CANCER IN INDIA

Dissertation
Submitted in partial fulfillment for the award of the
Degree of
Master of Science in Zoology
Session : (2024-2025)

SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY

Mrs.Akansha Agraghari Pooja Pal

Department of Zoology M.Sc (IVth Semester)

Department of Zoology
Ramsuresh Singh Mahavidyalaya
(Affiliated to Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith, Varanasi)
(U.P.)

Enroll. No.-KA2K24/463737014 Roll No.-46324737014

 Certificate

This is to certify that present study entiled " Cancer in india" is carried
out by Mrs. Pooja Pal as a part of the M.Sc. IVth Semester Zoology
under my Supervision.

I recommend and forward this dissertation which is required in partial

fulfillment of the degree of Master of Science in Zoology of Ram Suresh
Singh Mahavidalaya.

Supervisor
Mrs. Aakansha Araghari
Department of Zoology
Ram Suresh Singh
Mahavidyalaya
 Acknowledgement

At this moment it is my great pleasure to express

my deepest gratitude to those who have given their
valuable time to support in completion of this work. The
foremost among them is my respected teacher and
supervisor Mrs Akansha Agrahari. I am deeply indebted to
him for his valuable and constant inspiration and readily
available guidance in preparation of this dissertation. It
would not have been possible to complete this work
without the help and supervision provided by him, I am
also thankful to my friends for constant help to complete
this work.

Submitted by
Pooja Pal
M.Sc (IVth Semester)
 Index

 Introduction

 Human Cancer cells

 Causes

 Cancer types

 Diagnosis

 Preventing cancer

 Cancer treatment

 Treatment of cancer

 Formation of cancer cell

 Some examples of common cancers

 Bibliography
Objectives

 To understand and study the basic concepts of cancer.

 To differentiate different types of cancer.

 To bring awareness about the causes of cancer and its preventive

measures.

 To analyze the ways of treatment of cancer

 INTRODUCTION

Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably

and spread to other parts of the body.

Normally, human cells grow and multiply through cell division to form
new cells as the body needs them. When cells grow old or become
damaged, they die, and new cells take their place. Sometimes this orderly
process breaks down, and abnormal or damaged cells grow and multiply
when they shouldn’t. These cells form a mass of tissue, called a ‘Tumor’.

Cancerous tumors spread into, or invade, nearby tissues and can travel to
distant places in the body to form new tumors (a process called metastasis).

Cancer is the second leading cause of death globally, accounting for an

estimated

9.6 million deaths, or one in six deaths, in 2018. Lung, prostate, colorectal,
stomach and liver cancer are the most common types of cancer in men,
while breast, colorectal, lung, cervical and thyroid cancer are the most
common among women.

HUMAN CANCER CELLS

Cancer cells are cells that divide relentlessly, forming solid tumors or
flooding the blood with abnormal cells.

Cancer cells have distinguishing features visible under the microscope. The
nucleus is often large and irregular, and the cytoplasm may also display
abnormalities. The shape, size, protein composition, and texture of the
nucleus are often altered in the cancerous cells.

Different combinations of abnormalities are characteristic of different

cancer types, to the extent that nuclear appearance can be used as a marker
in cancer diagnostics and staging.

Cancer cells differ from normal cells in many ways. For instance, cancer cells:

 grow in the absence of signals telling them to grow. Normal cells

only grow when they receive such signals.

 ignore signals that normally tell cells to stop dividing or to die (a

process known as programmed cell death, or apoptosis).

 invade into nearby areas and spread to other areas of the body.
Normal cells stop growing when they encounter other cells, and
most normal cells do not move around the body.

 tell blood vessels to grow toward tumors. These blood vessels

supply tumors with oxygen and nutrients and remove waste products
from tumors.

 hide from the immune system. The immune system normally

eliminates damaged or abnormal cells.
 trick the immune system into helping cancer cells stay alive and grow.
For instance, some cancer cells convince immune cells to protect the
tumor instead of attacking it.
 accumulate multiple changes in their chromosomes, such as
duplications and deletions of chromosome parts. Some cancer cells
have double the normal number of chromosomes.

