Literature of social denunciation: Border realities in The Feast of Crows

Gabriel Trujillo Muñoz

Lina González Sánchez1

Summary:

From the perspective of Latin American literature of social denunciation, the role of the
Intellectual does not only imply an interest in highlighting a series of problems of the
social reality that he addresses in his work, but rather taking on a role as a political subject, which

it implies commitment and action in one's social environment. In this sense, Gabriel Trujillo
Muñoz as an author has been widely recognized for bringing into discussion in his works–
The Feast of the Crows: The Border Saga of Miguel Ángel Morgado - Conflicts
presents throughout history on the border between Mexico and the United States (Baja
California), however, its role has been limited to academia, sidelining its
capacity for intervention in support of the causes it denounces, and therefore, showing
the absence of coherence between his discourse and his political actions.

Keywords: Social denunciation, commitment-action, Latin American literature

fiction, sociology of literature

Abstract

From the perspective of Latin American literature on social criticism, the role of the
intellectual not only implies an interest in highlighting a series of problems of the social
reality that they tackle in their work, but also assuming a role as a political subject,
involving commitment and action in their social environment. In this sense, Gabriel Trujillo
Muñoz as an author has been widely recognized for putting into discussion in his works–
such as The Feast of Crows: The Border Saga of Miguel Ángel Morgado - conflicts

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Professional in Social Communication for Peace from Santo Tomás University. He has carried out work
academic and research for more than three years on issues of gender and violence (especially
related to the role of women in their social, political, economic, cultural, and historical environment,
being one of its main work focuses. He published in the book Between the Individual and the Collective:
Afro-Colombian issues: The article 'Configuration of the metaphor of the black woman as territory'
(nation and nature) in the film Chocó in the company of the communication professional from the University
Saint Thomas Lizeth Alvarado González. Additionally, she has developed research projects related to
environmental media and water governance, labor rights, and issues related to human trafficking.

1
that have been present throughout history on the border between Mexico and the United
States (Baja California), however, his role has been limited to academia, leaving aside his
ability to intervene in favor of the causes he denounces, and therefore, showing the lack of
coherence between his discourse and his political actions.

Keywords: social criticism, commitment-action, Latin American literature, sociology of

literature.

Introduction

Throughout history, the figure of the intellectual has been strongly questioned regarding its
commitment and coherence between what is expressed in their works and their intervention (action) in
their social environment. Thus, the debates have come and gone regarding the degree of freedom of expression
What an author has in the content of their work and the necessity that becomes evident to demonstrate the

most pressing issues of a social reality. However, and without going further, a
the author, from their perspective, is in the "freedom" to convey any type of content that
request or no interest, direct intervention, and commitment to a cause.

If the author assumes this kind of commitment, it constitutes coherence and meaning between
what is built (work), what is expressed in its social sphere (discourse and opinion) and the way
in which he/she acts (active role in his/her context), his/her work would be framed in the literature of

social denunciation. That is to say, this type of literature is a space where it is possible, not only
to express a problem -without neglecting its aesthetic value and style- with a certain level
of importance because of the way it impacts society and individuals, but by the
degree of commitment and coherence of the author between what he expresses and his political actions.

In this sense, Latin American fictional literary works, such as The Feast of the...
Crows: The Border Saga of Miguel Ángel Morgado (2002)2by Gabriel Trujillo Muñoz,
They are a space and instrument for social denunciation of a series of urgent issues.
that occur in a specific reality, such as those arising in the State of Baja
California, Mexico (border with the United States), which is the context in which it is located.
work. In this sense, this type of work (framed in the concept of social denunciation) is

2Hereafterit will be referred to simply as The Feast of Crows, without this naming causing any confusion.
with the work Feast of Crows, the fourth book of the saga A Song of Ice and Fire by George R. R. Martin
published in 2005.

2
they conceive beyond the mere mention of a series of events that coincide with
a social environment or a trend that occurs at a specific historical moment.
It is also noted that through the content of works like The Feast of the Ravens
they project events such as human trafficking, corruption by state institutions,
drug trafficking, disappearances, among other situations related to criminal acts that
they are not far from the present reality in the Baja Californian context and that evidence part
from its historical, social, and cultural panorama. In addition, there is a commitment from
author for highlighting sensitive situations in a social reality without sacrificing his
aesthetic value as a work of fiction, a commitment that implies a degree of coherence between
this literary discourse, its action and its discourse in the social sphere.

Thus, this article will conduct a literary analysis of the work The Feast of
The Crows by Gabriel Trujillo Muñoz from the perspective of social denunciation in the
Latin American fiction literature, in which border conflicts are evidenced,
specifically in the state of Baja California, Mexico, where this takes place.
literary work and that in its environment (published in the year 2002) has been marked by a
series of situations mainly related to the migratory issue throughout your
history. Thus, from the construction and characterization of the concept of
social denunciation in Latin American fiction literature will take elements that
they will discuss the content of the book from its particular characteristics (context
historical, social, political, economic, cultural, and aesthetic) and intentionality and commitment-
action of the author.

In addition to the above, the literary analysis will have as its methodological axis the sociology of the

literature (which will have a special section in chapter II of this article), a

subcategory of analysis through which more than the content itself of the work The Feast
of the Crows, the socio-historical framework in which it developed will be addressed. In this
a specific historical and social moment will be analyzed and contrasted in the
that the work was conceived, collecting in this process indices and registered reports that
they will allow observing the landscape of Baja California with the situations represented in the
book. Likewise, some by the author Gabriel Trujillo Muñoz will be taken into account.
testimonials, works (mainly essays and articles) in which it is possible to evidence the
degree of linkage, commitment and, ultimately, action in relation to its social context.
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 Concept of social denunciation from Latin American fiction literature

Social criticism in literature has been presented as a cross-cutting characteristic of

many works throughout history. Various authors and intellectuals have evidenced the
need to discuss through their works themes (issues) that in the
social spheres are seldom addressed and that in reality, it is urgent to take them into account. In this

In this sense, scientists and scholars have explored different works through their studies.
academics and scientists, regarding the central message that the author seeks to convey to his
readers, what is your intention, what kind of language do you use, details that a reader can see at first glance

unable to identify. In the course of their investigations, they have managed to identify many of the

previous aspects, however when addressing the definition of social denunciation, not only
as an aspect that identifies a work but rather as a concept, it has been assumed as a
characteristic that is taken for granted, without delving into it.

