11

Plant Science

PRACTICAL BOOK

Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Phone : 5639122/6634373/6635046/6630088
Website : www.moecdc.gov.np
 Feedback Copy

Technical and Vocational Stream

Practical Material

PRACTICAL BOOK
(Grade 11)

Secondary Level
Plant Science

Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Publisher : Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur

© Publisher

Layout by Khados Sunuwar

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted, in any other form or by any means for
commercial purpose without the prior permission in writing of Curriculum
Development Centre.
 Preface
The curriculum and curricular materials have been developed and revised on a regular
basis with the aim of making education objective-oriented, practical, relevant and job
oriented. It is necessary to instill the feelings of nationalism, national integrity and
democratic spirit in students and equip them with morality, discipline and self-reliance,
creativity and thoughtfulness. It is essential to develop in them the linguistic and
mathematical skills, knowledge of science, information and communication
technology, environment, health and population and life skills. it is also necessary to
bring in them the feeling of preserving and promoting arts and aesthetics, humanistic
norms, values and ideals. It has become the need of the present time to make them
aware of respect for ethnicity, gender, disabilities, languages, religions, cultures,
regional diversity, human rights and social values so as to make them capable of
playing the role of responsible Citizens with applied technical and vocational
knowledge and skills. This practical book for Plant Science has been developed in line
with the Secondary Level Plant ScienceCurriculumso as to facilitate the students in
their classroom based practicum and on the job training by incorporating the
recommendations and feedback obtained from various schools, workshops and
seminars, interaction programs attended by teachers, students and parents.
In Bringing out the practical book in this form, the contribution of the Director General
of CDC Dr. Lekhnath Poudel and Prof. Khemraj Dahal, Lal Prasad Amagain, Arjun
Prakash Poudel, Nalaram Devkota, Shiv Kumar Das, DineshTimalsina is highly
acknowledged. The practical works are written by Mahesh Poudel and the subject
matter of the book was edited by BadrinathTimsina and Khilanath Dhamala. CDC
extends sincere thanks to all those who have contributed to developing this practical
book.
This book is a supplimentary practical material for students and teachers. In
addition they have to make use of other relevnt materials to ensure all the learning
outcomes set in the curriculum. The teachers, students and all other stakeholders
are expected to make constructive comments and suggestions to make it a more
useful practical material.

2076 BS Ministry of Education, Science and Technology

Curriculum Development Centre
 Tabe of Contents
Commercial Fruit Production and Orchard
PRACTICAL NO: 1
STUDY OF DIFFERENT FEATURE OF AN ORCHARD 1
PRACTICAL NO: 2
NOMENCLATURE OF FRUIT PLANTS 4
PRACTICAL NO: 3
HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS CROPS 9
PRACTICAL NO: 4
TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE 14
PRACTICAL NO: 5
PLANNING AND LAY OUT OF ORCHARD 19
PRACTICAL NO: 6
PREPARATION OF NURESERY BEDS 25
PRACTICAL NO: 7
PROCUREMENT OF NURSERY PLANTS AND PLANTING IN ORCHARD 29
PRACTICAL NO: 8
STUDY OF BEARING HABITS OF FRUITS CROPS 32
PRACTICAL NO: 9
TRAINING OF DECIDUOUS FRUIT CROPS 37
PRACTICAL NO: 10
PRUNING OF FRUIT TREES 41
PRACTICAL NO: 11
WEEDS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT IN FRUIT CROPS 45
PRACTICAL NO: 12
MANURING AND FERTILIZATION OF FRUIT CROPS 48
PRACTICAL NO: 13
IDENTIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NUTRITIONAL
DEFICIENCIES IN FRUIT CROPS 53
PRACTICAL NO: 14
TO STUDY DIFFERENT METHODS OF IRRIGATION OF FRUIT CROPS
AND THEIR LAYOUT 58
PRACTICAL NO: 15
USES OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS IN FRUIT CROPS 61
PRACTICAL NO: 16
JUDGMENT OF HARVEST MATURITY IN FRUIT CROPS 65
PRACTICAL NO: 17
GRADING, PACKAGING AND STORAGE OF FRUIT CROPS 68
PRACTICAL NO: 18
VISIT OF FRUIT ORCHARD 71
Participatory Agriculture Extension and Marketing
PRACTICAL NO: 1
CONDUCT A BASELINE SURVEY INTO A RURAL COMMUNITY AND
ANALYZE THE SITUATION 74
PRACTICAL NO: 2
IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION OF FARMERS’ PROBLEMS 76
PRACTICAL NO: 3
LEARN ABOUT RRA AND PRA TOOLS AS A QUALITATIVE APPROACH
OF INFORMATION COLLECTION 79
PRACTICAL NO: 4
LEARN ABOUT HOW TO DEVELOP QUESTIONNAIRE TO GENERATE
QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION 84
PRACTICAL NO : 5
PREPARATION OF FARM LEVEL PRODUCTION PLAN: CROP
PRODUCTION AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION 86
PRACTICAL NO: 6
INTERACTION VISIT AND MEETING WITH I/NGO/CBOS/CO-
OPERATIVES/PRIVATE SECTORS AND ITS LOCAL GROUP AND STUDY
THEIR PLAN OF WORK AND IMPLEMENTATION 89
PRACTICAL NO: 7
CONDUCT CASE STUDY OF A FARMER GROUP FORMED BY DADO
AND/OR DLSO 91
PRACTICAL NO: 8
PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KIND OF CHARTS-FLOW, TREE, SUSPENSE,
FLIP, BROCHURES, POSTERS, LEAFLETS, PAMPHLETS ETC. 92
PRACTICAL NO: 9
PREPARATION OF POWERPOINT SLIDES AND PRESENTATION 96
PRACTICAL NO: 10
LEARN ABOUT WORKING MODALITY OF COOPERATIVES IN NEPAL 99
Commercial Fruit Production and Orchard
 PRACTICAL NO: 1
STUDY OF DIFFERENT FEATURE OF AN ORCHARD
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To study about the features of an orchard
 To acquire knowledge about the orchard establishment
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Diary, Pen
THEORY
Orchard is a piece of land where fruit crops are grown commercially. Orchard
management refers to the principle and practices adopted for cultivation of fruit crop
on a piece of land with maximum income. Establishment of an orchard is a long term
investment and deserves a very critical planning. The selection of proper location and
site, planting system and planting distance, choosing the varieties and the nursery
plants have to be considered carefully to ensure maximum production.
Features of an orchard
1. Weather and Climate
It is the most important requirement for orchard establishment. Suitable weather
conditions, relative humidity, rainfalls, nature of wind, velocity are most important
factors. Therefore, the site for orchard should select where there is full exposure of
light.
2. Soil and Land Slope
Soil should be clay loam. Soil should be fertile with proper drainage facility. The pH
should be 6.0-8.0. The selected land should not be sloppy because there is maximum
chance of soil erosion which reduces the fertility of soil.
3. Irrigation Facility
The site should be selected where there is good facility of water for irrigating plants.
It is recommended to select where there is availability of lake, river or irrigation
channel.