Causes of Cancer

Many factors are attributed to causing cancer. The most probable factors
include:

Chemical factors: such as tobacco and smoke. Tobacco use is a cause of

about 22% of cancer deaths. People who use tobacco products or who are
regularly around environmental tobacco smoke (also called secondhand
smoke) have an increased risk of cancer because tobacco products and
secondhand smoke have many chemicals that damage DNA.

Physical Factors: exposure to Ionizing radiation like X-rays and gamma

rays. Radiation of certain wavelengths, called ionizing radiation, has
enough energy to damage DNA and cause cancer. Ionizing radiation
includes radon, x-rays, gamma rays, and other forms of high-energy
radiation.

Lifestyle factors: 10% of cancer is due to obesity, poor diet, lack of

physical activities and excessive drinking of Alcohol. Physical inactivity is
believed to contribute to cancer risk, not only through its effect on body
weight but also through negative effects on the immune system and
endocrine system. More than half of the effect from diet is due to
overnutrition (eating too much), rather than from eating too few vegetables
or other healthful foods.

Biological carcinogens: such as infections from certain viruses, bacteria or

parasites.

Genetic Factors: approximately 5-10% of cancers are due to inherited

genetic defects from a person’s parents.

These factors act, at least partly, by changing the genes of a cell.

Typically many genetic changes are required before cancer
develops.

Types of Cancer

Cancers are classified by the type of cell that the tumor cells resemble and
is therefore presumed to be the origin of the tumor .There are more than
hundred different types of cancer that are characterized by abnormal cell
growth. Some common and major types of cancers are briefly explained
below:

Carcinoma

It is the most common form of cancer that affects the epithelial cells which
form the lining of internal organs or the skin. Carcinomas are primarily
divided on the basis of types of epithelial tissues.
Adenocarcinoma is a cancer that forms in epithelial cells that produce fluids or
mucus. Tissues with this type of epithelial cell are sometimes called glandular
tissues. Most cancers of the breast, colon, and prostate are adenocarcinomas.

Squamous cell carcinoma is a cancer that forms in squamous cells, which are
epithelial cells that lie just beneath the outer surface of the skin. Squamous
cells also line many other organs, including the stomach, intestines, lungs,
bladder, and kidneys.

Sarcoma

Sarcomas are cancers that form in bone and soft tissues, including muscle, fat,
blood vessels, lymph vessels, and fibrous tissue (such as tendons and
ligaments). It's not clear what causes most sarcomas Osteosarcoma is the most
common cancer of bone. People affected from sarcoma experience immense
bone pain, weight loss and unexpected bone injuries.

Leukemia

Commonly known as blood cancer, leukemia affects the tissues of the bone
marrow which is responsible for blood production. It is one of the fatal forms
of cancer.

Leukemia usually involves the white blood cells. Your white blood cells are
potent infection fighters — they normally grow and divide in an orderly way,
as your body needs them. But in people with leukemia, the bone marrow
produces an excessive amount of abnormal white blood cells, which don't
function properly.

These abnormal white blood cells damage the tissues of the bone marrow
and crowd the normal blood cells. These abnormal white blood cells
continue to divide and damage the complete normal blood cells.
Lymphoma

Lymphoma is cancer that begins in lymphocytes (T cells or B cells). These are

disease-fighting white blood cells that are part of the immune system. In
lymphoma, abnormal lymphocytes build up in lymph nodes and lymph
vessels, as well as in other organs of the body.
There are two main types of lymphoma:

Hodgkin lymphoma – People with this disease have abnormal lymphocytes

that are called Reed-Sternberg cells. These cells usually form from B cells.

