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CHAPTER 1: Political Science, Politics, and Political

Organization(470 slides)
Political Science as a Discipline
● Science: Systematic inquiry aiming to build ordered propositions about the world.

● Discipline: A specific branch of knowledge.

● Political Science: The systematic study of politics, government structures, and power
relations.

● It investigates how power is acquired, used, and limited within a society.

Is Political Science a Legitimate Science?

● Yes, dahil gumagamit ito ng scientific methods tulad ng observation, hypothesis, data
gathering, and analysis para mas maunawaan ang political behavior at institutions.

What is Politics?
● According to Webster:

○ The science of civil government

○ Political affairs in a party sense

● Ayon sa Political Scientists:

○ Politics is about the constrained use of social power.

○ It studies the nature, source, and limitations of power.

○ It also explores how power is distributed and legitimized.

Political Organization
1. Band – maliit na grupo ng magkakamag-anak; walang pormal na lider.

2. Tribe – mas malaking komunidad, may mga informal leaders.

3. Chiefdom – may formal leader na 'chief'.

 4. State – pinakapormal; may fixed territory, permanent population, government, and
sovereignty.

CHAPTER 2: Nation, State, and Government

Nation
● A large group of people united by common:

○ ancestry

○ history

○ culture

○ language

○ territory

○ economic life

● May psychological unity (shared identity).

● Nationalism: Ideology of loyalty to one's nation, even above other interests.

Types of Nationalism Thinkers:

1. Anthony Smith
- British Historical Sociologist
- One of the founders of disciplinary field
- The Primordialists and Modernists

Primordialists

○ Nations are basic units of social cohesion; a natural part of humanity.

○ Nationalism is old (around 2000 years).
○ 3 PARTS: Structuralism | Post Structuralism | Instrumentalism

2. Modernists (Ernest Gellner):

○ Nationalism is a modern phenomenon, needed for industrial economies.

○ Nations exist to support industrial needs like a skilled, mobile workforce.

State
● A political and legal concept vs. Nation (ethnic/cultural).
 ● Composed of people in a fixed territory, under one political body.

Distinction of State:

● Basic ethnic.
● Has sovereignty, not subject to external control.
● Composed of one or more nations/people.

Elements of a State:
1. People

2. Territory – land, water, airspace

3. Government – administrators of the state

4. Sovereignty – supreme authority over its territory

De Jure vs. De Facto Government

● De Jure: Legal and recognized by the Constitution.

● De Facto: In power by force or majority but not legally established.

Three Kinds of De Facto Government

1. A government that exists and maintains control without legal title.

2. A government established by a usurper who gains control.

3. A government formed by people in insurrection against the parent state.

Forms of Government by Structure

● Unitary Government: Central government holds full control over both national and local
affairs (e.g., Philippines).

● Federal Government: Power is divided between a central government (national) and

regional governments (local), each with its own responsibilities (e.g., USA).

Forms of Government by Executive-Legislative Relationship

● Presidential Government:

○ The President is both head of state and head of government.

○ The executive branch is independent of the legislative.

 ○ All three branches (executive, legislative, judiciary) are co-equal.

● Parliamentary Government:

○ The President (or monarch) is ceremonial head of state.

○ The Prime Minister, chosen by the legislature, is head of government.

○ The executive is dependent on and accountable to the legislature.

Essential Functions of the State

1. Regulating family relations (e.g., between spouses and children)

2. Maintaining public order and protecting life and property

3. Enforcing criminal law

4. Resolving civil disputes through the justice system

5. Conducting foreign affairs

6. Managing public infrastructure and services, including:

○ Education

○ Public health and sanitation

○ Charities

○ Trade and industry regulations

Functions of Government

1. Constituent Functions (Compulsory)

These are essential functions that the government must perform to maintain law, order, and
sovereignty.

Key Examples:
● Fixing legal relations between:

○ Husband and wife

○ Parents and children

 ● Maintaining peace and order

○ Protection of persons and property

● Crime administration and punishment

● Justice in civil cases

● Foreign affairs

○ Diplomatic relations with other states

2. Ministrant Functions (Optional or Non-Essential)

These are service-oriented functions that a government may perform to promote the welfare
of its people.

Key Examples:
● Public works (infrastructure, roads, bridges)

● Public education

● Public charity or welfare

● Water supply and sewerage systems

● Public health services

● Safety and trade/industry regulations

Sovereignty
Sovereignty is the supreme power of the state to command and enforce obedience within its
territory (internal sovereignty) and to be recognized by other states (external sovereignty or
independence).

Forms of Government

● Monarchy: Sovereignty is held by one person. Can be pure (absolute rule by

king/queen) or limited (like in the UK or Spain).

● Aristocracy/Oligarchy: Political power is held by a privileged class or elite.

● Democracy: Power is held by the majority. Can be:

○ Direct Democracy: Citizens directly make decisions.

 ○ Indirect/Representative Democracy: Elected officials represent the people.

Rights and Obligations of a State

1. Right to exist and be independent

2. Right to own property and territory

3. Right to enforce laws (jurisdiction)

4. Right to engage with other states (intercourse)

Doctrines of the State

● Parens Patriae: The state acts as guardian for those unable to care for themselves.

● Immunity from Suit: The state and its agencies can't be sued without consent, which
may be:

○ Express (by law)

○ Implied (e.g., when entering business contracts or initiating lawsuits)

○ Even with court judgment, state properties cannot be seized without further
consent.

SIMILARITIES AMONG POLICE POWER, EMINENT

DOMAIN, AND TAXATION
1. Inherent in the State

○ These powers exist as soon as a state is established — not granted by the

Constitution.

2. Essential for State Survival

○ Without these powers, a state cannot function effectively.

3. Affect Private Property

○ All three involve some level of interference with private property.

4. Primarily Legislative in Nature

○ Their exercise usually comes from laws passed by the legislative branch.
 5. Implied Compensation

○ Their use presupposes a form of compensation, especially when affecting

citizens’ property.

DISTINCTIONS AMONG THE THREE

Criteria Police Power Eminent Domain Taxation

Scope of Effect Affects liberty & property Affects property only Affects property
only

Who Can Only the government Government or Only the

Exercise It? private entities (with government
authority)

Purpose To regulate for the public To take private To raise revenue

welfare property for public for public
use purposes

Compensation No tangible compensation Just compensation No direct return,

– only public good is required (fair but public
market value) services are
expected

Nature of Often involves destruction Property is taken for Funds are

Property Taken of harmful property (e.g., beneficial public use collected for public
illegal drugs, unsafe (e.g., roads) spending
structures)

Inherent Powers of the State

These powers are essential for state existence and not granted by the Constitution:

1. Police Power – Regulates liberty/property to promote public welfare (most pervasive).

2. Eminent Domain – Right to take private property for public use with just compensation.

3. Taxation – Power to collect taxes for public purposes, with limitations to ensure fairness
and legality.

Chapter 3: Concept of the Constitution

● The Constitution is the fundamental law of a nation.

● It:
○ Establishes the structure of government

○ Distributes powers across branches

○ Lays out core principles and civil liberties

○ Aims to serve the common good

1987 Philippine Constitution Definition:

A written document that defines and limits government powers, distributing them for the
people’s benefit.

