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 THE
HISTORY
OF RUSSIA
 ADVISORY BOARD

John T. Alexander
Professor of History and Russian and European Studies,
University of Kansas
Robert A. Divine
George W. Littlefield Professor in American History Emeritus,
University of Texas at Austin
John V. Lombardi
Professor of History,
University of Florida
 THE
HISTORY OF
RUSSIA
SECOND EDITION

CHARLES E. ZIEGLER

The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations

Frank W. Thackeray and John E. Findling, Series Editors

GREENWOOD PRESS
An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC
Copyright 2009 by Charles E. Ziegler

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without
prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ziegler, Charles E.
The history of Russia / Charles E. Ziegler.—2nd ed.
p. cm. — (The Greenwood histories of the modern nations)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-313-36307-8 (paper : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-0-313-36308-5
(ebook) 1. Russia—History. 2. Soviet Union—History. 3. Russia
( Federation)—History—1991- I. Title.
DK40.Z54 2009
947— dc22 2009028949

13 12 11 10 09 1 2 3 4 5

This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook.

Visit www.abc-clio.com for details.

ABC-CLIO, LLC
130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911
Santa Barbara, California 93116–1911

This book is printed on acid-free paper

Manufactured in the United States of America
To Janna and Alan
Map of Russia. [Cartography by Bookcomp, Inc.]
 Contents

Series Foreword ix

Preface xiii

Preface to the Second Edition xvii

Timeline of Historical Events xix

1 Russia and Its People 1

2 Kievan Russia and the Mongol Experience 9

3 Muscovite Russia, 1240–1613 21

4 Russia under the Romanovs: Empire

and Expansion, 1613–1855 33

5 Reform, Reaction, and Revolution, 1855–1921 51

6 Building Communism, 1921–1953 71

viii Contents

7 De-Stalinization and Developed Socialism, 1953–1985 95

8 Gorbachev, Perestroika, and the Collapse of Communism 123

9 Russia’s Search for Democracy: The Yeltsin Era 149

10 Return to Authoritarianism: Putin and Beyond 181

Notable People in the History of Russia 209

Glossary of Selected Terms 213

Bibliographic Essay 217

Index 225

A photo essay follows page 122

 Series Foreword

The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations series is intended to provide stu-
dents and interested laypeople with up-to-date, concise, and analytical his-
tories of many of the nations of the contemporary world. Not since the 1960s
has there been a systematic attempt to publish a series of national histories,
and as series advisors, we believe that this series will prove to be a valuable
contribution to our understanding of other countries in our increasingly inter-
dependent world.
Some 40 years ago, at the end of the 1960s, the Cold War was an accepted
reality of global politics. The process of decolonization was still in progress,
the idea of a unified Europe with a single currency was unheard of, the United
States was mired in a war in Vietnam, and the economic boom in Asia was
still years in the future. Richard Nixon was president of the United States,
Mao Tse-tung (not yet Mao Zedong) ruled China, Leonid Brezhnev guided the
Soviet Union, and Harold Wilson was prime minister of the United Kingdom.
Authoritarian dictators still controlled most of Latin America, the Middle East
was reeling in the wake of the Six-Day War, and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahl-
avi was at the height of his power in Iran.
Since then, the Cold War has ended, the Soviet Union has vanished, leaving
15 independent republics in its wake, the advent of the computer age has radi-
cally transformed global communications, the rising demand for oil makes
x Series Foreword

