and
are guaranteed for 4 to 5 years respectively. In Japan, 95% of greenhouses are covered with
plastic film, out of which 90% are covered with vinyl film.
e) Tefzel T 2 film: The most recent addition of greenhouse film plastic covering is Tefzel T 2
film (ethylene tetrafluoroethylene).

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f) Polyvinyl chloride rigid-panel: PVC rigid panels showed much promise as an inexpensive
covering material (almost 40% of cost of long-lasting fiberglass reinforced plastics), has the
life of 5 years. PVC rigid panels are not in use.
g) Fiberglass-reinforced plastic (FRP) rigid panel: FRP was more popular as a greenhouse
covering material in the recent past. Some grades give 5 to 10 years, while better grades
can last up to 20 years.
h) Acrylic and polycarbonate rigid-panel: These panels have been available for about 15
years for greenhouse use. Acrylic panels are available in thickness of 16 and 18 mm and
have 83% of PAR light transmission.
i) Design criteria and constructional details of greenhouses: The floor area of service
buildings required for small firms is about 13% of the greenhouse floor area, (An average
10%)

IRRIGATION SYSTEM USED IN GREENHOUSES

❖ Rules of Watering:
➢ Use a well-drained substrate with good structure
➢ Water thoroughly each time- As a rule, 10 to 15% excess of water is supplied
1. Hand watering: The most traditional method of irrigation is hand watering and in present
days is uneconomical.
2. Perimeter watering:
➢ Perimeter watering system can be used for crop production in benches or beds.
➢ A typical system consists of a plastic pipe around the perimeter of a bench with nozzles
that spray water over the substrate surface below the foliage.
➢ Either polythene or PVC pipe can be used.
➢ Nozzles are made of nylon or a hard plastic and are available to put out a spray are of
180°, 90° or 45°.
3. Overhead sprinklers:
➢ While the foliage on the majority of crops should be kept dry for disease control purposes,
a few crops do tolerate wet foliage.
➢ A total height of 0.6 m is sufficient for bedding plants flats and 1.8 m for fresh flowers.
A nozzle is installed at the top of each riser.
➢ Nozzles vary from those that throw a 360° pattern continuously to types that rotate around
a 360° circle. Trays are sometimes placed under pots to collect water that would otherwise
fall on the ground between pots and wasted.
➢ The trays also have drain holes, which allow drainage of excess water and store certain
quantity, which is subsequently absorbed by the substrate.
4. Boom watering:

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 ➢ Boom watering can function either as open or a closed system and is used often for the
production of seedlings grown in plug trays.
➢ Precision of watering is extremely important during the 2-to-8-week production time of
plug seedlings. A boom watering system generally consists of a water pipe boom that
extends from one side of a greenhouse bay to the other
➢ The boom is propelled by an electric motor.
5. Drip Irrigation:
➢ Drip irrigation, often referred to as trickle irrigation.
➢ Drip irrigation is the best means of water conservation. In general, the application
efficiency is 90 to 95%, compared with sprinkler at 70% and furrow irrigation at 60
to 80%.

SPRINKLER IRRIGATION LIMITATIONS:

❖ Power requirements are usually high, since sprinkler operate with a water pressure of 0.5
kg/cm2 to 10 kg/cm2.
❖ PERFORATED PIPE SYSTEM
➢ It is suitable for lower pressure of about 0.5 to 2.5 kg/cm2.
➢ The laterals may design to operate under pressure as low as 0.15 to 0.2 kg/cm2 and as high
as 1 to 1.75 kg/cm2.
❖ EMITTERS:
➢ The discharge rate of “emitters” usually ranges from 2 to 10 litres per hour.
❖ EMERGING TRENDS IN FARM MECHANIZATION
➢ Small engines 1 to 3 hp for handheld and knapsack power operated equipment for pruning,
hedge trimming, tree felling, cutting of bushes, tea harvesting, spraying and dusting are
preferred.

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 THRESHING

Post-harvest Technology: It refers to the process and treatments carried out on agricultural
products after it is harvested. It starts from the selection of proper harvest and ends with
marketing.

1) Threshing: Process of detaching grains from ear heads or from the plants.

Manual – capacity varies from 30 to 50 kg/h

Power - capacity varies from 300 to 500kg/h

❖ Some important points:

➢ In case of angle bar type threshing cylinder, the clearance between cylinder and concave
unit at the entrance is from 13 mm to 19 mm and reduces to 6 to 9 mm only.
➢ In case of rasp bar type cylinder usually 6 to 8 bars are spirally fixed on the cylinder.

WINNOWING

Particulars Capacity Operated by Important Points

Grain Winnower 625 kg/ h 1 hp motor Winnow paddy
(Already threshed by
a paddy thresher)

Paddy winnower 1 hp motor

Paddy cleaner 150 kg/h 1 hp electric motor Efficiency- 91 %

SHELLER – MAIZE

1. Maize Sheller:-
➢ The capacity of the unit is 500 kg of cob/h.
➢ It is operated by a 1 hp electric motor.
2. Husker Sheller for maize:-
➢ Used for removal of sheath and shelling of cob.
➢ The capacity of the unit is 100 quintals per day.
➢ It is operated by 7.5 hp electric motor.

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GRAIN DRYING

1. Thin layer drying:-

➢ Up to 20 cm thickness of grain bed is taken as thin layer.
➢ All commercial dryers are designed based on thin layer drying principles
2. Deep bed drying:-
➢ Rate of airflow per unit mass of grain is small.

GRAIN STORAGE

Storage structures:

❖ Storage- to maintain the quality of grain after harvest for

➢ Maintaining the supply of grain.
➢ Taking advantage of higher prices.

Two methods of grain storage:

Bag storage

Loose in bulk storage

Bulk Type Shape/ Capacity Grains Particular

Structure Points
Bukhari Type Cylindrical 3.5-18 t Wheat, gram, Rat proofing
paddy, maize & cones
sorghum
Morai type Inverted 3.5-18 t paddy, maize &
truncated cone sorghum
Kothar type Box 9-35 t paddy, maize & 5 cm thick
sorghum wooden planks
and beams
Mud Kothi Rectangular but 1-50 t Made from mud
(Mud bin) cylindrical is mixed with
also common dung and straw
Bag storage 25-500 t

IMPROVED STORAGE STRUCTURE

Storage structure Capacity Particular point

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 101

 Pusa bin
Brick and cement bin 1.5- 60 t
Bunker storage Long term storage of large
volume of grains
CAP (Cover and Plinth) 24 t ➢ Used for cover and plinth
storage structure structure
➢ Rectangular in shape
➢ Open storage: Serves the
storage of food grains in
bags for short period.

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FRUITS AND VEGETABLES CLEANING

1. Fruit and Vegetable Cleaning Machine:

➢ Capacity: 20 kg/batch
➢ Power requirement : 1 person
➢ RPM: 20 – 30 rpm
➢ Fruit and vegetable: Most fruits & vegetable inclusive mango & tomato
➢ Foreign matter removal: Field Soil, Dust and surface microorganism, Fungicide /
insecticide, Sap, Black spots etc.
2. Multifunctional cleaning machine
3. Fruit cleaning machine:
➢ The equipment is suitable for cleaning of ball-shape or oval-shape fruits and vegetables.
➢ The fruits and vegetables rotate continuously in all directions randomly.
➢ Brushing and spraying is in effect at a same time.
4. Brush Type Vegetable & Fruit Cleaning Machine:
5. Surf Type Fruit Cleaning Machine:
➢ The equipment is mainly composed of water cabinet, material turning device, fan and lifter
etc.
➢ It is widely used for soft washing of fruit and vegetable raw materials. The lifter can be made
of complete stainless steel and engineering plastic.

GRADING

1. Divergent roller type fruit sorting machine for lemon and sapota- MPKV, Rahuri.
2. Divergent rails/slit size mango grader- CISH, Lucknow.
3. Fruit and vegetables grade for tomato and mango:

Capacity – 500 kg
/ha

Power requirement-
½ hp electric motor

Efficiency- 85-90 %

4. Potato grader: Capacity – 5 to 30 tonnes/ hr

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 103

 5. Onion grader: Capacity - 8 to 30 tonnes/ hr

SIZE REDUCTION

Unit operation in which the average size of solid pieces of food is reduced by the
application:

Impact forces
Compression
Grinding

RELATED TERMS:

❖ Homogenization or Emulsification
➢ Reduction in size of globules of immiscible liquids
❖ Atomization
➢ Size reduction of liquids by droplets
❖ Extrusion, Agglomeration or Forming
➢ Size enlargement
❖ Milling efficiency: Product of coefficient of hulling (E hulling) and coefficient of
wholeness of kernel (E wk)
❖ Coefficient of hulling: Percentage of the hulled grains obtained from the total amount of
grain input.
❖ Coefficient of Wholeness of kernel: Ratio of the amount of kernel, crushed grains and
mealy waste obtained by any milling system.

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FOOD STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS

❖ Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954

❖ Plant Quarantine (Regulation of Import into India) Order, 2003
❖ Meat Food Product Order, 1973
❖ Milk And Milk Product Order, 1992
❖ Bureau Of Indian Standards Act, 1986
❖ Standards On Weight And Measurement Act, 1976
❖ Livestock Importation Act, 1898
❖ AGMARK Act ,1937
❖ The Infant Milk Substitutes, Feeding Bottles and Infant Foods Act ,1992
❖ Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963
❖ Essential commodities Act, 1955
❖ Indian Explosives Act, 1884
❖ Energy Conservation Act, 2001
❖ The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006

THE FOLLOWING LAWS WERE CONSOLIDATED:

1. The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954 (37 of 1954)

2. The Fruit Products Order, 1955
3. The Meat products Order, 1973
4. The Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order, 1947
5. The Edible Oils Packaging (Regulation) order, 1998
6. The Solvent Extracted Oil, De oiled Meal, and Edible Flour (Control) Order, 1967
7. The Milk and Milk Products Order, 1992
8. Any other order issued under the Essential Commodities Act, 1955 (10 of 1955) relating to
food.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 105

 OCCURRENCE OF GROUNDWATER

➢ In order to understand the occurrence of groundwater and its vertical distribution, let’s first
consider the hydrological zones present below the ground
➢ The zone between the ground surface and the top of capillary fringe is called unsaturated zone
(or, zone of aeration) which consists of voids (pores or interstices) partially filled with water
and partially with air.
➢ Water is held at a pressure less than the atmospheric pressure in the unsaturated zone.
➢ The zone between bottom of the unsaturated zone and top of the water table is called capillary
zone.
➢ the zone extending from the water table to an impermeable layer is called saturated zone (or,
zone of saturation), wherein all voids are completely filled with water.
➢ In saturated zone water is held at a pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure.

AQUIFER AND CONFINING LAYERS

➢ Aquifer is defined as “a single geologic formation or a group of geologic formations that can
transmit and yield water in usable quantities”
➢ Aquiclude is defined as a geologic formation that can store significant amount of water but
does not have the capability to transmit a significant amount of water. Clay is an ideal example
of aquiclude.
➢ Aquitard is defined as a geologic formation that can store some water as well as can transmit
water at a relatively low rate compared to aquifers. Sandy clay is an ideal example of aquitard.
➢ Aquifuge is defined as a geologic formation that can neither store nor transmit water. Solid
granite is an ideal example of aquifuge.

FURTHER AQUIFER CAN BE BASICALLY CLASSIFIED INTO THREE TYPES:

(a) unconfined aquifer,

(b) confined aquifer, and
(c) leaky aquifer.

Sometimes, fourth type of the aquifer is known as ‘perched aquifer’,

(a) Unconfined Aquifers Aquifers which are bounded by a free surface (known as ‘water
table’) at the upper boundary and a confining layer at the lower boundary are called
unconfined aquifers.
(b) Confined Aquifers Aquifers which are bounded both above and below by impervious or
semi-pervious layers are called confined aquifers and the water present in these aquifers are

106 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 under pressure (Aquifers 2 and 3 in Fig. 3.1). Confined aquifers are sometimes also called
‘pressure aquifers’ or ‘artesian aquifers.

(c) Leaky Aquifers If an aquifer (confined aquifer or unconfined aquifer) loses or gains water
through adjacent semi-permeable layers, it is called a ‘leaky aquifer’ ,Therefore, the terms
‘leaky confined aquifer’ and ‘leaky unconfined aquifer’ are widely used depending on
whether the leaky aquifer is confined or unconfined.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 107

 SURVEYING

➢ Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different objects on the surface
and below the surface of the earth by measuring the horizontal and vertical distances between
them and by preparing a map to any suitable scale.
➢ To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns, forests
etc. of a country.
➢ To prepare an engineering map showing details of engineering works such as roads, railways,
reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
The general principles of surveying are:

a. To work from the whole to the part, and

b. To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed
reference points.

CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYING

Generally, surveying is divided into two major categories: plane and geodetic surveying

(a) PLANE SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the portion of the earth being
surveyed is considered a plane.
(b) GEODETIC SURVEYING is a process of surveying in which the shape and size of the
earth are considered

Chain Surveying The principle of chain surveying is triangulation. This means that the area
to be surveyed is divided into a number of small triangles which should be well conditioned.

Types of Chains used in Surveying

Depending upon the length of the chain, these are divided into following types,

1. Metric chains- Metric chains are the most used chain in India. These types of chains come
in many lengths such as 5, 10, 20 and 30 meters. Most used is 20m chain. Tallies are
provided at every 2m of the chain for quick reading. Every link of this type of chain is 0.2m.
The total length of the chain is marked on the brass handle at the ends.
2. Steel band or Band chain-These types of chain consist of a long narrow strip of steel of
uniform width of 12 to 16 mm and thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm. this chain is divides by brass
studs at every 20cm or instead of brass studs, band chain may have graduated engraving as
centimeter

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3. Gunter’s chain or surveyor’s chain - Gunter chain comes in standard 66ft. This chain
consists of 100links, each link being 0.66ft or 7.92inches. The length 66ft is selected because
it is convenient in land measurements.
10 square Gunter’s chains = 1 Acre
10 Gunter chains = 1 Furlong
80 Gunter chains = 1 mile
4. Engineer’s chain- This chain comes in 100ft length. Its consist of 100 links each link being
1ft long. At every 10 links a brass ring or tags are provided for indication of 10 links.
Readings are taken in feet and decimal.
5. Revenue chain- The standard size of this type of chain is 33ft. The number of links are 16,
each link being 2 ft. This chain is commonly used in cadastral survey.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 109

 USEFUL LIFE HOURS & EFFICIENCY OF VARIOUS IMPLEMENTS

S. No. Name of machine Useful Useful life Recommend Recommended

life Years average average field
Hours speed efficiency (%)
(Km/hr)
1 Tractor 10000 10 - -
2 Power tiller 8000 10 - -
3 Stationery engine 10000 10 - -
4 Electric motor 15000 15 - -
5 Combine (self 3000 6 2-3.5 75
propelled)
6 Combine 2000 7 2-3 70
(mounted and
drawn)
7 Plough 3000 10 4.5 80
8 Disc harrow 3000 10 6 80
9 Seed drill 2500 10 5 70
10 Seed cum fertilizer 2000 8 5 70
drill
11 Planter 2000 10 5 70
12 Cultivator 4000 10 6 80
13 Towed scraper 2000 10
14 Power sprayer 2000 8
15 Seed cleaner 2500 5
16 Trailer 3600 12
17 Power thresher 2500 8
18 Centrifugal pump 10000 10
19 Power chaff cutter 5000 8
20 Rotavator 2400 8 2.5 80
21 Ridger 1500 12 4.5 90
22 Puddler 2500 10 5 75
23 Cane crusher 10000 10

FIELD CAPACITY OF VARIOUS IMPLEMENTS:

Particulars Capacity
Field capacity of Traditional implements 0.3-0.4 ha/day

Indigenous plough (Country Plough) 0.4 ha/day

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MB Plough (35-50 HP) (2-3 Bottom 0.25- 0.35 ha/h
Plough)
Two Row Potato Planter 0.2- 0.3 ha/ h
Animal Drawn Potato Planter 0.1 ha/h
Tractor operated Potato Planter 0.25 ha/h
Potato Planter capacity of two ridge 0.2-0.4 ha/h
Tractor Mounted Two row Potato digger 0.3 ha/h

Tractor Mounted 1 Row Potato digger 0.15 ha/h

Power Tiller operated Potato digger 0.4 ha/h
Engine operated Rotary Tiller 0.75-1 ha/day
Potato Planter (Semi-automatic) (2-4 row) 0.15-0.35 ha/h

Automatic seed Dropping (2-4 row) 6000-14000 potato/hr

Sugarcane sett cutter planter 0.2 ha/h
Tractor Mounted sugarcane cut planter 0.25 ha/h

Tractor mounted cultivator seed planter 0.63 ha/h

Tractor mounted seed cum ferti drill 0.75 ha/h

Tractor mounted seed ferti drill cum 0.30 ha/h
planter
Tractor mounted strip till drill 0.25 ha/h
Tractor mounted No Till- ferti seed drill 0.46 ha/h

Tractor mounted No till drill 0.75 ha/h

Power tiller operated Till Plant machine 0.18 ha/h

Tractor mounted Ridge seeder 1 ha/h

Tractor mounted Direct rice seeder 0.68 ha/h
Star weeder 0.007 ha/h
Tractor operated turmeric harvester 1.6 ha/day
Animal drawn reaper 0.2 ha/h
Harvesting capacity of reaper binder 0.25-0.35 ha/h
Self-propelled paddy harvester 1.5 ha/day
Self-propelled citrus harvester 200-400 trees/hr
Tractor drawn power harrow 1.5 ha/day
Manual Rice planter 0.25 ha/day
Self-propelled Paddy Transplanter 0.05 to 0.1 ha/h
Tractor mounted inclined plate planter (6 0.6 ha/h
row)

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 111

 Rice Transplanter (8 row, 3 hp diesel 1 ha/day
engine)
Orchard sprayer (35 hp tractor) 0.20- 0.50 ha/h
Self Propelled High clearance sprayer (20 0.20 ha/h
HP diesel)
Ultra Low Volume sprayer 2.5 h/ha

Hand Hoe 5-7 cents/day

Star Type weeder 0.05 ha/ day
Peg Type weeder 0.05 ha/ day
Wheel Hoe 0.05 ha/ day
Sweep (Animal Drawn) 1.75- 2.5 ha/day
Junior Hoe (Animal Drawn) 1.5 ha/day
Engine Operated Weeder (3 HP engine) 0.75- 1 ha/day

DEPTH OF VARIOUS IMPLEMENTS

Depth Particular
5 cm Spike Tooth Harrow
15 cm Spring Tooth Harrow (Quack Grass and
Bermuda grass eradicator)
2-3 cm Hand Hoe
2-3 cm Sweep
8-12 cm Engine Operated Weeder (Depth of cut)
8-12 cm Engine Operated Rotary Tiller
30 cm Power Tiller operated Potato digger
60-70 cm Chisel Plough
0.10- 0.15 m 3 Scraper

USEFUL LIFE:

Particular Years (Useful Life)

Glass and Acrylic Sheet 20 years
Poly carbonate and fibre reinforced 5-12 years
Polyethylene 2-6 months
Polyethylene stabilized for UV rays 2-3 years
Ideal green house selective covering 10-20 years
material
PVC film 4-5 years
PVC rigid panel 5 years

112 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

Fibre glass Reinforced plastic (FRP) rigid Avg 5-10 years
panel
But Better grade can be up to 20 years
Acrylic Poly carbonate rigid panel 15 years
Thickness 16-18 mm
PAR light Transmission 83 %

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 113

 TOP ENGINEERING FACTS

➢ An average man can develop the maximum power of about 0.1hp.

➢ An average pair of bullocks can develop the maximum power of about 1hp.
➢ The average force that a draft animal can exert approximately 1/10 of its body weight.
➢ Of the total energy produced in India, the share of thermal power is about 56%.
➢ Of the total energy produced in India, the share of hydro-electrical power is about 36%.
➢ Percent of methane gas in biogas varies from 45 to 70%.
➢ Biogas contains hydrogen sulphide gas and hydrogen gas.
➢ Percent of CO2 in biogas is about 32 to 45%.
➢ Conservation of biomass is in the absence of O2.
➢ Ratio of cow dung and water for making slurry to feed the bio-gas plant is 4:5.
➢ Capacity of bio-gas plant varies from 2 to 150 m3.
➢ For better biogas production, the pH of slurry should be between 7 to 8.
➢ Thermal efficiency of biogas is about 60%.
➢ Calorific value of L.P.G is about 27700 kcal/m3.
➢ Thermal efficiency of cow dung is about 11%.
➢ The angle between centre line of tyre and vertical line is called chamber angle.
➢ The angle between centre line of king pin of tractor and the vertical line is called caster
angle.
➢ The horizontal distance between the front and rear wheels of a tractor is called wheelbase.
➢ Ground clearance of tractor is measured under maximum permissible load condition.
➢ In tractors, the weight transfer is affected by wheelbase and hitch height.
➢ In tractors, the weight transfer is greater when pull is higher.
➢ The desi plough cuts the soil in the shape of V.
➢ The M.B plough cuts the soil in the shape of L.
➢ The diameter of disc plough in standard disc plough varies from 60 to 90 cm.
➢ Disc angle of a quality disc plough varies from 43 to 45⁰.
➢ In a good quality disc plough, the tilt angle varies from 15 to 20⁰.
➢ When a plough works round the strip of ploughed land, then it is said to be gathering.
➢ When a plough works round the strip of unploughed land, then it is said to be casting.
➢ The soil mass, which is cut, lifted and threw during ploughing is called furrow slice.
➢ The undisturbed soil surface left besides the furrow is called furrow wall.
➢ The top portion of turned soil mass is called crown.
➢ In case of ‘centre to side ploughing’, the ridge left at the centre of field is called back
furrow.
➢ In ‘centre to side ploughing’, the back furrow is formed at centre of the land strip.
➢ Open trench left between two adjusted strips of land after ploughing is called dead furrow.

114 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ The unploughed land left at the end of field for turning the tractor is called head land.
➢ One-way ploughing is done by reversible plough.
➢ A tandom disc plough consists of 4 gangs.
➢ A single bottom ridding plough is also called sulky plough.
➢ The useful life of centrifugal pump is 10 years.
➢ The useful life of disc harrow is 10 years.
➢ The useful life of cultivator is 10 years.
➢ The useful life of rotavator is 8 years.
➢ The useful life of power tiller is 10 years.
➢ For multi crop thresher, the h.p. of prime mover should be from 5 to 20.
➢ The working capacity of multi-crop thresher is 200 to 2500 kg/h.
➢ The cutting platform of combine consists of reel and concave.
➢ While working, the reel of combine revolves Infront of the cutter bar.
➢ In combine, the delivery of cut crop to the cylinder is done by conveyer.
➢ In combines, the most common type of conveyer being used is table conveyer.
➢ In combine, the threshing of crop is done between concave and cylinder.
➢ Stationery diesel engine are used for pumping water flour mill, oil ghanis, cotton gins, chaff
cutter, sugarcane crusher threshers and winnowers etc.
➢ Where the wind velocity is more than 32 km/hr windmills can be used for lifting water.
➢ Average capacity of a windmill would be about 0.5 HP.
➢ Heat engine is a machine for converting heat developed by burning fuel into useful work .
➢ Engine is a mechanical device which generates thermal energy and transform it into
mechanical energy.
➢ External combustion engine (ECE)> Is the type of engine in which combustion of fuel
takes place outside the engine cylinder.
➢ Internal combustion engine (ICE)> In this engine the power generates by the complete
combustion of fuel inside the cylinder.
➢ In diesel engine specific fuel consumption is about 0.2kg/BHP/hour
➢ In petrol engine specific fuel consumption is about 0.29kg/BHP/hour.
➢ diesel engine develops more torque when it is heavily loaded while petrol engine does not
develop torque.
➢ Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to consider 1HP for every 2
hectares of land.
➢ 1.5 HP/hectare is recommended when adequate irrigation facilities are available, and
more than one crop is taken .
➢ Estimating the cost of tractor power .
a. Fixed cost includes.>{1.Depriciation . 2.Intrest on capital 3. Housing. 4. Insurance. 5.
Taxes}

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 115

 b. Operational cost includes .>1.Fuel. 2. Lubricants. 3. Repair. 4. Wages.
➢ The centre of pull or resistance- It is the point where all the force on a plough is act.
➢ Disc plough is note suitable for covering surface trace and weeds affectively as mould
board plough does.
➢ Disc angle varies B/W 42 and 45.
➢ Tilt angle varies B/W 15 and 25.
➢ Tractor drawn disc plough weigh B\W 180 and 540 kg/disk
➢ Animal drawn disk plough weighs about 30kg/disk.
➢ In tractor drawn plough the diameter of the disk blades varies B/W 60 and 90cm.
➢ Draft is the horizontal component of the pull parallel to the line of motion.
➢ Drafts depends upon:
a. Sharpness of cutting edge.
b. Working speed.
c. working width.
d. working depth.
e. Type of implement.
f. Soil condition
g. Attachment.
➢ Unit draft is the draft per unit cross sectional area of the furrow.
➢ Theoretical field capacity~ It is the rate of field coverage of the implement based on 100%
of time at the rated speed and covering 100% of its rated width.
➢ Effective field capacity > It is the actual area covered by the implement based on its total
time consumed and its width .
➢ Field efficiency > It is the ratio of effective field capacity and theoretical field capacity
expressed in percent.
➢ The blade harrow popularly known as > Bakhar.
➢ Blade harrows generally used in clay soils for preparing seedbeds of both kharif and rabi.
➢ Compression ratio = Swept volume + clearens volume/clearens volume.
➢ Efficency of rotavator is about 1.5-2.0ha/day.
➢ Working capacity manual of rice trans planter varies from 0.3-0.4ha/day.
➢ The planting capacity manual of rice trans planter is about 0.05-0.1ha/day.
➢ Combine harvester in its primitive form was introduced in Germany and USA in late 19th
century and become popular in next decade.
➢ On an average about 800 combines are added every year of Indian farms.
➢ Function of combine harvester: 1 cutting the standing crops.2 feeding the cut crops to
threshing unit. 3 threshing the crops . 4 cleaning the grains from straw.5 collecting the grains
in a container.