The analysis of Lisiak-Land Díaz in his work Social Denunciation of a Romantic, through
its characters, in Julia or scenes of life in Lima by Luis Benjamín Cisneros, Peru,
1860(1991); or that of Jaume Peris Blanes in his article Cortázar: between pulp culture and
political complaint (2012); or by Sergio López Mena in A Valuation of Pedro Páramo: the
social commitment (to mention a few examples of articles that, through a
analysis process, addressing the concept of social reporting), have stated that one or the other
the work encompasses this concept or falls within the genre of social protest literature due to the
it simply reflects a series of problems inherent to a social reality. Without
embargo, the mere act of highlighting certain issues that are pressing in a
A determined social context does not define the works as literature of social denunciation because
there are more elements that intervene in its sense of denunciation. The intentionality of
author, the awareness of presenting relevant content that sparks discussion
certain issues that had not been taken into account, or at least not in a proper way
officially, the political action in favor of a cause are aspects that many scholars have
overlooked in its analysis.

In that sense, in the Latin American case, one of the most intense moments in which,
through the works of many authors and intellectuals, a need to address was evident
in discussion–in a type of discourse such as that of fiction in literature–the

4
problems that arose in the Latin American social reality were the
military dictatorships of the 60s and 70s. (Peris, J., 2012, 103). In this context
historiographic the intention to reflect the multiple violations of human rights,
repression and abuse of power by state leaders, and beyond that the
the confrontational will that the writers adopted was much more evident. These
military dictatorships, which emerged within the context of the Cold War starting from Operation
Condor - "military integration strategy of an international nature" (Serrano, F., p. 180) -
were developed and applied in Latin American societies by the Government of the
United States, through which it sought to eradicate the 'threat' posed by the
movements and subjects that carried political, economic, cultural, and social ideals of
left "(communism, revolutionary utopianism, critical consciousness, the atmosphere
intellectual through which the political parties of the revolution were nourished) (Serrano,
F., p. 180.

The previous situation is an important reference in that it became one of

the most pressing moments in Latin American history and from which artists and
intellectuals of the time reacted to acts of torture, violence, and crimes of
States executed by the government and judicial institutions that were imposed in the
moment. writing takes place during or after traumatic experiences that the
The writer's production will unequivocally reflect in most cases. This
the operation generated an 'intellectual agitation' in many Latin American intellectuals: if
Julio Cortázar said it well, "writing is fulfilled within or after experiences"
traumatic experiences that the writer's production will unmistakably reflect in the majority of the
cases" (Cortázar, J. 1984, p. 12). and it was precisely in this case that a desire arose for
highlight the cases of repression that were present in this context, acts against the
which intellectuals expressed their disagreement both in their public discourse (opinion) and
political action – those who had this opportunity without being 'judged' or forced
starting from exile–. In this sense, this "intellectual agitation" did not only imply being capable
to show, through artistic and literary works, a problem or situation
the claimant not only encompassed a commitment and intention on the part of the author.

Thus, to address social denunciation from its conceptual framework, the

degree of commitment of the authors from the perspective of Jean-Paul Sartre facing the
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engagement, which points out that an intellectual has the ability to leave their role as a spectator
to become a subject who, first of all, becomes aware of their social bond and
then put all your capabilities and 'your art at the service of a cause' (Naidorf, Martinetto,
Sturniolo, & Armella, 2010, p. 3). This type of engagement, taken up and referred to more
forward through Falls-Borda with commitment-action, it is what an intellectual, from his
thought and action, faces his reality leading him to "take a series of
decisions that condition your professional orientation and your technical production" (Naidorf,
Martinetto, Sturniolo, & Armella, 2010, p. 4.

In this sense, social criticism in literature is linked to what María Luisa Lanzuela
denominates in his text The literature as a historical source: Benito Pérez Galdós
"intellectual agitation", a pressing condition that demands interest, reaction and
the actions of an author in relation to their social reality (Lanzuela, M., 2000, p. 261). Within the framework

from an urgent reality, this type of discourse develops not only in favor of putting in
it evidences a situation or a socio-historical context, but rather to put it into discussion in the
social sphere a determined problem, for which social denunciation does not result in a
text merely for the sake of including a topic or an area framed in a conflict; the
the complaint represents a fact, an action taken by the author, influenced by the context that surrounds it

surrounds it. Likewise, Lanzuela connects an author in the role of a witness to the reality that
it reflects in its work, with its narrative being the expression of a series of issues or situations
social and ideological (Lanzuela, 2000, 260).

However, Falls-Borda clarifies that, although the intellectual assumes a commitment from
the ideological aspect also encompasses a scientific view, which is 'conditioned by
social and transcendental guidelines, political changes that lead scientists to a
evaluation of its disciplinary and a reorientation of it” (Naidorf, Martinetto,
(Sturniolo & Armella, 2010, p. 21). This scientific perspective, according to Falls-Borda,
understands the theoretical and conceptual framework that applies to the respective problem, as
the essence of the intellectual's attitude is divided into this type of knowledge and the
knowledge of the problem as such.

In addition to the above, Malvina Guaraglia Pozzo reaffirms, through her text Literature and
political thought: The construction of 'people' in the narrative of social denunciation

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Latin American (1920-1975), the intent and commitment of writers and literary figures with
the causes, mainly political and social, in the face of a dictatorial context like the one that
it emerged in Latin America in the 60s and 70s, which encouraged them to express
through their works the events that occurred. Thus, in these literary works the
authors also saw an opportunity to represent the "injustices, miseries and the
inequalities [against which] it was necessary to offer radical solutions capable of
"transform" (Pozzo, M., 2012, p. 289) the political and social structures.

This is why, through literature that denounces social issues, intellectuals through the
history has ventured to create works that can communicate and convey a
specific message, interspersed with elements of fiction, altering,
Dramatizing, exaggerating, or changing the facts presented. 'All methods
they can be lawful if in the end [the author] is successful in achieving the desired impression in his
"public" (Martín, C., 1984, p. 1)3, without abandoning the artistic and aesthetic character that must
characterize literature.

In addition to the above, Anderson Benedict in his essay Imagined Communities (1983) gives
tell, through the analysis of the works of José Rizal, how this concept is presented.
as a rhetorical way of highlighting the social issues they are facing
implicit oppressed classes. It is also explained that many authors "claim it as their own the
voice of the oppressed" through a rhetoric characterized by various strategies
literary to file a complaint. One of the aspects that stands out in the works
social denouncement literary is 'the use of images and metaphors to illustrate the
social problem, [characteristic that] is also very common in the rhetoric of the oppressed
(Torres-Poup, 2013, p. 152).