Non-Hodgkin lymphoma – This is a large group of cancers that start in

lymphocytes. The cancers can grow quickly or slowly and can form from B
cells or T cells.
 DIAGNOSIS OF CANCER

The detection and diagnosis of cancer are very important before it spreads
to other parts of the body. Identification of cancer genes is pivotal to
prevent cancer.

The following methods are used to detect cancer –

Biopsy- A biopsy is the removal of some cells or tissue, fluids or growths

for examination. The sample can be taken from any part of your body. It’s
sent to a laboratory for testing and is looked at under a microscope.
Biopsies are most often done to either confirm or rule out a suspicion of
cancer.

Radiography technique-Radiographic Testing (RT) is a non-destructive

testing (NDT) method which uses either x-rays or gamma rays to examine
the internal structure of manufactured components identifying any flaws or
defects.

Computed tomography- Computed tomography (CT) is a diagnostic

imaging test used to create detailed images of internal organs, bones, soft
tissue and blood vessels. It uses a series of X-rays and a computer to
produce a 3D image of soft tissues and bones. The cross-sectional images
generated during a CT scan can be reformatted in multiple planes, and can
even generate three-dimensional images which can be viewed on a
computer monitor, printed on film or transferred to electronic media. CT
scanning is often the best method for detecting many different cancers
since the images allow your doctor to confirm the presence of a tumor and
determine its size and location

Magnetic resonance imaging- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a

medical imaging technique used in radiology to form pictures of
the anatomy and the physiological processes of the body. MRI scanners use
strong magnetic fields, magnetic field gradients, and radio waves to
generate images of the organs in the body. MRI does not involve X-rays or
the use of ionizing radiation, which distinguishes it from CT scans.
 REDUCING THE CANCER BURDEN

-Between 30 and 50% of cancers can currently be prevented by avoiding

risk factors and implementing existing evidence-based prevention strategies.

-The cancer burden can also be reduced through early detection of

cancer and appropriate treatment and care of patients who develop cancer.

-Many cancers have a high chance of cure if diagnosed early and

treated appropriately.
 PREVENTING CANCER

Cancer risk can be reduced by:

-not using tobacco. There is no safe level of tobacco use. People who use
any type of tobacco product are strongly urged to quit. People who quit
smoking, regardless of their age, have substantial gains in life expectancy
compared with those who continue to smoke. Also, quitting smoking at the
time of a cancer diagnosis reduces the risk of death.

-maintaining a healthy body weight;

-eating a healthy diet, including fruit and vegetables;

-doing physical activity on a regular basis;

-avoiding harmful use of alcohol;

-getting vaccinated against HPV and hepatitis B if you belong to a group for
which vaccination is recommended;

-avoiding ultraviolet radiation (which primarily results from exposure to

the sun and artificial tanning devices);

-ensuring safe and appropriate use of radiation in health care (for diagnostic
and therapeutic purposes);

-minimizing occupational exposure to ionizing radiation; and

-reducing exposure to outdoor air pollution and indoor air pollution,

including radon (a radioactive gas produced from the natural decay of
uranium, which can accumulate in buildings — homes, schools and
workplaces).
 TREATMENTS FOR CANCER

Treatment options depend on the type of cancer, its stage, if the cancer
has spread and your general health. The goal of treatment is to kill as many
cancerous cells while reducing damage to normal cells nearby. Advances
in technology have made this possible.

The three main treatments are:

Surgery: directly removing the tumor Chemotherapy: using chemicals to

kill cancer cells Radiation therapy: using X-rays to kill cancer cells The
same cancer type in one individual is very different from that cancer in
another individual. Within a single type of cancer, such as breast cancer,
researchers are discovering subtypes that each requires a different treatment
approach.

Cancer Surgery
Cancer surgery removes the tumor and nearby tissue during an operation.
A doctor who treats cancer with surgery is called a surgical oncologist.
Surgery is the oldest type of cancer treatment and it is still effective for
many types of cancer today.

Common side effects of cancer surgery:

-Pain. It is common to
have some pain after
surgery.