Nature and Scope of Constitutional Law

1. Eternal Law

● Divine order guiding the universe (also called Universal Law for non-believers)

2. Natural Law

● Natural Physical Laws: govern all of nature (e.g. gravity)

● Natural Moral Laws: govern human behavior (right vs wrong)

3. Positive Laws

● Made after creation, by God or man

○ Divine Laws: Given by God (e.g., Ten Commandments)

○ Human Laws:
 ■ Ecclesiastical Laws: Church rules

■ Civil Laws:

■ Public Laws: Govern state-subject relations

■ Political, Criminal, International Law

■ Private Laws: Govern individual relationships

■ Civil, Commercial, Conflict of Laws

Political Law Subdivisions

● Political Law Proper: Structure & powers of government

● Constitutional Law: Nature, formation, and interpretation of constitutions

● Administrative Law: Work of executive agencies

● Law on Local Government: Local governance

● Law on Public Officers: Ethics & accountability of public servants

● Election Law: Conduct of elections and voting

● Criminal Law and Procedure: Crime definitions & due process

● Public International Law: Inter-nation relations

Private Law Subdivisions

● Civil Law: Family, property, contracts, obligations

● Commercial Law: Business, trade, sales

● Conflict of Laws: Which country’s law applies in international legal disputes

Kinds of Constitution
By Origin:

● Conventional/Enacted: Created by deliberate action (e.g., 1987 Philippine Constitution)

● Cumulative/Evolved: Developed through customs, traditions, court rulings

By Form:

● Written: Codified in a single document

● Unwritten: Based on customs and judicial decisions

By Amendment Process:

● Rigid: Hard to change; requires special procedure

● Flexible: Can be changed like any regular law

Advantages of Written Constitution:

● Clear, stable, protects rights

Disadvantage:

● Less flexible, hard to adapt quickly

Interpretation of the Constitution

Key Terms:

● Construction: Understanding and applying the law in unclear cases

● Interpretation: Explores only the text of the law

Guiding Principles:

1. Read the Constitution as a whole

2. Prioritize justice and equity

3. Spirit of the law > Letter of the law

4. What’s implied is as binding as what’s written

5. “Shall” = Mandatory, “May” = Permissive

6. Presumed Self-Executing unless stated otherwise

Aids to Interpretation:

● Foreign laws it was based on

 ● Convention records and debates

● Sponsor’s speeches

Chapter 4: The Preamble, National

Territory, Principles and Policies
THE PREAMBLE
“We, the sovereign Filipino people, are imploring the aid of Almighty God...”

● The Preamble contains ideals that the constitution seeks to achieve.(importance)

● It encourages love and passion for our country, the Philippines(importance)
● Citizen - A person who is recognized by the state as possessing full civil and political
rights, and who owes allegiance to the country.
● Inhabitants - It refers to individuals who reside in the country, whether they are citizens.
This term may also be used to refer to individuals who are temporarily residing in the
country, such as foreign workers or tourists
● Voters - a person who is registered to vote in elections.
● Overall, the terms "citizens," "inhabitants," and "voters" in the Philippines are used to
describe different groups of individuals within the country's legal and political system,
and each term has specific legal implications

● It states the goals of the Filipino people:

○ Build a just and humane society

○ 1973 Preamble (Imploring the aid of Divine Providence) VS 1987 Preamble

(Imploring the aid of Almighty God)
○ 1973 Preamble (General Welfare/ikakabuti ng nakararami) VS 1987 Preamble
(Common Good/Ikakabuti ng lahat)
● “Sovereign Filipino people” refers to the source of power—the people themselves.

NATIONAL TERRITORY
The national territory includes:

1. ARCHIPELAGO DOCTRINES – doctrine which advocates integration of a group of

islands into one unit, country, and state by drawing an imaginary baseline around the
outermost islands.
2. Island Waters – such as lakes, rivers, and similar bodies of water.
3. Internal Waters – bodies of water circumscribed by the straight line connecting the
outermost islands are part of the national territory.
 4. Territorial Waters – 12 nautical miles from the coastline under UNCLOS (United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea).

Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) – 200 nautical miles from the baseline, where the
Philippines has exclusive rights to explore and exploit resources.

ARTICLE II – DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES AND STATE POLICIES

Nature of Article II;
- Nature of provisions
- Obligations of the government
- Remedy of the people
- Importance of these provisions
- This article could also be viewed as the objectives/remedial measures which the
government is obligated to pursue in view of the present situation of the Filipino Nation.

Section 1

● The Philippines is a democratic and republican State.

● Sovereignty resides in the people; government authority comes from them.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A DEMOCRATIC AND REPUBLICAN STATE

1. Existence of a Bill of Rights

2. Majority rule through regular exercise of surface
3. Government of law and not men
4. State can not pass irrepealable laws
5. Non-sustainability of the state without its consent
6. Accountability of public officials
7. Separation of Powers; equality among the three main branches of government, as well
as the 'blending of powers" (system of checks and balances)
8. Delegation of powers

Who has sovereignty?

1. Sovereignty and all government authority resides in the people.

2. This authority is exercised by duly elected public officials.

Section 2

● Renounces war as a national policy.

● Upholds international law and promotes peace, equality, justice, and cooperation.
Section 3

● Civilian authority is supreme over the military.

1. The supremacy of civilian authority over the military always
2. This provision is a safeguard against a military
3. In the present Constitution that the prime duty of the Armed Forces is to
protect the people and state

Section 4

● Prime duty of government: serve and protect the people.

● Citizens may be required by law to render military or civil service.

1. It is for the defense of the State.
2. It is compulsory, not optional.
3. It is personal and direct which cannot be fulfilled by means of money or
substituted by other means.
4. It must be in accordance with the provisions of law to preclude abuse by
the authorities
5. One may choose between military service and civil service.

Section 5

● Peace and order, protection of life and liberty, and the promotion of general welfare
are essential to democracy.

Section 6

● Absolute separation of Church and State.

Other State Policies (Sections 7–21)

- The principles on which any measure of course of action is based
- The line of conduct which the rulers of a nation adopt on question

SECTION 7
The state shall pursue an independent foreign policy. In its relations with other states,
the paramount consideration shall be national sovereignty, territorial integrity, national interest,
and the right to self- determination

SECTION 8
The Philippines, consistent with the national interest, adopts and pursues a policy of
freedom from nuclear weapons in its territory.

SECTION 9
The State shall promote a just and dynamic social order that will ensure the prosperity
and independence of the nation and free the people from poverty through policies that provide
adequate social services, promote full employment, a rising standard of living, and an improved
quality of life for all.

SECTION 10
The state shall promote social justice in all phases of national development.

SECTION 11
The State values the dignity of every human person and guarantees full respect for
human rights.

SECTION 12
The State recognizes the sanctity of family life and shall protect and strengthen the
family as a basic autonomous social institution.

SECTION 13
The State recognizes the vital role of the youth in notify-building and shall promote their
physical, moral, spiritual, intellectual and social well-being.

SECTION 14
provides that the State recognizes the role of women in nation-building and shall ensure
that fundamental equality before the law of women and men.

SECTION 15
The state shall protect and promote the right to health of the people and instill health
consciousness among them.