Therefore, it should first be noted that in many cases the analyses that are carried out
works that present certain denunciatory characteristics are assumed as works
of literature that denounces social issues in itself, regardless of the level of commitment-

3This production by Carlos Enrique Martín is taken as a reference insofar as it is one of the
first that addresses social denunciation as a transversal concept in Latin American literature. Without
however, this book focuses on a discursive analysis, addressing the rhetorical resources that turn into the
works (in this case in the analysis of the literary production of Miguel Ángel Asturias) as instruments for the
social complaint. Therefore, the conceptual approach in this book, from a sociological perspective, is
scarce.

7
author's action, as well as their awareness of the issues presented and the
clear intention of complaint. And secondly, there are three elements that until now
they constitute the social complaint (from a sociological study): the "similarity" between the
literary environment and the social reality to which the work refers, the intentionality of a
author for denouncing some issues inherent to a social environment beyond the
market interests and demands, and the level of commitment-action that the author has
in the face of the referred social reality (which implies coherence between the literary discourse,
the author's speech in the public sphere and the actions of the intellectual.

2. Sociology of literature: relationship and discursive coherence

To begin, it is necessary to address the context of the work in order to highlight some of
the most important aspects of the stories (considering that the book compiles five
chapters, around the same character and with different themes). In this sense, the work
understand in order: Tijuana City Blues, Loverboy, Mezquite Road, Laguna Salada and
Staging. In each of them, different situations are narrated from which
Miguel Ángel Morgado (main character of the stories) as a lawyer, "member of
Amnesty International and honorary researcher of the Legislative Commission for the
Human Rights in Mexico" (Trujillo, G., 2002, p. 31) investigates and ultimately shows
personally involved.

Thus, the first chapter of this work is Mezquite Road: the lawyer Miguel Ángel
Morgado is in charge of investigating the murder of a man who is blamed for drug trafficking.
(supposedly the cause of his death is due to this reason) and in which at the end the life of the
lawyer is threatened for getting involved with criminal gangs and corrupt members of
the State institutions of Mexico and the United States that contest part of the control of
Mexicali and they seek to cover up the crime that Morgado is investigating. This presents topics
like prostitution, the conflicts between urban gangs in Mexicali (Baja California), the
the corruption of state institutions both Mexican and American, the adjustment of
accounts related to gambling and illegal betting, and in general murder, being
these problems the focus of this chapter.

Then there is Tijuana City Blues: in this case, the lawyer begins the search at the request of a
Mexican citizen, through the literature and history of Tijuana (Baja California), of

8
his father, an American teacher who disappeared several years ago. This highlights
situations related to drug trafficking, murders, and espionage. The third is Loberboy,
the story in which two narratives are contrasted: that of an American family seeking
an organ donor (or otherwise just an organ) to save his son and the search
of several missing children whose bodies are later found,
dismantling an international human trafficking network in the modality of trafficking of
organs. In this third chapter, topics such as human trafficking, kidnappings, and murders
these are the central issues.

In the following chapters, Stage setting and Salty Lagoon are detailed first.
tells the story of the disappearance of an American pilot on an environmental mission, which
it consisted of taking scientists and experts to tour the desert of Baja California (site
geographically close to the border with the United States) to safeguard a genre of
unique plants in this desert. However, the mission turned out to be a fraud and the alibi for
part of a group dedicated to drug trafficking to carry out their operations at the border, In
in this sense, themes such as drug trafficking, espionage and infiltration, conspiracy and murders
transversal to the chapter. and secondly, Laguna Salada which tells the story
from a group of people who arrive at an area near the border known as Laguna
Salad (Mexicali) where they disappear. This case is being investigated by Morgado, and addresses

themes such as illegal migration, murders, conspiracy, and disputes between urban gangs;
it also addresses the history of Mexicali between the 50s and 60s where part of the
crimes that right-wing movements committed against leftists and vice versa,
where Laguna Salada was the place where opponents were thrown and buried.

In summarizing each work, the issues that arise were highlighted.

in each of the stories, this is in order to later show a comparison about the
type, the degree of importance and the number of times these types of crimes are repeated in the context
from the work, with the official reports that were presented in the year 2002, which was the period
time in which the work was published. In this process, it is essential to take the
necessary study parameters based on the sociology of literature, a methodology
of analysis through which the three elements can be observed and discussed
they constitute and characterize a work of literature of social denunciation as such.

9
In this sense, to address the sociology of literature as the foundational methodology from
of which the work will be analyzed and contrasted, the sweep will be taken into account first.
historical account that Antonio Sánchez Trigueros presents in the book The Invention
́ of the Author: New

approaches to the sociological and́ discursive study of the authorial figure, in which
it indicates, as a generalized conception, that the sociology of literature is 'the set of
more or less systematic and methodical reflections on the relationships between Literature and
Society" (Foucault, M. & Zapata, J., 2014, p.8). Likewise, Harvey Goldman, who to
through his textMax Weber and Thomas Mann: Calling and the Shaping of the Self,
sought to understand the motivations of the authors (Weber and Mann) to create certain
narration at a specific moment. To reach this point, Goldman took as a basis the
biographical context and the respective convictions (ideas, ideologies, inclinations)
cultural and political) of intellectuals (Romero, H., & Santoro, P. 2007, p. 201). Thus
would present, through its search for the motivations of intellectuals, the
methodology of the sociology of literature.

However, it should be noted that, at a certain point, many

authors—such as Wendy Griswold, Priscilla Parkhurst Ferguson, Philippe Desan among others
They considered that society was reflected through literary content, being this the
metaphor of the mirror as the "clearest" explanation that could be consolidated from the
sociology of literature, overlooking the intervention and influence of the author's subjectivity
in gestating their work and the autonomy of what Pierre Bourdieu called the literary field.
In this sense, for Bourdieu this field had social logics distinct from the
other fields of cultural production due to the symbolic capital that constituted the object,
that is to say, the social construction of its value the way in which the novel is recognized for
to be taken as an artistic work from the legitimacy that both institutions and
authors give it the same. (Romero, H., & Santoro, P., 2007, p. 208).