-Fatigue.

-Appetite loss.

-Swelling around the site

of surgery.

-Drainage from the site of surgery.

-Bruising around the site of surgery.

-Numbness and bleeding

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is a drug treatment that uses powerful chemicals to kill fast-

growing cells in your body. Chemotherapy is most often used to treat
cancer, since cancer cells grow and multiply much more quickly than most
cells in the body.

Common side effects of

chemotherapy drugs include:

-Nausea

-Vomiting

-Diarrhea

Chemotherapy drugs can also

cause side effects that don't
become evident until months
or years after treatment.
Late side effects vary depending on the chemotherapy drug but can include:

-Damage to lung tissue

-Heart problems
-Infertility

Radiation Therapy

Radiation therapy is a type of cancer treatment that uses beams of intense

energy to kill cancer cells. Radiation therapy most often uses X-rays, but
protons or other types of energy also can be used. During this type of
radiation, the high-energy beams come from a machine outside of your body
that aims the beams at a precise point on your body.
 Some examples of common cancers

Breast cancer:
Breast cancer is a type of cancer that starts in
the breast. Cancer starts when cells begin to
grow out of con Breast cancer cells usually
form a tumor that can often be seen on an x-
ray or felt as a lump. Breast cancer occurs

Lung cancer (including bronchus):

almost entirely in women, but men can get

Lung cancer is the second most common cancer in American men
and women. It’s also the leading cause of cancer-related deaths for
both American men and women. One in every four cancer-related
deaths is from lung cancer. Cigarette smoking is the leading cause of
lung cancer. Men who smoke are 23 times more likely to develop
lung cancer. Women who smoke are 13 times more likely, both
when compared with nonsmokers.

Prostate cancer:.

Prostate cancer is a serious disease that affects thousands of men

each year who are middle-aged or older. About 60 percent of the
cases occur in men older than age 65. The American Cancer Society

(ACS) estimates that 174,650 American men

will be newly diagnosed with this condition in 2019. The prostate is
a small gland found in a man’s lower abdomen. It’s located under
the bladder and surrounding the urethra. The prostate is regulated by
the hormone testosterone and produces seminal fluid, also known as
semen. Semen is the substance containing sperm that exits the
urethra during ejaculation.
Thyroid cancer:

Thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland in the

lower front part of your neck. The hormones
it makes are carried throughout your body to
help regulate heat and energy.

Anaplastic thyroid cancer is one of four types of thyroid cancer. It’s

very rare: The American Thyroid Association notes that this type
represents less than 2 percent of all cases of thyroid cancer. It
metastasizes, or spreads, quickly to other organs. It’s one of the
mostTrusted Source aggressive cancers in humans.

Kidney (renal cell and renal pelvis) cancer:

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each

about the size of a fist. They’re located in your
abdomen on either side of your spine. The
kidneys filter out waste from your blood and
make urine. There are different types of cancer that can affect your
kidneys. The National Cancer Institute estimates that there were
more than 63,000 new cases of kidney cancer in the United States in
2017.

The incidence of kidney cancer appears to be increasing, according

to the Mayo Clinic. One possible reason may be increased screening
by CT scans.

Pancreatic cancer: Pancreatic cancer occurs within the tissues

of the pancreas, which is a vital endocrine organ located behind the
stomach. The pancreas plays an essential role in digestion by
producing enzymes that the body needs to digest fats, carbo the
pancreas also produces two important hormones: glucagon and
insulin. These hormones are responsible for controlling glucose
(sugar) metabolism. Insulin helps cells metabolize glucose to make
energy and glucagon helps raise glucose levels when they are too
low hydrates, and proteins
Symptoms and signs
Symptoms and signs of cancer depend on the type of cancer, where
it is located, and/or where the cancer cells have spread. For example,
breast cancer may present as a lump in the breast or as nipple
discharge while metastatic breast cancer may present with symptoms
of pain (if spread to bones), extreme fatigue (lungs), or seizures
(brain). A few patients show no signs or symptoms until the cancer

is far advanced.