SECTION 16
The State shall protect and advance the right of the people to a balanced and healthful
ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.

SECTION 17
The state shall give priority to education, science and technology, arts, culture, and
sports to foster patriotism and nationalism, accelerate social progress, and promote total human
liberation and development.

SECTION 18
The state affirms labor as a primary social economics force. It shall protect the right of
workers and promote their welfare.

SECTION 19
The state shall develop a self-reliant and independent national economy effectively
controlled by Filipinos.

SECTION 20
 The State recognizes the indispensable role of the private sector, encourages private
enterprise, and provides incentives to needed investments.

SECTION 21
The State shall promote comprehensive rural development and agrarian reform.

Chapter 5: The Bill of Rights (Philippine

Constitution, Article III)
Key Quote

"The Bill of Rights wasn't enacted to give us any rights, but rather so
the Government could not take away from us any rights that we
already had."
— Kenneth G. Eade

I. Historical Background
● Origin: Magna Carta (1215, Runnymede, England)

○ Issued by King John due to pressure from barons and clergy.

○ Protected feudal rights against royal overreach.

○ Repudiated, reissued (1216 & 1217), and confirmed by later kings.

● Became a symbol of English liberty in the 17th century (e.g., trial by jury,
no taxation without representation).

II. Definition, Nature, Basis, and Purpose

Definition

A set of civil and political rights that limits government power to ensure individual
freedoms.

Nature

● Directed only against government and law enforcement agencies.

 ● Not applicable to private individuals' acts.
(Case: People vs. Domasian)

Basis

● Inviolable character and dignity of man as an individual.

Purpose

● Preserve democratic ideals

● Safeguard fundamental rights

● Promote individual happiness

III. Classes of Constitutional Rights

1. Political Rights

○ Concern participation in government.

2. Civil Rights

○ Include social, economic rights, and rights of the accused.

IV. Due Process of Law (Section 1)

"No person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due
process of law."

Key Concepts

● Life, Liberty, Property

● Equal Protection of Laws

○ Treat similarly situated people equally.

○ Valid Classifications must be:

a) Based on substantial distinction
b) Germane to the law's purpose
c) Not limited to current conditions
 d) Apply equally to all in the same class

V. Aspects of Due Process

1. Substantive Due Process

● Law must be reasonable and valid.

2. Procedural Due Process

● Right to notice, hearing, and judgment by a competent tribunal.

VI. Requisites of Due Process

Judicial

1. Competent court

2. Lawful jurisdiction

3. Opportunity to be heard

4. Judgment upon lawful hearing

Criminal

1. Hearing before competent court

2. Due legal procedure

3. Inquiry before punishment

4. Notice to accused

5. Right to be heard

6. Judgment under constitutional law

Administrative
 1. Right to hearing

2. Consideration of evidence

3. Decision based on records

4. Decision supported by facts

5. Decision explains issues and reasons

VII. Searches and Seizures (Section 2)

"Right to be secure in person, house, papers, and effects against
unreasonable searches and seizures."

Search Warrants

● Must be issued upon probable cause

● Must describe place and items/person to be searched/seized

Valid Warrantless Searches

1. Voluntary waiver

2. Lawful arrest (incident to arrest)

3. Vessel/aircraft searches (customs/immigration)

4. Border inspections

5. Enforcement of building/fire/sanitary laws

6. Plain view doctrine

7. Military zoning/saturation drives

VIII. Privacy of Communication (Section 3)

● Inviolable, except:

○ With court order

 ○ For public safety or order

● Illegally obtained evidence is inadmissible.

IX. Freedom of Speech and Assembly (Section 4)

"No law shall be passed abridging freedom of speech, of expression,
or of the press..."

Tests of Validity of Government Regulation

1. Clear and Present Danger Rule

○ Must be proven by government

○ Danger must be traceable to expression

2. Dangerous Tendency Rule

○ Speech tending to cause evil can be punished

3. Balancing of Interests Test

○ Courts weigh freedom vs. public interest

Permit to Rally (BP Blg. 880)

● Apply 5 days before to Mayor’s Office

● Must include details: group, leaders, crowd size, location, sound system

● Mayor’s inaction within 2 days = approved

● If denied → Hearing must be held

● Appeal can go to Supreme Court

X. Freedom of Religion
Non-Establishment Clause
 ● The state cannot:

○ Set up a church

○ Prefer a religion

○ Coerce religious participation or belief

Freedom of Belief and Worship

● Belief: Absolute

● Actions: Can be regulated by law

XI. Rights of the Accused (Section 14)

1. Presumption of innocence

2. Right to:

○ Counsel

○ Speedy, impartial, public trial

○ Be informed of accusation

○ Confront witnesses

○ Secure attendance of own witnesses

Additional Points

● The right to cross-examination is essential.

● Right to speedy trial violated by:

○ Unjustified delay

○ Vexatious or capricious postponements

XII. Writ of Habeas Corpus (Section 15)

 ● May be suspended only in cases of invasion or rebellion.

● Definition: A court order requiring a detained person to be brought to court

and justified.

XIII. Speedy Disposition of Cases (Section 16)

● Applies to judicial, quasi-judicial, and administrative bodies

● Waivable if not asserted reasonably

XIV. Right Against Self-Incrimination (Section 17)

● No person can be forced to testify against themselves

● Applies to:

○ Accused and witnesses

○ Criminal, civil, administrative, legislative proceedings

CHAPTER 6: CITIZENSHIP AND SUFFRAGE

CITIZENSHIP

● Citizenship – Legal status between individual and the state; includes

rights and duties.

PH SECTION 1: Who are Citizens of the Philippines

1. Citizens at the time of adoption of the 1987 Constitution

2. Whose father or mother is a Filipino

3. Born before Jan 17, 1973 to Filipino mother, and chose citizenship at age
of majority

4. Naturalized according to law

PH SECTION 2: Natural-born Citizens

● Citizens from birth without any act to acquire it

● Those who elected citizenship (Sec. 1, no. 3) are also deemed natural-
born

PH SECTION 3–5: Other Citizenship Rules

● Citizenship may be lost or reacquired by law

● Filipinos who marry foreigners retain citizenship unless renounced

● Dual allegiance is prohibited; shall be dealt with by law

MODES OF ACQUIRING CITIZENSHIP

1. By birth

○ Jus Sanguinis: Right of blood (from Filipino parents)

○ Jus Soli: Right of the soil (NOT practiced in PH)

2. By naturalization – Legal process for foreigners to become citizens

3. By marriage – Special laws allow citizenship through Filipino spouse

4. By repatriation – Regaining previously held PH citizenship

MODES OF NATURALIZATION

● Direct

○ Court proceedings

○ Legislative act

○ Collective naturalization

○ Orphan adoption

● Derivative
 ○ Wife and minor children of naturalized citizen

○ Alien woman marrying a Filipino

QUALIFICATIONS FOR NATURALIZATION

1. 21 years old

2. 10-year residency

3. Good moral character

4. Owns real property

5. Speaks English, Spanish, or Filipino language

6. Enrolled minor children in PH school

SUFFRAGE (Right to Vote)

● Section 1: Right of all Filipino citizens who:

