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 THE
HISTORY
OF RUSSIA
 ADVISORY BOARD

John T. Alexander
Professor of History and Russian and European Studies,
University of Kansas
Robert A. Divine
George W. Littlefield Professor in American History Emeritus,
University of Texas at Austin
John V. Lombardi
Professor of History,
University of Florida
 THE
HISTORY OF
RUSSIA
SECOND EDITION

CHARLES E. ZIEGLER

The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations

Frank W. Thackeray and John E. Findling, Series Editors

GREENWOOD PRESS
An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC
Copyright 2009 by Charles E. Ziegler

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without
prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ziegler, Charles E.
The history of Russia / Charles E. Ziegler.—2nd ed.
p. cm. — (The Greenwood histories of the modern nations)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-313-36307-8 (paper : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-313-36308-5
(ebook) 1. Russia—History. 2. Soviet Union—History. 3. Russia
( Federation)—History—1991- I. Title.
DK40.Z54 2009
947— dc22 2009028949

13 12 11 10 09 1 2 3 4 5

This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook.

Visit www.abc-clio.com for details.

ABC-CLIO, LLC
130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911
Santa Barbara, California 93116–1911

This book is printed on acid-free paper

Manufactured in the United States of America
To Janna and Alan
Map of Russia. [Cartography by Bookcomp, Inc.]
 Contents

Series Foreword ix

Preface xiii

Preface to the Second Edition xvii

Timeline of Historical Events xix

1 Russia and Its People 1

2 Kievan Russia and the Mongol Experience 9

3 Muscovite Russia, 1240–1613 21

4 Russia under the Romanovs: Empire

and Expansion, 1613–1855 33

5 Reform, Reaction, and Revolution, 1855–1921 51

6 Building Communism, 1921–1953 71

viii Contents

7 De-Stalinization and Developed Socialism, 1953–1985 95

8 Gorbachev, Perestroika, and the Collapse of Communism 123

9 Russia’s Search for Democracy: The Yeltsin Era 149

10 Return to Authoritarianism: Putin and Beyond 181

Notable People in the History of Russia 209

Glossary of Selected Terms 213

Bibliographic Essay 217

Index 225

A photo essay follows page 122

 Series Foreword

The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations series is intended to provide stu-
dents and interested laypeople with up-to-date, concise, and analytical his-
tories of many of the nations of the contemporary world. Not since the 1960s
has there been a systematic attempt to publish a series of national histories,
and as series advisors, we believe that this series will prove to be a valuable
contribution to our understanding of other countries in our increasingly inter-
dependent world.
Some 40 years ago, at the end of the 1960s, the Cold War was an accepted
reality of global politics. The process of decolonization was still in progress,
the idea of a unified Europe with a single currency was unheard of, the United
States was mired in a war in Vietnam, and the economic boom in Asia was
still years in the future. Richard Nixon was president of the United States,
Mao Tse-tung (not yet Mao Zedong) ruled China, Leonid Brezhnev guided the
Soviet Union, and Harold Wilson was prime minister of the United Kingdom.
Authoritarian dictators still controlled most of Latin America, the Middle East
was reeling in the wake of the Six-Day War, and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahl-
avi was at the height of his power in Iran.
Since then, the Cold War has ended, the Soviet Union has vanished, leaving
15 independent republics in its wake, the advent of the computer age has radi-
cally transformed global communications, the rising demand for oil makes
x Series Foreword

the Middle East still a dangerous flashpoint, and the rise of new economic
powers like the People’s Republic of China and India threatens to bring about
a new world order. All of these developments have had a dramatic impact on
the recent history of every nation of the world.
For this series, which was launched in 1998, we first selected nations whose
political, economic, and socio-cultural affairs marked them as among the most
important of our time. For each nation, we found an author who was rec-
ognized as a specialist in the history of that nation. These authors worked
cooperatively with us and with Greenwood Press to produce volumes that re-
flected current research on their nations and that are interesting and informa-
tive to their readers. In the first decade of the series, more than 40 volumes
were published, and as of 2008, some are moving into second editions.
The success of the series has encouraged us to broaden our scope to include
additional nations, whose histories have had significant effects on their regions,
if not on the entire world. In addition, geopolitical changes have elevated other
nations into positions of greater importance in world affairs and, so, we have
chosen to include them in this series as well. The importance of a series such
as this cannot be underestimated. As a superpower whose influence is felt all
over the world, the United States can claim a “special” relationship with al-
most every other nation. Yet many Americans know very little about the histo-
ries of nations with which the United States relates. How did they get to be the
way they are? What kind of political systems have evolved there? What kind of
influence do they have on their own regions? What are the dominant political,
religious, and cultural forces that move their leaders? These and many other
questions are answered in the volumes of this series. The authors who contrib-
ute to this series write comprehensive histories of their nations, dating back,
in some instances, to prehistoric times. Each of them, however, has devoted a
significant portion of their book to events of the past 40 years because the mod-
ern era has contributed the most to contemporary issues that have an impact
on U.S. policy. Authors make every effort to be as up-to-date as possible so that
readers can benefit from discussion and analysis of recent events.
In addition to the historical narrative, each volume contains an introductory
chapter giving an overview of that country’s geography, political institutions,
economic structure, and cultural attributes. This is meant to give readers a
snapshot of the nation as it exists in the contemporary world. Each history
also includes supplementary information following the narrative, which may
include a timeline that represents a succinct chronology of the nation’s histori-
cal evolution, biographical sketches of the nation’s most important historical
figures, and a glossary of important terms or concepts that are usually ex-
pressed in a foreign language. Finally, each author prepares a comprehensive
bibliography for readers who wish to pursue the subject further.
Series Foreword xi

Readers of these volumes will find them fascinating and well written. More
importantly, they will come away with a better understanding of the contem-
porary world and the nations that comprise it. As series advisors, we hope
that this series will contribute to a heightened sense of global understanding
as we move through the early years of the twenty-first century.