Practical Book : Grade 11 1

4. Services
The orchard requires regular and effective management to attain maximum production.
Therefore, it should be selected in such place where the farm labour is easily available
at any time as well as cheaper.
5. Market
Most of the fruits are perisible in nature. Therefore, the site should be selected near the
market area. It should be facilitated with road and transportation facility.
6. Orchard Layout
It means planting of fruit trees in proper manner location of fruit rate, budding,
irrigation cannel etc. should be in right order and right side. Proper location, proper
layout results less wastage of lands.
There are different planting systems which are described below:
1. Rectangular System of Planting
2. Square system of planting
3. Diagonal system of planting
4. Hexagonal system of planting
5. Triangular system of planting
6. Counter system of planting
7. Wind Break
Planting of trees, shrubs which act as artificial barriers of wind to the orchard. The
important plant like eucalyptus, mulberry should be used as wind break
8. Selection of fruits and varieties
Selection of fruit and variety is important while establishing of commercial orchard.
The selected fruit crop and its variety should be free from disease, insect and pests.
The selected fruit and variety should be certified by government for quality production.
9. Procuring and Planting of Sapling
The variety of particular crop must be procured from governmental nursery private
nursery. It is done for the quality production. The procured sapling should be protected
2 Practical Book: Grade 11
from scorching sun light.The procured sapling should be planted by proper method
with suitable planting. The amount of chemical fertilizer and organic manure or FYM
should be mixed in recommended dose and apply in the soil. The plant should be
planted in the center of the pit.
10. Training and Pruning
It is the most important garden operation in horticulture crop which favour growth and
development of plant and enhance yield. Training is performed to to have desired
shape and size while pruning is done to remove dried, diseased and unwanted
branches.
PROCEDURE
 Acquire an adequate knowledge about the features of orchards
 Practice a process of orchard establishment according to it features
CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

References
Dr. N. Kumar. 1997. Introduction to Horticulture. Rajalakshmi Publications, 28/5 –
693, Vepamoodu Junction, Nagercoil.Pp: 15.47- 15.50.

Practical Book : Grade 11 3

 PRACTICAL NO: 2
NOMENCLATURE OF FRUIT PLANTS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To study about the nomenclature of fruit plants
 To be able to identify the fruit plants based on their plant morphology
 To become familiar with families, genus, species, of different fruit crops
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Diary, Pen, Plants
THEORY:
A system or scheme of naming plants is known as nomenclature. Bi-nominal is a
universal custom, whereby a plant is given two-word name; one designating the genus
or group into which it falls and the other distinguishing a particular plant from other
plants in the group. The binomial system of nomenclature was developed by Swedish
naturalist, Carl Linnaeus in the mid-1700s. Grouping plants according to similarities
such as leaves, flowers and fruit, he founded a natural order and named them
accordingly. This two-word or bi-nominal term both classifies and names the plant.
The name of the author is also associated with the name of the plant.
Table: Nomenclature of Fruit Plants
S.N English Common Botanical Name Family
Name Name
1. Aonla Amla Phyllanthu sofficinalis Euphorbiacea
Gaerth e
2. Almond Badam Prunus dulcis Mill Rosaceae
3. Apple Syau Malus pumila Mill Rosaceae
4. Apple (Crab Chhotaseb Malus baccata Borgen, Rosaceae
apple)
5. Apricot Khurmani Prunu sarmeniaca L. Rosaceae
6. Atemoya Lakshmanph Annona atemoya Hort. Annonaceae
al
7. Avocado Avocado Persea americana Mill. Lauraceae
8. Bael Bel Aeglem armelos Correa. Rutaceae
9. Banana Kela (edible Musa sapientum L. Musaceae
4 Practical Book: Grade 11
 fruit)
10. Banana Kela Musa paradisiaca L Musaceae
(Plantain
cooking
type)
11. Bardados Barbados Malpighia glabraL. Malpighiacea
cherry cherry e
12. Black berry Brambles Rubus canadensis L. Rosaceae
13. Breadfruit Valayetipha Artocarpus artilisFos. Moraceae
nas
14. Bullock's Ram phal Annona reticulata L Annonaceae
heart
15. Calamondin China Citrus madurensis Lour. Rutaceae
sangtra
16. Carambola Kamrakh Averrhoa carambola L. Oxalidaceae
17. Cashew nut Kaju Anacardium occidentale L. Anacardiacea
e
18. Cattley guava Strawberry Psidium cattleianum L. Myrtaceae
guava
19. Cherimoya Hanuman Annona cherimola Mill. Annonaceae
phal
20. Cherry (Sour) Sour cherry Prunus cerasus L. Rosaceae
21. Cherry Sweet cherry Prunu savium L. Rosaceae
(Sweet)
22. Chestnut Chestnut Castanea sativa Mill. Fagaceae
23. Chinese Ber Zizyphu jujubeLamk. Rhamnaceae
jujube
24. Citron Turange Citrus medica L. Rutaceae
25. Cleopatra Billikichili Citrus reshniTanaka Rutaceae
26. Coconut Khopa or Cocos nucifera L. Palmaceae
Nariyal
27. Custard apple Sitaphal Annonas quamosa L Annonaceae
28. Date Khajoor Phoenix dactylifera L. Palmaceae
29. Date (Wild) Khajoor Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. Palmaceae
30. Durian Civet fruit Duriozi bethinus L Bombacaceae
31. Feijoa Pineapple Feijoasello wiana Berg. Myrtaceae
guava
32. Fig Anjeer Ficuscarica L. Moraceae
33. Filbert nut Fibert nut Corylus maxima Mill. Betulaceae
34. Gajanimma Gajanimma Citrus pennivesiculata Rutaceae

Practical Book : Grade 11 5

 Tanaka.
35. Gooseberry Kiwi fruit Actinidia deliciosa Dilleniaceae
36. Grape Angoor Vitisla brusca Bailey Vitaceae
(American)
37. Grape Angoor Vitis vinifera L. Vitaceae
(European)
38. Guava Amrood Psidium guajava L. Myrtaceae
39. Gunter sour Kichili Citrus maderaspatana Rutaceae
orange Tanaka.
40. Hazel nut Bhatia Corylus avellana Mill. Betulaceae
badam
41. Indian jujube Ber Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. Rhamnaceae
42. Jackfruit Katehal Artocarpus heterophyllus Moraceae
Lam.
43. Jambolan Jamun Syzygium cuminii Skeels Myrtaceae
44. Japanese Japani Citrus natsudaidai Hayat. Rutaceae
summergrape grapefruit
fruit
45. Kainth Kainth Pyrus pashia Buch-Ham. Rosaceae
46. Kair Kareer Capparis apphylla Roxb. Capparidacea
e
47. Karonda Karonda Carissa carandas L. Apocynaceae
48. Kharnakhatta Kharnakhatt Citrus karna Raf. Rutaceae
a
49. Khirnee Khirnee Mimusops hexandra Sapotaceae
Dubarb.
50. Kumquat Japaninarang Fortunella margarita Rutaceae
(oval) i Swingle
51. Kumquat Japaninarang Fortunella Rutaceae
(round) i japonicaSwingle
52. Lasoda Lasoora Cordia myxa Roxb. Boraginaceae
53. Lemon Baramasi Citrus limon Burm. Rutaceae
lemon
54. Lemon Galgal Citrus limon Burm. Rutaceae
55. Litchi Litchi Litchi chinensis Sonn. Sapindaceae
56. Loquat Loquat Eriobotrya japonica Lindl. Rosaceae
57. Macadamia Macadamia Macadamia ternifolia Protenaceae
nut nut Muell.
58. Mandarin Sangtra Citrus reticulate Blanco. Rutaceae
59. Mandarin Sangtra Citrus unshiu Marc. Rutaceae
6 Practical Book: Grade 11
 (Satsuma)
60. Mango Aap Mangifera indicaL Anacardiacea
e
61. Mangosteen Mangosteen Garcinia mangostana L. Guttiferae
62. Monkey jack Barhal Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. Moraceae
63. Mulberry Shehtoot Morus alba L. MoraceaeMo
(Black)Mulbe raceae
rry (White)
64. Olive Zaitoon Olea europaea L. Oleaceae
65. Papaya Papita Carica papaya L Caricaceae
66. Passion fruit Passion fruit Passiflora edulis Sims. Passifloracea
e
67. Peach Aru Prunus persica L. Rosaceae
68. Pear Nashpati Pyrus communis L. Rosaceae
(European)
69. Pear (Sand Sand pear Pyrus pyrifolia L. Rosaceae
pear)
70. Pecan nut Pecan nut Caryaillino inensis Koch. Juglandaceae
71. Pectinifera Pectinifera Citrus pectiniferaTanaka Rutaceae
72. Persimmon Japaniphal Diospyros kaki L. Ebenaceae
73. Phalsa Phalsa Grewia asiatica D.C. Tiliaceae
74. Pilu Pilu Salvadora oleioides Decae. Salvadoracea
e
75. Pineapple Arianas Ananas comosusMerr. Bromeliaceae
76. Pistachio nut Pista Pista ciavera L. Anacardiacea
e
77. Plum Alubokhara Prunus bokhariensis Rosaceae
(English) Schneid.
78. Plum Alucha Prunus domestica L. Rosaceae
(European)
79. Plum Alucha Prunus salicina Lind\. Rosaceae
(Japanese)
80. Pomegranate Anar Punica granatum L. Punicaceae
81. Pomelo Grapefruit Citrus paradise Macf. Rutaceae
82. Pummelo Chakotra Citrus maxima Osbeck Rutaceae
83. Quince Beedana Cydonia oblonga Mill. Rosaceae
84. Rambutan Rambutan Naphelium jappaceum Sapindaceae
85. Rangpur lime Sylhet lime Citrus limonia Osbeck Rutaceae
86. Raspberry Rasbhari Rubus idaeus L. Rosaceae
87. Rose apple Gulabjamun Eugenia jambos L. Myrtaceae