The American Cancer Society describes seven warning signs and/or

symptoms that a cancer may be present, and which should prompt a
person to seek medical attention. The word

CAUTION can help you remember these.

 Change in bowel or bladder habits

 A sore throat that does not heal

Unusual bleeding or discharge (for example, nipple secretions or

a "sore" that will not heal that oozes material)

 Thickening or lump in the breast, testicles, or elsewhere

 Indigestion (usually chronic) or difficulty swallowing
 Obvious change in the size, color, shape, or thickness of a wart
or mole
 Nagging cough or hoarseness
Other signs or symptoms may also alert you or your doctor to the
possibility of your having some form of cancer. These include the

following:

 Unexplained loss of weight or loss of appetite

 A new type of pain in the bones or other parts of the body that
may be steadily worsening, or come and go, but is unlike
previous pains one has had before
 Persistent fatigue, nausea, or vomiting
 Unexplained low-grade fevers with may be either persistent or
come and go
 Recurring infections which will not clear with usual treatment
Differnce between normal and cancer cell

Normal Cell Cancer Cell

Cell shape Uniform Irregular
Spheroid shape, single Irregular shape, multi-
Nucleus
nucleus nucleation common
Single, inconspicuous
Nucleolus Multiple, enlarged nucleoli
nucleolus
Cytoplasm Large cytoplasmic volume Small cytoplasmic volume
Growth Controlled Uncontrolled
Remain immature and
Maturation Mature into specialized cells
undifferentiated
Blood Normal angiogenesis (occurs Tumor-induced
supply during development/ healing) angiogenesis
Favored (for aerobic
Not required (thrive in
respiration) but will undergo
Oxygen hypoxic conditions), favor
anaerobic respiration if
anaerobic respiration
required
Can spread to different
Remain in their intended
Location locations in the body
location
(metastasis)
Steps to Prevent Cancer

DON’T USE TOBACCO

The use of tobacco products has been linked to many types of

cancer, including lung, colorectal, breast, throat, cervical, bladder,
mouth and esophageal. It’s never too late to quit. About 90 percent
of all lung cancer is related to smoking. Non-smokers who are
exposed to secondhand conditions.smoke are also at risk for
lung cancer and other respiratory

PROTECT YOUR SKIN FROM THE SUN

Skin cancer is the most common and most preventable cancer in the
United States. More than 96,400 people are diagnosed with
melanoma annually. Exposure to the sun’s ultraviolet radiation
causes most skin cancer. Be sure to use adequate sun protection
year-round. Never use indoor tanning beds.

EAT A HEALTHY DIET

Eat lots of fruits, vegetables, beans and whole grains. Limit red meat
and cut out processed meats. For healthy recipe ideas, visit our blog.
It is also important to limit alcohol consumption because alcohol can

increase your risk for liver, colorectal and breast cancers. If you
drink alcohol, have no more than two drinks a day if you are a man
or one drink a day if you are a woman.
MAINTAIN A HEALTHY WEIGHT AND BE PHYSICALLY
ACTIVE

Getting at least 30 minutes of physical activity each day can make a

big difference in your general health and well-being. Inactivity and
obesity have been linked to breast and colorectal cancer, and there is
also some evidence of a link to lung and pancreatic cancer. Add
exercise to your routine to reduce stress, increase energy, boost your
immune system, control your weight and reduce your risk for
cancer.

VACCINES GET IMMUNIZED (HPV & HEPATITIS)

Certain viruses have been linked to cancer, but are preventable

through vaccination. Talk to your health care professional about the
age recommendations for HPV vaccines. In the U.S., approximately
one-third of liver cancers are linked to the hepatitis B virus (HBV)
and hepatitis C virus (HCV). An HBV vaccination is available and is
recommended for babies, older children who were not vaccinated
earlier and adults who are at risk for HBV infection.