In this way, this methodology takes into account, from the 'externalist' current - that
according to what Héctor Romero Ramos and Pablo Santoro Domingo pointed out, 'it is getting closer to'

good to the social history and aims for an empirical study of the social logics of
literary production and consumption" (Romero, H., & Santoro, P., 2007, p. 218) - of the
sociology of literature, which not only starts from an evaluation of the social map of the field
literary framework in which a specific work is framed, "but it also goes in search of the
10
implicit sociology in literary works" (Ramos, cited by Romero, H., & Santoro, P.,
2007, p. 219), that is, it includes self-analysis (the author's perspective towards their work) and
a dimension of the more reflective work.

In this regard, this work will evaluate the works, essays, and mainly interviews.
in Trujillo, in order to discuss his political-social stance, ideology, and ideas
in relation to its historical-geographical context and to its works, which account for the degree and the class of

commitment-action taken in the context of the creation, pre and post production of its
literary products. Likewise, this analysis will include the critical stances of writers and
intellectuals have had regarding the works and actions of Trujillo, which will allow us to discern
a different perspective of the writer and his literary journey.

3. Reality and fiction in literary figures

First of all, to perceive part of the problem of human trafficking from the
modality of organ extraction addressed in the work The Feast of Crows: the
border saga by Miguel Ángel Morgado the story Loverboy, which evidences for the beginning of
in the 2000s a few considerations which pointed out that it was one of the
most recent forms of human trafficking known and only a few organizations
they have approximate indexes, as recognized by Vladimir Makei, Minister of
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Belarus, in an article published in the Journal of Migrations
Forced from Oxford Department International Development: "It is believed that trafficking
organs for transplants account for 10% of all transplant cases in the world, which
which would generate up to 1.2 billion US dollars in revenue annually
"illicit" (Makei, V., June 2015, p. 91). On its part, the report Human Trafficking:
Basic aspects of 2006 indicate that currently Mexico is among "the centers of
more active recruitment" (IOM Mexico, 2006, p. 13) where this country was presented as
the most recent linked in the list for 2006, confirming what Makei stated.

The above allows us to demonstrate that due to the complexity of the problem (which moreover is
considered as 'recent practice' in Mexico) the indices do not allow for many signals or
a broader panorama of the situation. Therefore, Trujillo's literary work, and
In this case, the story Loverboy, while it does not allow the possibility of measuring the...

problematic from its indices (quantitative), if done qualitatively, providing a

11
a different perspective to readers and allowing them to understand how this modality operates,
thus being a different way of perceiving the phenomenon.

Mezquite Road tells stories related to drug trafficking, in which it is

It is possible to see a greater presence and intervention of the judicial institutions of the States.
United more than in the other stories. However, at this point, an aspect is highlighted.
important and it is the economic activity of Mexicali. The narrative points, more than to the
description of the economic panorama of the city, it is shown as an 'agricultural region and
"industrial" as well as a city "with maquiladoras and acrobats who box" (Trujillo, G.,
2002, p.17), as well as a city that is not even recognized within the limits of
Mexican state, but like a U.S. city or a 'barbed wire border'. If
It is true that in 2002 an economic program was developed in Mexicali, which
committed a high investment that "supported the establishment of maquiladoras [which made]"
that the border cities became poles of attraction for immigration and
in a land of opportunities for those who needed a job (...)" (Sierra, O. & Serrano,
S., 2002, p. 702

Based on the above, it is noted that literature, from Lanzuela's perspective, has
whether intentional on the part of its author or not, it becomes a reflection of a certain moment
historical from the social, political, economic, and cultural contexts that within the
works are counted, therefore they are not simple isolated creations, but on the contrary, they are
somewhat linked to the author's experiences, since it is from there that he takes
referring to their works, is inspired, shaped, and nourished (Gómez, 2016, p. 259). Furthermore
It should be noted that framed within the concept of social denunciation, this work presents a

intent of its author to represent the historical-social context from which it has
I have witnessed that he has not only presented in this work but also in other texts related to the
situation at the border between the USA and Mexico.

From this approach, it starts from the fact that a work like The Feast of Crows
it is not an exception to the rule not only for addressing problems and perspectives of the situation
social, political, economic, historical, social and cultural, but by the intent that has
his author Gabriel Trujillo Muñoz has participated in highlighting these facts as human trafficking

people, and in general a series of violent actions surrounding border activities

12
illegals that occur in the U.S. and Mexico, especially in Mexicali - where he is from
the writer originates from a border city in Baja California from where they present
multiple violent acts by different actors that led Trujillo not only to
gather different stories related to these events, like in the book The Feast of the
crows, but to write other copies like Labyrinth (1995), Highclowd: memoirs of
sand and water, of rock and wind (2006) Mexicali city blue (2006) among other works, poems
and essays, for which he has received several awards.

Regarding the above, Mikhail Bakhtin through his work Theory and Aesthetics of the Novel,
indicates that the "dialogical and polyphonic character of the novelistic genre makes it an example
more clearly how the structure of a literary form can reflect through language the
basic background of social reality" (Quoted by Lanzuela, M., 2000, p. 261). In this
this work is not only presented as a tool for denouncement but also
as a space for critiquing social, political, and economic structures and figures,
cultural and historical, especially institutions of the different states involved,
since one of the most relevant problems (the second in this book, as is
present in three of the five stories) is the corruption by the institutions both of
Mexico like the United States.

In this regard, regarding levels of corruption, the Public Security Secretariat of

Mexico shows through its Fourth Government Report of 2010 that there is a level of
uncertainty on the part of those who serve as public officials in the institutions
from the State of Mexico, faces the rules of action. This is compounded by "inequality and to
the precarious working conditions in which 91.06% of the workers operate
Public security corporations of the country (372, 925 state and municipal police)
(added)
The mentioned conditions, according to Olivares, are uncertain, which would partially explain...
measure, corruption, as well as the reduction of public positions and the high turnover rate,
which ranges from 30% to up to 100% annually in different entities. (Secretariat of
Public Security, cited by Olivares, E., December 2010, p. 10). On his part
Transparency International produces the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI)
it notes that in 2002 Mexico ranked 57th out of 102 evaluated countries, with a

13
a score of 3.6, while the United States ranked 16th with 7.7 points4
(Transparency International, 2002, p. 5-6).