Practical Book : Grade 11 7

 88. Rough lemon Jattikhatti Citrus jambhiri Lush Rutaceae
89. Sapota Chiku Achras sapota L. Sapotaceae
90. Sour lime Nimbu Citrus aurantifolia Swingle Rutaceae
91. Sour orange Khatta Citrus aurantium L. Rutaceae
92. Strawberry Strawberry Fragaria chiloensisDuch Rosaceae
93. Suranam Pitanga Eugenia uniflora L. Myrtaceae
cherry
94. Sweet lime Mitha Citrus limettioides Swingle Rutaceae
95. Sweet orange Malta Citrus sinensis L. Rutaceae
96. Tahiti lime Tahiti nimbu Citrus latifolia Tanaka Rutaceae
97. Tamarind Imli Tamarindus indica L Leguminosae
98. Trifoliate Tinpattia Poncirus trifoliate L. Rutaceae
orange
(deciduous
orange)
99. Walnut Akhrot Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae.
100. Wood apple Hathiseb Feronia limonia L. Rutaceae
PROCEDURE
 Visit a field visit to the fruit orchard available in surrounding.
 Study and identify the available fruit plants in orchard
 Write down their common name, english name, scientific name, family in the
observation table given below.
OBSERVATION
SN Common Name English Name Scientific Name Family

CONCLUSION
_________________________________________________________________
References
https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/garden-how-to/info/latin-plant-names.htm
https://hortnews.extension.iastate.edu/1999/7-23-1999/latin.html
8 Practical Book: Grade 11
 PRACTICAL NO: 3
HORTICULTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF FRUITS CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be able to classify the different fruit crops
 To know the techniques of fruits crop classification based on different nature and
habit
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Fruit crops, Diary Pen
THEORY
A fruit is mature ovary. The ovary may have one or more carpel. Even though the fruit
is a mature ovary, some fruits include other parts of the flower and are called accessory
fruits. Combining carpel number, succulence characteristics, and anatomical features,
fruits may be classified into three kinds, simple, multiple, or aggregate. It can also be
define as reproductive structure of an angiosperm which develops from the ovary and
accessory tissue, which surrounds and protects the seed. Fruits can be classified into
following types:
A. Classification of Fruits Based on Fruit Morphology
1. Simple fruits
A single ripened ovary from a single flower. The fruits of most angiosperms are simple
fruits. The major types of simple fruits are:
A. Fleshy fruits
All or most of the ovary wall (pericarp) is soft or fleshy at maturity.
Berry
The entire pericarp of such fruits is fleshy, although skin is sometimes tough; may be
one or many seeded. e.g. grape, tomato, papaya, pomegranate, sapota, persimmon,
guava, banana and avocado. The latter two fruits are often termed baccate (berry-like).
The banana fruit is a seedless, parthenocarpic berry developing without pollination and
fertilization. In pomegranate, the edible part is the fleshy layer (aril) around each seed.

Practical Book : Grade 11 9

Pepo
Berry with a hard, thick rind; typical fruit of the gourd family (Cucurbitaceae). e.g.
watermelon, cucumber, squash, and pumpkin.
Hesperidium
A berry with a leathery rind and parchment-like partitions between sections; typical
fruit of the citrus family (Rutaceae).e.g. orange, lemon, grapefruit, tangelo and
kumquat.
Drupe
The exocarp is a thin skin; mesocarp is thick and fleshy is the edible portion and
endocarp is hard and stony. e.g. peach, plum, nectarine, apricot, cherry, olive, mango,
ber and almond.
Pome
Ovary or core surrounded by edible, fleshy receptacle tissue (hypanthium or fleshy
floral tube) that is really not a part of the pericarp. The actual ovary or core is usually
not eaten, at least by most humans. This is typical fruit of certain members of the rose
family (Rosaceae), including apple, pear, quince and loquat.
B. Dry Fruits
Pericarp dries at maturity.
1. Dehiscent Dry Fruits
Pericarp splits open along definite seams.
Legume
An elongate “bean pod” splitting along two seams; typical fruit of the third largest
plant family, the legume family (Leguminosaceae or Fabaceae). The pod represents
one folded modified leafor carpel that is fused along the edges. e.g. black locust,
redbud, acacia, coral tree, orchid tree, wisteria and many more genera.
Silique
A slender, dry, dehiscent fruit that superficially resemble a legume, except the mustard

10 Practical Book: Grade 11

silique is composed of two carpels with a partition or septum down the center (i.e.
between the two carpels or valves. This is the typical fruit of the mustard family
(Cruciferae or Brassicaceae). E.g. field mustard, turnip and cabbage (Brassica species).
Capsule
Seed pod splits open in various ways and usually along several definite seams.
Capsules typically split open into well-defined sections or carpels which represent
modified leaves. This is a very common dry fruit found in many different plant
families. e.g. Catalpa, Jacaranda, Pittosporum, Aesculus, Agave, Yucca, Eucalyptus,
devil's claw (Proboscidea), floss silk tree (Chorisia), kapok tree (Ceiba) and castor
bean (Ricinuscommunis).
Follicle
A single ripened ovary (representing a single modified leaf or carpel) that splits open
along one seam. The follicle may occur singly (as in milkweed) or in clusters: two in
oleander, 2-5 in peony, 3 in larkspur, 5 in columbine and 4-5 in bottle tree (Sterculia
or Brachychiton). The cone-like fruit of the magnolia tree is an aggregate of many
small follicles, each containing a single bright red seed.
2. Indehiscent Dry Fruits
Pericarp does not split open. These fruits usually contain only one or two seeds.
Achene
Very small, one-seeded fruit usually produced in clusters. At maturity the pericarp is
dry and free from the internal seed, except at the placental attachment. Examples of
this type of fruit include the sunflower (Helianthus), buttercup (Ranunculus) and
sycamore (Platanus).
Grain or Caryopsis
A very small, dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit in which the actual seed coat is
completely fused to the ovary wall or pericarp. The outer pericarp layer or husk is
referred to as the bran, while the inner, seed layer is called the germ. e.g. corn (maize),
wheat, rice, rye, barley, oats, Johnson grass, bermudagrass and many more species.