○ Are at least 18 years old

○ Resident in PH for at least 1 year

○ Resident in voting place for at least 6 months

● No requirement for literacy, property, or wealth

CHAPTER 7: THE LEGISLATIVE

DEPARTMENT
Section 1

● Legislative Power: Given to the Congress

● Congress = Senate + House of Representatives

Legislative Powers
 1. Propose, enact, amend, and repeal laws

2. Initiative and Referendum – People’s direct power to:

○ Amend Constitution

○ Enact national or local laws

Initiative Requirements

● 2,000 voters (regions)

● 1,000 (province/city)

● 100 (municipality)

● 50 (barangay)

Limitations:

● Only once a year

● Should be within local powers

● Sanggunians can't amend/repeal within 6 months (unless ¾ agree after 3

years)

Nature of Legislative Power

● Delegated, Derived, General, Includes Implied Powers

● Congress has Non-legislative functions:

○ Acts as Constituent Assembly to amend Constitution

COMPOSITION AND QUALIFICATIONS

SENATE

● Term: 6 years

● Max 2 consecutive terms

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

● Max 250 members

● Includes party-list (20% of total)

Qualifications:

● Natural-born citizen

● 25 years old

● Able to read and write

● Resident of district for 1 year

● Registered voter

Party-list System

● Promotes representation of:

○ Sectoral groups

○ Organizations

○ Coalitions

○ Registered political parties

Must be registered with COMELEC

PROCESS OF PASSING A BILL

1. First reading

2. Committee referral

3. Second reading

4. Debate

5. Printing/distribution
 6. Third reading

7. Transmittal to other House

8. Bicameral committee

9. Approval of both Houses

10. Submission to President

SECTION 27: President’s Power

1. Can approve or veto

2. Can veto specific items (line-item veto) in money bills

Parts of a Law

1. Title

2. Preamble

3. Enacting Clause

4. Body

5. Effectivity Clause

CHAPTER 8: THE EXECUTIVE

DEPARTMENT
SECTION 1: Executive Power

● Executive Power: Kapangyarihang ipatupad ang batas

● Vested in the President of the Philippines

Mga Batas na Ipinapatupad ng Pangulo

1. Constitution
 2. Statutes (batas na pinagtibay ng Kongreso)

3. Presidential decrees

4. Executive orders

5. Court decisions

6. Treaties

7. International law principles

POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

1. Administrative – Pamamahala sa gobyerno

2. Power of Appointment and Removal – Pagtalaga o pag-alis ng mga

opisyal

3. Military Power – Commander-in-Chief

4. Judicial Power – Pagbibigay ng clemency

5. Legislative Power – Pag-apruba o pag-veto ng batas

6. Diplomatic Power – Pakikipag-ugnayan sa ibang bansa

SECTION 2: Qualifications for President

● Natural-born citizen

● Registered voter

● Marunong bumasa at sumulat

● 40 years old on election day

● Resident of PH for 10 years prior to election

SECTION 3: The Vice President

 ● Same qualifications and term as the President

● Elected separately from the President

● Pwede ring ma-appoint sa Cabinet (hindi kailangan ng confirmation)

Cabinet Positions (Ilan sa mga ito):

● Secretary of Education, Health, Agriculture, Justice, etc.

● Executive Secretary

● Director General of NEDA

● Chair of CHED

Powers of Cabinet Secretaries

● Alter ego of the President

● May maglabas ng department orders

● Tagapayo sa Pangulo sa kani-kanilang larangan

SECTION 4: Election and Term of Office

● Direct vote ng taumbayan

● President: Not eligible for re-election

● VP: Max 2 successive terms

● Election Date: 2nd Monday of May

● Election Returns: Sinusuri ng Kongreso

● Contests on returns and qualifications: Under Supreme Court sitting as

Presidential Electoral Tribunal (PET)

Fr. Joaquin Bernas: Once elected President, hindi na maaaring tumakbo muli,
kahit lumipas ang ilang termino
SECTION 5: Oath of Office
"I solemnly swear that I will faithfully and conscientiously fulfill my
duties..."

● Required before assuming office

● Pwede ring affirmation (no “So help me God”)

SECTION 9: Vacancy in Office of VP

● President nominates a Senator or Representative

● Subject to confirmation by Congress

SECTION 10: Vacancy in Office of President and VP

● Congress shall convene on 3rd day after vacancy

● Certified urgent under Article VI, Sec. 26(2) and Sec. 25(4)

SECTION 18: Military Powers (Commander-in-Chief)

● May call Armed Forces to:

○ Suppress lawless violence

○ Address invasion or rebellion

Martial Law & Suspension of Writ of Habeas Corpus

● In case of invasion/rebellion + public safety requires it

● Duration: Max 60 days, must report to Congress within 48 hrs

● Congress can revoke or extend

● Supreme Court may review factual basis

Meaning of Martial Law

● General Sense: Military laws applied nationwide

● Strict Sense: Military takes over civilian functions during extreme cases

SECTION 19: Executive Clemency

● Powers:

○ Pardon – Forgiveness after final judgment

○ Reprieve – Delay of punishment

○ Commutation – Lighter penalty

○ Parole – Conditional release

○ Amnesty – Forgiveness for groups (needs Congress approval)

Limitations of Clemency

● Not allowed in impeachment cases

● Not for legislative contempt

● Not during appeal, unless appeal is withdrawn

● For election law violations, must have COMELEC recommendation

● Only after final conviction

Mnemonics & Tips:

PAM-JLD: Powers of the President

● P – Power of appointment/removal

● A – Administrative

● M – Military
 ● J – Judicial (clemency)

● L – Legislative (veto)

● D – Diplomatic (treaties)

PARPA – Types of Clemency

● Pardon

● Amnesty

● Reprieve

● Parole

● A – Commutation (Think: Alighter penalty)

CHAPTER 9 – THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT

SECTION 1: Judicial Power

● Judicial power is held by one Supreme Court and lower courts

established by law.

● Judicial power includes:

○ Resolving real legal disputes involving enforceable rights.

○ Determining grave abuse of discretion by any government branch

or agency.

Political vs. Justiciable Questions

● Political Question:

○ A matter of policy, usually left to the legislative or executive.

○ Concerns decisions based on wisdom, not legality.

 ○ Example: Deciding to declare war, make laws, or appoint officials.

● Justiciable Question:

○ A matter appropriate for the courts.

○ Involves legal rights that are violated and can be remedied by

law.

Organization of Courts in the Philippines

a. Regular Courts (Pyramid structure)

1. Supreme Court – highest court.

2. Court of Appeals (CA) – has a Presiding Justice and 68 Associate

Justices.

3. Regional Trial Courts (RTC) – 720 judges across 13 regions.

4. Municipal/Metropolitan Courts – lowest courts:

○ Metropolitan Trial Court (MeTC)

○ Municipal Trial Court (MTC)

○ Municipal Circuit Trial Court (MCTC)

b. Special Courts

● Sandiganbayan – handles graft and corruption cases involving public

officials.

● Court of Tax Appeals – hears tax and customs appeals.

c. Shari’a Courts (for Muslims in specific areas)

● Shari’a District Courts

● Shari’a Circuit Courts

SECTION 2: Congressional Power

 ● Congress may define the jurisdiction (authority) of courts.