Frank W. Thackeray and John E. Findling

Indiana University Southeast
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

Russia is a very large country with a long and complex history. This book
provides a brief, accurate introduction to Russian, Soviet, and post-Soviet his-
tory in a readable format that will be of use to high school students, college
students, teachers, and nonspecialists. It includes major social, cultural, and
economic developments so that readers new to the subject will come away
with a good general understanding of this fascinating and troubled country.
For those who wish further reading, the bibliographic essay includes some of
the better known accessible works.
For those who grew up in the post–World War II United States, Russia (or
more accurately, the Soviet Union) was a constant source of fear and attention.
Secretive leaders in the Kremlin, the massive stone fortress in the heart of
Moscow, had sworn to spread communism across the globe. At any time they
might rain thousands of nuclear warheads on America. School children in the
1950s learned to “duck and cover”—to hide under their desks and put their
hands over their heads in the event of a nuclear attack. U.S. taxpayers spent
billions and then trillions of dollars on bombers, missiles, fighter aircraft, sub-
marines, aircraft carriers, troops, tanks, and the other war paraphernalia to de-
fend against the communist threat. Leftists and communist sympathizers were
hounded and persecuted by Senator Joseph McCarthy’s House Un-American
Activities Committee in the 1950s. The United States lost 58,000 men and rent
xiv Preface

itself apart trying to stop the spread of communism in Vietnam in the 1960s
and early 1970s. In the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan swept into office on a
strong anticommunist platform, pledging to build a space shield that would
provide a comprehensive missile defense for America.
Few experts or government officials expected the Soviet communist gov-
ernment to collapse in 1991. When it did, Americans were overjoyed, expect-
ing that once Russians had rejected dictatorship and socialist economics, they
would quickly learn the ways of democracy and market capitalism. Russians
likewise expected that within a few years they would be as affluent as the
West Europeans, Japanese, or Americans. After all, Russia was a highly edu-
cated nation with talented people and vast natural resources. Sadly, as the
20th century drew to a close, these expectations had still not been borne out.
Russia’s economy had shrunk nearly every year since 1991. The government
was deeply in debt, joblessness was rising, and crime was rampant. Russia
had managed to hold several rounds of relatively free presidential and par-
liamentary elections, but the country’s new democracy was still quite fragile.
Moreover, democratic Russia had had only one president, Boris Yeltsin, and
he was frequently sick and unable to govern.
Americans seem to have lost interest in Russia now that it is no longer com-
munist and seems to pose no threat to the United States or its allies. Russia,
however, is still a major nuclear power, and its leaders are determined that it
will be influential and respected around the world. And Russia may some day
extricate itself from the economic morass into which it has sunk. If that hap-
pens, Russia will indeed once again be a power to reckon with.
A brief note on transliteration and pronunciation: Russian names are written
in Cyrillic, and so must be transliterated into the Latin alphabet. This means
that occasionally the same word will be rendered by two different spellings:
for example, tsar and czar. In most cases, I have followed the Library of Con-
gress transliteration style used in the United States, with a few minor modifi-
cations for common usage (Trotsky instead of Trotskii). In Russian words and
names, unlike French, all the letters should be pronounced.
Readers should also be aware that until the 20th century, Russia followed
the old, Julian calendar abandoned by Europeans in 1582. The Julian calendar
was inaccurate, so in Russia dates were 12 days behind the modern Grego-
rian calendar in the 19th century and 13 days behind in the 20th century. The
Bolsheviks adopted the Gregorian calendar in February 1918, but the Russian
Orthodox Church still celebrates its holidays according to the older calendar.
Different dates for events in Russian history therefore are often referred to as
“Old Style” or “New Style,” depending on which calendar was in effect.
Chapter 8 draws in part from Charles E. Ziegler, “The Collapse of the Soviet
Union, 1985–1991: Interpretive Essay,” in Events That Changed the World in the
Preface xv

Twentieth Century, edited by Frank W. Thackeray and John E. Findling (West-

port, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995).
I would like to thank Bruce Adams of the History Department at the Uni-
versity of Louisville for his helpful comments on various chapters. Frank
Thackeray, one of the series’ general editors, also gave me useful feedback
on the manuscript. I am grateful to Dianne O’Regan for compiling the index
and to Justine Ziegler who helped with the proofreading. My greatest debt of
gratitude, however, is to my wife Janna Tajibaeva, whose many insights and
suggestions from her years inside the Soviet Union made the book much bet-
ter. Her tolerance and encouragement are deeply appreciated, and it is to her
that I dedicate this book.
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface to the Second Edition