116 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Hand operated sprayer suitable for small holdings operating at pressure ranging from 1 to
7kg/cm2.
➢ Power operated sprayer suitable for treating a large area . they are operated at pressure
ranging frome 20 to 55kg/cm2.
➢ Low volume sprayer ~ Volume ranges B/W 5 to 400 liters per hectare is used.
➢ Rear mounted implements are attached to tractors with 3-point hitch.
➢ Government has decided to enhance farm power availability from 2.02 kW per ha (2016-
17) to 4.0 kW per ha by the end of 2030.
➢ The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is the percentage of heat energy that is transformed
into work. Thermal efficiency is defined as. The efficiency of even the best heat engines is
low; usually below 50%
➢ 4500 kg m of work /minute = 1.0 hp; 75 kg m of work /second = 1.0 hp; Roughly, 1.0 hp =
746 watts
➢ 1890: The word tractor appeared first on record in a patent issued on a tractor or traction
engine invented by George H. Harris of Chicago
➢ 1906: Successful gasoline tractor was introduced by Charles w. Hart and Charles H. Parr of
Charles City, Iowa
➢ 1908: First Winnipeg tractor trails were held
➢ 1911: First tractor demonstration was held at Omaha (Nebraska)
➢ 1915-1919: Power takes off was introduced.
➢ 1920-1924: All purpose was developed
➢ 1936- 1937: Diesel engine was used in tractor and pneumatic tires were introduced
➢ 1950-1960: Manufacturing of diesel tractors on extensive basis throughout the world was
taken up
➢ 1960-1961: Tractor manufacturing was started in India by first manufacturer M/s Eicher
Good Earth.
➢ 1962-1970: Manufacturers like Tractor and Farm Equipment, Madras, Hindustan tractors at
Baroda, Escorts Tractors at Faridabad and International Harvester in Bombay started work
during this period
➢ 1971: Escorts Tractor Ltd. Started producing Ford Tractors 1973- Manufacture of HMT
Tractor was started
➢ 1974: Manufacture of Pitti and Kirlosker Tractor was started 1975- Harsha Tractors was
established
➢ 1981: Auto tractors were started
➢ 1982: Universal Tractors was established
➢ 1983-2003: GTCL tractors, M.M Tractors, Sonalika, VST, L&T, Bajaj Tractors were
produced.
➢ Speed range: Low speed engine- < 350 rpm, High speed engine->1000 rpm.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 117

 ➢ Remote sensing and GIS applications can be employed for land use planning and
watershed development works.
➢ In India, portable type sprinkler system is most used.
➢ In tractor 3-point hitch is operated by hydraulic system.
➢ Sandy and hard compacted soil is not suitable for operating rotavator.
➢ Depth of penetration of disc harrow is altered by gang angle.
➢ Working life of tractor drawn cultivator is 2500 hours.
➢ Mechanization level is measured in terms of-kW/ha [AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ The tillage in which plant residue are left on or near the surface of field- Mulch tillage
[AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ capacity of tractor drawn harrow in 1 hac 2.0 hac/hr. (IBPS-2019)
➢ Dropping of seeds in furrow lines in continuous flow and covering them by soil is called as-
Drilling [AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ An average man can develop maximum power of about – 74.6W
➢ In tractor, the three-point hitch is operated by- Hydraulic system
➢ Refrigerant used in cryogenic freezing- Liq. Nitrogen [AAE, Odisha-2019]
➢ MB PLOUGH, for tractor pull can work in 1.5 to 2.0 Ha. Per day. (AFO 2017)
➢ No till planter used for sowing. (AFO 2017)
➢ According to nabard what is the average farm mechanization level (%) in India: 40-45
➢ The flywheel is mounted on (Pre PG-2018): Rear end of crankshaft
➢ MB plough, for tractor pull can work in per day (2 bottom): 1.5- 2.0 ha per day
➢ Which tillage implement requires minimum draft per unit width: Planter & Cultivator
(AFO-2018)
➢ What is the Capacity of High-volume sprayer: More than 400 (AFO-2018)
➢ What is the HP power required for power sprayer: 3 HP (AFO-2018)
➢ Geologic formation that can neither store nor transmit water is called: Aquifuse (AFO-2021)
➢ Length of gunter’s chain is: 66 ft (FEO MP 2017)
➢ In which type of tillage 15-30 % residue left on the soil surface: Reduce tillage (IBPS AFO
2019)
➢ What is the RPM of rotary tiller: 180-200 (IBPS AFO 2018)
➢ The carburetor of an engine is used to mix fuel with: Air (AICL-2017)
➢ What is the power extracted by PTO: 75-85 (AFO-2018)
➢ The cross-sectional area of one cylinder of an engine multiplied by its stroke is: Swept
volume (ADO-2015)
➢ An advanced method of minimum tillage in which primary tillage is completely avoided and
secondary tillage is reduced to row zone/seed bed zone only: Zero tillage (AFO 2021)
➢ Zero tillage got successful because of: Herbicides (AFO 2021)
➢ Primary + secondary tillage implement: Rotavator (AFO 2021)

118 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

➢ Which is used in rear of tractor transmission part for attaching combine harvester, mover
thresher etc to tractor: PTO (AFO 2021)
➢ Which of the following is renewable source of energy: Biomass (NABARD 2021)
➢ Which of the following machine is used to chop fodder: Chaff cutter (NABARD 2021)
➢ Total head of the pipeline represents which among the following: Suction height+ Delivery
height + resistance due to friction (metre) (RRB SO 2021)
➢ A 2×25 cm plough is move at speed of 5 km/hr, how much time will it take to plough the
field of size 300×300 metres if field efficiency of instrument is 60 % : 60 hrs (RRB SO
2021)
➢ For cultivating land of around 40 ha. for monocropping what HP tractor is preferred: 25 HP
(AFO-2018).
➢ In which year power tiller is introduced in India: 1963 (AFO-2018)
➢ In India, walking type tractors are fitted with _____hp engine: 8-12
➢ Tyre Pressure:
• Rear: 0.8-1.5 kg/cm2
• Front: 1.5-2.5 kg/cm2
• Pneumatic Tyre Life: 6000 hours for drawbar work
➢ Production of machineries in India: Pumping Sets> Sprayers& Dusters> Tractors> Power
Tillers> Combine harvester
➢ The length of a Gunter's Chain is - 66 feet
➢ The extra high-speed engines used in knapsack sprayers are powered by-Petrol
➢ The injector and fuel pump are the heart of Diesel
➢ In Otto cycle Heat is added at Constant volume
➢ In food preservation most commonly used radiation is gamma rays.
➢ Filtration system of drip irrigation system:-
• Sand filter – to remove organic and inorganic material
• Hydro cyclone filter – to remove high density particles
• Disc filter – to remove organic material and algae
➢ SI engines (petrol) develop 85% of rated power, CI engines (diesel) develop 100% of rated
power on biogas.
➢ The most popular covering material replacement for glass in case of greenhouse is
Polyethylene.
➢ The consistency of rainfall is determined by double-mass curve.
➢ The nature of hydrograph depends on the characteristics of Rainfall and watershed
➢ The K-factor in Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is measured on unit plot of size 22 m
long with 9% slope.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 119

 ➢ The National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas (NWDPRA) was initiated
in 1986-87.
➢ Function of governor in tractor engine: -
• increase the speed of engine under increased load condition
• Decrease the speed of engine when load decreases
• regulate the fuel supply.
➢ Nozzle used for spraying of weedicide is Flat fan nozzle.
➢ The tilth angle of standard disc plough varies from 15-25
➢ Disc angle of disc plough is 40-45҆⁰
➢ Power tiller is most suitable for the cultivation of Paddy
➢ Implement used for seedbed preparation as well as sowing by attached seed drill called:
Cultivator
➢ Semi-mounted implements are attached with: Two-point hitch
➢ Rear mounted implements are attached with: Three-point hitch
➢ The IHP of an engine is always: More than BHP
➢ the essential component of water-cooling system in tractor: Radiator
➢ the single most important factor affecting drip irrigation-Spray volume
➢ Which causes more wastage of herbicides by drift-Ultra low volume sprayer
➢ The depth of penetration of disc Harrow is increased by -Gang angle
➢ Penetration of disc plough can be improved by- Decreasing tilt angle
➢ Hydraulic brake is based on which law - Pascal's law
➢ The dog clutch is used in- power tiller
➢ The tractor coefficient is maximum when- The field is dry
➢ Specific gravity of diesel- <1
➢ Groundnut thresher is type of – spike tooth
➢ Capacity of tractor drawn pulse seeder – 1 hac.per day
➢ India's first digital flower auction center is located in – Bengaluru
➢ In comparison of 4 – stroke and 2 - stroke engine, the fuel consumption in 4 – stroke engine
is less
➢ crown wheel is a part of – differential
➢ The component of Mouldboard plough which penetrates into the soil and makes a horizontal
cut below the soil surface – Share
➢ The portion of the piston below the piston pin which is designed to absorb the side movement
of the piston – Skirt.
➢ Otto cycle is related to – Petrol engine\Kerosene engine
➢ In Vertical disc plough tilth angle of disc is zero
➢ Chisel plough penetrate to the depth of 25-35 cm.

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➢ Sub soiler penetrate at the depth of 60-70 cm
➢ Use of gasket is = prevent leakage
➢ Type of furrow opener recommended for use in hard and trashy ground & also in wet and
dry soil is single disc type
➢ Most mechanized crop in India is wheat.
➢ Which harrow is also called "Bakhar":- Blade harrow
➢ Air blast sprayer is used for – Orchards
➢ The cold chisels are made by – Forging
➢ Adiabatic process heat is constant in the system.
➢ At compression stroke both valves are fully closed .
➢ Dibbling is usually practiced for vegetables.
➢ For mechanical harvesting of sugarcane by sugarcane harvester the crop should be planted
in 120 cm row spacing or 120-130 cm paired row trench method
➢ The trough angle for paddy and most other grains in belt conveyor is 20 degrees
➢ The diameter of tube-wells for irrigation and water supply usually ranges from 15-45 cm
➢ the fuel which should be used for easy starting of an engine in cold weather is petrol
➢ Inward sloping bench terraces are most effective for high rainfall area.
➢ Adiabatic process heat is constant in the system.
➢ Dibbling is usually practiced for vegetables
➢ Hand operated sprayer are operated at a pressure of 1-7 kg/cm².
➢ Power tillers are popularly available in 6-12 hp range.
➢ Highest ownership of tractor is in Punjab(31%) followed by Gujrat.
➢ TAFE (tractor) and farm equipment limited is India’s second and world’s third largest tractor
manufacturer volumes
➢ Capacity of power harrow is 2.5 ha/day.
➢ Correct sequence of Power Transmission
➢ Clutch- Gear box- Differential- Final Drive.
➢ To increase thermal efficiency of a petrol engine, designer has to increase the Compression
Ratio.
➢ Dead furrow is made by one way MB Plough.
➢ Scouring refers to the movement of soil on tool surface.
➢ Vertical section of M.B. Plough- Depth of Ploughing.
➢ Horizontal Section of M.B. Plough-Width of Ploughing.
➢ Weight of hull is 18-22% of Paddy grain.
➢ V shaped sweeps are best suited for -stubble mulch tillage
➢ The most used and least efficient power outlet of tractor is drawbar in the rear.
➢ Universal soil loss equation was proposed by wishmerier and smith

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 121

 ➢ In order the plants in every corner should receive maximum light; the green house axis is
placed in east – west direction.
➢ Laterals is the component of drip irrigation system, which requires major cost
➢ In India portable sprinkler system is most commonly used.
➢ Sprinkler irrigation method can be used for almost all crops except paddy and jute.
➢ The density of granular material can be determined by pycnometer.
➢ The latent heat of vaporization of water is 540 kcal.
➢ The most commonly used pumps in tractor hydraulic system are Gear type
➢ The top portion of furrow slice is known as crown.
➢ Maximum torque in a tractor is generated at Less than rated RPM.
➢ The vertical difference between the center line of the pump and the point of free delivery of
water is called as Static head
➢ The minimum wind speed 10km/hr required for agricultural purpose.
➢ Name the devices used to measure the flow of water In an irrigation channel - weirs &
notches. Orifices, - Parshall flumes & meter gates
➢ Helical blade puddler, Green manure trampler and Cage wheel are Implements for Wetland
operations
➢ Part of the sowing machine which conveys the seeds or fertilizer from the delivery tube to
the furrow is called as BOOT
➢ The useful life of a wheel type tractor is 10 years

No matter if it seems impossible now

No matter if it takes time
No matter if you have to wake up all night
Just remember that the feeling of SUCCESS is the
best thing in the entire world.