the Middle East still a dangerous flashpoint, and the rise of new economic
powers like the People’s Republic of China and India threatens to bring about
a new world order. All of these developments have had a dramatic impact on
the recent history of every nation of the world.
For this series, which was launched in 1998, we first selected nations whose
political, economic, and socio-cultural affairs marked them as among the most
important of our time. For each nation, we found an author who was rec-
ognized as a specialist in the history of that nation. These authors worked
cooperatively with us and with Greenwood Press to produce volumes that re-
flected current research on their nations and that are interesting and informa-
tive to their readers. In the first decade of the series, more than 40 volumes
were published, and as of 2008, some are moving into second editions.
The success of the series has encouraged us to broaden our scope to include
additional nations, whose histories have had significant effects on their regions,
if not on the entire world. In addition, geopolitical changes have elevated other
nations into positions of greater importance in world affairs and, so, we have
chosen to include them in this series as well. The importance of a series such
as this cannot be underestimated. As a superpower whose influence is felt all
over the world, the United States can claim a “special” relationship with al-
most every other nation. Yet many Americans know very little about the histo-
ries of nations with which the United States relates. How did they get to be the
way they are? What kind of political systems have evolved there? What kind of
influence do they have on their own regions? What are the dominant political,
religious, and cultural forces that move their leaders? These and many other
questions are answered in the volumes of this series. The authors who contrib-
ute to this series write comprehensive histories of their nations, dating back,
in some instances, to prehistoric times. Each of them, however, has devoted a
significant portion of their book to events of the past 40 years because the mod-
ern era has contributed the most to contemporary issues that have an impact
on U.S. policy. Authors make every effort to be as up-to-date as possible so that
readers can benefit from discussion and analysis of recent events.
In addition to the historical narrative, each volume contains an introductory
chapter giving an overview of that country’s geography, political institutions,
economic structure, and cultural attributes. This is meant to give readers a
snapshot of the nation as it exists in the contemporary world. Each history
also includes supplementary information following the narrative, which may
include a timeline that represents a succinct chronology of the nation’s histori-
cal evolution, biographical sketches of the nation’s most important historical
figures, and a glossary of important terms or concepts that are usually ex-
pressed in a foreign language. Finally, each author prepares a comprehensive
bibliography for readers who wish to pursue the subject further.
Series Foreword xi

Readers of these volumes will find them fascinating and well written. More
importantly, they will come away with a better understanding of the contem-
porary world and the nations that comprise it. As series advisors, we hope
that this series will contribute to a heightened sense of global understanding
as we move through the early years of the twenty-first century.

Frank W. Thackeray and John E. Findling

Indiana University Southeast
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface

Russia is a very large country with a long and complex history. This book
provides a brief, accurate introduction to Russian, Soviet, and post-Soviet his-
tory in a readable format that will be of use to high school students, college
students, teachers, and nonspecialists. It includes major social, cultural, and
economic developments so that readers new to the subject will come away
with a good general understanding of this fascinating and troubled country.
For those who wish further reading, the bibliographic essay includes some of
the better known accessible works.
For those who grew up in the post–World War II United States, Russia (or
more accurately, the Soviet Union) was a constant source of fear and attention.
Secretive leaders in the Kremlin, the massive stone fortress in the heart of
Moscow, had sworn to spread communism across the globe. At any time they
might rain thousands of nuclear warheads on America. School children in the
1950s learned to “duck and cover”—to hide under their desks and put their
hands over their heads in the event of a nuclear attack. U.S. taxpayers spent
billions and then trillions of dollars on bombers, missiles, fighter aircraft, sub-
marines, aircraft carriers, troops, tanks, and the other war paraphernalia to de-
fend against the communist threat. Leftists and communist sympathizers were
hounded and persecuted by Senator Joseph McCarthy’s House Un-American
Activities Committee in the 1950s. The United States lost 58,000 men and rent
xiv Preface

itself apart trying to stop the spread of communism in Vietnam in the 1960s
and early 1970s. In the 1980s, President Ronald Reagan swept into office on a
strong anticommunist platform, pledging to build a space shield that would
provide a comprehensive missile defense for America.
Few experts or government officials expected the Soviet communist gov-
ernment to collapse in 1991. When it did, Americans were overjoyed, expect-
ing that once Russians had rejected dictatorship and socialist economics, they
would quickly learn the ways of democracy and market capitalism. Russians
likewise expected that within a few years they would be as affluent as the
West Europeans, Japanese, or Americans. After all, Russia was a highly edu-
cated nation with talented people and vast natural resources. Sadly, as the
20th century drew to a close, these expectations had still not been borne out.
Russia’s economy had shrunk nearly every year since 1991. The government
was deeply in debt, joblessness was rising, and crime was rampant. Russia
had managed to hold several rounds of relatively free presidential and par-
liamentary elections, but the country’s new democracy was still quite fragile.
Moreover, democratic Russia had had only one president, Boris Yeltsin, and
he was frequently sick and unable to govern.
Americans seem to have lost interest in Russia now that it is no longer com-
munist and seems to pose no threat to the United States or its allies. Russia,
however, is still a major nuclear power, and its leaders are determined that it
will be influential and respected around the world. And Russia may some day
extricate itself from the economic morass into which it has sunk. If that hap-
pens, Russia will indeed once again be a power to reckon with.
A brief note on transliteration and pronunciation: Russian names are written
in Cyrillic, and so must be transliterated into the Latin alphabet. This means
that occasionally the same word will be rendered by two different spellings:
for example, tsar and czar. In most cases, I have followed the Library of Con-
gress transliteration style used in the United States, with a few minor modifi-
cations for common usage (Trotsky instead of Trotskii). In Russian words and
names, unlike French, all the letters should be pronounced.
Readers should also be aware that until the 20th century, Russia followed
the old, Julian calendar abandoned by Europeans in 1582. The Julian calendar
was inaccurate, so in Russia dates were 12 days behind the modern Grego-
rian calendar in the 19th century and 13 days behind in the 20th century. The
Bolsheviks adopted the Gregorian calendar in February 1918, but the Russian
Orthodox Church still celebrates its holidays according to the older calendar.
Different dates for events in Russian history therefore are often referred to as
“Old Style” or “New Style,” depending on which calendar was in effect.
Chapter 8 draws in part from Charles E. Ziegler, “The Collapse of the Soviet
Union, 1985–1991: Interpretive Essay,” in Events That Changed the World in the
Preface xv