When this book went to press in 1999, Russia was still struggling with the
transition from communist dictatorship toward a new political and economic
order. The 1990s had been a period of political anarchy, with President Boris
Yeltsin presiding over the dismantling of the planned economy, and newly
rich oligarchs amassing huge fortunes from the privatization of government-
owned assets. The country was not a stable democracy, but at least elections
were held on schedule, dozens of political parties competed for votes, the
media were relatively free to criticize government officials, and Russians were
free to travel and worship as they wished.
Yet many believed the costs of political and economic liberalization were
too high. More than a third of Russians were living in poverty, crime had
soared, disease and alcoholism had contributed to a gradual decline in popu-
lation, and the nation seemed to be going through a spiritual crisis. Russia was
no longer a respected world power; instead, the Americans and Europeans
ignored Russian national interests and humiliated the nation, while China’s
rise in the east presented a long-term threat.
Vladimir Putin’s popularity can only be fully understood within this
context. His eight years as president saw record economic growth, the sta-
bilization of everyday life, and the restoration of Russia as a powerful state
respected on the world stage. Much of this success had little to do with Putin’s
xviii Preface to the Second Edition

governance (the country’s economic performance was due mostly to record

high oil and gas prices, for example), but Putin did restore order in Russia,
largely through authoritarian measures that eroded the country’s chances for
developing into a working democracy. He leveraged Russia’s natural resource
wealth into considerable foreign policy influence, at least along the periphery,
if not globally. And Putin made Russians proud of their country once again.
But Russian nationalism resurgent had a dark side, too, in the form of belli-
cose anti-American rhetoric and skinhead attacks on foreigners.
Chapter 10 takes the reader through the Putin era and into early 2009. I
have also updated the list of notable people, the glossary of terms, and the
bibliographic essay, and have added a list of Web sites for those interested in
keeping current with Russian politics. Once again, I would like to thank Frank
Thackeray for his support and his helpful comments on revising the manu-
script. Special thanks, and the dedication, go to Janna Tajibaeva and Alan Taj
Ziegler.
 Timeline of Historical Events

1000–700 b.c. Cimmerians rule southern Russia

700–200 b.c. Scythians occupy southern Russia
200 b.c.–a.d. 200 Sarmatians rule southern Russia, region had close links
to Greek world
200–370 Goths control Russian steppe
370–453 Rule of Huns
fifth–ninth centuries Various Turkic peoples inhabit southern Russia
862 Riurik of Varangians (Scandinavian tribe) establishes
Riurikid dynasty
980–1015 Vladimir, Grand Prince of Kiev
988 Official conversion of Kievan Rus to Orthodox
Christianity
1132–1136 Emergence of Novgorod city-state
1147 First mention of Moscow in the chronicles
1237–1240 Mongol conquest of Russian lands
xx Timeline of Historical Events

1242 Aleksandr Nevskii defeats Teutonic Knights

1327–1341 Ivan I (Moneybag), Grand Prince of Moscow
1337 Holy Trinity–Saint Sergius Monastery founded
1367 Stone fortress (kreml) constructed in Moscow
1462–1505 Ivan III, Grand Prince of Moscow
1478 Moscow annexes Novgorod
1547–1584 Ivan IV (The Terrible), tsar of Russia
1552 Conquest of Kazan; construction of St. Basil’s Cathedral
in Moscow
1582 Ermak’s conquest of western Siberia
1584–1613 Time of Troubles
1613 Mikhail Romanov elected tsar (1613–1645); start of
Romanov dynasty
1645–1676 Reign of Tsar Alexis
1649 Adoption of Law Code (Ulozhenie)
1653–1667 Orthodox Church reforms lead to schism
1667–1671 Rebellion under Stenka Razin
1682–1725 Reign of Peter I (The Great), tsar of Russia
1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk between Russia and China
1700–1721 Sweden and Russia fight Northern War
1703 St. Petersburg founded as Peter’s “Window on the
West”
1709 Russian victory over Swedes at Poltava
1714 Establishment of Naval Academy in St. Petersburg
1722 Establishment of Table of Ranks
1736–1739 Russo-Turkish War
1741–1761 Reign of Tsarina Elizabeth
1755 Establishment of Moscow University
1762–1796 Reign of Catherine II (The Great)
Timeline of Historical Events xxi

1768–1774 Russo-Turkish War

1773–1775 Pugachev Rebellion
1781–1786 Ukraine absorbed into the Russian Empire
1787–1792 Russo-Turkish War
1793–1795 Second and Third Partitions of Poland
1796–1801 Reign of Paul
1801–1825 Reign of Aleksandr I
1801 Annexation of Georgia by Russia
1807–1811 Mikhail Speransky’s reforms
1812 Napoleon’s invasion of Russia
1819 St. Petersburg University established
1825 Revolt and suppression of the Decembrists
1825–1855 Reign of Nicholas I
1830–1831 Polish Rebellion
1842–1851 Construction of St. Petersburg-Moscow railway, the
first rail line in Russia
1853–1856 Crimean War
1855–1881 Reign of Aleksandr II, the “Tsar Liberator”
1861 Emancipation Manifesto frees serfs
1864 Zemstvo (local government), legal, and education
reforms
1865–1885 Conquest of Central Asian regions, absorption into
Russian empire
1872 Publication of Karl Marx’s Das Kapital in Russian
1877–1878 Russo-Turkish War
1881 People’s Will assassinates Aleksandr II in St. Petersburg
1881–1894 Reign of Aleksandr III
1891–1892 Famine in Russia
1891–1904 Construction of Trans-Siberian railway
xxii Timeline of Historical Events