122 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 123

 "Agricultural economics is a science which deals the principles and methods of economics are
applied to the special conditions of agricultural industry".
➢ It is derived from Greek word.
➢ Father of economics is ADAM SMITH.
➢ Chanakya called it as Arthashastra.
❖ Four Important Definitions of Economics:
➢ Wealth definition: By ADAM SMITH (father of economics)
✓ An enquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nation.
➢ Welfare definition: By ALFERD MARSHALL
✓ Study of mankind in the ordinary business of life examines part of individual and social
action which is most closely connected with and use of material requisite of well-being.
➢ Scarcity definition: By LIONNER ROSBINS
✓ Science which studies human behavior as a relation between ends and scarce means
which have alternative uses.
➢ Growth definition: By J.M. KEYNES (father of modern economics)
✓ Study of the administration of scarce resources and of the determinants of employment
and income.
❖ Contribution of Scientist:
➢ Adam smith: Father of Economics, Book "Wealth of nations"
➢ Alfred marshall: Concept of law of diminishing marginal utility, law of equimarginal
utility, consumer surplus.
➢ J.M. Keynes: Father of modern economics, Book "general theory of employment, interest,
money.
➢ Ragnar Frisch: Terms "Microeconomics and macroeconomics"
❖ Economics Is Divided into Two Parts:
A. Micro-economics: Such activities and services of consumption, production, exchange and
distribution concerned with individual units viz., single industry, single farms, single
consumer etc. i.e., at micro level are grouped under micro-economics.
B. Macro-economics: it deals with whole economic set-up and related additions or averages
e.g., total production, total income, total employment, total expenditure, total savings, price
level and economic development or whole economic setup.
❖ Classification of Goods:

124 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Based on transferability

Transeferable (land
building)
Material
Non-transferable
(Degree certificate)
External
Transeferable
Classification

(Goodwill of
business)
Personal
Non-transferable
Non-transferable (Friendship courage)
Internal
(Personal qualities)

➢ Based on supply:
✓ Free goods (e.g., air): Have value in use
✓ Economic goods: Have value in exchange and value in use.
➢ Based on durability:
✓ Mono-period goods: That can be used only once.
✓ Poly-period goods: That can be used multiple times.
➢ Utility: Want to satisfying power of a good is called utility.
➢ Types of utility:
✓ Form utility: It is changing the form of goods i.e., processing a good.
✓ Place utility: It is transportation of foods from one place to other.
✓ Time utility: It is storage activity.
✓ Possession utility: It is transfer of ownership of goods.
❖ Consumer Behaviour:
➢ WANT: It is just a wishful thinking (e.g., If you think of buying Range Rover).
➢ DESIRE: Person has ability to fulfil his/her want (e.g., If you think of buying purse, and
you have money).
➢ DEMAND: Person has ability and fulfils his/her want at a particular place on a particular
time (e.g., you bought a purse).
❖ Law of Demand:
➢ When price of a commodity increase, quantity demanded of it will decrease and vice-versa.

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 125

 ➢ Fall in price leads to expansion in demand, while rise in price leads to contraction in
demand.

➢ Increase/ Decrease in demand i.e., shifting of demand: Depends upon other factors than
price:
✓ Income.
✓ Substitute goods.
✓ Taste.
✓ Preferences.
✓ Fashion.
✓ Season.
a. Increase in Demand:

b. Decrease in Demand:

126 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ Autonomous demand: No link with demand of other goods.
➢ Derived demand: Demand for certain goods related with demand for other goods. E.g.,
fertilizers, pesticides.
❖ Kinds of Demand:
➢ Price demand: Various quantity of goods that a consumer would be willing to buy at all
possible prices in a given market at a given point of time.
➢ Income demand: Various quantity of goods that a consumer would be willing to buy at
different level of income in a given market at a given pint of a time.
➢ Cross demand: Various quantity of goods that a consumer would be willing to buy not due
to changes in price of commodity but due to changes in price related to goods.
❖ Giffen Goods: (Inferior goods)
➢ It is an exception to law of demand.
➢ Demand of these goods generally decrease with decrease in price.
➢ Inferior goods are not giffen goods.
❖ Elasticity of demand: (Value ranging from 0 to ∞)
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
➢ Price elasticity of demand:
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑
➢ Income elasticity of demand:
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒
%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑋
➢ Cross elasticity of demand: (%𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑌)
❖ Perfectly Elastic Demand:

Agri Coaching Chandigarh 127

❖ Perfectly Inelastic Demand:

❖ Cost Concepts
➢ In any business activities, the details of costs and returns provide an idea of profitability.
Cost of production refers to the expenses incurred in producing a unit quantity of product in
a particular time period.
➢ Cost function can pertain to the short run or long run.
❖ Short Run: It is defined to be that period of time in which atleast one or some of the firm’s
inputs are fixed and some are variable.
❖ Long Run: It is defined to be time period in which all inputs are variable. There are no fixed
inputs in the long run.

128 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Short Run
Costs

Marginal cost
Total cost Average cost (always the
variable cost)

Total fixed Total variable Average fixed Average

cost cost cost variable cost

❖ Fixed Cost: Which do not vary with the level of output. Fixed costs are increased even in the
absence of production.
➢ E.g.: Taxes, Insurance, depreciation on machinery, tools, buildings etc.

❖ Variable Cost: It varies with the level of output.

➢ E.g.: Cost of raw materials, labour, power, repairs etc.
➢ The summation of these costs refers to TVC.

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❖ Total Cost:
➢ TC = TFC + TVC
Units of TFC TVC TC
Output
0 10 0 10
1 10 10 20
2 10 18 28
3 10 24 34
4 10 28 38
5 10 32 42
6 10 38 48
7 10 46 56

❖ Average variable cost: It is the amount spent on the variable inputs to produce an unit of
output.
➢ It is total variable cost divided by output.
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑇𝑉𝐶
➢ 𝐴𝑉𝐶 = =
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄

130 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 Units of TFC TVC TC AFC AVC AC MC
Output
0 10 0 10 - 0 - -
1 10 10 20 10 10 20 10
2 10 18 28 5 9 14 8
3 10 24 34 3.3 8 11.3 6
4 10 28 38 2.5 7 9.5 4
5 10 32 42 2.0 6.4 8.4 4
6 10 38 48 1.7 6.3 8 6
7 10 46 56 1.4 6.6 8 8
8 10 62 72 1.2 7.8 9 16

❖ Average Fixed Cost (AFC): It is the cost of fixed resources or inputs required for producing
one unit of output.
𝑇𝐹𝐶
➢ 𝐴𝐹𝐶 =
𝑄
➢ AFC curve is declining with the increased output because TFC is constant. Due to
this it is continuously falling up to its maximum output.

❖ Average Total Cost or Average Cost: When the total costs are divided by output.

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 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 𝑇𝐹𝐶+𝑇𝑉𝐶
➢ 𝐴𝑇𝐶 = =
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑄

❖ Marginal cost (MC): It is the change in the total cost due to change in output.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 ∆𝑇𝐶 ∆𝑇𝑉𝐶
➢ MC = = =
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 ∆𝑄 ∆𝑄
➢ Note that, to compute MC, we can use TC or TVC because fixed cost can’t be changed.

➢ Imp: MC curves intersect AVC and AC at their minimum points.

❖ Important points determining price elasticity of demands:

➢ Nature of commodity:
✓ Comforts, Ed = 1,
✓ Ed > 1

132 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ✓ Inferior goods, Ed < 1
➢ Availability of substitute:
✓ If substitute available demand elastic.
✓ If substitute not available inelastic.
✓ It is so because, if price of one substitute fall people will buy more of it.
➢ Goods with different uses: These goods have elastic demand. E.g., electricity has many
uses.
➢ Postponement of use: Goods whose demand can be postponed has high elastic demand like
gold.
✓ Whose amount can’t be postponed has less elastic demand.
➢ Income of consumer: People who are very rich or poor has inelastic demand because rise
or fall in prices has very little effect on their demand.
✓ While middle class people have elastic demand.
➢ Habit of consumer: Demand for habitual goods is inelastic. Eg.: Cigarette, coffee (Despite
rise in their price people demand such goods in same quantity).
➢ Time:
✓ In short period: Demand inelastic.
✓ In long period: Demand elastic.
✓ Because a person can change his habits in the long run.
➢ Relatively elastic demand:

✓ Ed > 1
✓ Generally, for luxuries.
➢ Relatively inelastic demand:

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 ✓ Ed < 1
✓ Generally, for necessities.
➢ Unitary Elastic demand:

✓ Generally, for comforts.

➢ Supply curves:
✓ Production side
✓ Positive relation with price

❖ Equilibrium condition:

134 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ✓ Where demand + supply forces interest.
➢ Rural Credit: The word credit is derived from the Latin word Credo meaning ''I believe" or
I have confidence in". in economics, the term credit implies the postponement of payment.
Farm finance is concerned with the acquisition and management of capital in the farm
business.
❖ Classification of credit:
(i) Short term credit: It is given to meet current farm expenses such as purchase of seed,
manure and fertilizers, payment of wages to hired human labour etc. and repaid in 12
months.
(ii) Medium term credit: it is given for purchase of land, construction of farm building,
purchase of tractor and installation of tube wells etc. The period of long-term ranges from
12 month to 3-5 years.
(iii) Long Term credit: It is given to special projects and repayment period is more than 5
years.
➢ Agriculture Finance :- Credit is needed for adopting new technology, buying new
machines, such as a machine which is beneficial to the farmer to increase production, but
the farmer cannot buy it, in such a situation credit is needed.
✓ As 54% of country’s population dependent on agriculture/ production sector. Hence,
finance is needed to regulate all these activities.
✓ Agricultural Finance exist at both macro and Micro Levels.
✓ Macro Finance deals with the different sources of funds for agriculture as a whole in the
economy.
✓ Micro Finance deals with the financial management of individual farm businesses..
✓ Finance: Borrowed funds.
✓ Credit: Owned funds and borrowed funds.
❖ Cooperative Movement in India
1. Initiation Stage (1904-11)
2. Modification Stage (1912-18)

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 3. Expansion Stage (1919-29)
4. Restructuring Stage (1930-46)
❖ Co-operatives movement in India:
➢ The cooperative movement in India started in 1904 with the Cooperative Credit Societies
Act.
➢ The father of the cooperative movement in India, F. Nicholson.
➢ In 1945, the government formed another cooperative planning committee. This committee
submitted its report to the government in 1946.
➢ The report of the All-India Rural Survey Committee was published in 1951. And the
Committee chairman was A. D. Gorwala.
IMPORTANT INSTITUTES RELATED TO BANKING AND FINANCE:-

❖ Reserve Bank of India :- This bank was established on 1st April 1935 under the RBI Act,
1934 and it was nationalized on 1st January 1949.
➢ It is the central bank of India.
➢ The headquarter of Reserve Bank is in Mumbai.
➢ Functions of Reserve Bank :-
✓ Issue the Notes - The Reserve Bank issues notes of all denominations of India except
one rupee coin or notes and small coins.
✓ To act as a banker to the Government.
✓ Acting as a banker to banks
✓ Credit control.
✓ Control over foreign exchange

❖ Regional Rural Banks:-

➢ Regional Rural Banks were established in the country to provide institutional credit to the
weaker sections of the society, especially farmers and artisans in rural areas.
➢ Initially on October 2, 1975, five regional rural banks were established whereas at present
43 regional rural banks are functioning.
➢ Functions of Regional Rural Bank :-
✓ In this, there was a provision to provide credit and other facilities to small businessmen,
agriculture, laborers, small and marginal farmers of rural areas.