● But Congress cannot remove the powers of the Supreme Court listed in
Section 5.

● Judiciary cannot be reorganized in a way that affects the job security of

judges.

Definition and Kinds of Jurisdiction

Jurisdiction – the power of a court to hear and decide a case.

Types of Jurisdiction:

1. General – can hear all types of cases (e.g., RTCs).

2. Limited – can only hear specific kinds (e.g., Tax Court).

3. Original – hears the case first (e.g., MTC, RTC).

4. Appellate – hears appeals from lower courts.

5. Exclusive – only that court can hear the case.

6. Concurrent – two or more courts can hear the case.

7. Criminal – deals with crimes.

8. Civil – deals with disputes between private individuals.

SECTION 3: Fiscal Autonomy

● The Judiciary's budget cannot be reduced below the previous year’s

amount.

● Once approved, the budget must be automatically and regularly

released.

SECTION 4: Composition of the Supreme Court

● 15 Members: 1 Chief Justice + 14 Associate Justices.

 ● May sit en banc (all together) or in divisions of 3, 5, or 7 members.

● A vacancy must be filled within 90 days.

Important Rules:

● En Banc Required for:

○ Constitutionality of treaties or laws.

○ Presidential orders or decrees.

● Decisions need a majority vote of those who participated.

● No doctrine can be changed unless the Supreme Court is sitting en banc.

Qualifications of Justices

● Natural-born Filipino citizen

● At least 40 years old

● Must be a lower court judge or practicing lawyer for at least 15 years

SECTION 5: Powers of the Supreme Court

1. Original Jurisdiction (hears cases first) over:

○ Ambassadors, public ministers, consuls

○ Petitions for certiorari, prohibition, mandamus, quo warranto, habeas

corpus

2. Appellate Jurisdiction (reviews lower court decisions) in:

○ Constitutionality of laws, treaties, executive orders

○ Legality of taxes, penalties

○ Questions on lower court’s jurisdiction

○ Criminal cases with reclusion perpetua or death penalty

 ○ Cases involving only questions of law

3. Assign judges to other areas (max 6 months unless agreed).

4. Change the venue of trials to ensure fair judgment.

SECTION 8: Judicial and Bar Council (JBC)

● Main function: Recommends nominees to the Judiciary.

● Members:

○ Chief Justice (Chairman)

○ Secretary of Justice

○ Congress Representative

○ IBP Representative

○ Law Professor

○ Retired Supreme Court Justice

○ Private Sector Representative

● Members serve staggered terms (1–4 years).

● The Clerk of the Supreme Court is JBC Secretary.

SECTION 9: Appointments

● The President appoints justices and judges from a list of 3 nominees by

the JBC.

● No confirmation needed.

● Must be appointed within 90 days (for lower courts).

SECTION 10: Salaries

● Fixed by law and cannot be decreased while in office.

SECTION 11: Tenure and Discipline

● Judges serve during good behavior until age 70 or incapacity.

● The Supreme Court en banc may discipline or remove lower court judges
by majority vote.

SECTION 12: No Dual Roles

● Justices cannot be assigned to quasi-judicial or administrative bodies.

SECTION 13: Decision Process

● All decisions must be based on consultation among members.

● The Chief Justice must issue a certification that consultation happened.

● Dissenting members must explain their disagreement.

SECTION 14: Legal Basis Required

● Courts must clearly state the facts and laws used in decisions.

● Petitions or appeals must be denied with a legal explanation.

CHAPTER 12: National Economy and Patrimony (Article

XII)
Three-Fold Goals of the National Economy

1. Equity – Fair distribution of income and wealth

2. Growth – Sustainable increase in goods/services

3. Productivity – Higher output = better quality of life, esp. for the poor

Strategies to Achieve Goals

1. Develop a self-reliant economy controlled by Filipinos

 2. Promote industrialization and full employment

3. Protect Filipino businesses from unfair foreign competition

4. Ensure equal development of all sectors and regions

5. Encourage private cooperatives, corporations, and collectives

Industrialization

● Development of industries (e.g., mining, transport, manufacturing)

Agrarian Reform

● Redistribution of land to landless farmers

● Includes changing laws/regulations on land ownership

Promotion of Industrialization & Employment

● Link industries with agriculture and agrarian reform

● Use of local natural & human resources

● Must be competitive locally and internationally

Protection of Filipino Enterprises

● Protect against unfair foreign trade practices

● Limit certain sectors to Filipino ownership

Natural Resources (Sec. 2–5)

● Owned by the State

○ Includes land, water, minerals, coal, oil, forests, wildlife, etc.

● Only agricultural lands are alienable

● Foreign participation allowed via co-production/joint ventures

 ○ 60% Filipino ownership required

● President can approve technical/financial agreements (must notify

Congress within 30 days)

Land Classification

● Agricultural, Forest, Mineral, and National Parks

● Only agricultural lands can be leased or owned

○ Lease: 21 years max (corporations: up to 1,000 ha; citizens: 500 ha)

○ Purchase: only Filipino citizens (max. 12 ha)

● Congress must:

○ Define land limits

○ Mark forest/national park boundaries

○ Enact logging ban in endangered areas

Rights of Indigenous Peoples

● Protect ancestral lands

● Apply customary laws when applicable

Use of Property

● Must serve a social function

● State may intervene when needed for the common good

Ownership of Private Lands (Sec. 7–8)

● Can be transferred only to:

1. Filipino citizens
 2. 60% Filipino-owned corporations

3. Aliens by hereditary succession

4. Natural-born Filipinos who lost citizenship (with limits)

Economic Planning Agency (Sec. 9)

● Led by the President

● Drafts & implements national development plans

● Present agency: NEDA (National Economic and Development Authority)

Reserved Investments (Sec. 10)

● Some businesses reserved for Filipinos only, such as:

○ Rural banking, retail, shipping, rice/corn, cottage industries,

government contracts, atomic facilities

● Foreign investment policy must consider:

○ Economic benefits

○ National development needs

○ Regulation and balance

CHAPTER 13: Social Justice and Human Rights (Article

XIII)
General Policy (Sec. 1–2)

● Protect human dignity

● Reduce inequalities (social, economic, political)

● Eliminate cultural inequities

● Encourage self-reliance and freedom of initiative

Definition of Social Justice (Calalang v. Williams)

“Humanization of laws and equalization of social and economic forces

by the State.”

Labor Rights (Sec. 3)

● Right to:

○ Self-organization

○ Collective bargaining/negotiation

○ Strike

○ Job security

○ Humane conditions

○ Living wage

○ Policy participation

● Promote equality and full employment

Agrarian Reform (Sec. 4–6)

● Redistribute land fairly

● Involve farmers, workers, and landowners

● Offer support (e.g., tech, credit, services)

● Allow resettlement of landless families

Fisherfolk Protection (Sec. 7)

● Support subsistence fishermen

● Provide access to tech, research, markets

● Conserve marine resources

Landowner Incentives (Sec. 8)

● Payment for land can be used as equity in businesses

Urban Land Reform and Housing (Sec. 9–10)

● Provide affordable housing

● Protect poor from unjust evictions

● Require consultation before relocation

Health (Sec. 11–12)

● Accessible health care, esp. for poor

● Develop health workforce

● Enforce drug/food regulation

Support for Disabled (Sec. 13)

● Agency for rehabilitation and integration

Working Women (Sec. 14)

● Ensure safe and healthful working conditions

People’s Organizations (Sec. 15)

● State supports their participation

● Law must create consultation mechanisms

Commission on Human Rights (Sec. 17–18)

● Independent body with guaranteed funding

● Functions:
 1. Investigate human rights violations

2. Provide legal aid

3. Visit jails/detention centers

4. Research and educate

REPORTING PPT
Group 1: Exploring the Values and Concepts of
Politics and Governance
THE EVOLUTIONARY ORIGIN OF POLITICS

Neuropolitics (Chung, 2018)

1. Hunter-Gatherer Society (Pre-Civilization)

● Small-scale, pre-civilized social groups.