Taking these indices into account and contrasting them with what is stated in the work, we have in
It is noted that there is a considerable distance between the levels of corruption in the early stages.

of the two countries, while in the description in the literary environment there is not a great
difference: it mentions different institutions (such as the DEA, the FBI, the Police
Federal State of Baja California and its particular cities such as Mexicali.
and Tijuana), in which they are seen involved in acts of corruption either related to
with drug trafficking, control of territories (in the case of Mexican institutions) and in
the intervention in institutions of the neighboring State (visible in organizations of the States
United). In this sense, the comparison of these two environments does not show a clear picture.
clearly about cases of corruption, and especially within the literary environment there is no
clear indications that account for the level of involvement of the institutions in
acts of corruption, however there is a clear image of the level to which the staff of the
institutions of the two states can have a relationship, where their 'business5se
they were negotiating under the table in order to showcase effective policies in the struggles
against corruption.

This is how Trujillo assumes the role of the intellectual from his intentionality to project
the issues related to human trafficking, pimping, kidnappings,
disappearances, drug trafficking, murders, which are the most evident problems in the
tales como las políticas y el marco regulatorio de los
Involved states, considering that the work prominently features the field
judicial (from the application of laws, the intervention of state institutions and
legislative and legitimate structures). This intention determines a series of decisions
what the author takes in his work from which, through analysis, "one can judge the type and the

4The Transparency International that produces the Corruption Perceptions Index points out that the country that
the countries with scores closest to 10 are 'highly clean', while those closest to 0 are
the 'highly corrupt'.
5It is the way in which an FBI agent in the story Mezquite Road refers to the alliances they have.

institutions of the United States with those of Mexico under the Law, as in this case it was the
capture of recognized drug traffickers who were captured by the Federal Police of Mexicali and sold
the FBI, for being requested by the government of the United States.

14
quality of the commitment that is adopted" (Naidorf, J., Martinetto, A., Sturniolo, S., & Armella,
J., 2010, p. 4).

In front of the analysis of this reality, the indices give many clues about what was happening in the
geo-historical context in which the work was published: the Attorney General's Office
(PGR) in coordination with the Attorney General's Offices of the entities
federations of Mexico produced in 2002 a report titled Criminal Incidence of
Common Law 2002 through which it is evidenced that after Mexico City, the
The state of Baja California has one of the highest rates of reported complaints.
before the justice bodies. The complaints made are related to crimes
such as robbery (indicator number one), homicides, property crimes, kidnapping,
extortion, sexual abuse, threats, among others, complaints that reach 99,883
(Attorney General's Office, 2002, p. 4). Currently, the situation is not improving,
according to the latest indices from the National Information Center (2016) Baja California is the
State with the highest number of theft crimes (with and without violence) and the third in
kidnappings (National Citizen Observatory of Security, Justice, and Legality, 2016).

However, the situation from 2002 to 2016 shows variation in its different indices.
really big differences. According to the report High Impact Crime Incidence
in Mexico in 2016 from the National Citizen Observatory of Security, Justice and
Legality (ONC) Baja California is among one of the States of Mexico with the
highest crime rates: "1st in vehicle theft, 3rd in robbery with violence and 4th in
intentional homicide" (2016, p.9); it also states that "in Chihuahua, Baja California and
Sinaloa reported more cases [of intentional homicide] as they accumulated 82.84% of the total.
regional, where the highest increase was reported in Baja California with 350 cases
2016” (National Citizen Observatory of Security, Justice and Legality, 2016, p. 40).

In this sense, Trujillo acknowledges that in the northern state of Baja California there are issues.
different acts of violence surrounding migration, illegal trafficking, and in general, 'it is a
"space of border conflicts" (Trujillo, G., 2012, p. 83), and despite that it is not overlooked.
that there is a cultural, artistic, creative, and struggle-rich environment to tell about things and
the people who live here [in Baja California]” (Trujillo, G., 2012, p. 83). To this, Édgar
Torres in his book The Black Legend on the northern border of Mexico: essays sums up that

15
Trujillo seeks to highlight in his work the role that the border plays as a productive space.
and of cultural resistance, functioning as 'a dissociation from foreign influence of
[United States]” (Torres, E., 2012, p.94), as well as explore cultural value and express
the problems of a Mexico of center and periphery (as Trujillo indicates, several Mexicos)
through its narrative (Trujillo, G., 2012, p. 100).

However, although it is true that Pierre Bourdieu in his work The Rules of Art: Genesis and
the structure of the literary field (1992) highlights that a literary work does not necessarily have to

to obey certain cultural, political, economic conditions or situations,

social and historical. Likewise, Bordieu states that in this sense the literary discourse does not
it is neither required "to be useful, nor committed to certain causes, nor with the
the taste of the bourgeois public" (Martinez, A., 2008), in such a way that the autonomy of
the authors to establish their literary capital and to reflect any theme through their art,
situation, characters, and context.

The previous statement by Torres is reflected in some excerpts from the book of
Trujillo: in the story Mezquite road for example, Morgado seeks to reclaim the image of
Mexicali, while explaining to a friend (Jesús Ochoa, originally from Mexico City) that it is 'a
"agricultural and industrial region" (Trujillo, G., 2002, p.17), as previously mentioned, a
city with an investment aimed at the maquiladora industry as a source
important for development. For their part, Candelaria Pelayo Torres and Daniel Solorio Ramírez
in your Report presented to the Network of Researchers on Criminal Reforms in the Field
Locally presented, among some indicators, the results of a survey conducted in
2004 on the perception of public safety, in which citizens were asked if the
insecurity in Baja California had changed positively or negatively from 2002 to
2004. Facing this question, the respondents assured that insecurity increased,
Well, "Almost half of the inhabitants think that security remains the same, while they have
decreased from 50% to 27% those who believe it has improved" (Pelayo, C. &
Solorio, D., 2004, p. 17.

From the above, it is possible to observe that the aspects and characteristics regarding the
criminal acts and social problems that are projected in the work The Feast of the
Crows are not far from the social reality of Baja California. While it is true that it is a work

16
of fictional literature, as has been clarified, the presented indexes and the particularities
of crimes (qualitative and quantitative aspects) allow to make visible the similarity, more
that the closeness and coincidence of the characteristics of the environment, both fictional and of the
"social reality". At this point, the issues that arise in each of
the stories were highlighted in their description and from which it is possible to show that: the
the number one crime that is present in all the stories of the work is murder,
followed by corruption in state institutions, drug trafficking, gang disputes and
kidnappings and finally prostitution6.