136 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

❖ NABARD
➢ The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) was established
on 12 July 1982. The paid-up capital of NABARD is 30000 crores
➢ NABARD is the apex body providing finance for agriculture and rural development in the
country.
➢ NABARD, as an apex institution in the rural credit structure, provides refinance facilities
to several financial institutions (State Land Development Banks, State Co-operative
Banks, Scheduled Commercial Banks, and Regional Rural Banks), which provide wide
spectrum of productive activities in rural areas. Give loans for promotion.
➢ NABARD receives funds from the Government of India, World Bank, and other agencies
to fulfill its credit requirements.
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION/INSTITUTIONS

❖ International Monetary Fund (Imf) :-

➢ Establishment year :- 22 July 1944
➢ Work Starting :- from 1 March 1947
➢ Headquarter :- Washington DC (USA)
❖ International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) (World Bank)
➢ Establishment year: - July 1944
➢ Work Starting :- June 1946
➢ Headquarter: - Washington DC
❖ World Trade Organization (WTO)
➢ Establishment year In April 1994 (in the city of Marrakesh in Morocco on the agreement
of the GATT Uruguay circle and duly established on January 1, 1995)
➢ Headquarter :- Geneva (Switzerland)
➢ Work :-
✓ To provide facilities for the implementation, administration and operation of world trade
agreements and multilateral and plural agreements.
✓ To act as a forum for discussion among the members on any future matters relating to
trade and tariffs.
✓ To collaborate with the IMF and the World Bank for greater coherence in global
economic policymaking.
❖ Asian Development Bank (ADB)

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 ➢ Establishment year: - in December 1966
➢ Work Starting :- From January 1967
➢ Headquarter : Manila (Philippines)
➢ Objective :- Lending to Asian countries at concessional interest rates.
❖ Food and Agricultural organization (FAO)
➢ Establishment year: - 16 October 1945
➢ Headquarter: - Rome, Italy
➢ Objective :- To raise the standard of living and to improve the condition of rural people.
✓ To increase the capacity of production and distribution of goods.
✓ Its Director General is elected for 6 years.
❖ Indian Export Import Bank or EXIM Bank :-
➢ Export Import Bank of India was established on January 1, 1982. Its purpose is to provide
financial assistance to exporters and importers.
➢ The headquarter of EXIM Bank is in Mumbai (Maharashtra).
➢ Exim Bank of India has overseas offices in Washington, Singapore, Abidjan, and Budapest
(Hungary).
AGRICULTURAL MARKETING
➢ The word market comes from the latin word marcatus, which means merchandise or trade or
a place where business is conducted. Word market has been widely and variedly used to
mean (a) a place or a building where commodities are bought and sold, e.g., supermarket; (b)
potential buyers and sellers of a product, e.g., wheat market and cotton market.
➢ "Marketing is the performance of all business processes, including the delivery of goods and
services from the initial agricultural production point to the final (consumer) point."
➢ Agricultural marketing is a process in which the seller of agricultural commodities wishes to
sell his goods and the buyer desires to buy that commodity at a fixed price.
❖ Utility:
➢ Marketing adds cost to the product; but, at the same time, it adds utilities to the
➢ product. The following four types of utilities of the product are created by marketing:
(a) Form Utility: The processing function adds form utility to the product by changing the raw
material into a finished form. With this change, the product becomes more useful than it is
in the form in which it is produced by the farmer.

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 (b) Place Utility: The transportation function adds place utility to products by shifting them to
a place of need from the place of plenty. Products command higher prices at the place of
need than at the place of production because of the increased utility of the product.
(c) Time Utility: The storage function adds time utility to the products by making them
available at the time when they are needed.
(d) Possession Utility: The marketing function of buying and selling helps in the transfer of
ownership from one person to another. Products are transferred through marketing to
persons having a higher utility from persons having a low utility.

DIFFERENCE PERFECT MONOPOLISTIC MONOPOLY

COMPETITION
SELLERS Large Large one
PRODUCT Homogenous Hetrogenous Both
PRICE Uniform Non-Uniform Non-Uniform
ENTRY OF Free Entry Not Absolute Not Possible
FIRMS Freedom
Knowledge of Perfect Imperfect Imperfect
MARKET
Condition
Mobility Perfect Imperfect Imperfect
Demand Curve AR=MR AR>MR AR>MR
Selling Cost Not Required Often seldom

❖ Classification of Agricultural Marketing:

(A) According to seller
1. Primary market
2. Secondary market
3. Tertiary market (Terminal market)
(B) According to time
1. Daily market
2. Short period market
3. Long period market
(C) According to competition
1. Perfect market
2. Imperfect market
3. Monopoly market

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 (D) According to regulation
1. Regulated market
2. Unregulated market
(E) According to function:
1. General or mixed market
2. Specialised market
3. Marketing by samples
4. Marketing by grades
(F) According to sale
1. General or mixed market
2. Specialised market
3. Marketing by samples
4. Marketing by grades
(G) According to quantity of product
1. Wholesale market
2. Retail market
A. According to seller:
1. Primary market: These markets are held once or twice in a week and are generally
found in villages. Such markets are called Hats. In such markets producers directly sell
their commodities to the consumers and itinerant dealers or village banias.
2. Secondary market: These are daily markets and are held in cities. Generally, wholesale
of commodities takes place. Wholesalers, Kaccha and Pucca arhatiyas are present in
secondary market.
3. Terminal Market: such markets are found at seashore or ports. The agricultural products
are exported to the other countries by these markets.
B. According to time:
1. Daily market: Daily market is every short period market. The prices of agricultural
commodities are determined on the basis of variation in demand. Supply is limited.
Therefore, in equilibrium of demand and supply, the demand plays important role than
supply.
2. Short period market: Due to short period the demand is more effective on supply. In
short period market the supply of a commodity cannot be fully adjusted to the demand for
it.

140 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

3. Long period market: in long period the supply of commodity can be adjusted to the
demand for it. If the demand at a given price increases the production of commodity can
be increased in the long period.
C. According to competitions:
1. Perfect market: In perfect market there are a large number of buyers and sellers and free
competition among buyers and sellers. The buyers and sellers have full knowledge about
the price of the commodities sold at different places.
2. Imperfect market: Buyers and sellers do not complete freely between themselves due to
friendship. Sometimes the number of buyers and sellers are small.
They do not know the exact price of the commodities sold at different places.
3. Monopoly market: When there is a single producer or seller of a commodity, and that
commodity should not have any close substitutes it is said a monopoly market.
D. According to regulation:
1. Regulated markets: The markets are regulated under market regulation act. The
representatives of government, cooperative societies, traders and farmers make a
agricultural marketing society. These societies control all the marketing business.
Middleman etc are given license and all the marketing charges are fixed and metric
system of weighing is used.
2. Unregulated markets: Under such markets there is not any regulation of government.
All the marketing defects are present in such markets. Middlemen charge more amount
for their services.
E. According to area:
1. Local market: In such markets the buyers and sellers of a commodity carry on business
at a particular place. The markets for perishable commodities such as milk and vegetables
are largely local.
2. National market: In national market the buyers and sellers extend over the entire nation.
The market of food grains and cloths are of national type.
3. International market: in such markets the buyers and seller are of different countries.
The market for tea and jute is international.
F. According to function:
1. General or mixed market: the market in which articles of all sorts are offered for sale is
called general market.
2. Specialised market: In specialized market, a particular commodity is sold, e.g.,
vegetable market, fish market etc.

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 3. Marketing by samples: The samples of all goods offered for sale are sent for display.
For example, wheat, cotton, wool etc. are usually sold, by granding and sample. It is very
difficult for the buyer to inspect every single grain of wheat that he buys. It is very
difficult for a seller to transport all the goods to the marketplace. He there adopts the
method of selling goods by sample.
4. Marketing by grade: Marketing by sample leads to marketing by grade, The commodity
is divided into different grades on the basis of quantity or variety and each grade is given
certain name or trademark. The sellers can sell the commodity without showing samples
and purchasers can purchase the commodity by reference of name or mark of the grade.
G. According to sale:
1. Wholesale market: In such market wholesale marketing is done, Kacchha and pucca
arhatiya, wholesales are transacting the commodities.
2. Retail market: In this market retail selling takes place. The consumers are directly in
contact of retailers.
❖ Market/Marketing Channel:

A market channel is simply the path by which the commodity passes from producers to
ultimate consumer or the manner in which the products is moved from one agency to another.

The nature of the market channel for any produce may very depending upon the region, the
season of the year and the methods employed in handling. A single products may pass through
different channels. The important channels are as:

1. Producer → Primary wholesaler→ Govt. procurement → Roll →Flourmill → Fair price

shop → Consumer
2. Producer → Consumer
3. Producer → Village Bania → Kachha Arhatiya → Pucca arhatiya → Wholesaler →
Consumer
4. Producer → dealer → Wholesaler → Consumer
5. Producer → Cooperative marketing society → Consumers
6. Producer → Kaccha Arhatiya → Pucca Arhatiya → Wholesaler → Miller → Retailer →
Consumer
❖ Method Of Sale of Agricultural Produce:
1. Under cover: Under this system of sale the price is settled by brokers and arhatiyas under
the cover of the cloth
2. Open auction system: Under this system the broker invites bid for the produce and the
highest bidder is sold the produce. It is a fair system of sale.

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 3. Sale by private agreement: Under this system individual buyers make their offers. The
decision is conveyed by the seller to the buyers.
4. Dara sales: In this system the heaps of grain of different qualities are sold at a flat rate.
5. Close tender system: Under this system tenders are invited from the buyers. The tender
having the highest amount is accepted and commodity is given to him.
❖ Producers Surplus of Agricultural Commodities: From the marketing point of view, this
surplus is more important than the total production of commodities.
1. Marketable Surplus: The marketable surplus is that quantity of the produce which can be
made available to the non-farm population of the country. The marketable
➢ surplus is the residual left with the producers' farmers after meeting his requirements.
➢ MS = P - C (where MS = Marketable surplus P =Total production, and C = Total
requirements)
2. Marketed Surplus: Marketed surplus is that quantity of the produce which the producer
farmer actually sells in the market, irrespective of the requirements for family consumption,
farm needs and other payments.
➢ If marketed surplus is more than marketable surplus or farmer is selling against his wish,
it will be known as distress sale.
➢ Factors affecting marketable surplus: Size of holding, Production, Price of the
Commodity, Size of family, Requirement of Seed and Feed, Nature of Commodity,
Consumption Habits.
❖ Marketing Costs: The movement of products from the producers to the ultimate consumers
involves costs, taxes, and cess which are called marketing costs. These costs vary with the
channels through which a particular commodity passes through. Eg: - Cost of packing,
transport, weighment, loading, unloading, losses and spoilages.
❖ Reasons for High Marketing Costs:
1. High transportation costs
2. Consumption pattern – Bulk transport to deficit areas.
3. Lack of storage facilities.
4. Bulkiness of the produce.
5. Volume of the products handled.
6. Absence of facilities for grading.
7. Perishable nature of the produce.
8. Costly and inadequate finance.
9. Seasonal supply.
10. Unfair trade practices.
11. Business losses.
12. Production in anticipation of demand and high prices.