Practical Book : Grade 11 11

Schizocarp
A small dry fruit composed of two or more sections that break apart; however, each
section or carpel (also called a mericarp) remains indehiscent and contains a single
seed. E.g. carrot (Daucus), celery (Apium) and sweet fennel (Foeniculumvulgare).
Nut
Larger, one-seeded fruit with very hard pericarp, usually enclosed in a husk or cup-
like involucre. e.g. chestnut, walnut, hazelnut, macadamia nut.
C. Classification of fruits based on climatic adaptability
The fruit plants are also classified on the basis of tolerance to temperature extremes or
hardiness. This type of classification is very important from horticultural point of view.
This helps the grower to select the fruit plants for a particular region.
Tropical fruits
These plants are generally evergreen and extremely sensitive to cold. These plants
require warm and moist climate but are capable of withstanding dry weather in some
cases e.g. mango, banana, papaya, sapota. The plants are generally grown in climatic
conditions prevailing in the region between the tropics of Cancer (23027′N latitude)
and the tropic of Capricorn (23027′N latitude).
Subtropical fruits
The fruits grown under a climatic condition between temperate and tropical are known
as subtropical fruit crops. They may be deciduous or evergreen. These plants are
usually able to withstand low temperature but not frost. They are also quite adaptive
to fluctuations of light and dark period during day and night.
Temperate Fruits
Temperate plants are only grown in the place, where winter is distinctly cold; require
an exposure of specific chilling temperature for certain growth period without which
they do not flower. These fruit plants are generally deciduous and suitable for higher
elevation as they can withstand frost e.g. apple, almond, peach, pear etc.

12 Practical Book: Grade 11

D. Classification of fruits based on rate of respiration during ripening
Climacteric fruits
In some fruits, rate of respiration will undergo a sharp rise and fall during ripening.
This phenomenon is called climacteric rise and the fruits are called climacteric fruits.
e.g. avocado, banana, mango, sapota etc.
Non-climacteric fruits
Some fruits maintain continuous rate of respiration and are called non-climacteric
fruits. e.g. citrus, grapes etc.
E. Classification of fruits based on drought tolerance
Highly tolerant
Ber, bael, aonla, wood apple, karonda, custard apple, date palm, phalsa, pomegranate,
fig etc.
Moderately tolerant
Mango, jamun, tamarind, grapefruit, lemon, guava, grape etc.
Sensitive: Banana, orange, sapota, litchi, avocado, jackfruit, apple, pummelo, papaya,
pineapple etc.
PROCEDURE
 Take a field visit to different fruit orchard farm at different agro climatic region
of Nepal.
 Study and classify the different fruits crops available in the orchards based on
above mention classification system.
CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 11 13

 PRACTICAL NO: 4
TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be able to identify the horticulture tools and equipment.
 To know the function and uses of horticulture tools and equipment.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Tools and equipment
THEORY
A garden tool is any one of many tools made for gardens and gardening and overlaps
with the range of tools made for agriculture and horticulture. Garden tools can also be
hand tools and power tools.Major field operations for horticultural crops include
nursery/seedling preparation, post hole digging for planting, intercultural, aeration,
earthing, irrigation, plant protection, harvesting, handling, packaging transport. The
cultivation of horticultural crops is predominantly dependent upon human labor, since
commercial cultivation is only on a limited scale.In order to carry out various cultural
operations in the nursery as well as in the orchards, various tools and implements are
required from time to time. Some tools are simple and are used for simple operations.
However, special equipments are required for specific operations. Some of the tools
and implements required for different operations in horticultural crops are described
below :
1. Crow bar : It is mainly used for digging the pits. It is an iron rod with one end
pointed and other as a wedge shaped.
2. Dibber : It is used for making a hole in the soil into which seed, seedling, cutting
or planting of strawberry runners.
3. Drill hoe : A long handled hoe with triangular blade for taking out seed drills,
but it also has short-handled versions.
4. Fruit gatherer : A mechanical device used for gathering fruit from tall trees
without damage, consisting of a pair of clippers on a long pole with a bag or
similar bag or similar receptacle fixed just below the clipper head to catch the

14 Practical Book: Grade 11

 fruit.
5. Garden fork : It is an important tool mainly used for breaking of soil clods
during preparation of nursery beds or fields.
6. Garden rakes : Garden rake is a toothed rake used for collecting stones and
bricks bits from the bed, scarifying the grass surface and gathering the fallen
leaves.
7. Grafting machines : In many developed countries of the world, these machines
are commercially used for the preparation of scion sticks and bud-wood for
budding and grafting operations.
8. Khurpi : It is used for various cultural operations in the nursery but mainly for
removal of weeds and loosening of soil for proper aeration. It has a sharp edge
triangular blade fitted with a wooden handle.
9. Knife : Two types of knives are required for propagation work viz. budding and
grafting. A grafting knife, in general, has a straight 7.5 cm long blade and a
strong long handle. The budding knife on the other hand may have a straight or
a bit curved blade of shorter length. It also has a spatula at the end of a handle,
which is used for lifting the bark during the budding operation. Sometimes a
knife having two parallel blades is also used. It is required for lifting or removing
the patch of a bud from the bud wood.
10. Kudali : Kudali is used for digging of pits or digging of soil. It has a metal blade
attached to a wooden handle. It is operated manually and considered very
important nursery tool.
11. Ladder : It is required for various propagation operations like cutting of bud-
wood, training of vigorous plants and top working of old and declining plants.
In general, step ladder or straight ladders or hook ladders are used for such
operations in the propagation field.
12. Long arm pruner : The pruning shears attached to a long handle and operated
by a remotely controlled lever mechanism.
13. Looping shear : A long handled shear with short stout blades for pruning or
lopping branches up to about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in thickness.
14. Mattock : It is a type of pick used for heavy work. One end of the blade is

Practical Book : Grade 11 15

 pointed as with a normal pickaxe, while the other is flattened like a chisel.
15. Multi-dibber : A piece of board fitted with numerous small projections, dowels
of pegs used for making several small holes in a seed bed. It can be used for seed
sowing, pricking out seedlings, cuttings etc.
16. Pruning saws : The different types of saws are required for various operations
involved in propagation of horticultural plants. The commonly used saws are
crescent saws, tapered saws and straight saws. All of these have long and widely
set teeth to facilitate pruning or cutting of green wood. In general, a small saw is
required for cutting the hard branches of the stock plant and sometimes the same
saw can be used for pruning also.
17. Pruning shears : The different types of shears like hand shear; lopping shears,
tree trimmers etc. are needed in a garden. Pruning, shears should not be very
expensive but these should be made up of good steel. Similarly, these should
make a smooth and clean cut with least injury to the plant.
18. Secateurs : It is considered as the most important tool for a propagator or a
nursery man. Secateurs is used for excising scions, lopping off the rootstock,
removing the undesirable sprouts/shoots from the stock, preparation of scion
sticks and for pruning operation. Its blade should be of a good quality because
poor quality blades may not give smooth cuts to the stock and scion.
19. Sickle : It is used for cutting standing grass, weeds, fodder and harvesting crop.
20. Shovel : Shovel is used when seedlings of fruits plants are to be lifted from the
nursery and planted in the field without much injury to the roots.
21. Spade : It is used for digging pits, making irrigation or drainage channels and
also for earthing up the rootstock.
22. Sprayer : It is useful for spraying insecticides, fungicides or herbicides. It is also
used for foliar application of fertilizers.
23. Water cans : These cans are used for irrigation of seeds in the nursery beds as
well as for young plants in the pots. These are made up of galvanized iron sheet
and sometimes these are also made up of plastic. These cans are fitted with a
nozzle which is useful for equal distribution of water over the germinating
seedlings.

16 Practical Book: Grade 11

24. Weeding fork : It is widely used for soil loosening as well as in weeding. It
consists of a long handle with a blade having teeth. It is drawn manually with
the help of handle to collect the weeds.

Dibber Drill hoe Khurpi Sickle

Budding Knife Kudali Long arm pruner Looping shear

Mattock Multi-dibber Pruning saws Secateurs

Shovel Weeding Fork Water Can Sprayer

PROCEDURE
 Visit a horticulture laboratory.
 Collect the tools and equipment’s available in the lab.
 Study and identify the tools and equipment in the laboratory.