● Practiced hunting and gathering.

● Believed in pro-individual religions:

○ Animism

○ Belief in an Afterlife

○ Shamanism

2. Agricultural Revolution (Civilization)

● The Neolithic Revolution introduced large, civilized communities.

● Emergence of fictitious prosocial religions:

○ Ancient worship and high gods (imaginary agents).

3. Axial Age (8th to 3rd century BCE)

● Prosocial religions supported political authority.

● High gods and ancestors:

○ Upheld moral standards.

○ Required sacrifice and obedience.

Premodern Imaginative Politics

● Foundation of politics.

● Politics defined as:

“A civilized social order for large-group cooperation based on a shared imaginary

prosocial society to enhance group survival chances under existential group-size
pressure.” — Chung, 2018

THE POLITICAL SYSTEM OF THE PHILIPPINES

Structure: Presidential, Representative, Democratic Republic

Three Branches of Government

1. Legislative (Law-making body)

● Bicameral: Senate (upper) and House of Representatives (lower).

● Senate:

○ 24 senators.

○ Elected at large.

○ Serve 6-year terms.

● House of Representatives:

○ ~250 members.

○ Elected via districts and party-list system.

○ Serve 3-year terms.

2. Executive (Law-enforcing body)

 ● Headed by:

○ President (elected, 6-year term).

○ Vice President (elected, 6-year term).

● Includes:

○ Cabinet (Presidential advisors, confirmed by Commission on Appointments).

3. Judicial (Law-interpreting body)

● Led by the Supreme Court.

● Appointments made by the President based on the Judicial and Bar Council's
recommendations.

● Composed of:

○ Chief Justice

○ 14 Associate Justices

PERSPECTIVES ON POLITICS
Politics as Art
● Art = expression of imagination and creativity.

● Art in politics:

○ Promotes critical thinking.

○ Sheds light on social and political issues.

○ Directs and educates society.

Politics as Power
● Power = influence over others.

● Politics is the exercise of power:

○ Direct behavior.
 ○ Controls or influences societal decisions.

Politics as Conflict / Conflict Resolution

● Abuse of power → leads to conflict.

● Good governance → maintains peace and order.

Politics as a Social Science

● Study of humans and society.

● Focuses on:

○ Government systems

○ Political behavior

○ Power dynamics

Definition
● Governance = systematic management of people, resources, and systems to maintain
order and achieve desired results.

Good Governance
● Governance free from corruption, promoting:

○ Human rights

○ Sustainability

○ Public trust

Essential Qualities:

● Transparency

● Civil Society Participation

● Rule of Law

● Responsiveness
 ● Effectiveness and Efficiency

3 Key Actors:
● The State

● Private Sector

● Civil Society

CONNECTION: POLITICS & GOVERNANCE

Politics Governance

Focuses on power and influence Focuses on implementation and public

service

Involves political parties, elections, Involves laws, administration, efficiency

debates

Driven by agendas and ideologies Driven by policy, order, and citizen welfare

WHY STUDY POLITICS & GOVERNANCE?

● Informed Decision-Making

● Accountability

● Civic Engagement

● Efficient Public Services

● Nation-Building

Major Political Issues in the Philippines:

● Corruption
 ● Misinformation & Fake News

● Poverty & Economic Struggles

● Human Rights & Press Freedom

● Political Dynasties & Election Concerns

Importance of Politics:
● Guides decision-making

● Ensures order and stability

● Protects rights and freedoms

● Influences development

● Empowers citizen participation

HOW POLITICS AFFECTS EVERYDAY LIFE

● Education – Policies, curriculum, tuition

● Jobs & Economy – Labor laws, minimum wage

● Healthcare – Public hospitals, health programs

● Freedom of Speech – Media laws, internet access

● Public Services – Roads, transport, utilities

Group 2: Concept of State

WHAT IS A STATE?
A State is:

“A community of persons, more or less numerous, occupying a definite territory,

possessing an organized government, and enjoying independence from external
control.”

STATE vs NATION

Aspect State Nation

Definition A political unit with defined territory A group of people with shared culture,
and sovereignty. language, and history.

Nature Political concept Racial or ethnic concept

Example USA is a state composed of multiple Arab Nation includes multiple states
nations (Caucasian, African, etc.) (Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Yemen, etc.)

Government Always has a functioning government. May or may not be under the same
government.

ELEMENTS OF A STATE & NATION

1. People
● The population or citizens of the state.

● They hold political power and engage in the governance of the state.

2. Territory
● The geographical area controlled by a state or nation.

● Defined boundaries under the jurisdiction of a sovereign power.

3. Government
● The totality of authorities ruling over society.

● Establishes and enforces laws to regulate freedom and maintain order.

Kinds of Government:

● De Jure Government (Legitimate):

 ○ Legally rightful and recognized, though it might be displaced.

● De Facto Government (Illegitimate):

○ Holds power through force or control, not recognized legally.

3 Types of De Facto Government:

1. Government by Revolution:

○ Formed after overthrowing the existing legal government.

2. Government by Secession:

○ A group separates from a state and forms its own rule.

3. Government by Occupation:

○ A foreign power takes control of a territory (e.g., Japanese occupation of the

Philippines).

4. Sovereignty
● The supreme power of a state to govern itself.

● Involves independent decision-making without external influence.

TERRITORY: Acquisition by a State

States can acquire territory through the following modes:

1. Discovery and Occupation:

○ Finding new land and settling it.

2. Prescription:

○ Acquiring territory through continuous and uncontested possession over time.

3. Cession:

○ Transfer of territory through treaties or agreements.

4. Subjugation and Annexation:

○ Gaining territory by force or conquest and making it part of the state.

 Group 3: Political Theory and Practices in the
Philippine Context

Introduction to Political Theory

● Politics influences governance, social order, and resource distribution.

● Political theories explain how power functions, how policies are formed, and how
citizens interact within a political system.