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 13. Cost of risk.
14. Sales service
❖ Factors Affecting Marketing costs
1. Perish ability
2. Losses in storage and transportation
3. Volume of the product handled
2. Volume of the More – less cost
3. Volume of the Less – more cost
4. Regularity in supply : Costless irregular in supply – cost is more
5. Packaging : Costly (depends on the type of packing)
6. Extent of adoption of grading
7. Necessity of demand creation (advertisement)
8. Bulkiness
9. Need for retailing : (more retailing – more costly)
10. Necessity of storage
11. Extent of Risk
12. Facilities extended by dealers to consumers. (Return facility, home delivery, credit
facility, entertainment)

144 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

FARM MANAGEMENT

➢ Farm management is made up of two words- field and management. “Farm” means an area
used for cultivation by a farmer or a group of farmers.
➢ The meaning of management comes to change the production plan into action and adjust the
goods used in it. So that more profit can be obtained.
➢ The study of field management helps the farmer to decide which crops to grow, how much to
produce, how to produce, at what time to produce and which crops to sell and when to buy?
etc., so that more profit can be obtained.
➢ According to Adams, “Farm management is the method of applying the principles
underlying the selection, organization and operation of a farm industry. So that as much profit
as possible can be obtained.
➢ Farm “Farm” is a specific area on which cultivation is done jointly by a farmer or a group of
farmers. "
➢ According to Tandon and Dhodhiyal, “Packet management is a branch of agricultural
economics, which studies the activities of earning and spending money by a farmer. Those
concerned with the organization, operation and marketing of the farm.
OBJECTIVES OF FARM MANAGEMENT:

1. The main objective of farm management is to reduce cost, loss and damage, inefficiency
and unemployment and to increase profit, productivity, efficiency and employment.
2. To study the resources obtained such as land, labour, capital, management, and pattern of
production.
3. To get information about the relationship between different costs and receipts in carrying
out agricultural works.
4. To know about the impact of new technology on the field.
5. Adopting crop rotation keeping in mind the size of the field, fertility, irrigation facilities etc.
6. To make proper distribution of resources among different occupations of the field.
7. To get information about the economy and economy of various industries etc.
❖ Three Main Points Arise in Farm Management:
1. How to get more production?
2. How to get more profit?
3. How to reduce the cost of production?
❖ Importance of Farm Management-

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 ➢ Today agriculture is becoming a profitable business. One doe's agricultural work not only
for his livelihood, but also to get profit. Therefore, the farmer selects only those crops
and agricultural occupations in which maximum profit can be obtained, at present
agriculture is done on commercial basis. Therefore, it has become necessary to study
field management for the commercial and economic success of agriculture.
❖ Principles of Farm Management :-
1. Principle of Variable Proportion (Law of Diminishing Returns)
2. Principle of Factor Substitution
3. Principle of Product Substitution
4. Minimum Cost Principle
5. Principle of Comparative Advantage
6. Principle of Opportunity Cost
7. Principle of Equi-marginal Returns
❖ Economic Principles Applied to Farm Management:

The most important principle that help the farmers in making the choice and decisions to all
phases of farming are:

1. The law of diminishing returns

2. Cost analysis
3. The law of comparative advantages
4. The law of equi-marginal returns
5. The law of substitution
6. Principle of opportunity cost
7. Principle of combining enterprises
➢ Farm management is a science which deals with the proper combination and operation of
production factors including land, labour and capital and the choice of crop and livestock
enterprises to bring about a maximum and continuous return to the most elementary operation
units of farming. Farm management is concerned with decision making.
➢ The main decisions are:
1. What to produce: It decides which products to produce. It shows the product-product
relationship.
2. How to produce: It relates to choosing the most effective method of producing a given
quantity of a particular product. It shows the factor-factor relationship.
3. How much to produce. It relates to the problems in converting the several farm
resources into the final farm product. It shows the factor-prodct relationship
4. Time relationship: It shows relationship between the time that farmer makes investment
of capital and that later date when this investment returns the physical production

146 Agri Coaching Chandigarh

 ➢ These four relationships are based on physical or technical facts but require price and
cost information in order to make economic interpretations.
❖ Production and Factor of Production: -
➢ Production It is the process by which some goods and services, called inputs, are
converted into other goods and services, called outputs, which create utility.
❖ Production factors
➢ There are the four main factors of production:
(i) Land :- It is a main natural resource that generates income. It represents those natural
resources which are scarce and profitable.

➢ Features of Land:-
✓ This It is a gift of nature and is stable in quantity.
✓ This is Permanent and not destroyed.
✓ This is immovable and stable.
✓ Geographical supply of earth cannot be increased, but economic supply can be
increased. (By making the land denser and more used.)
✓ There is considerable variation in the composition and fertility of Earth.
(ii) Labour :- When Any work is done by hands or by mind for the purpose of money, which
is called labor.

➢ Features of Labour
✓ Without help of labour Production cannot be done from the land.
✓ Labour cannot be separated from the worker.
✓ short term Labor supply cannot be adjusted with demand.
✓ Changes affect labor cost and labor supply.
✓ Labour is an active factor.
(iii) Capital :- The money which is used to create future wealth is called capital. Capital is not
the real factor of production this is man made factor. All capital may necessarily be
money, but not all money may necessarily be capital. All Capital is money, but not all
money can be capital.

➢ Features of capital:-
✓ Capital is a productive factor.
✓ This generates income
✓ Capital is a deactivating factor.

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 (iv) Organization :- Organization The main role of a business is to establish good relations
and coordination with other companies.

➢ Rewards for the Factors of Distribution

✓ Reward of Land - rent
✓ Reward of Labour - wage
✓ Reward of capital - Interest
✓ Reward of business - Benefit
❖ Some Basic Concepts:
➢ Farm: Piece of land where livestock enterprises are taken under single management
system and has specific boundaries.
➢ Agriculture holding: Total area of land owned by individual or joint family whether
cultivated by family or rented out.
➢ Operational holding: Total area held under single management for the purpose of
cultivation. It excludes any land leased out to another person.
➢ Family holding: Farm having gross income (Rs. 1600), net income (Rs. 1200).
➢ Optimum holding: (3 × 𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔) →
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑠𝑠.
➢ Economic holding: Which provide a reasonable standard of living + give full
employment.
➢ Marginal farmer: Having land less than 1 ha or 2.5 acre.
➢ Small farmer: Having land between 1 ha to 2 ha.
➢ Fixed resources: Resources which remain unchanged irrespective of level of production
are called fixed resources (Exist in short run). E.g.: Land building.
➢ Variable resources: Resources which change with level of production are called variable
resources, Higher the level of production, greater the use of resources and vice-versa.
E.g.: Seed fertilizers.
➢ Flow resources: Resources which cannot be stored and should be used as and when they
are available.
➢ Stock resources: Resources which can be stored, when they are not used in one
production period. E.g.: Seeds, fertilizers, feed etc.
➢ Cost of cultivation: Expenditure incurred on all inputs and input services in raising a
crop on a unit area written as wst in Rs/ha.
➢ Cost of production is expenditure incurred on providing a unit quantity of output is called
wst of production written as Rs/tonne or Rs/quintal.

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1. The law of diminishing returns:

➢ It is physical law of fundamental importance in organizing and operating the farm

business. It is an important guiding factor in farming to decide the level at which a farmer
can increase his output.
➢ It is practical experience of every farmer that after a certain stage in cultivation, the
application of successive does of labour and capital to a given area of land does not bring
about as much return as the previous does.
➢ Additional dose of labour and capital and labour applied to the cultivation of land causes
in general, a less than proportionate increase in the amount produce unless in happens to
coincide with an improvement in the arts of agriculture''

2. Cost analysis:

➢ This principle is of great importance in making decisions of farm business. Cost in

general, refers to the expenses incurred on productive services and physical productivities
are guided by the cost of various input factors, mainly costs are of two types:
(i) Fixed cost: Fixed costs present farming expenses of an overhead nature and donot
change with the output, e.g., interest on fixed capital, depreciation, revenue etc.
(ii) Variable costs: it varies with the level of output. It includes changes of hired human
labour, seed, manure and fertilizer, irrigation, insecticides and pesticides etc. These are
seven costs of production
(a) Total variable cost (TVC): it is obtained by multiplying the amount of variable input
by the price per unit of output.
(b) Average variable cost (AVC): it is computed by dividing total variable cost by the
amount of output. AVC varies with the level of production.
Average variable cost is:
AVC = TVC/Outpur
(c) Marginal cost (MC): MC is the change in total cost as related to change in output. It is
calculated by dividing the change in total cost by the corresponding change in output,
i.e., ∆ TC/ ∆ Y. The marginal or added cost of each unit of output is important in
determining how for we should push production and how much of the various
resources we should use.
(d) Total fixed cost: total fixed cost shows the some of expenditures which will be
incurred irrespective of the output.
(e) Average fixed cost: It is obtained by dividing total fixed costs by the amount output.
As the output increase the average fixed costs decreases.
AFC = TFC/Output

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 (f) Total cost: It is the sum of total fixed cost and total variable cost.
TC = TFC + TVC
(g) Average total costs: It is worked out by dividing TC by output.
ATC = TC/Output

3. The law of comparative advantage:

➢ The law of comparative advantage helps to explain regional specialization. Farmers tend
to produce those items which give more income at a lowest relative cost.
➢ With the income, they buy the items needed for production and for living which are
produced at lowest relative cost in other areas.
➢ In short, specialised, and diversified farming are based on this principle. For example,
sugarcane cultivation near sugar mill, vegetable cultivation near cities, rearing of sheep
and goats in hilly areas will give more profit tha n the other places.

4. The law of Equi marginal Returns:

➢ Equi-means 'equal' marginal means additional or incremental. The law states that profit
will be greatest if each unit of labour, capital and land is used where it adds the most to
the return.

5. The law of substitution:

➢ The principle which helps selection from a number of alternatives is called law of
substitution. According to this law the least cost combination of inputs or practices is
obtained when the inputs or practices replaced is equal to the value of the input or the
practice added.
➢ Procedure for finding out least cost combination:
(i) Computation of marginal rate of substitution (MRS) by dividing the number of units of
the replaced input (X1) by the number of units of added inputs (X2).
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (x1 )
Substitution ratio: =
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (x2 )
Where X1 is replaced by X2
(ii) Computation of price ratio by dividing the price of added input (Px2) by the price of the
replaced input (Px1)
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (PX2 )
Price Ratio =
𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 (PX1 )
(iii) Calculation of least cost combination by equating (MRS):
∆X1 ∆X2
MRS = =
∆X2 ∆X1

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 ➢ Least cost is realized at the point where the ratio of the input prices is inversely equal to
their marginal rate of substitution.
➢ It is substitution ratio is greater than the price ratio, then we can lower costs by using
more of the added input.
➢ If the substitution ratio is less than the price ratio then the cost can be reduced by using
resource used in its most profitable alternative use.

6. Principle of combining Enterprises:

➢ An enterprises in farm business is defined as the production of a single crop or kind of

livestock. Generally, farmers take more than one enterprise on their farms.
➢ The main aim of the farming is to get the maximum profit with minimum expenditure by
combining enterprise.
➢ The combination of enterprises on a farm is influenced by the relationship that exists
between the enterprises.
➢ The enterprises can have any one of the relationships explained below:
(i) Independent enterprises: These enterprises do not have direct bearing on each other.
There is no effect on the other enterprises when level of one enterprises is influenced or
decreased.
(ii) Competitive enterprises: Competitive enterprises are those enterprises which compete
each other for the resources. Farmers have limited resources and therefore, all crop and
livestock enterprises become competitive at some point. An increase in the output of
one enterprise results in a decrease in the output of the other enterprises. Maize, bajra,
paddy and sugarcane etc. in the same season compete with each other for resources.
(iii) Supplementary enterprises: Supplementary enterprises are those which do not
compete for resources but help in increase income of the farmer. A small poultry
enterprise is supplementary to other enterprise of the farm. A supplementary enterprise
becomes competitive if it is expanded too far.
(iv) Complementary enterprises: Complementary enterprises are those enterprises which
help each other in production and do not compete for resources. For example, if jowar is
grown after berseem crop the yield of jowar increases because berseem fixes
atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.
❖ Time Comparison Principle :-
➢ Compounding: It is calculating future value of the money held by a person at a present (by
including rate of interest in it).
➢ Discounting: It is calculating present value of money if future sum of money will be given.

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 ➢ Principle of Opportunity Cost:- The cost of the next best alternative foregone is called as
Opportunity cost.
➢ Principle of Equimarginal Returns :- the limited resources should be allocated among
alternative uses in such a way that the marginal value of the product of the last unit of the
resource is equal in all uses.
➢ Minimum Loss Principle ( Same as Cost Analysis in Microeconomics)
❖ Types of Farming :-
➢ Types of Farming - When the classification of farming is done on the basis of use of land,
size of farm, use of machines and machines, production of animals and crops, etc., then it is
called type of farming, such as specialized farming, dry farming.
➢ According to Dr. Ross, "The type of farming refers to the use of land, the production and
growth of crops and livestock, and the manner of agricultural activities."
✓ Specialised Farming
✓ Diversified Farming
✓ Mixed farming
✓ Dry Farming
✓ Ranching
➢ Specialized Farming: Special farming means those holdings which get at least 50% of their
income from any one enterprise or crop.
➢ In India, this type of cultivation is done only in the form of plantation in Assam or Nilgiri
areas.
➢ Diversified Farming: In this there are many occupations of farmer's income. The farmer
gets only a small part of his income from any one crop, less than 50%. Thus, there is no
main source of income. Everyone gets some income. Diversified farming is also called
general farming.
❖ The Advantages of Multivariate Farming Are: -
1. Farmers remain independent.
2. The income of the farmer remains constant.
3. Animals, instruments, tools, land, etc., are all fully utilized.
4. To maintain soil fertility.
5. The family members continue to get work throughout the year.
6. The standard of living of the farmer is improves.