Practical Book : Grade 11 17

 List and fill the following observation table.
OBSERVATION
SN Tools and Equipment Name Function Uses

CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

18 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 5
PLANNING AND LAY OUT OF ORCHARD
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be able to know the technique of orchard lay-out.
 To be familiar with different types of planting systems.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Rope, Poles, Pegs, measuring tape and planting board
THEORY
Establishment of an orchard is a long term investment and deserves a very critical
planning. The selection of proper location and site, planting system and planting
distance, choosing the varieties and the nursery plants have to be considered carefully
to ensure maximum production.It is, therefore, essential that the planning and layout
of an orchard should be done properly to facilitate care and maintenance of the orchard.
A well-considered layout plan should be followed for planting an orchard. A careful
plan of the orchard is necessary for the most efficient and economic management. The
following points should be borne in mind in preparing the plan.
 Optimum spacing to accommodate maximum number of trees per unit area.
 Stores and office building in the orchard should be constructed at the Centre for
proper supervision.
 Wells should be located at convenient places in different parts at the rate of one
well for 2 to 4 hectares.
 Each kind of fruit should be assigned in a separate block.
 Fruits ripening at the same time should be grouped together.
 Pollinators should be provided in deciduous fruits. In deciduous fruit trees, there
are some varieties which require pollen from another variety to set fruits in them;
otherwise, they will be barren. Such pollen donors are known as pollinators.
Every third tree in every third row should be planted with a pollinator.
 Irrigation channels should be laid along the gradients for most economical uses
of water. For every 30m length of channel, 7.5 cm slope should be given.

Practical Book : Grade 11 19

 Roads should occupy minimum space for the economy of transport. The
clearance between wind break and first row of trees is advantageous for the road.
 Short growing trees should be allotted at the front and tall at the back for easy
watching and to improve the appearance.
 Evergreen trees should be in the front and deciduous ones behind.
 Fruits attracting birds and animals should be close to the watchman's shed.
A good fence is essential. Live fencing is economic and cheap to other kind of fences.
The plants suitable for live fencing should be drought resistant, easy to propagate from
seed, quick growing, have dense foliage, should stand severe pruning and should be
thorny. Agave, Prosopisjuliflora, Pithecolobiumdulce and Thevetia if closely planted
in 3 rows would serve as a good live fencing.
Wind breaks, rows of tall trees planted close together around the orchard, are essential
to resist velocity of wind which causes severe ill-effects particularly moisture
evaporation from the soil. Since the wind breaks are very effective in reducing the
wind velocity and minimizing the damage to the fruit trees and to other crops, their
presence in regions where strong winds prevail is of paramount importance. A wind
break ordinarily has its maximum effectiveness for a distance about four times as great
as its height but has some effect over twice about that distance.
Orchard Layout
It means planting of fruit trees in proper manner location of fruit, budding, irrigation
cannel etc. should be in right order and right side. Proper location, proper layout results
less wastage of lands. There are different planting systems which are described below:
Square system of planting
In this system, the distance from plant to plant and row to row is the same. The plants
are at right angle to each other; every unit of four plants forming a square. This is the
most common system followed for planting orchards and is easy to layout.

20 Practical Book: Grade 11

 Fig: Square system of planting
Rectangular system of planting
In this system, distance between plants to pant and row to row remain different which
gives shape to shape of rectangular. If the plant to plant distance is 5m then row to row
distance should be 3m or 4m using the principles of pythagorous theorem.

Fig: Rectangular system of planting

Diagonal system of planting
This is similar to square system of planting in which row to row and plant to plant
distance remain same, but the addition of another fruit trees in between the diagonal
cut of the center of square. The central trees are of short duration than medium trees.
The central number is known as filler trees. It is planted with and aim to generate

Practical Book : Grade 11 21

income till the main crop come in economic bearing.

Fig: Diagonal system of planting

Hexagonal system of planting
In this system the distance between rows is less than distance between plant but
distance between the plant in 6 directions which give the shape of hexagonal and the
shape remain hexagonal. In this system 15% more saplings can be planted than square
system of planting.

Fig: Hexagonal system of planting

22 Practical Book: Grade 11

Triangular system of planting
In this system plants are planted alternately in different rows which make a triangle
shape. Thus, plants from all side remain equal. This system is mainly used for
pineapple planting.

Fig: Triangular system of planting

Contour system of planning
This system is generally adopted in hilly areas where the land is sloppy. Contour lines
are drawn into the sloppy area and planting is done along with contour lines. Main
purpose of this system is to stop run-off water and save the soil from erosion.

Fig: Contour system of planning

PROCEDURE
For layout (square system)

Practical Book : Grade 11 23

 A base line is first established and the positions of the trees are marked along
this line putting wooden stakes in the ground.
 Another base line at right angle to the first base line, is then marked along with
the other edge of the field with the help of a carpenter square or a cross staff.
 The right angle can also be drawn with the help of measuring tape. One end of
this tape is fixed at 3 meter distance from the corner along the first line and the
tape is then stretched along the second base line for a distance of 4 meter.
 The diagonal distance between these two points should be 5 meter.
 The wooden stakes are put in the ground at the desired distance along the second
lines.
 All the four rows are thus established and staked.
 Three men, one putting the pegs in the field and other two correcting alignment,
while moving along the base line, can easily layout the whole field.
For layout (triangular system)
 A base line is set on one side of the field as in the square system. Large triangle
with a ring in each corner (made of heavy wire or chain) is used.
 The sides of this triangle are equal to the distance to be kept of the plants in the
orchard. Two of these rings are placed on the stakes of the base line.
 The position of the third ring indicates the position of the plant in the second
row. This row then is used as a base line.
 The whole area is laid out in a similar manner.
PRECAUTIONS
 Measurement should be done in accurate point and place.
 Peg should be place in a measured area.
CONCLUSION:

24 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 6
PREPARATION OF NURESERY BEDS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To know about the method of nursery beds preparation
 To be familiar with different nursery types and its uses
MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Fork, Hoe, Spade, Rake, Watering can, String and sticks
THEORY:
A nursery bed is a specially prepared portion of land put aside for raising seedlings. It
acts as a temporary home for young plants until they are eventually planted in a
permanent garden. While establishing a new plant in a field, certain actions need to be
implemented to ensure the long term success of the plantation. One of these actions
involves the initial land preparation which should be done prior to transplanting of the
plant material (seed or seedlings).The purpose of land preparation is to provide the
necessary soil conditions which will enhance the successful establishment of the young
seed or seedlings received from the nursery. Before preparation of nursery seed bed
following points should be kept in mind i.e.,
Site selection
The selection of the area for a nursery is critical and it should be sited as centrally as
possible to the field(s) to be planted. In addition, the following should also be
considered:
Topography (Terrain)
The selected area should be flat to gently undulating with slopes between 0 and 30 and
preferably, with a reliable or permanent source of water supply for irrigation purpose.
Water Supply
Water requirements (quality and quantity) must be determined prior to starting site
preparation. The best source of water is a large natural pond or lake .