Therefore, it is worth noting that while it is true the order of importance that crimes
They have so much in the literary environment and the social reality of Baja California, they are not the same if

they are similar in terms of the murder rate that is between first and third place
respectively. However, crimes such as theft, which is one of the most important within
the official reports are not reflected in the work, nor the corruption in the institutions
(present in the work as the second most important issue) is not reflected in the
indices.

4. Intentionality is not just about believing, but about creating.

In this section, rather than mentioning and contrasting the content of the work, we start from the
necessity to carry out a "biographical approach and the analysis of the relationship of certain
ideas [of the author] with the environment” (Goldman, H., cited by Romero, H., & Santoro, P.,
2007, p. 208). To emphasize this, it is important to note that, first of all, Gabriel Trujillo Muñoz is

originating from Mexicali, Baja California and most of his professional life experiences
(being a teacher, poet, novelist, and essayist) has experienced them in this city, the same one in which

that is situated, with the respective literary and fictional variations, the novel of The Feast of
the crows. And secondly, besides being an academic expert in literature of
fiction and border, also has recognized works on the history of the border,
as is the case of Baja California: literature and border (2012), The Other History of Baja

6To measure the level of relevance of the issues that arise in the literary environment, it was necessary to
count which stories it appeared in: for example, murder appeared in all the stories (5 times), while
that prostitution and human trafficking were mentioned in a single narrative, as was the case in Mezquite
Road and Loverboy, respectively

17
California (2009)
among others.

This panorama highlights part of the legitimacy that this intellectual has to
address the issues arising from illegal movements across the border
between Mexico and the U.S. and in neighboring cities such as Tijuana and Mexicali. It also allows
to observe the author's commitment to their environment and social reality by presenting not only
in this work, but among some of his more than 150 books, essays, and articles, through 30
years of experience as a writer. For example, from another of his literary productions.
Trujillo has expressed the need and interest to transform social reality, as
being a "passionate" reader since his adolescence, he became interested in science fiction and the
the relevance of individuals actually discovering themselves as beings
humans: "I read [Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury] at 15 and it made me become critical
of the social and political reality of my environment. Because of it, I continue to be a defender of the book

as a receptacle of human knowledge, and of the human being as memory of the

"species" (Miranda, R., 2016).

Gabriel Trujillo, who has defended science fiction as the 'daughter of the revolution'
industrial and scientific of the last centuries [as well as] of technological changes
(González, M. 2016) agrees with Wendy Griswold that this type of genre makes a
great contribution to science. In this case, Trujillo's criticism points to the relationship of the being
human with a technological environment is increasingly complex, difficult to imagine and that
Many times subjects assume naturally and without any objection. (González, M.
2016).

In this regard, the considerations that Trujillo has regarding the genre of science fiction
in which the play The Feast of Crows unfolds), and which he has supported through
of his works, essays and articles, is that this preserves 'an imaginary space, and not for
less real imaginary, where the desires for something better have as their foundation a land–
Republic, island, planet – which is always an open horizon, a richer, freer country and
just like ours" (Vanguard, July 30, 2016). And it is in this conception that the
the work is framed: Miguel Ángel Morgado, a lawyer who finds himself involved in the
investigation of cases (mostly human rights violations) related to

18
murders, drug trafficking, human trafficking, prostitution, corruption by
state institutions, among others, in the universe of Baja California (Tijuana and Mexicali),
a space where the search for Morgado's "justice" becomes a reality, many
times through methods not endorsed by the laws of the State of Mexico.

It is worth highlighting that, from Trujillo's point of view, who names a large part of his
works (in particular, A Feast for Crows) as works of fiction, includes within the
border literary movement or border literature many of its productions. Furthermore,
recognizes and calls himself a representative of this current alongside a handful of
authors, who like him, through literature show a different perspective of the
border. In addition, the writer explains that the Baja Californian literature - which is
it would be considered a subgenre of border literature and yet Trujillo assumes these
two currents as similar or, in other words, as if the Baja Californian represented
all border literature not only represents the context of the border as a
mirror of national ailments or a dump of centralist prejudices [but is not
open to new variables of creation that give rise to a falsified utopia (...)
a utopia that is not presented as a better or worse space,
but as a different type of space.

This space, as Elda Firmo Braga notes in her text Literature, power, and counter-power,
it is in which the author gains great relevance, since within the framework of their creation they deploy their

freedom and its subjectivity, as well as the possibility of reflecting an attitude of counter-power
through literary art (Firmo, E., 2007, p. 1). Thus, this last one has the
potential to act as a social instrument capable of projecting and making visible
the different social groups and their stories that have historically been marginalized from the
social sphere. (Firmo, E., 2007, p. 5)

However, Roland Barthes points out that the construction and meaning of a work is not
They are only supported in the author's intent, or in an ideology and a political thought.
of course, a creative ability is needed, an artistic effort, playing with language and the
images (Barthes, r., 2004, P. 17), in another way, Firmo warns, could become something
lacking aesthetic and literary sense to simply become pamphleteering (Firmo,
E., 2007, p. 2). To confirm the above, Édgar Torres points out that Trujillo in his process of

19
writing, referring to his detective novels such as The Feast of Crows,
"imaginatively rescues" Mexicali and its inhabitants: "its texts unveil another Mexicali,
another denied border self in which geography, history, home and violence merge,
reality and the superimposed fictions on a human border condition” (Torres, E,
2007, p.130). Additionally, Torres, when presenting the work, which is the subject of analysis in this paper,

recognizes the work of Trujillo, who through his narration, has carried out a 'process
of recovering the border space [in which it appropriates this] and is restructured as
agent of their own cultural imaginary in dialogue with, on one hand, their lived reality, and
on the other hand, the stereotypes that define that (their) space” (Torres, E, 2007, p. 41).

Here a parenthesis opens before the perspective that the author assumes regarding gender.
borderline, as it presents a series of contradictions in the same space, that is in its
Baja California: literature and border: Trujillo attributes to border literature
the feature of 'admitting new creation variables' (Trujillo, G., 2012, p. 89), but
shows some reluctance towards the so-called Chicano and Chicana writers
(Mexican citizens by birth who migrate to the United States), not so much because of the
the way they express the culture of the border, but rather how they attribute a certain "status"
by the way they narrate their experience in the migration process and their passage through the
border. Trujillo presents in his article the historical journey of this literature and the struggle
that arose from defining who the 'true' exponents of the genre were, if those who
they were at the border crossing (Chicanos who were already established shared their experience with
"jump the pond") or those who have lived a large part of their life in the Mexican border area
(Baja Californians in this case).