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❖ Difference Between Specialized and Diversified Farming
Specialized Diversified
One or two occupations are run on the The number of occupations is many.
farm
The main source of income is only one There are many sources of income.
or two occupations.
50% or more income is obtained from The income of the farm is less than 50%
the main occupation. from each occupation.
More information needed on specific Information needed for different
occupation. professions
Possible use of special types of tools and Common farming methods.
machines
Goods are often produced for sale in the Often goods are produced for family
market. consumption.
It is operated keeping in mind the Farming is done as a family need.
principles of Industry.

❖ Systems of Farming :-
➢ Peasant Farming
➢ Co-Operative Farming
➢ Capitalistic Farming
➢ Collective Farming (Russia and China)
➢ State Farming
❖ Depreciation
➢ The decline in the value of asset due to usage, accidental damage and time obsolescence.
➢ Junk Value :- The remaining value of an asset when it is completely destroyed. Or the
value at the end of useful life.
➢ Book Value :- The value of an asset which is obtained by deducting the annual
depreciation from the Original Cost every year.
❖ Methods of Depreciation
➢ Straight Line Method
✓ Amount of Depreciation = (Original Cost of the Asset- Junk Value) / Useful life of
asset.
➢ Diminishing Balance Method
✓ The method assumes varying rates odf use of asset, year after year.
✓ Amount of depreciation = (Book value of asset) X R

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 ✓ Where R = Rate of Interest
➢ Sum of the years digit method
✓ Annual amt. of depreciation =
✓ (Original Cost- Junk Value) X Remaining years of useful life
✓ Sum of the Digits from one through useful life
➢ Annual Revaluation Method
✓ As the name indicates, the asset is revalued every year.
✓ More specifically the value of an asset is calculated at the beginning and end of the
year.
✓ Generally, this method is used for land and livestock in agriculture.
❖ Farm Planning and Budgeting:
➢ Farm plan is the complete scheme for the operation and organization of a farm business.
Farm planning is a process or technique for making plans about optimum choice and
combination of farm enterprises.
➢ Farm planning serves the basis of farm budgeting, and a farm plan can be prepared without
a budget.
❖ Factors effecting farm planning:
1. Inventory of farm resources: The inventory of farm resources should be taken at the
beginning and the end of the year. It includes as appraisal of land, labour, capital (building,
livestock, machinery, and layout) and management.
2. Land: The appraisal of the land will involve a determination of quality and quantity of the
various types of soil. The location of land, types, irrigation facilities and fertility status are
factors to be considered the value of land.
3. Labour: An examination of human and bullock labour programme will lead to a much
effective organization of farm business.
4. Capital: It plays an important role in the farming business. Capital includes building,
livestock, implement and machines and layout.
5. Management: It determines the success of business. It is a mental process and occurs
when a farmer:
(i) observes and secures ideas,
(ii) analyses his observations and ideas,
(iii) makes decision on the basis of his analysis,
(iv) acts on the basis of his decisions and
(v) accepts the responsibility and consequences of his decisions.
❖ Partial Budgeting:

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 ➢ It consists of a detailed description of the income and expenditure of an enterprise, a few
enterprises or to a part of total farm.
➢ Symbolically it can be expressed as:

R = Qy1 Py1 – [X1PX1 = X2PX2 + ………….. XnPn] – F.C.

Where R = Net return

Qy1 = Quantity of output

Py1 = Price of output

XnPn = Inputs

Px = Price of inputs

F.C. = Fixed cost

❖ Advantages of Partial Budgeting:

1. They are comparatively simple, quick and easy.
2. They may provide a clear indication of the profitability of a particular enterprise.
3. They provide a clear plant for utilizing a particular resource.
4. They may serve as an efficient means of adopting total budgets without compeletely
reworking them.
5. By concentrating attention of a single enterprises or resource they are likely to result in
fuller treatment of related problems.
6. They can be used to compare costs and returns associated with different practices such as of
bullocks or tractor power.
❖ Complete Budgeting:
➢ It may be defined as detailed statement of the estimate of cost and returns of a farm as a
complete unit.
➢ Symbolically it can be expressed as:
R = [Qy1P1+Qy2P2+Qy3P3 ……… QnPn] – [X1Px1+X2Px2+ ……….XnPn] – F.C.
Were,
R = Net return of output
Qs = Quantity of output
Ys = Different enterprises

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 Ps = Price of output
Xn = Inputs
Pxn = Price of input

❖ Advantages:
1. It consists of the farm as a unit and all resources and enterprisses simultaneouly.
2. It may allow for substitution relationship between resources.
3. It allows for the complementary, supplementary, or competitive relationship between
enterprises.
4. It drawn attention to the multitude of factors affecting farm earning.
5. It permits comparison of the probable total earning of the same farm with different
combination of enterprises.
6. It avoids the necessity of allocating joint cost between enterprises.
❖ Steps Involved in The Process of Budgeting:
7. Making the inventory of farm resources (land, farm size, building, livestock, dead stock
etc.)
8. Etimation of capital position of the farmer and determination of his credit needs.
9. Assessment of the availability and source of credit meet his credit requirement.
10. Determination of availability of family and hired human labour.
11. Working out cost and return in relation to the present operation so as to set objectives for
future plans.
12. Drawing of alternate plans and settlement of the final plan in view of limitation.
❖ Use of farm planning and budgeting:
1. It is helpful in determination of needed adjustments as a yardstick for agricultural credit.
2. It is helpful in formulation and appraisal of development projects.
3. It provides road to farmer's security.
4. It provides basis for calculation of agricultural income of the whole country.

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IMPORTANT FACTS:

❖ When Total utility Maximum, marginal utility is Zero.

❖ Elasticity of matchbox (necessities) is relatively non-elastic/inelastic.
❖ Agriculture holding: Total area of land owned by individual or joint family whether
cultivated by family or rented out.
❖ Operational holding: Total area held under single management for the purpose of
cultivation. It excludes any land leased out to another person.
❖ Economic holding: Which provide a reasonable standard of living + give full employment.
❖ Marginal farmer: Having land less than 1 ha or 2.5 acre.
❖ Small farmer: Having land between 1 ha to 2 ha.
❖ Cost of cultivation: Expenditure incurred on all inputs and input services in raising a crop on
a unit area written as wst in Rs/ha.
❖ Cost of production: expenditure incurred on providing a unit quantity of output is called cost
of production written as Rs/tonne or Rs/quintal.
❖ Law of Diminishing marginal utility is applicable to agriculture.
❖ Utility may be defined as the capacity of a good to satisfy human want. It is subjective and
relative. Utility has no ethical and Moral significance. It is measured in terms of unit called
"Utils".
❖ Transportation adds Place utility e.g., transportation of apples from J&K to other parts of
country.
❖ Monopoly means: Single seller
❖ The warehousing corporation act came into: 18th March 1962
❖ Some middlemen do not buy and sell directly but assist in the marketing process, they are
known as- Facilitative middleman
❖ Storage adds time utility e.g., storage of wheat, rice to meet off season supply
❖ Processing adds from utility e.g., processing of wheat into flour and making juice from apple.
❖ An economy where allocation of resources is determined by the operation of price
mechanism is termed as: Market Economy
❖ National income generated by agriculture is calculated by- Output method
❖ Marketing function of buying and selling adds possession utility e.g., selling of fruits,
livestock.
❖ Inputs which are used to produce various goods and services – Factors of production.
❖ Anything above earth surface which is given by nature and is fixed- Land.
❖ APEDA is the coordinating agency for organic production and export under the brand name
of -Organic India
❖ Capital goods that can be used for different purposes is called: Floating capital

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 ❖ The markets dealing with agricultural commodities at district headquarter is called:
Secondary wholesale markets
❖ For those goods having relative elastic demand the elasticity of demand will be: more than 1
❖ Law of diminishing returns is also known as: Law of variable proportion
❖ Price elasticity of supply of food products is generally- <1
❖ According to new rules after submission of application form in how many days the bank is
supposed to provide KCC to farmers: - 2 Weeks
❖ Preparing a farm budget in advance is known as farm planning
❖ The physical aspects of farm planning expressed in monetary term is called farm budgeting
❖ All capitals are considered as wealth, but all wealth is not necessarily capital. E.g: farm
buildings are considered as capital and wealth whereas residential buildings are only capital.
❖ A person, who organizes, manages, taking a new idea (which always involves risks into it)
and supervision ensuring success of business. – Enterprise.
❖ Anything that can satisfy a human want is called "Good"
❖ "Services" refers to the work that a person may do.
❖ Based on consumption:
1. Consumer goods – Yield satisfaction directly. They are also called "Goods of the first
order".
2. Producer goods – These help to produce other goods known as the "Goods of the second
order".
❖ The maximum quantity of output that can be produced from any given quantities of various
inputs per period of time – Production function (input output relationship).
❖ The basis of farm budgeting is Benefit-Cost analysis
❖ The most commonly used economic tools for project evaluation is cost - benefit analysis.
❖ Consumption (Destruction of utility)
❖ Production (Creation/addition of utility
❖ Distribution (Sharing of all whatever produced)
❖ Exchange (Transfer of goods from one place to other)
❖ Form utility: It is changing the form of goods i.e. processing a good.
❖ Place utility: It is transportation of foods from one place to other.
❖ Time utility: It is storage activity.
❖ Possession utility: It is transfer of ownership of goods.
❖ Want: It is just a wishful thinking (e.g., If you think of buying Audi).
❖ Desire: Person has ability to fulfil his/her want (e.g., If you think of buying watch, and you
have money).
❖ Demand: Person has ability and fulfils his/her want at a particular place on a particular time
(e.g., you bought a watch).

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❖ Law of demand:
➢ When price of a commodity increase, quantity demanded of it will decrease and vice-
versa.
➢ Fall in price leads to expansion in demand, while rise in price leads to contraction in
demand.
➢ Autonomous demand: No link with demand of other goods
➢ Derived demand: Demand for certain goods related with demand for other goods. E.g.,
fertilizers, pesticides.
❖ Price demand: Various quantity of goods that a consumer would be willing to buy at all
possible prices in a given market at a given point of time.
❖ Income demand: Various quantity of goods that a consumer would be willing to buy at
different level of income in a given market at a given pint of a time.
❖ Cross demand: Various quantity of goods that a consumer would be willing to buy not due
to changes in price of commodity but due to changes in price related to goods.
❖ Giffen goods: (Inferior goods), It is an exception to law of demand.
❖ Demand of these goods generally decrease with decrease in price.
❖ Giffen goods are rare forms of inferior goods that have no ready substitute or alternative such
as bread, rice, and potatoes
❖ e NAM was launched on – 14th April,2016
❖ The term Oligopoly means there are two or more sellers of a commodity.
❖ If the income elasticity of demand is greater than one, the commodity is a luxury .
❖ For consumer to be in equilibrium necessarry conditon is the ratio of Marginal Utility =
prices.
❖ Annuity indicates the stream of payments (or) returns overtime.
❖ Capital in monetary form is called Finance.
❖ Capital owned from own savings is called – Equity capital.
❖ Capital owned from borrowed funds is called – Debt capital
❖ The ability of farm business to meet its debts or obligations to pay is called – Solvency.
❖ Minimum support price (MSP) for Agril. Commodities recommended by – CACP (setup in
1965, recommended by L.K. Jha).
❖ The area of operation of society is restricted to one village – PACS.
❖ MSP is price for maintaining Public distribution system by government.
❖ Demand for Agril. Produce is relatively more inelastic.
❖ Demand for necessary commodities is – Inelastic
❖ Demand for Luxurious commodities is – More elastic.
❖ Directorate of marketing inspection (DMI) is located at Faridabad.