Major Political Theories

1. Liberalism
● Emphasizes individual rights, democracy, and limited government.

● Key Features:

○ Civil liberties & human rights

○ Rule of law & fair elections

○ Economic freedom (free markets)

○ Social progress (justice & welfare policies)

2. Socialism
● Focuses on collective ownership and economic equality.

● Key Features:

○ Public ownership of key sectors (e.g., healthcare, education)

○ Equal distribution of wealth

○ Government-provided social services

○ Planned economy for the public good

3. Conservatism
● Prioritizes tradition, stability, and gradual change.
 ● Key Features:

○ Upholds cultural/religious values

○ Supports limited government intervention

○ Believes in free markets and law & order

○ Emphasizes moral values and national identity

4. Marxism
● A critique of capitalism aiming for a classless society.

● Key Concepts:

○ Class Struggle: Bourgeoisie vs. Proletariat

○ Revolution: Workers should overthrow capitalist systems

○ Abolish capitalism: End profit-driven economies

○ Communism: Wealth is shared, no private ownership

5. Fascism
● A far-right ideology that promotes authoritarianism and extreme nationalism.

● Key Features:

○ Dictatorial leadership

○ Suppression of dissent

○ Militarization of society

○ Glorification of the state above individuals

🇵🇭 Political Theories in the Philippines

Liberal Democracy
● Inspired by liberalism: free elections, individual rights, and market economy.

● The 1987 Constitution upholds democracy, separation of powers, and civil liberties.
 ● Political Parties exist, but elite dominance and political dynasties are widespread.

Capitalism vs Imperialism

Aspect Capitalism Imperialism

Definition Economic system with private Political/economic control over

ownership & competition weaker nations

Goal Profit, innovation, and growth Expansion of power & resource

extraction

Ownership Businesses privately owned Colonized areas controlled by

foreign powers

Gov't Role Minimal intervention, regulation only Direct or indirect control over
foreign nations

Social Creates wealth & inequality Erodes cultures and increases

Impact dependency

Capitalism in the Philippines

● A mixed capitalist economy: private businesses + government oversight.

● Examples:

○ Jollibee, SM, Ayala – profit-driven businesses

○ Stock market investment opportunities

○ Foreign companies (Apple, Google) investing locally

Pros:
 ● Economic growth

● Innovation and consumer choice

● Wealth creation

Cons:
● Income inequality

● Exploitation of labor

● Limited access to social services for the poor

Imperialism in the Philippines

Key Features:
● Dominant power controls weaker regions

● Exploitation of natural resources and labor

● Cultural and political suppression

Historical Examples:
1. Spanish Rule (1521–1898):

○ Encomienda system, Christianity, forced labor

2. American Rule (1898–1946):

○ Public education, capitalism, and English language

3. Japanese Occupation (1942–1945):

○ Military control, exploitation of resources

4. Modern Influence:

○ Foreign companies dominate local economy and media

Group 4: Dynamics of Government

 ● Refers to how governments function, evolve, and respond to society and global
events.

● Involves:

○ Structures & institutions

○ Decision-making

○ Power distribution

○ Policy implementation

○ Political and societal interactions

David Easton’s Concept (1953):

Politics is the “authoritative allocation of values.” This means governments decide

who gets what, how, and why—whether it’s rights, resources, or responsibilities.

Key Aspects of Government Dynamics

(Based on Hague & Harrop, 2021)

1. Government Structures & Political Systems

Different systems organize power differently:

System Key Features Example

Presidential President is elected separately from the legislature United States 🇺🇸

Parliamentary Prime Minister is selected by and accountable to United

legislature Kingdom 🇬🇧

Hybrid Power is shared between president and prime minister France 🇫🇷

2. Political Change & Stability

Government dynamics change over time:
 ● Democratization: Shift from authoritarian rule to democracy.

● Authoritarian Resurgence: Return to more control and less freedom.

● Political Legitimacy: Stability increases when citizens trust the government.

3. Policy-Making & Implementation

How governments decide and apply policies:

Stages:

● Agenda-Setting: Choosing which issues to prioritize.

● Decision-Making Models:

○ Rational: Logical, planned choices.

○ Incremental: Small adjustments over time.

○ Garbage Can: Quick, chaotic decisions with unclear priorities.

● Bureaucracy: Civil servants implement policies.

4. Electoral Systems & Representation

Electoral System Description Outcome

Majoritarian Most votes wins Clear majorities, less diversity

Proportional Seats = % of More parties, coalitions

Representation votes

Hybrid Mix of both Balance of fairness & efficiency

5. Political Culture & Ideology

● Political Culture: Shared beliefs and traditions about governance.

● Ideologies:

○ Democracy, Socialism, Conservatism, etc.

 ● Public Opinion & Social Movements: Citizens influence decisions via:

○ Protests, social media, elections

6. Global Influences & Governance Challenges

Governments must navigate international forces:

● Globalization: Interconnected economies and technology

● Supranational Organizations: (e.g., UN, ASEAN, EU) influence national policies

● Crisis Management: Dealing with pandemics, climate change, wars

Forms of Government

Form Description Example

Democracy Citizens elect leaders United States 🇺🇸

Monarchy Rule by a king/queen; symbolic or ruling United

Kingdom 🇬🇧

Dictatorship Single leader with total power North Korea 🇰🇵

Oligarchy Power held by a small elite group Russia 🇷🇺

Theocracy Rule by religious leaders and laws Iran 🇮🇷

Anarchy No central government or order Somalia

(1990s) 🇸🇴

Group 5: PRESIDENTIAL AND

DEMOCRATIC GOVERNMENT
Presidential System in the Philippines
System Type:
Democratic Government (Representative Democracy)

● Citizens elect public officials through regular elections.

● Governance includes:

○ Voting

○ Public discourse

○ Activism

Separation of Powers
Ensures checks and balances between branches:

Branch Function

Executive President enforces/executive

laws

Legislative Congress creates laws

Judiciary Courts interpret laws

Parliamentary System
Key Features:
● Executive & Legislative branches are interconnected.
 ● The Prime Minister:

○ Comes from the majority party in Parliament.

○ Can be removed by a vote of no confidence.

👥 Head of Government vs. Head of State

Role Who Function

Head of Prime Minister Leads the government, policymaking

Government

Head of State Monarch or President Ceremonial role, represents the

(symbolic) country

Advantages of Parliamentary System

● More political accountability
→ The PM must maintain Parliament’s support.

● Flexibility in leadership
→ Ineffective governments can be replaced quickly.

Challenges of Parliamentary System

● Instability
→ If no party wins a majority, constant changes in leadership can occur.

● Coalition Governments
→ Require compromise, which can slow decision-making.

Application to the Philippines

Debates on Shifting to Parliamentary System
● Supporters Say:

○ Could reduce political gridlock

○ Enables faster decision-making

 ● Critics Argue:

○ Might weaken democratic accountability

○ Could concentrate power in the majority party

Group 6: BUREAUCRACY
Definition
According to Merriam-Webster:

A government characterized by specialized functions, fixed rules, and a

hierarchy of authority.

In the Philippines, bureaucracy enables public service delivery, law enforcement, and
policy support.

Characteristics of Bureaucracy

Feature Description

Hierarchical Top-down chain of command: President → Cabinet → Agencies

Structure → Regional Directors → LGUs → Rank and File

Specialized Roles Roles are clearly defined and divided by sector (e.g., DepEd, DOH,
BIR, etc.)