1894–1917 Reign of Nicholas II

1898 Founding of Russian Social Democratic Labor Party
(RSDLP)
1902 Vladimir Lenin publishes What Is to Be Done?
1903 RSDLP splits into Bolshevik and Menshevik factions at
second congress
1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War
1905–1907 Bloody Sunday massacre leads to Revolution of 1905;
Duma created
1911 Assassination of Prime Minister Peter Stolypin
1914–1918 World War I
1916 Murder of Gregory Rasputin, confidant of the Royal
Family
1917 February Revolution; abdication of Nicholas; rule by
Provisional Government; Bolshevik coup in October
1918–1921 Civil War pits Reds against Whites; tsar and family
killed at Ekaterinburg
1920 War with Poland
1921 Tenth Party Congress; ban on Party factions
1921–1928 New Economic Policy (NEP)
1922 Joseph Stalin appointed General Secretary of Commu-
nist Party
1922 Union Treaty creates Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
1924 Death of Vladimir Lenin
1928 Start of Five-Year Plans
1929 Stalin defeats the “Right Opposition,” consolidates his
power
1929–1939 Collectivization of agriculture
1932–1933 7.5 million die from famine
1934 Assassination of Leningrad Party Secretary Sergei
Kirov
1936 Promulgation of Stalin Constitution
Timeline of Historical Events xxiii

1936–1938 Show trials, purges

1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Non-Aggression Pact
1940 USSR annexes Baltic states
1941–1945 Great Fatherland War (World War II)
1945–1948 Communist parties consolidate control of Eastern
Europe
1946–1948 Zhdanovshchina, cultural repression and isolation
1949 Victory of communists under Mao Zedong in China
1949 Formation of Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
1950 Mao visits Moscow; Sino-Soviet Treaty signed; out-
break of Korean War
1953 Death of Joseph Stalin; Nikita Khrushchev becomes
General Secretary
1955 Formation of Warsaw Pact military alliance
1956 Twentieth Party Congress; Khrushchev’s
De-Stalinization speech
1956–1962 The Thaw (period of cultural relaxation)
1956 Soviet troops crush Hungarian Revolution
1957 Anti-Party Group tries to oust Khrushchev and fails
1957 Soviet Union launches first spacecraft, Sputnik
1957 Creation of regional economic councils (sovnarkhozy)
1958 Boris Pasternak awarded Nobel Prize for Dr. Zhivago
1959 Sino-Soviet split becomes public
1961 Construction of Berlin Wall
1962 Publication of Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn’s One Day in the
Life of Ivan Denisovich in Novyi Mir
1962 Cuban Missile Crisis
1964 Khrushchev deposed; Leonid Brezhnev becomes Party
General Secretary; Alexei Kosygin becomes Premier
1965–1968 Kosygin economic reforms
1966 Trial of dissidents Iulii Daniel and Andrei Siniavsky
xxiv Timeline of Historical Events

1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia

1969 USSR and China exchange fire along Sino-Soviet
border
1972 Beginning of détente: SALT I and ABM Treaties, U.S.-
Soviet summitry
1975 Physicist Andrei Sakharov awarded Nobel Peace Prize
1977 Promulgation of Brezhnev Constitution
1979 SALT II Treaty
1979 Soviet troops invade Afghanistan
1980–1981 Solidarity labor movement in Poland
1982 Brezhnev dies; Iurii Andropov becomes General
Secretary
1984 Andropov dies; Konstantin Chernenko becomes
General Secretary
1985 Chernenko dies; Mikhail Gorbachev becomes General
Secretary
1986 Explosion at Chernobyl nuclear reactor in Ukraine
1986 Nationalist demonstrations in Alma Ata, Kazakhstan
1987 Gorbachev begins economic reforms; political liberali-
zation accelerates
1988 Nineteenth Party Conference discusses reform
1989 Elections to Congress of People’s Deputies; Soviet with-
drawal from Afghanistan; Eastern Europeans abandon
communism; fall of Berlin Wall; conflict between Arme-
nia and Azerbaijan over Karabagh; Gorbachev repairs
Sino-Soviet relations
1990 Elections to Russian Congress of People’s Deputies;
Gorbachev elected President of USSR; Conventional
Forces treaty in Europe
1991 Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze resigns, warn-
ing of coup d’état; Boris Yeltsin elected President of
Russia; conservatives attempt coup d’état in August;
dissolution of USSR and formation of Commonwealth
of Independent States (CIS)
Timeline of Historical Events xxv

1992 “Shock therapy” economic reforms adopted; Yeltsin

rules by decree; new Union Treaty adopted; Viktor
Chernomyrdin appointed Prime Minister