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 ❖ Elasticity of demand means degree of relation between quantities demanded/changes because
of change in price.
❖ Elasticity of production refers to proportionate change in output as compared to proportionate
change in input.
❖ The relationship between cost function and production function is – Positive.
❖ Indifference curve is always convex to origin (It is points of various combination of two
commodities of same utility)
❖ Principle of equi-marginal returns is applied when the resources are limited.
❖ A positive science is concerned with "What is" (pure science) and normative science with
"What out to be" (Normative Science).
❖ "Economic laws" are statements of uniformities which govern human behaviour concerning
the utilization of limited resources for the attainment of unlimited ends – Robbins.
❖ Elasticity means sensitiveness (or) responsiveness of demand to the change in price.
❖ Elasticity of demand = % change in demand/% of change in price.
❖ When a small change in price may lead to a great change in demand. The demand is elastic.
A big change in price is followed by only a small change in demand it is said to be in
Inelastic demand Eg: Salt.
❖ Cros elasticity means a change in the demand for a commodity owing to a change in the price
of another commodity.
❖ Perfectly elastic demand: Demand curve is horizontal to 'X' axis Ed = 1.
❖ Perfectly in elastic demand: Demand curve is vertical straight-line Ed = 0.
❖ It the income elasticity of demand is greater than one, the commodity is a luxury.
❖ The relationship between marginal cost (MC) and fixed cost (FC): MC is independent of
FC.
❖ Farm: Piece of land where livestock enterprises are taken under single management system
and has specific boundaries.
❖ Law of diminishing marginal return: Law states that when we go on using more input for
producing output. The production will increase initially at increasing rate, then increase at
constant rate, then increase at decreasing rate, then seems constant and finally start
decreasing at increasing rate.
❖ Production function: It is defined as non- mathematically and as well as graphical
representation that describe the extent to which a particular product depends on quantity of
input.
❖ TPP: Total amount of output obtained by using different unit of inputs, measuring in
physical units like quintal, kg.
❖ APP: Reveals technical efficiency

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❖ Factor/ factor Relationship/ Principle of factor substitution/ Principle of least cost
combination:
❖ Deals with combination of inputs, so that the required level of production can be obtained
with a Least Cost Combination.
❖ Product-product relationship: - Different combination in which 2 products are arranged in
such a manner that they yield the maximum profit for the business. The main aim is profit
maximization.
❖ Types of products: Joint product: Mainly in agriculture all products are joint products.
Products which are produce from same production process are called joint products. E.g.:
Paddy, Straw.
❖ Complementary product: If increase in one product cause increase in other product, when
total quantity of inputs used on the 2 products are held constant. (don’t compete for
resources).
❖ Law of diminishing returns is also known as law of increasing costs or law of variable
proportions.
❖ Law of diminishing returns (LDR) is the basic fundamental law of agriculture (To explain
input-output relationship)
❖ Law of diminishing returns applies more generally to – Agril. Industry.
❖ Important Relationships and What they Helps in Deciding :-
❖ Factor- Product Relationship:- How much to Produce.
❖ Factor- Factor Relationship:- How to Produce
❖ Product- Product Relationship:- What to Produce
❖ According to LDR, optimum profit will be at point when MC = MR
❖ If MP > MC then further investment in production is profitable
❖ Farm management is the decision-making process.
❖ Objective of nationalization of banks were setup by- Indira Gandhi.
❖ District credit plant (DCP) is a blueprint of bankers containing technically viable and
economically feasible scheme.
❖ In case of DIR scheme loans are advanced at 4% interest per annum.
❖ Lead bank scheme was setup under chairmanship of – F.K. Nariman
❖ The number of banks nationalized so far are – 20 banks.
❖ A banker to government of India is – RBI (first governor of RBI is O. A. Smith)
❖ Present farming system of India has become Market oriented.
❖ First regulated market in India was established in – Karanjia cotton market (1886)
❖ The resources which will remain unchanged irrespective of level of production- Fixed
resources (found in short run) E.g.: land, farm buildings. Etc.

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 ❖ The resources which will remain unchanged irrespective of level of production – Variable
resources (Found in short run and long run) e.g., seeds, pesticides etc.
❖ Livestock insurance is included in Variable Cost.
❖ The total expenditure incurred for producing a unit of output using particular unit of input is
Cost of production (₹ per quintal).
❖ The total expenditure incurred on all inputs used for producing of output per unit of land –
Cost of cultivation (₹ per hectare)
❖ Isoquant means equal quantity or same amount of output.
❖ Inflation is calculated by the – Consumer Price Index
❖ During British period, government advances loans to the cultivators for production of crops,
land improvement and distress relief are known as Taccavi loans
❖ Small amount of money loaned to a client by a bank – Microcredit.
❖ Nationalisation of 14 major commercial banks took place on – 19th july 1969.
❖ Six more major commercial banks were nationalized during – 15th April 1980.
❖ Regional rural banks (RRB) were established in 1975.
❖ NABARD established as an apex agency for rural finance in 12th July 1982.
❖ The term credit is originated from the Latin word 'Credo' or credere or creditum which means
a loan or to entrust or I trust you.
❖ Agricultural finance corporation was promoted by – Indian Banks Association (IBA).
❖ Cooperative movement was started in India in – 1904.
❖ Father of cooperative movement in India – F. Nicholson.
❖ Recommendation:
➢ Regional rural bank: Narsimhan committee
➢ NABARD: Shivaraman committee
➢ Single window system: Mohan kanda committee
❖ Depreciation:-The decline in the value of asset due to usage, accidental damage, and time
obsolescence.
❖ Junk Value:- The remaining value of an asset when it is completely destroyed. Or the value
at the end of useful life.
❖ Book Value:- The value of an asset which is obtained by deducting the annual depreciation
from the Original Cost every year.
❖ Methods of Depreciation :-
➢ Straight Line Method
➢ Diminishing Balance Method
➢ Sum of the Year digit method
➢ Annual Revaluation Method
❖ India's first cooperative credit society was established in – Karnataka.

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❖ The different between the demand for credit and supply is – credit worthiness.
❖ NABARD head office is located at – Mumbai.
❖ The headquarters of SBI is located – Mumbai.
❖ First RRB on pilot basis were setup on – 2nd Oct 1975(To give credit to Marginal, small and
agril, labours).
❖ Single window system was started in – Andhra Pradesh.
❖ RBI was established on 1st April 1935 and nationalized in Jan 1st, 1949 (Present Governor -
Shaktikanta Das).
❖ Price which necessarily covers variable cost and fixed cost is long run Price. Sub normal
price is a short period price.
❖ The point where total revenue line and Total cost line intersect is known as Equilibrium price.
❖ The term market margin refers to profit of the middlemen.
❖ Scarcity rent arises due to high pressure on land.
❖ The line which represents various combinations of two inputs that can be purchased with
given outlay of funds – Iso-cost line (Budget line, price line).
❖ Rental value of land is included in cost B.
❖ Farm is considered as socio-economic and decision-making unit.
❖ The ratio of output to input is called – Technical efficiency.
❖ A line passing through least cost points on isoquant map is Expansion path
❖ The line joining the endpoints of isoquant – Ridge line.
❖ The line by which all the least cost combination points are joint to each other – Expansion
path (isocline).
❖ It will help in observing the availability e of cash in the business throughout the year-Cash
flow statement
❖ In regulated market (ensure fair price) which one is not regulated – price.
❖ Village market is classified on the basis of – Area.
❖ Trading is in secondary wholesale market takes place between – wholesaler and retailer.
❖ Regular upswing and downswing occurring in prices during a year are called – seasonal
variations.
❖ In the regulated market, the sale of the agricultural produce is undertaken by – closed tender
method.
❖ Hedging practice is more common in foreign exchange market.
❖ Farm management is an intra farm science, farm planning helps in increasing farm income.
❖ Farmers obtain short term loans from PACS.
❖ Indian economy is mixed economy and Indian currency is convertible paper money.
❖ Fluctuation in agricultural prices is mainly due to shortage and surplus.
❖ A wholesaler assuming function of retailing in case of – forward marketing

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 ❖ Harvesting is not a function of marketing.
❖ Secular markets are permanent in nature (manufactured goods such as TV, machinery).
❖ For perishable goods marketed surplus = Marketable surplus.
❖ Distress sale of marketing refers to selling price < cost of production.
❖ Marketing channel – The route through which agricultural products move from producers to
consumers.
❖ A market guided by rules and regulations is – Regulated market
❖ In market, life blood is known as – market information.
❖ Marketing integration refers to expansion of firms by consolidating additional marketing
functions under single management.
❖ Marginal product is the ratio of Output/Input.
❖ The first function performed in marketing of agricultural commodities is – Packing.
❖ The market is derived from Latin word marcatus which means trade or a place where
business is conducted.
❖ The difference between the maximum price that consumers are willing to pay for a good and
the market price that they actually pay for good is – consumers surplus.
❖ The quantity of produce which the producer farmer actually sells in the market, irrespective
of his requirements – Marketed surplus.
❖ Marketable surplus is the residual left with the producer farmer after meeting his
requirements for family consumption, farm needs, feeds for cattle etc.
❖ In case of perishable commodities, the marketed surplus = Marketable surplus
❖ The division of market into different homogenous group of consumers is – Market
segmentation.
❖ Through all categories of farmers are interested in higher returns from their enterprises, what
they really try to maximize is- Net profit
❖ When a new variety of crop is introduced- partially budgeting is required.
❖ A statement of assets and liabilities of a farm at a point of time Balance sheet
❖ Complete Budget refers to estimates of costs of returns from farm as a whole.
❖ The difference between the price paid by the consumer is willing to pay for a good and the
market price that they actually pay for good is – Consumers surplus.
❖ The quantity of produce which the producer farmer actually sells in the market, irrespective
of his requirements – Marketed surplus.
❖ The price at which government purchases food grain for maintaining the public distribution
system for building buffer stock are known as- Procurement prices
❖ In our country Procurement Price is generally equal to the Minimum Support Price.
❖ While in normal situations Procurement Price must be greater than the Minimum Support
Price.

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❖ Marketable surplus – is the residual left with the producer farmer after meeting his
requirement for family consumption, farm needs, feeds for cattle etc.
❖ Marketable surplus = Total production (P) – Total requirements (C)
❖ The division of market into different homogenous group of consumers is – market
segmentation.
❖ Market Structure:
➢ Monopoly: Market containing single seller of product
➢ Monopsony market: Market containing single buyer of product
➢ Oligopoly market: Market containing few sellers of commodity
➢ Oligopsony market: Market containing few buyers of commodity
➢ Monopolistic market: large sellers deal with heterogeneous and different forms of
commodity
➢ Perfect competition: large number of producers selling same product
❖ Complete Budget refers to estimates of costs of returns from farm as a whole.
❖ The difference between the price paid by the consumer and price received by the farmer is
called – Price spread.
❖ Balance sheet provides net worth of business/ farm.
❖ Direct marketing is also known as – farmers markets.
❖ AGMARK is an indicator of purity.
❖ Agricultural produce (grading and marketing) act was passed in the year – 1937.
❖ Who fixes grade standards for agricultural commodities in India – Agril. Marketing advisor,
GOI.
❖ The time lag between investment and returns from agricultural projects is termed as –
Gestation period.
❖ Crop loan system was 1st started in which state – Andhra Pradesh.
❖ Directorate of Marketing and Inspection (DMI) is located at Faridabad Haryana
❖ National Institute of Agricultural Marketing has started functioning at Jaipur (Raj) with effect
from 8th August 1988.
❖ Overhead cost is known as – Fixed cost
❖ Price theory is a branch of – Microeconomics
❖ Average cost is equal to – Total cost / Output
❖ The market used for food grains: Regional or State market
❖ The market used for durable goods: National market
❖ A time-based market basically for perishable goods: Short period market
❖ Food grain markets, vegetable markets, wool market are the example of: Special market
❖ Which market ensure fair price: Regulate market
❖ The market which is permanent in nature: Secular market

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 ❖ Land rent is an example of fixed cost
❖ Utility has four type: Form Utility, Place Utility, Time Utility and Possession Utility
❖ Prime cost is also known as – Variable cost
❖ The 1st function performed in the marketing of agricultural commodities: Packing
❖ The Warehousing Corporations Act came into operation on 18th March 1962
❖ opportunity coast is also known as – alternative cost
❖ Diminishing return is also known as – Law of variable
❖ The most effective way to overcome the defects of agricultural marketing is – Regulating
marketing
❖ The law of variable proportion is generally referred to as the – law of diminishing return
production is a function of – Factors
❖ The relationship between Marketable to Marketed surplus for perishable products: Equal
❖ MSP is recommended by: Commission of Agricultural Cost and Price (CACP)
❖ MSP is fixed by: GOI (CCEA)
❖ The difference between value in use and value in exchange: Consumer surplus
❖ In mixed farming, the contribution of livestock to gross farm income is at least
❖ Input -Output relationship is also known as – production function
❖ Those products, in which two products produced together are called – joint product
❖ Dumping activity is seen under – monopoly
❖ Increase in money supply and fall in production causes: Inflation
❖ Export – Import bank of India was set up on – 1st January 1982
❖ IRDP was stared in the year of – 2 October 1980
❖ When marginal production is zero, then total production is – maximum

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