Practical Book : Grade 11 25

Drainage
The site chosen should not be prone to flooding, which will damage seedlings and
buildings (stores).
Area
To achieve good growing conditions with minimal risk of etiolating, a main nursery
planting density of 13,800 polybags per ha with 0.91m(3ft) x 0.91m(3ft) D planting is
recommended excluding allowance for accessibility. The spacing should be increased
by another 0.15m (0.5ft) if the seedlings are anticipated to be kept in the nursery for
longer than 12 months.
Accessibility and Nursery Roads
Roads within the nursery and their alignments will need to be carefully planned and
laid out depending on the placement distance of the polybags and the type of irrigation
to be utilized. Access roads to the nursery should be sufficiently wide to allow vehicles
to man oeuvre during peak planting periods to facilitate supervision and movement of
materials.
Types of seedbeds
There are basically 3 types of seedbeds: raised beds, flat beds and sunken beds. The
best type to use depends much more on the particular climate and soil conditions than
on the crop.
Raised Beds
Crops can also be grown on raised-up beds or ridges. They are especially advantageous
for clayey soils under high rainfall or wherever else drainage is likely to be poor. They
can also be used in many other situations. Where crops are furrow irrigated, raised
beds or ridges are essential so that the water can flow down the furrows between them.
Heights of raised beds are usually 10-30 cm. The best height depends mainly on soil
texture and moisture considerations. For example, raised beds are often 20-30 cm high
on clayey soils under high rainfall where poor drainage is likely to be a problem. On
coarser-textured soil under the same conditions, bed height might be 15-20 cm. When
raised beds are used in drier conditions, a bed height of 10 cm or leas may be best to
26 Practical Book: Grade 11
avoid excessive moisture loss due to evaporation from the exposed sides.
Width of raised beds: Typically they are 100-130 cm wide.
Raised beds may have several advantages:
 Much better drainage compared with flat or sunken beds.
 They provide a double layer of topsoil, because they're made by dragging in
topsoil from the surrounding alleyways. (Because of this, they're also likely to
be looser than flat or sunken beds.)
 In temperate regions, raised beds warm up more quickly in the spring, which
may benefit cold-sensitive crops and even permit earlier planting.
 Plants on raised beds are easier to reach when doing hand operations such as
weeding and thinning.
Raised beds usually aren't a good choice during the dry season, because they dry out
more quickly than flat or sunken beds; also, water tends to run off them and be lost
into the alley-ways. These disadvantages can be partly overcome by mulching the bed
with straw or rice hulls, making a lip around the bed's edge to reduce run-off, and by
reducing bed height to 10 cm or less.

Figure: Two types of raised beds. Bed A is best suited to high-rainfall areas. Bed B
has a lip around all 4 sides which helps prevents prevent water from running off
(helpful in drier conditions).
Flat Beds
Flat beds are used where water availability is adequate and there are no drainage
problems. In some areas, crops like maize, sorghum, beans, and potatoes are started
out on a flat bed; as the season progresses, soil is thrown into the crop row to mound
up the plants; this is called "hilling-up" and is done to control in-row weeds, provide
support, and improve drainage. (Potatoes are also hilled up to keep the developing
tubers covered with soil.) Hilling-up only works with plants that have enough stem
height and leaf clearance to tolerate partial burial.

Practical Book : Grade 11 27

Sunken Beds
In dry regions, especially on sandy soils with low water-holding capacity, vegetables
can be planted in sunken beds (i.e. shallow basins) about 100-130 cm wide and 2-5 cm
below the surrounding soil level. Sunken beds conserve water much more effectively
than raised beds for 2 reasons:
Sunken beds don't have the exposed sides of raised beds from where considerable
moisture can be lost by evaporation.
None of the applied water is lost by runoff.

Figure: A sunken bed. Depth shouldn't exceed about 4 cm.

PROCEDURE
 Collect and gather all the tillage equipment required for seed bed preparation
 Selection of suitable site having sunny light.
 Mark the area required for nursery
 Dig the soil about 25-30 cm deep with the help of a spade.
 Remove weeds and stones and level the land with the help of a rake.
 Spread dry leaves in a thin layer and burn it. This helps in destroying disease and
pests.
 If the soil is heavy clay or silt then mix coarse sand @ 3 to 4 kg per square meter
 After this prepare a seed bed.
PRECAUTIONS
 Measurement should be done in accurate point and place.
 Peg should be place in a measured area.
 Care should be taken during seed bed preparation.
CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

28 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 7
PROCUREMENT OF NURSERY PLANTS AND PLANTING IN ORCHARD
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To know the process of nursery plant procurement
 To know the methods of nursery plant planting in orchard
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Khurpa, spade, secateurs, rope and planting board.
THEORY
Lifting and packing of nursery plants are very important operations especially for
evergreen fruit plants. These operations require extra care when the nursery stock is to
be shipped to distant place. Every care must be taken to prevent injury to roots and to
keep as many feeder roots intact as possible. The young plants should be handled
carefully when they arrive at the orchard site, especially when they are purchased from
a distant nursery.
Planting the orchard
The evergreen fruit plants are planted in February-March and August-September and
the deciduous (bare rooted) fruit plants in January. The plants are planted in the orchard
when the soil in the pits comes in workable condition. The actual position of plants in
the pits is located with the help of a planting board. The two side notches of the
planting board are placed over the guide pegs and the central position of the pit is
marked with the help of central notch. A small hole is dug to accommodate the earth
ball (evergreen) and the roots (deciduous) of fruit plants. Make water basin slightly
larger than planting hole and paint the trunk to guard against sun burn. Plant trees in
the holes at its original planting depth in the nursery. For grafted plants, the grafted
union should be above ground level. The hole is then filled with the soil and pressed
thoroughly and newly planted plant watered immediately. This operation should
preferably be done in the evening.
PROCEDURE
 The nursery beds should be irrigated lightly a couple of days before the actual
lifting. This facilitates easy removal of plants.

Practical Book : Grade 11 29

 A long khurpa (plant lifter) is used for digging the earth ball of evergreen fruit
plants.
 Depending upon the size of the nursery plant, an earth ball is carved out of the
soil. If the plant has a very deep tap root, it should be gently severed at the bottom
of the earth ball.
 After lifting the plants, a little scrapping of the earth ball is done to reduce it to
a suitable size. The exposed roots should be removed to avoid drying and
desiccation. Some of the small branches and leaves should also be trimmed and
thinned out to avoid excessive transpiration and to keep a proper top and root
balance.
 The earth balls are then wrapped firmly with sarkanda or rice straw with the help
of the raffia fiber. The deciduous plants do not need any earth ball and are lifted
from the nursery with bare roots. They can be lifted with the help of a spade by
digging deep trenches (30 to 60 cm) on both sides of the beds at a convenient
distance.
 The soil sticking to the roots should be removed by shaking the plants gently.
Trimming of the exceptionally longer roots is done to avoid injury during
transportation. These plants are then tied in bundles of suitable sizes for easy
handling.
After care of young fruit plants
 On the arrival of the plants, it is essential to carefully inspect them.
 The varieties, number and grade of plants should be checked.
 The weak, diseased and the plants with poor stock-scion combination should be
discarded.
 The evergreen plants are usually received with balls of earth. In case they are
received before the pits are dug, they should be placed under shade and leaves
and roots be kept moist by sprinkling water.
 If the deciduous nursery stock received is to be planted within 48 hours, it should
be stored in a cool place under shade. In case there is a delay in planting, the
plants should be heaped, preferably on the north side of the building or on a slope
away from the sun, in order to retard development of the buds.
30 Practical Book: Grade 11
 This can be done by digging a trench or furrow deep enough to accommodate
the roots. The bundles should be opened and the plants placed in the furrow in a
slanting position.
 The roots should be covered with soil; no air pockets are left at the base.
PRECUATION
 Care should take during the handling of planting materials.
 Planting of nursery plant should be done at proper time and season according to
crop requirements.
CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 11 31

 PRACTICAL NO: 8
STUDY OF BEARING HABITS OF FRUITS CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To study about the bearing habits of different fruits crops
 To be familiar with different agro morphological traits as flowering
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Fruit crops, Diary, Pen, and Characterization char
THEORY
In nature, plants species flowers produce fruits and seeds and the primary objective is
to reproduce them. Plant species those are unable to produce viable seeds, reproduce
themselves by other means. With a common of these processes they vary in various
aspects of flowering and fruiting. The variations may be due to their different growing
habits, requirement of different environments, differences in their basic nature etc.
Growth habit
Growth is quantitative irreversible increase in the existing size of say plant or a shoot
or simply a leaf etc. Fruit crops can be classified on the basis of their growth habits in
two major classes. One is evergreen and second is deciduous. Evergreens include those
plants which bear their leaves throughout the year. Examples are mango, litchi, guava
and orange. Whereas, deciduous trees shed their leaves during a part of year (when
weather is adverse i.e. during winter). Mostly temperate fruits belong to this category.
The presence or absence of leaves makes very big difference in their physiology, their
bearing season and pattern etc. These two categories also make a basic group to study
them separately with respect to many aspects viz. source and sink relationships,
pruning etc.
Bearing habit
The bearing habit of a species can be described by the location and types of buds which
produce flowers and fruit. As plants attain proper nutritive condition particularly
accumulation of certain carbohydrates up to desired level, any bud can differentiate to