1993 National referendum of President and Parliament;

Yeltsin dissolves Parliament and shells the White
House; new Constitution approved in referendum;
START II Treaty signed with United States

1994 Troops sent into republic of Chechnya

1995 December parliamentary elections; Communists are the

largest party

1996 Yeltsin wins two rounds of presidential elections; Yevg-

eny Primakov appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs;
Alexander Lebed negotiates cease-fire in Chechnya;
Yeltsin undergoes heart surgery

1998 Collapse of ruble; Primakov appointed Prime Minister

1999 Russia critical of NATO air strikes against Serbia;

Yeltsin appoints Vladimir Putin prime minister; second
war in Chechnya begins; Duma institutes impeachment
proceedings against Yeltsin; December parliamentary
elections; Yeltsin resigns

2000 Putin elected President; Kursk submarine sinks.

2001 Putin pledges support for United States in war against

terror

2002 Chechen militants take hostages in Dubrovka Theater

2003 Mikhail Khodorkovsky arrested; December Duma elec-

tions

2004 Putin wins re-election as President; Chechen militants

take hostages at Beslan school in North Ossetia, Putin
ends election of governors

2005 Mass protests over monetization of social benefits;

Shanghai Cooperation Organization calls for with-
drawal of U.S. troops from Central Asia

2007 Putin condemns United States at Munich security

forum; United Russia wins control of Duma in Decem-
ber elections
xxvi Timeline of Historical Events

2008 Putin’s designated successor, Dmitrii Medvedev,

elected President; Medvedev appoints Putin as prime
minister; collapse of oil prices weakens Russian econ-
omy
2009 Russian government draws down oil fund to support
heavily indebted banks and corporations
 1
Russia and Its People

Russia is a huge, complex, and extraordinarily interesting place. Straddling

Europe and Asia, it is neither European nor Asian in outlook and culture. Al-
though Russia, as the Soviet Union, shared the superpower spotlight with the
United States throughout much of the 20th century, it is also very different
from America. Russians today are struggling with their sense of identity, a
conflict that has characterized the past three centuries of Russian history. Rus-
sia is no longer an imperial power, as it had been since the time of Peter the
Great, though some have described Putin’s Russia as neo-imperialist. Russia
is no longer communist, as it was from 1918 to 1991. Russia is no longer an
absolutist dictatorship, as it was under the tsars and the communists, but it is
not yet fully democratic, either. What, then, is Russia?
Physically, the Russian Federation is the largest country in the world, even
after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. It occupies about 6.6 million
square miles of territory, and is nearly twice the size of the United States. From
east to west, the country stretches over 5,000 miles and occupies 11 time zones.
Cities in the Russian Far East, such as Khabarovsk and Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk,
are closer to San Francisco than they are to Moscow. Russia has a long coast-
line on the Pacific, but there are few ports and only a small population in this
vast region. In the north, Russia borders the Arctic Ocean; on the south, China,
2 The History of Russia

Mongolia, and Kazakhstan form its boundaries. To the west, the former Baltic
republics (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia), Ukraine, and Belarus separate Russia
from the rest of Europe. Russia relinquished much of its access to the Black
Sea via Ukraine after the breakup of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR). The fragmentation of the Soviet Union has left Russia more geograph-
ically isolated, smaller, and somewhat more landlocked.
The former Soviet Union had a population of nearly 290 million, and was
the third-largest country in the world. Today, the Russian Federation’s popu-
lation is just under 141 million (and declining), making it the ninth-largest
nation in the world, after China, India, the United States, Indonesia, Brazil,
Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nigeria (which although it has not conducted a
census in 40 years, likely has a larger population than Russia). Over 80 percent
of Russia’s population is concentrated in the western quarter of the country;
less than 25 million live in the vast expanses of Siberia and the Russian Far
East. As one might expect, most of the roads, railways, and air routes are con-
centrated in the populous areas of western Russia. Siberia is extremely rich
in natural resources—oil, natural gas, gold, diamonds, furs, and timber—but
much of this wealth is virtually inaccessible or very costly to extract due to the
country’s weak transportation system.
Today, Russia is more ethnically homogeneous than imperial Russia and
the former Soviet Union. Just before its collapse, the Soviet Union’s popula-
tion was barely 51 percent ethnic Russian, whereas the Russian Federation
is about 82 percent Russian. The next-largest group is the Tatars, a Moslem
Turkic people concentrated along the Volga some 400 miles east of Moscow.
Tatars are the descendants of the Mongols, who conquered the Russian lands
in the 13th century. They comprise just under 4 percent of Russia’s population.
Ukrainians, the Russians’ Slavic cousins, make up another 3 percent of the
population. A mix of Turkic and Caucasian peoples, together with Germans,
Jews, Belorussians, and small Siberian tribes, make up the remaining 12 per-
cent. On the whole, relations among the various ethnic groups are good, but
there are sporadic outbursts of violence against non-Russians. Chechens are
resented for their armed resistance to Russian rule, terrorist acts, and pur-
ported mafia connections. Under President Vladimir Putin, nationalist thugs
often assaulted migrant workers from the Caucasus region, Central Asia, and
China. The living conditions of the Siberian peoples are much like those en-
countered by Native Americans in the early United States, and they suffer
from the same maladies—unemployment, marginalization, and alcoholism.
Russia as a whole lies much further north than the United States; in this
sense, it is more comparable to Canada. Although Russia has an abundance of
fertile agricultural land, its northern position results in short growing seasons
and cold weather; consequently, many crops do not fare well. Some of the best
cropland was located in Ukraine and Kazakhstan, areas that were lost after
Russia and Its People 3