In the context of this self-recognition, Trujillo not only self-identifies as an intellectual.

belonging to the literary movement of the border, but rather a writer who seeks to project into the
fiction a reality from another angle, this has been mentioned repeatedly that for
he, fantasy is a kind of tool used to 'understand the condition
human from other perspectives" (Notisistema.com, August 4, 2017), is a way
that aims to exemplify pain, love, and feelings in general, from a context
different but with certain similarities. A large part of society currently assumes that the
fantasy is a way to escape from harsh and often violent realities.
problems, however what Trujillo has stated is that on the contrary, fantasy is
20
a kind of mirror that allows you to see, from another angle, "what you are experiencing"
same, because fantasy can help you understand the world better and see it from all angles.
its human aspects, in some way fantasy serves to let you see through the eyes of the
"humanity" (Notisistema.com, August 4, 2017).

That is to say, from the above, it is possible to infer that Trujillo is fully aware of
your 'social' contributions and your ability to act in increasingly challenging contexts
more complex and more violent, in the words of this writer. And this is how the author acknowledges
that fantasy is beyond being considered a mere pastime or a way of
escaping from the reality that each being goes through in their life, it is about revaluing this genre and
Do not underestimate it as just another input for an intellectual to be able to let loose.

(Notisistema.com, August 4, 2017).

However, up to this point, his commitment has been limited to the

academia: as a teacher, writer, poet, essayist, literati, and director of seedbeds or
research groups and has extensive academic experience of over 30 years
trajectory (Manickam, S., July–December 2014, p. 33), does not evidence an action
clear political or a militancy or struggle in favor of a cause. Hence, its field of
action is limited to commitment, and not as Falls-Borda has pointed out to the commitment-
action.

In front of the author's intent, not as such to commit to their environment, but
on the contrary of evading it, Gabriel García Márquez has mentioned that when a
intellectuals evade their own problems and those of the society to which they belong, as well as their
ideology and political thought, is not really contributing to its environment in the
the sense that their literary expression should open doors for the reader to understand more
beyond the context of the same work, the reality in which he lives: of his city, his country and his
continent (García-Marquez, G., cited by Firmo, E., 2007, p.7). Thus, the figure
of the intellectual, although it is not obliged to provide a service to its social environment, as it
Bourdieu affirmed that if it is to contribute in some measure, to take a position,
to assume a criterion and not simply evade it.

For his part, Antonio Cândido, in his book Intervention Texts, has emphasized that the
literature also becomes an expression that humanizes, as it reflects

21
the realities of the human being, particularly from their social sphere and their capacity to
relationship, which allows for a better understanding of these realities. It is within the framework
from this ability to project social issues that literature "confirms and denies,
proposes and denounces, supports and fights, providing the possibility for us to live

dialectically the problems7(Candido, A., cited by Firmo, E., 2007, p. 3), so that
literary expression gives way to reflection and questioning about the world: its environment
and complexities.

Thus, literature can be thought of from a social role by granting the possibility to the
individuals (both readers and writers) to reflect on their environment, to give a
meaning beyond the very rules and linguistic parameters imposed by the academy
(of course, without disregarding its aesthetic character, as mentioned earlier). In this sense,
Firmo attributes significant power to literature that allows the reader to access a
experience and a different perspective of their reality, to establish a meeting with the text,
identify with the representations manifested in the work, develop a sense of the
otherness (encountering both the text and the characters), putting the work in dialogue
present with others (Firmo, E., 2007, p. 3).

In light of this pressing need that arises regarding the action and reaction of an intellectual
in front of their social environment, and beyond what they express through their artistic works,
Noam Chomsky in his book The Responsibility of Intellectuals questions a series of
situations in history that have resulted contradictory, in principle, by part of the
intellectuals. In some of the most significant conflicts, the actions of the intellectual have
result to be inversely proportional to what it reflects within its work and the
the question that arises is what degree of responsibility these characters have if they
they have the possibility to show the deceptions of governments, to analyze the
actions based on their causes, their motives, and the underlying intentions
(Chomsky, N., 1969, p. 11).

This is how Chomsky points out that the responsibility is much greater in the case of the
intellectuals, considering that they have the possibility of reaching, in a society

7confirmsand denies, proposes

and denounces, supports, and fights, providing the opportunity to live dialectically the problems

22
democratic, to tools such as access to information, instruction, political freedom
and of expression that enable the intellectual to seek and unveil the truth 'behind the veil of the
deformations" (Chomsky, N., 1969, p. 11). Thus, Chomsky investigates statements,
the actions and artistic works of the intellectuals to account for the fact that by contrasting some with
others were certainly contradictory. In the face of this evidence, two presented themselves
cases: the first was related to the contradiction between the author's stance (defense of
certain causes) and the role he assumed in front of his reality (the discordant point); and the second
it was the author's stance and the inactivity or neutral role they assumed (there really was
omission or denial of the causes they defended.

Thus, the area to which the author Gabriel Trujillo Muñoz is most connected points to the
second: it has a hundred works where most address social issues
specific to Baja California (migration, different forms of trafficking, disappearances,
kidnappings, violence) however, their actions do not go beyond their role as a teacher and
academic. While it is true, his works have been praised by critics for their aesthetics
(a detail that should not be overlooked for the sake of having a sense of denunciation) and for the

ability to bring up different everyday situations and illustrate them in the

framework of fiction literature, its role as a prominent exponent of border literature
and of fiction, teacher, professor, director and founder of seedbeds and specialized groups
in literary studies, it is not beyond what has already been mentioned. In Chomsky's perspective
a neutral role in the face of that reality.