32 Practical Book: Grade 11

flower bud and set fruit. In various plant species, a different bud located at different
locations (on a shoot) varies to attain this condition. The justification of formation of
fruiting buds on particular locations in a particular species is that at those locations the
nutritive and other conditions are more favourable for flower bud formation. Since all
the buds can be considered as potential flower buds. So, flowers, inflorescence and
finally fruits will bear wherever buds are borne.
They can be located
1. Terminally on long or short growths
2. Laterally in the axils of the current or past season leaves
3. Adventitiously from any point on the exposed bark of limbs, trunks or roots
Classification of fruit plants according to bearing habits
Six distinct bearing habits, the classification being based upon the location of the fruit
buds and the type of flower-bearing structure to which they give rise (Gardner et al.,
1952).
Fruit Buds Terminal Fruit Buds Lateral
Flower bud Group-I: Group-IV:
containing Fruit buds borne In this group, fruit buds
terminally. It contains produce
flower parts only and Laterally. They contain
flower parts
produces flower
inflorescence without parts only and giving rise to
only leaves.(Fig.1) inflorescence without leaves
or
Examples: Mango, Loquat if leaves are present their
size is reduced. (Fig.4)
Examples: Peach, Plum,
Apricot, cherry, Almond,
Walnut (staminate flower),
Pecan (staminate flower),
Date, Coconut, Citrus fruit,
Plum cot, Current,
Gooseberry
Flower bud mixed , Group-II: Fruit buds Group-V: Fruit buds borne
Flowering shoot with borne terminally, laterally, unfolding to
terminal inflorescence unfolding to produce leafy produce leafy shoots that

Practical Book : Grade 11 33

 shoots that terminate in terminate in flower clusters
flower clusters .This (Fig. 5). Examples: Litchi,
bearing habit is Black berry, Rasp berry,
characteristics of most of Dew berry, Grape, Filbert,
the pome fruits.(Fig.2) Blue berry, Cranberry
Examples: (European), Cashewnut,
Apple(principally) Pear Brazilnut, Pond apple (and
(principally), Quince various other
Walnut(P.F.), Pecan (P.F.) annonaceous
fruits), Apple
(occasionally),
Pear (occasionally).
Flower bud Group-III: Group-VI:
mixed, Fruit buds borne Fruit buds borne laterally
Flowering shoot terminally, after (or psudoterminally),
with lateral unfolding they produce unfolding
inflorescence leafy shoots with to produce leafy shoots with
flowers or flower clusters flower clusters in the leaf
in leaf axils
axils.This might be called (Fig. 6).
an incomplete Examples: Jujube (Ber),
terminal bearing habit for Persimmon, Mulberry, Fig,
the fruit itself Cranberry (American),
is not borne terminally, but Chestnut,
is lateral to Pistachio nut, Star- apple,
The growths upon which it Avocado, Olive (Partly).
appears.
However, the flower buds
are terminal.
The terminal buds of the
flowering
shoots may differentiate
flower parts for
the following year‟s
production or new
buds may develop from
lateral leaf buds
(Fig.3).
Examples: Pomegranate,
guava, tropical
almond, olive, Eugina.
34 Practical Book: Grade 11
 Fig: Mango panicles(Bearing habit: Group-I)

Fig:Apple flowers (Bearing habit: Group-II)

Fig: Guava flowers (Bearing habit: Group-III)

Practical Book : Grade 11 35

 Fig:Kinnow sprouting and flowering (Bearing habit: Group-IV)
PROCEDURE
 Select a fruit crop on an orchard for study.
 Study the bearing habit of a particular fruit crops based on different agro
morphological traits.
 Record the data based on study and fill the following observation table.
OBSERVATION
S.N Fruit crops Flower bud formation

CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

36 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 9
TRAINING OF DECIDUOUS FRUIT CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be familiar with the training of different deciduous fruit crops
 To know the technique of training on different deciduous fruit crops
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Secateurs, pruning knife, pruning saw, Bordeaux paste, Brush
THEORY
Fruits crops are grown for their products like fruits, aromatic (essential oils) etc.
Therefore, these plants should be managed in such a way that human desires for the
purpose of growing them are fully satisfied in terms of quality and quantity. This
demands direct manipulation of plant growth itself or plant environment through
various inputs. In manipulation of plant development, training is important for which
our knowledge about plant development and its phenology has to be complete.
Physical techniques that control the plants in desired shape, size and direction of plant
growth are known as training or in other words training in effect is orientation of plant
in space through techniques like tying, fastening, staking, supporting over a trellis or
pergola in a certain fashion or pruning of some parts.
Objectives of training
 To improve appearance and usefulness of plant/tree through providing different
shapes and securing balanced distribution
 To ease cultural practices including inter-cultivation, plant protection and
harvesting
 To improve performance like planting at an angle of 45° and horizontal
orientation of branches make them fruiting better
Methods of Training
Method of training of a plant is determined by the nature of plant, climate, purpose of
growing, planting method, mechanization, etc. and therefore, intelligent choice is

Practical Book : Grade 11 37

necessary.
Training of deciduous fruits
The woody perennials, which are widely spaced and remain on a place for a long
duration, are trained for develop strong framework for sustainable production of
quality produce and for ornamental beauty in different shapes (topiary). In these plants
following types of training are followed.
(i) Open center system (Vase shaped)
In this system the main stem is allowed to grow to a certain height and the leader is
cut to encourage lateral scaffold from near the ground giving a vase shaped plant. This
is common in peaches, apricots and ber.

Fig: Open center system

(ii) Central leader system (closed center)
In this system the central axis of plant is allowed to grow unhindered permitting
branches all around. This system is also known as closed center system and common
in use in apple, pear, mango and sapota.

38 Practical Book: Grade 11

 Fig: Central leader system
(iii) Modified leader system
This system is in between open center and central leader system wherein central axis
is allowed to grow unhindered up to 4-5 years and then the central stem is headed back
and laterals are permitted. It is common in apple, pear, cherry, plum, guava.

Fig: Modified leader system

(iv) Cordon system
This is a system where in espalier is allowed with the help of training on wires. This
system is followed in vines in capable of standing on their stem. This can be trained in

Practical Book : Grade 11 39

single cordon or double cordon and commonly followed in crops like grape and
passion fruit. They may be oriented in a place to provide a flat shape.

Fig: Cordon system

PROCEDURE
 Take a material required for training operation
 Select a fruit crop to be trained
 Carry out the operation for selected crops
 After well training on selected crop paint the cutting portion with the Bordeaux
paste to avoid the contamination
PRECAUTIONS
 Care should be given during operation to avoid the cracking or hanging of
branches.
 Appropriate shape of cutting should be given in branches to avoid death.
CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

40 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 10
PRUNING OF FRUIT TREES
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be familiar with the pruning of different fruit trees
 To know the technique of pruning on different fruit trees
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Secature, pruning knife, pruning saw, Bordeaux paste, Brush
THEORY
Pruning refers to removal of plant part like bud, shoot, root etc. to strike a balance
between vegetative growth and production. This may also be done to adjust fruit load
on the tree.
Objectives of pruning
 To maintain the growth and vigour of the trees and to have a balance between
the vegetative vigour and fruitfulness, so as to be conductive for production of
optimum crop of best quality
 To shape the tree to make the best use of the space between trees while allowing
the necessary access
 To regulate the size and quality of the fruits by way of proper distribution of the
fruiting area
 To regulate the succession of crop and to have the crop where it can be managed
easily and cheaply
 To spread the trees for economic orchard management
 To remove the dead, diseased and over aged wood
 For effective spraying of pesticides to the crop
 To minimize biannual bearing and consequent risk of die back
 To get maximum shoots/stems
Types of pruning
Basically there are three types of pruning with definite purposes