the Soviet Union dissolved. Typical Russian crops include winter wheat, rye,
sugar beets, and potatoes. Soviet policies severely damaged agriculture, and
this sector of the economy has not recovered in the post-communist period. In
2008, imports constituted nearly half of all food consumed in Russia.
Much of Russia is flat, and the absence of natural barriers is often said to ac-
count for the historical Russian preoccupation with secure borders. The Ural
Mountains, running north to south, separate European Russia from Siberia
and the Far East. The Urals are geologically old and not very high—they might
be compared to the Appalachian Mountains in the United States. West of the
Urals is the large European Russian plain. Directly eastward is the central
Siberian plain, followed by the higher Siberian plateau. Much of this area is
covered with forest; bear, elk, and deer are common, and a few Siberian tigers
have survived. The northern section of Russia is comprised of the ecologi-
cally fragile arctic tundra. A large area of northern Russia is permafrost—the
ground a few meters below earth is perpetually frozen. During the summer,
the top layer becomes swampy, making construction difficult and costly, and
causing buildings to sway drunkenly. Russia’s huge land mass causes its cli-
mate to vary. Some areas of the south can be quite hot in the summer, while
north-central Russia is brutally cold in the winter. Temperatures in Moscow
often drop to -40° Fahrenheit; in the Siberian town of Verkhoyansk, tempera-
tures can reach -90°!
The Russian Far East is ruggedly mountainous, and there are active vol-
canoes and hot springs on the Kamchatka peninsula. Russian geography is
also distinguished by the huge rivers that flow northward, emptying into the
Arctic Ocean—the Lena, Ob, and Enesei. The mighty Volga meanders through
much of western Russia, and in the Far East, the Amur River forms a long
stretch of the Russo-Chinese border. Traditionally, Russian rivers have pro-
vided a wealth of fish, including the huge sturgeon (some of which grow to
be 2,000 pounds), which yields the world’s best caviar. Sadly, pollution has
ruined much of the Russian fishing industry. Russia is also home to many
inland lakes and seas, including the magnificent Lake Baikal, the largest body
of fresh water in the world. During the Soviet era, courageous writers and in-
tellectuals lobbied hard against cellulose plants operating on Baikal’s shores,
managing to spare the “blue heart of Siberia” from serious ecological dam-
age.
Overall, Russia is an urban nation, with about 70 percent of its population
living in cities. Moscow, the capital, is the largest and most dynamic city, with
a population of 9 million. Close to three-fourths of Western investment has
been concentrated in the capital alone, and it shows. A drab and boring place
in Soviet times, Moscow now boasts exotic restaurants and nightclubs, posh
(and exorbitantly expensive) hotels, refurbished roads, traffic jams, and a bus-
tling economy. Mayor Yurii Luzhkov—whose wife is Russia’s richest woman,
Exploring the Variety of Random
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O'BRIEN (GLEN) MOVABLE PARTITION CO., INC. Quick-check
success square. WRIGHT, GENEVRA. Quick-crédit 16an application.
FIRST NATIONAL BANK, ALLENTOWN, PA. Quick cuisine, UDELSON,
JANET. Quick guide to Cushman power chuck selection and
installation. CUSHMAN INDUSTRIES, INC. Quick introduction to basic
electronics. RODRIGUEZ, SALVADORE T. Quick-key all purpose loan
application. FIRST JERSEY NATIONAL BANK, JERSEY CITY. Quick
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 1971 Quick reference guide to Marco-Oak light~ed
pushbutton switches and indicator lights. MARCO-OAK INDUSTRIES,
INC. Quick saver book. SPERRY & HUTCHINSON CO. Quick start
piano method. WHITE, VESTA, Quick trials quell crime and
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JEAN RAY. Quiney (Gadsden County, Florida) city directory, 1971.
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conference transactions, 1971. ROCHESTER SOCIETY FOR QUALITY
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belief, and perceived social pressure as determinants of interpersonal
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NATHAN. Race riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919. TUTTLE,
WILLIAM M., JR. Racer's Edge: Andy Granatelli and the STP
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attitudes of American Presidents: from Abraham Lincoln to Theodore
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RISHER, HOWARD W., JR. Racial thought in America. RUCHAMES,
LOUIS. Racing and performance parts. TRW, INC. Racing-cruiser.
HENDERSON, RICHARD. Racing, farm, corporate and stable names.
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INC. Racketeers. HIRSCH, PHIL, ed. Radar handbook. SKOLNIK,
MERRILL I., ed. Radar systems. GENERAL MOTORS CORP. AC
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 2004 Radiation bio¢hémistry. ALTMAN, KURT I. Radiation