At this point, and according to the context in which the social complaint is born in the
Latin American literature, Julio Cortázar, who is an example of an intellectual who used
elements of narration and denunciation in some of their works, to demonstrate the
events arising within the framework of military dictatorships—especially the role
the U.S. administration in the Latin American coups d'état of the
seventy and the climate of repressive terror that had erupted on the continent
2012, p. 95) defended the work of the intellectual, who was "necessarily a critical element
within society [beyond simply] subjecting literary objectives to the
immediate objectives of the revolution. (Peris, J., 2012, p. 98). In this sense, Cortázar
he highlighted in some of his literary works the relationship between political action and narration
literary that considered elements that complemented each other: 'the hierarchical parity between

23
both opened the possibility of making, in the field of literature, another revolution
deep one that the revolutionary leaders had carried out in the field of
practical policy." (Peris, J., 2012, p. 98)

Resuming the analysis of Trujillo's role in the development of his works and the commitment
with its environment, it is undeniable that its intellectual production (which also includes texts

related to the history and importance of border literature) has been praised through
the years by different literati and awarded multiple (somewhat controversial) prizes
Due to its aesthetics and valuable content, there is no outstanding activity or stance.
clear policy that directly questions the social problems in Baja California
(especially in his hometown Mexicali). And the situation is noticeable within the
statements and participations they have had in the public sphere, as their defense is
more directed toward the literary figure in which its (fiction) works are framed
No clear ideology that allows for contrasting and comparing with its intellectual production.

Conclusions

Therefore, it is necessary to highlight that, within the framework of the investigation regarding the complaint

social and the way it has been assumed in the analysis of some works by authors
recognized, this concept is not taken as such but as a category in which
classify a certain work just by proposing some facts that coincide with a
determined social context. That is to say, when analyzing a specific work many
experts from various fields assumed that this was an era of social denunciation for highlighting some

issues that coincided with the social, political, cultural, and economic landscape of the
What an author was going through at the moment they created their work.

In light of the above, the first thing to point out is that many of the elements are ignored.
that complement the concept of social denunciation, such as the level and capacity of
intervention of the author beyond the literary discourse, their degree of commitment-action (both
the political action as its own discourse in social spheres, all in favor of a
cause), its intent to show certain situations. Therefore, there is no type of
a deep explanation that argues why it is a work of social critique, as it
reiterates, beyond the fact of presenting situations of an urgent reality.

24
Secondly, although many of the analyses and research conducted around
a work explains the position, ideology, and political stance of its author, as well as the
historical, political, economic, social, and cultural panorama of the reality it refers to
in their work and that indeed reflect the elements specific to a work of
social denunciation, the explanations do not have a theoretical-conceptual argumentation that
show this panorama. That is to say, it is assumed that specific situations are taken from
which experts point out that a certain intellectual made a complaint about
reported by explaining and putting into dialogue the aspects that intervene in these two
realities and that are similar without attending to the specific elements of the complaint
social and attributed a theoretical and conceptual context to it.

On the other hand, among the issues presented both in the literary environment as well as
In the social reality of Baja California, although it is true that they do not present a parallel order - it is

saying the order of relevance in which they are presented in these two contexts is not the same–, if
there is a very similar relationship, at least regarding crimes such as murder and
corruption by members of state entities (which are the problems of
greatest coincidence), where the first is present in all five narratives, while the
second is presented in three. In this sense, a problem, for which Baja California
is ranked number one among all 32 States of Mexico and its Federal District,
As theft with and without violence presents the highest rate, it has no place in the environment.
literary, since at no point is a case like this mentioned. Likewise, the levels
the perceived insecurity felt by the residents of Baja California is also high, exceeding
almost 40%, which in some way would contrast with Miguel's pessimistic perception.
Ángel Morgado as well as other characters (like friends or acquaintances of Morgado that
they describe a decadent image of these cities as 'fire borders' and sites
even if they are not recognized within the Mexican State) that initially have
regarding Tijuana and Mexicali in the story of Mezquite Road and Tijuana City Blues and then
it transforms into the account of Laguna Salada.

In another vein of ideas, among the elements that make up a work of literature
social complaint takes into account that as the author, Gabriel Trujillo Muñoz, although he presents
an intentionality and awareness to show social and political issues,
economic and cultural aspects of Baja California (the state from which he is originally) his actions only

25
limits to the academy: within the documentary analysis that was carried out in the development of
This article does not demonstrate that its actions are aimed at publicly stating
certain facts (self-speech), or in favor of a cause or support for a certain type of work.
There is also no clear political or ideological position on his part.
it shows that there is an absence of commitment-action from this author
in the development of his career as an intellectual and writer.

The above does not mean that, due to the absence of this element, it affects disqualification.
the work The Feast of Crows within the category of social denunciation literature, since
It is worth highlighting that in this, the other elements that compose and designate are currently in effect.

a work that serves as a social denunciation and characterizes it as such. However, of

to definitively qualify this work as a social denunciation, taking into account
elements such as the exposition in the literary environment of elements that are inherent (and
close) to the reality of Baja California, and Trujillo's intent and awareness to
show these facts - without this display being a commitment - clear action - it would fall into it

that many authors have already done and to which a clear criticism has been made through the
development of this article–, and it is to take on the work in this category or typology because
meets most of the requirements of a literary speech of social denunciation
has.

It should also be remembered that arriving at part of a conclusion that certainly

it leaves a panorama and an open response regarding the analysis conducted here of the work
feast of crows, the theoretical and conceptual elements that should not be diminished are
they defined, as well as their methodology, as these allowed for an account of a perspective
sociological aspect of the work. In addition, the definition and characterization of these elements (both the

the concept of social denunciation as the sociology of literature methodology leads to the fact that in
future research and analysis should be considered as analytical tools
other works.

In this regard, what would be recommended for these future processes is that, firstly,
these elements should be considered as useful tools applicable to other processes
investigative and that also investigates other types of perspectives from which it is
it is possible to observe and allocate social denunciation (mainly) as a concept. And in

26
the second place where a deeper analysis of the work is necessary.
Trujillo, which would involve a different methodology and elements, without disregarding these
characteristics and contributions made in this work (regarding the category of denunciation
social as the most relevant element). Therefore, it is recommended to seek methodologies
from a linguistic field analysis (such as critical discourse analysis), sociological,
anthropological, communicational, among others, that allows exploring, with different
settings and in a deeper way, the literary value of this work.

To conclude, works of social protest are not only spaces but also instruments through
of which it is possible to highlight a series of facts and problems that are
urgent in a specific social reality and that allow the reader to know about various
the characteristics unique to this context, whether social, cultural, or political,
historical or economic. Likewise, this type of literature – which acknowledges the intention and the

awareness of an author to reflect a series of issues, themes or situations that

considered relevant and demanding - is conducive to putting into discussion in the sphere
publish these elements, as well as a space that, without sacrificing its aesthetic value, allows
to see a different perspective on landscapes that are often alien to them
individuals or that the indices and qualitative studies are not sufficient to show.

27
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