KNOW YOUR FAMILY MEDICAL HISTORY AND GET

REGULAR CANCER SCREENINGS

Talk to your health care professional about cancer screening. Some

tests can help detect cancer early, when treatment is more likely to
be successful, and some can also detect precancerous conditions
before they become cancer. While screening has been proven to save
lives, screening guidelines aren’t always “one size fits all.”
 Formation of cancer cell

Cancer cells are usually formed after a series of mutations cause

them to become increasingly abnormal. These mutations are either
inherited or more often, caused by carcinogens (cancer-causing
substances) in our environment. That cancer is caused by not one but
several mutations explains why cancer is more common in older
people and why it is often multifactorial (meaning there are several
factors that work together to cause cancer) in origin. It also helps
explain a genetic predisposition to cancer. A genetic predisposition
does not mean you will get cancer, but, simplistically, if a few
mutations are already in place, it will likely take fewer acquired
mutations for a cell to become cancerous.

The process of normal cells becoming cancer often goes through

stages in which the cell becomes progressively more abnormal
appearing. These stages may include hyperplasia, dysplasia, and
finally cancer. You may also hear this described as differentiation.
Early on a cell may look much like normal cells of that organ or
tissue, but as progression occurs, the cell becomes increasingly
undifferentiated. This is, in fact, why sometimes the original source
of cancer cannot be determined.

Treatment of cancer
There are many types of cancer treatment. The types of treatment
that you receive will depend on the type of cancer you have and how
advanced it is.

Some people with cancer will have only one treatment. But most
people have a combination of treatments, such as surgery with
chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy. When you need treatment
for cancer, you have a lot to learn and think about. It is normal to
feel overwhelmed and confused. But, talking with your doctor and
learning about the types of treatment you may have can help you
feel more in control. Our Questions to Ask Your Doctor About
reatment may help.
 Surgery. The goal of surgery is to remove the cancer or as
much of the cancer as possible.
 Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells.
 Radiation therapy. Radiation therapy uses high-powered
energy beams, such as X-rays or protons, to kill cancer cells.
Radiation treatment can come from a machine outside your
body (external beam radiation), or it can be placed inside your

body (brachytherapy).
 Bone marrow transplant. Your bone marrow is the material
inside your bones that makes blood cells from blood stem
cells. A bone marrow transplant, also knowns as a stem cell
transplant, can use your own bone marrow stem cells or those
from a donor.A bone marrow transplant allows your doctor to
use higher doses of chemotherapy to treat your cancer. It may
 also be used to replace diseased bone marrow

 Immunotherapy. Immunotherapy, also known as biological

therapy, uses your body's immune system to fight cancer. Cancer
can survive unchecked in your body because your immune
system doesn't recognize it as an intruder. Immunotherapy can
help your immune system "see" the cancer and attack it.

 Hormone therapy. Some types of cancer are fueled by your

body's hormones. Examples include breast cancer and prostate
cancer. Removing those hormones from the body or blocking
their effects may cause the cancer cells to stop growing.
 Targeted drug therapy. Targeted drug treatment focuses on
specific abnormalities within cancer cells that allow them to
survive.
 Cryoablation. This treatment kills cancer cells with cold.
During cryoablation, a thin, wandlike needle (cryoprobe) is
inserted through your skin and directly into the cancerous
 tumor. A gas is pumped into the cryoprobe in order to freeze
the tissue. Then the tissue is allowed to thaw. The freezing and
thawing process is repeated several times during the same
treatment session in order to kill the cancer cells.

Radiofrequency ablation. This treatment uses electrical energy to

heat cancer cells, causing them to die. During radiofrequency
ablation, a doctor guides a thin needle through the skin or through an
incision and into the cancer tissue.
 Bibliography
 www.wikipedia.com

 www.cancersearchuk.org

 www.mayoclinic.org

 www.who.int

 www.cancer.gov

 www.scribd.com