monitor, model RM-16. EBERLINE INSTRUMENT CORP. Radiation
therapy. THE YEAR BOOK OF RADIOLOGY, 1971. Radiational
realization. AMERICAN UNIVERSALIST TEMPLE OF DIVINE WISDOM,
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JACQUES. Radical chic. BUCKLEY, WILLIAM F., JR. Radical man.
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Radical voices in the wilderness. SANDERS, ROBERT N. Radicalism in
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J., ed. Radio amateur's handbook. AMERICAN RADIO RELAY
LEAGUE, INC. Radio amateur's library, publication no.6. AMERICAN
RADIO RELAY LAEGUE, INC. Radio and communications and civil air
regulations, provisional form A. DRAKE, R. H. (R) Radio and
television publicity. CASSIDY, ABIGAIL S. B. Radio astronomy,
instruments and observations. SKOBEL'TSYN, D. V., ed. Radio control
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DIVISION. Radio repair. HERTZBERG, ROBERT. Radio self
instructional course. MATSUSHITA ELECTRIC CORP. OF AMERICA,
INC. Radio spectrum handbook. MOORE, JAMES M. Radio—television
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Radiography of infants and children. DARLING, DONALD B.
Radiologic atlas of pulmonary abnormalities in children. SINGLETON,
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G. Radiologie en France, 1896-1904. PIZON, PIERRE. Radiologische
Diagnostik und Therapie bei malignen Tumoren im Becken.
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Radiology of the temporal bone. OTOLARYNGOLOGY. Radionuclides
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TE-CHAO. Raft fishermen: tradition & change in the Brazilian
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 1971 Raising the African nightcrawler or tropical giant
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McNally guide to archeological sites and museums. FOLSOM,
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Random functions and turbulence. PANCHEV, S. Random House book
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PATTON, A. RAE. Random walk with a drift arising from a learning
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RAYMOND. Rapid calculation of installment interest deduction.
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GRABER, CHARLES D., ed. Rapid grades and averages. CWIRKA,
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Rapid transit Boston. CLARKE, BRADLEY H. Raport: General Electric
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ZUZIAK, WALTER J. Rarely told Bible stories for bigger children.
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CHAIM. Raspberry picker. ESSLIN, MARTIN. Rasprostranenie
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ketenimines. WEST, JOSEPH RAYMOND. Reactions of trans-
dichlorobis (ethy1enediamine)-cobalt(III) chloride with ammoniacal
methanol. OPHARDT, CHARLES ERNEST. Reactions of xenon
difluoride with aromatic compounds. SHAW, MICHAEL JOSEPH.
Reactions to your job questionnaire. ADMINISTRATION OF THE
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FORTSCHRITTE DER CHEMISCHEN FORSCHUNG. Read-ability books
for junior and senior high school students. CRAMER, WARD. Read
about the parkman. KLAGSBRUN, FRANCINE. Read along-read
alone. SCOTT FORESMAN READING SYSTEMS. Read-along tales.
IMPERIAL INTERNATIONAL LEARNING CORP. Read and color
dictionary. CATER, ELIZABETH. READ system. DAYS AND WAYS.
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WIDE. IDEAS AND IMAGES. JOYS AND JOURNEYS. KINGS AND
THINGS. Read-write-spell with Mother Goose. JACOBSON, JOAN.
Readability calculator. YARNELL, EDWARD A. Reader for writers: a
critical anthology of prose readings. ARCHER, JEROME W. Reader in
library services and the computer. KAPLAN, LOUIS, ed. Reader's
digest almanac. ALMANAQUE DE SELECOES, 1971. Reader's digest
condensed books. BEST SELLERS FROM READER'S DIGEST
CONDENSED BOOKS. Reader's digest guidelines. THE READER'S
DIGEST. Reader's digest story world. READER'S DIGEST SERVICES,
INC. Reader's digest teaching guide. THE READER'S DIGEST. Jan—
June _ Reader's eye-view of the war. MCGINLEY, PHILLIS. (R)
Reader's introduction to the New Testament. LEITCH, ADDISON H.
Readi-Stain kits, instructions. CAROLINA BIOLOGICAL SUPPLY CO.
Readiness: education for achievement and development (a multi-
sensory readiness program) . RIDGEFIELD, CONN. BOARD OF
EDUCATION. Readiness for religion. MOREHOUSE-BARLOW CO.,
INC. Reading. BAKER, WILLIAM D. CAMBRIDGE BOOK CO., INC.
GOODMAN, KENNETH S. LEARNING SYSTEMS CORP. MCNAMARA,
RITA S., ed. ZWEIG (RICHARD L.) & ASSOCIATES, INC. Reading
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problems. BELL & HOWELL SCHOOLS, INC., CHICAGO. Receptionist
and related positions. WONDERLIC (E. F.) & ASSOCIATES, INC.
Rechenschaft unserer Religion, Lehr und Glaubens, von den
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conception technique. REYNE, MAURICE. Recherche d'une
thematique dans le theatre de Salacrou.. DI FRANCO, FIORENZA.
Recherche pedagogique dans une classe de perfectionnement.