Rule-based Governed by laws and regulations, not personal preferences

Operations

Key Components by Level

● National Level: Department Secretaries (e.g., DepEd, DOH)

● Agencies: Bureau Directors (e.g., BIR)

● Regulatory Bodies: Commissioners (e.g., SEC, COMELEC)

 ● Local Level: City/Municipal Officers (e.g., health officers)

● Frontliners: Teachers, social workers

● Independent Bodies: Investigators, ombudsmen

Functions of Bureaucracy in the Philippines

Function Example

Policy Implementation BIR collects taxes, DepEd enforces curriculum

Public Service Health, education, disaster relief

Delivery

Regulation DENR (environment), DTI (trade)

Notable Features
● Merit-Based: Recruited via Civil Service Exam

● Decentralized: LGUs manage regional affairs

Challenges
● Inefficiency: Red tape, overlapping roles

● Corruption: Scandals (e.g., pork barrel scam)

● Reforms: E-governance, Anti-Red Tape Act

Government Institutions in the Philippines

Definition
Structured entities responsible for law-making, policy implementation, and justice delivery—
based on the 1987 Constitution.
Three Branches of Government

Branch Role Key Functions

Legislativ Law-making Enacts laws, budgets, treaties, and oversight of

e Executive

Executive Law enforcement & policy Implements laws, manages foreign policy, military,
execution and public administration

Judicial Law interpretation Ensures justice, interprets laws, checks the

constitutionality of actions

Detailed Structure and Functions

Legislative Branch (Congress)

● Bicameral: Senate (24 members) & House of Representatives (district & party-list reps)

● Functions:

○ Makes laws (e.g., budget, tax)

○ Oversight and investigations

○ Senate: Treaties & appointment confirmation

Executive Branch

● Key Figures: President, Vice President, Cabinet Secretaries

● Functions:

○ Executes laws and national plans

○ Appoints heads of departments/agencies

○ Oversees foreign affairs and military

Judicial Branch
 ● Composition: Supreme Court + lower courts

● Functions:

○ Interprets laws and resolves disputes

○ Protects rights (e.g., habeas corpus)

○ Ensures constitutionality of policies

Local Government Units (LGUs)

Level Leaders Functions

Provinces, Cities, Governors, Mayors, Deliver services (e.g., health, markets),

Municipalities, Barangays Barangay Captains collect local taxes, enforce national
policies

Role:
Brings governance closer to the people, ensures community-level responsiveness, and
supports decentralization.

Group 7: Concept of Policy and Power

What is Policy?

A policy is a set of principles, rules, or guidelines designed to influence decisions

and actions within an organization or institution.
It serves as a framework to ensure consistency, guide behavior, and help achieve
specific objectives.

Policy vs. Law

Policy Law

Guides decisions and actions Enforces justice and order

Often internal to organizations Mandated and enforced by the

 state

Flexible and adjustable Legally binding and formalized

Public Policy

Public policy is a set of actions or decisions taken by the government in response to

societal issues or challenges.
It results in programs, projects, and regulations aimed at addressing public needs.

Types of Public Policy

Type Description

Regulatory Imposes restrictions or limitations on behavior (e.g., traffic laws, zoning)

Distributive Provides benefits or services (e.g., infrastructure projects, subsidies)

Redistributive Shifts resources or wealth from one group to another (e.g., tax reforms)

Constituent Focuses on government structure and procedures (e.g., administrative

reforms)

The Policy-Making Process

Although not listed step-by-step in your original, here's a commonly accepted process in political
science:

1. Agenda Setting – Identify the issue.

2. Policy Formulation – Design possible solutions.

3. Policy Adoption – Official approval (e.g., legislation).

4. Policy Implementation – Put the policy into action.

 5. Policy Evaluation – Assess effectiveness and impact.

Concept of Power

Power is the ability to influence, control, or guide the behavior and decisions of others.
It is central in politics and governance.

Types of Power Based on Nature

Type Meaning

Power Over Control or domination of others, often through coercion

Power To Ability to act, make choices, or bring change

Power With Collective/shared power through collaboration or solidarity

Power Within Inner strength, confidence, and self-dignity

Types of Power in Practice

Power Type Description

Coercive Power Based on force or threats (e.g., military control, punishment)

Reward Power Based on the ability to give rewards (e.g., promotions, incentives)

Legitimate Power Based on official position or role (e.g., elected officials, police officers)

Referent Power Based on personal traits like charisma or admiration (e.g., influencers)
Expert Power Based on specialized knowledge or skills (e.g., scientists,
professionals)

Relation of Political Science with Other Disciplines(185 slides)

1. History:

○ Political history focuses on the origin and development of a state’s government,

political structures, and legal systems.

2. Economics:

○ Economics studies the production, distribution, consumption, and conservation of

wealth, which intersects with political science in terms of government policies,
economic systems, and resource allocation.

3. Geopolitics:

○ Geopolitics involves the application of political science through geographical

influences like the state’s size, location, raw materials, and population factors,
impacting both internal and foreign politics.

4. Sociology & Anthropology:

○ These fields analyze the origin and nature of political power, governmental
authority, and collective political behavior patterns.

5. Psychology:

○ Psychology examines the mental and emotional processes that motivate political
behavior in individuals and groups, affecting political decisions and actions.

6. Philosophy:

○ Ancient philosophers like the Sophists, Stoics, Plato, Aristotle, Machiavelli,

Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and Marx contributed greatly to the development of
political theory, especially in the areas of governance and power.

7. Statistics:

○ Statistics provide scientific data on political events and trends, helping to analyze
past and current political situations.
 8. Biology:

○ A newer area, Biopolitics, explores how physical characteristics and hereditary

traits can influence the behavior and development of political leaders, analysts,
and actors.

Concept of Political Control:

1. Power:

○ Defined by Lawson as the ability to control others' behavior by threatening or

enforcing sanctions if their behavior does not align with compliance.

2. Political Power:

○ Political power involves the exercise and control of power within a society,
shaped by the established government.

3. Influence:

○ Influence refers to a broader form of control, where one’s political objectives can
affect the behavior of others without direct enforcement.

4. Authority:

○ Authority is the right to exercise power and influence over governance and
command.

5. Legitimacy:

○ Legitimacy is the perception of being rightly placed in a role and performing the
responsibilities of that role correctly.

Development of Political Thoughts:

Chinese Philosophers:

1. Confucius (551-478 BC):

○ Advocated for the honorable profession of politics and the importance of the civil
service examination system in China.

2. Lao Tzu (604-517 BC):

○ Founder of Taoism, believed in minimal government intervention.

 3. Mencius (372-289 BC):

○ Believed that humans are inherently good and that the hearts of the people
determine the ruler's legitimacy. Opposed war, declaring it a crime.

Greek Philosophers:

1. The Sophists:

○ Professional teachers focused on rhetoric, grammar, poetry, and music,

emphasizing the importance of oratory skills for political leadership.

2. Plato (427-347 BC):

○ Known as the father of political philosophy, believed that reason should regulate
society and that democracy led to poor leadership. Advocated for philosophers to
rule.

○ Famous Quote: “There will be no end to the troubles of the state… till
philosophers become kings.”

3. Aristotle:

○ Known as the father of Political Science, he believed man is naturally a political

animal. Studied various forms of government and emphasized that a political
society exists for noble actions.

4. Stoicism (Zeno of Citium, 336-264 BC):

○ Advocated for the unity of the universe and the brotherhood of men. Believed in a
natural moral law guiding human actions.