Twentieth Century, edited by Frank W. Thackeray and John E. Findling (West-

port, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995).
I would like to thank Bruce Adams of the History Department at the Uni-
versity of Louisville for his helpful comments on various chapters. Frank
Thackeray, one of the series’ general editors, also gave me useful feedback
on the manuscript. I am grateful to Dianne O’Regan for compiling the index
and to Justine Ziegler who helped with the proofreading. My greatest debt of
gratitude, however, is to my wife Janna Tajibaeva, whose many insights and
suggestions from her years inside the Soviet Union made the book much bet-
ter. Her tolerance and encouragement are deeply appreciated, and it is to her
that I dedicate this book.
This page intentionally left blank
 Preface to the Second Edition

When this book went to press in 1999, Russia was still struggling with the
transition from communist dictatorship toward a new political and economic
order. The 1990s had been a period of political anarchy, with President Boris
Yeltsin presiding over the dismantling of the planned economy, and newly
rich oligarchs amassing huge fortunes from the privatization of government-
owned assets. The country was not a stable democracy, but at least elections
were held on schedule, dozens of political parties competed for votes, the
media were relatively free to criticize government officials, and Russians were
free to travel and worship as they wished.
Yet many believed the costs of political and economic liberalization were
too high. More than a third of Russians were living in poverty, crime had
soared, disease and alcoholism had contributed to a gradual decline in popu-
lation, and the nation seemed to be going through a spiritual crisis. Russia was
no longer a respected world power; instead, the Americans and Europeans
ignored Russian national interests and humiliated the nation, while China’s
rise in the east presented a long-term threat.
Vladimir Putin’s popularity can only be fully understood within this
context. His eight years as president saw record economic growth, the sta-
bilization of everyday life, and the restoration of Russia as a powerful state
respected on the world stage. Much of this success had little to do with Putin’s
xviii Preface to the Second Edition

governance (the country’s economic performance was due mostly to record

high oil and gas prices, for example), but Putin did restore order in Russia,
largely through authoritarian measures that eroded the country’s chances for
developing into a working democracy. He leveraged Russia’s natural resource
wealth into considerable foreign policy influence, at least along the periphery,
if not globally. And Putin made Russians proud of their country once again.
But Russian nationalism resurgent had a dark side, too, in the form of belli-
cose anti-American rhetoric and skinhead attacks on foreigners.
Chapter 10 takes the reader through the Putin era and into early 2009. I
have also updated the list of notable people, the glossary of terms, and the
bibliographic essay, and have added a list of Web sites for those interested in
keeping current with Russian politics. Once again, I would like to thank Frank
Thackeray for his support and his helpful comments on revising the manu-
script. Special thanks, and the dedication, go to Janna Tajibaeva and Alan Taj
Ziegler.
 Timeline of Historical Events

1000–700 b.c. Cimmerians rule southern Russia

700–200 b.c. Scythians occupy southern Russia
200 b.c.–a.d. 200 Sarmatians rule southern Russia, region had close links
to Greek world
200–370 Goths control Russian steppe
370–453 Rule of Huns
fifth–ninth centuries Various Turkic peoples inhabit southern Russia
862 Riurik of Varangians (Scandinavian tribe) establishes
Riurikid dynasty
980–1015 Vladimir, Grand Prince of Kiev
988 Official conversion of Kievan Rus to Orthodox
Christianity
1132–1136 Emergence of Novgorod city-state
1147 First mention of Moscow in the chronicles
1237–1240 Mongol conquest of Russian lands
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