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Recommendations for teaching welding. HOBART SCHOOL OF
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adjusters, 1971. BEST'S RECOMMENDED INSURANCE ADJUSTERS,
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AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE. SION OF REFINING.
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ideal and the real in Browning's poetry. LUEDECKE, MARGARET ANN
MILLER. Reconciliation through Christ. BAPTIST WORLD CONGRESS,
12TH, TOKYO, 1970. Reconquete de l'espoir. GARAUDY, ROGER.
Reconstructed program of teacher education. BROWN, GORDON
LESLIE. Reconstruction. SIMPSON, RONALD. Reconstruction:
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Reconstruction in creativity. GIAO-HUY-NGUYEN. Record number: of
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MERVIN D. Record of deductions for your income tax return.
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Records of dramatic activity in medieval York: a translated collection.
HOY, JAMES FRANKLIN. Records of medieval Europe. ERICKSON,
CAROLLY. Recovery of structure in public administration.
FREDERICKSON, H. GEORGE. Recovery of the historical Paul.
HAWKINS, ROBERT MARTYR. (R) Recreation fitness program.
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Redundant strapdown inertial system mechanization—SIRU.
GILMORE, JEROLD P. Redwood Controversy. EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH COUNCIL OF AMERICA. Reef. BOWE, AUGUSTINE. (R)
WHARTON, EDITH. Re-evaluation of H. H. Price's theory of
perception. JANNUSCH, BRUCE A. Reference and translation: an
examination of Quine's thesis of the indeterminacy of translation.
BECKER, EDWARD FRANCIS. Reference beam attenuator:
MCCARTHY SCIENTIFIC CO. Reference book. DUN & BRADSTREET,
INC. DUN & BRADSTREET REFERENCE BOOK OF CORPORATE
MANAGEMENTS, 1971-1972. DUN & BRADSTREET REFERENCE
BOOK OF MANUFACTURERS, SPRING 1971. DUN & BRADSTREET
REFERENCE BOOK OF TRANSPORTATION. RCA CORP. instructions.
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book of member department personnel and committees, 1971.
AMERICAN ASSN. OF STATE HIGHWAY OFFICIALS. Reference card.
ON-LINE DECISIONS, INC. Reference catalog D. JENNESS (DON G.)
CO., INC. Reference collection shelved in the Reading Room and
Acquisitions Department. HARVARD UNIVERSITY. LIBRARY.
Reference function of the library. BUTLER, PIERCE, ed. (R) Reference
guide of quinine ahd quinine-like compounds. SOHN, DAVID.
Reference guide to English studies. BOND, DONALD F., comp.
Reference guide to film information. LIMBACHER, JAMES L.
Reference guide to the XXX language. CAINE, STEPHEN H.
Reference information for sales representatives. BURROUGHS CORP.
keference material for young people. LOCK, MURIEL. Reference
materials and periodicals in economics: an international list in five
volumes. FUNDABURK, EMMA LILA. Reference reading to find out.
TANYZER, HAROLD J. Reference shelf. DAVIS, KENNETH S., ed.
HOEPLI, NANCY L., ed. Reference survey report. PERSONNEL
PREDICTIONS & RESEARCH, INC. Reference systems and inertia.
CLOTFELTER, BERYL E. Réeférences to Voltaire and Rousseau in the
manuscript journal (1750-1769) of Joseph D'Hemery. ROGERS,
ADRIENNE GITTLESON. Jan—June _ Referential opacity. REEVES,
ALAN LESLIE. Referring counselees to specialists. HULSLANDER,
STEWART C. Reflection of love in your wedding flowers. HENRY
(JOHN) CO. Reflection, on a summer's night. ROSSI, CAROLYN.
Reflection/perception. GENTHE, CHARLES V., ed. Reflection
properties of waves in rotating, stratified fluids. YANG, CHUN-
CHUAN. Reflections. DOW, ALDEN B. LEHMAN, EARL W., JR.
MCCLARY, OLIVE. Reflections and moods. HALL, BLAINE R.
Reflections of a rubber planter. KLIPPERT, W. E. Reflections of a
student. KINNEY, ADRIAN DELANO. Reflections of thought. MILLER,
TINA JO. Reflections on foster care. STONE, HELEN D. Reflections on
liberty. COLE, WILLIAM S., JR. Reflections on revolution. RIEPE,
DALE. Reflections on silence and eternity. TAMBLYN, HAL GORDON.
Reflections on the changes in international trade. LONG, OLIVIER.
Reflections on the Nigerian Civil War. UWECHUE, RAPH. Reflexions
sur les lesions traumatiques des nerfs. FRANCO DE MEDINACELI,
LUIS. Refocus. PACIFIC NORTHWEST CONFERENCE ON HIGHER
EDUCATION, 32D, COLLEGE OF GREAT FALLS, MONTANA, 1970.
Reform and rebellion in Afghanistan, 1919-1929. POULLADA, LEON
B. Reform essentials of Luther and Calvin: a source collection.
STRAND, KENNETH A. Reform in reverse. MANION FORUM. Reform
of urban schools. FANTINI, MARIO D. Reformat a program file to a
data file, Gotodata. SERVICE BUREAU CORP. Reformation of the
holy. HARGROVE, BARBARA W. Reformation of the sixteenth century.
COWIE, LEONARD W. Reformatory schools for the children of the
perishing and dangerous classes and for juvenile offenders.
CARPENTER, MARY. Reformers-and the American Indian. MARDOCK,
ROBERT WINSTON. Reformers in the wings. STEINMETZ, DAVID C.
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