Practical Book : Grade 11 41

(i) Frame pruning
(ii) Maintenance pruning
(iii) Renewal pruning
1. Frame pruning
This pruning is done to provide shape and form to a plant in its formative years so that
tree develops strong framework and a shape for ease of operations. This process begins
from nursery itself and continues up to fruiting stage. This is done continuously
irrespective of the season.
2. Maintenance pruning
To maintain status in production level and for uniform performance this pruning is
done. In some plants like grapes, apple, pear, peach etc. (deciduous trees) it is an
annual feature and in others evergreen like mango, sapota; it is rare confining to
removal of water sprouts and unproductive growth and opening of the tree.
3. Renewal pruning
This pruning is done in old trees like mangoes which shows decline. In this case severe
pruning is required.
Special pruning techniques
1. Root Pruning
A circular trench of 45cm away from the stem is dug out annually and the roots are cut
off every year with a sharp knife. After pruning, the trench is filled with manures
liberally. The tree is thus fed and watered artificially in a restricted area. Each year
prune 4 to 5 cm of the stumps of the previous year growth. This helps to increase the
production of mass fibrous roots, dwarf the trees and bears abundantly. This practice
is not advocated every year to the fruit trees.
2. Ringing
It is one of the known practices to increase fruit bud formation in certain fruit crops.
The operation consists of removal of a complete ring of bark from a branch or the
trunk. Ringing interrupts the downward passage of carbohydrates through the phloem
and thus causes them to accumulate in the part of the tree above the ring. Ringing is
42 Practical Book: Grade 11
practiced on Mango to force flowering in over vegetative trees which do not normally
bear a satisfactory crop. This practice cannot be recommended for all fruit crops and
it is found beneficial in promoting fruit set in certain vigorously growing grape
varieties and they often result in large size fruits.
3. Notching
Notching is a partial ringing of a branch above a dormant lateral bud. E.g. fig, apple
etc.
4. Smudging
It refers to the practice of smoking the trees like mango, commonly employed in
Philippines to produce off-season crop. Smudging of Mango trees in India has not been
found to induce early blossom.
5. Bending
Bending of branches is widely practiced in the Deccan for increasing fruit production
in guava, especially in the erect growing varieties.
6. Coppicing
This refers to the practice of complete removal of the trunk in trees like Eucalyptus
and Cinchona leaving 30-35cm stump alone. The coppiced stump starts producing
many vigorous shoots in about 6 months’ time. Only 2-3shoots are retained per stump
and the rest ones are completely thinned out. These left out shoots attain coppicing
stage in about 10 years depending upon the locations and other factors.
7. Pollarding
This refers to the practice of removing the growing point in shade trees especially in
silver oak in order to encourage side branches.
8. Lopping
This refers to the practice of reducing the canopy cover in shade trees in order to permit
more light.
Factors to be considered in pruning
1. In some of the tree species pruning as a regular feature in bearing trees is done

Practical Book : Grade 11 43

 to strike a balance between vegetative growth and production so that farmers get
sustained production uniformly with optimum quality of produce
2. To achieve this one should consider the following factors
3. Time at which buds are differentiated in relation to blooming
4. The age of the wood that produces the most abundant and highest quality of fruit
buds
5. In consideration of these factors our knowledge about bearing habit of the
tree/plant should be complete
6. Bearing habit means relative position of a fruit with reference to its potential bud
giving rise to flower or inflorescence in the shoot. This habit varies from plant
to plant
PROCEDURE
 Take a material required for pruning operation
 Select a fruit crop to be pruned
 Carry out the operation for selected crops
 After well pruning on selected crop paint the cutting portion with the Bordeaux
paste to avoid the contamination
PRECAUTIONS
 Care should be given during operation to avoid the cracking or hanging of
branches
 Appropriate shape of cutting should be given in branches to avoid death
CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

44 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 11
WEEDS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT IN FRUIT CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be familiar with the weed found in fruit orchard
 To know the methods of weed management in fruit orchard
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Weeds and intercultural tools.
THEORY
Weeds are unwanted, pernicious and harmful plants which interfere with agricultural
operations, increase labor, add to the cost of cultivation and reduce yield of crops.
Weed has no species, but name was suggested as a useless and harmful plant that
persistently grows where it is quite unwanted. Wide range of weed species affect the
productivity of fruit crops through competition for light, water and mineral nutrient.
Apart from this, they act as alternate host for many pests and pathogens which cause
heavy yield losses. The weedicides competing with the trees interfere with the plant
protection measures, harvesting, pruning and other cultural operations. Thus, effective
weed control is imperative for the profitable fruit production.
Dominant weeds in fruit crops:
Scientific name Family
Grasses
Dactyloctenimm aegyptium Poaceae
Perotis Indica Poaceae
Heteropogon contortus Poaceae
Cynodon dactylon Poaceae
Chloris baribata Poaceae
Broad leaved
Aristolochia bracterata Aristolochiaceae
Abutilon indicum Malvaceae
Celosia argentea Amaranthaceae

Practical Book : Grade 11 45

Hibiscus micranthus Malvaceae
Leucas aspera Labiatae
Leucas utricaefolia Labiatae
Ocimum canum Labiatae
Oldenlandia umbellata Rubiaceae
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Euphorbiaceae
Trichodesma indicum Boraginaceae
Tridax procumbens Asteraceae
Cyanotics culculata Commelinaceae
Tephrosia purposea Leguminosae
Mimosa pudica Mimosoideae
Vicoa indica Asteraceae
Gompherena decumbens Amaranthaceae
Sedges
Cyperus rotundus Cyperaceae
Methods of weed control
Tillage
Tillage is done in row crops by cultivators after planting to control weed growth. This
method is more effective and economical.
Hoeing
It is highly effective means of weed control. This method is not economical as it
demands more labor.
Mulching
Mulching materials, such as hay, grass clippings, straw, sawdust, rice hull and plastic
film area pplied, which exclude light thereby preventing photosynthesis and growth of
weeds.
Intercropping
Raising of cover crops intercrops and green manure crops are helpful in checking the
weeds. But, intercropping or cover cropping in the orchards is not desirable during

46 Practical Book: Grade 11

blooming and fruiting periods, during that time the fruit trees require maximum
moisture and nutrients.
Biological control
The population of certain weeds can be reduced below the level of economic injury by
using their natural enemies.
Chemical control
In this method the herbicides are applied as pre and post emergence for controlling
weeds in fruit crops. This method of control is highly effective and economical as the
other methods demand more labour and cost.
Integrated weed management:
Integrated weed management is basically an integration of effective, dependable and
workable weed management practices that can be used economically as a part of sound
farm management system. Such an approach is the most attractive alternative from
agronomic, economic and ecological point of view.
IWM is the application of numerous alternative technologies to reduce the weed
population, abundance, including cultural, genetic, mechanical, biological and
chemical control. This system helps to produce optimum crop yield at a minimum cost
in consideration with ecological and socio-economic constraints under a given agro-
ecosystem. The methods used for the effective weed control are as follows:
Direct methods Indirect methods
Cultural methods Land preparation
Mechanical methods Selection of fruit crops and varieties
Chemicals methods Plant density
Biological methods Fertilizer application

PROCEDURE
 Take a visit to fruit orchards.
 Collect and identify the weeds present in the fruit orchard.
 Practice a suitable weed management method in fruit orchards.
CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 11 47

 PRACTICAL NO: 12
MANURING AND FERTILIZATION OF FRUIT CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be familiar with the manures and fertilizer used in fruit crops
 To know about the time of manure and fertilizer application
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Spade, Bucket, Manures, Fertilizer, Mulching straw or stubbles etc.
THEORY
Management system adopted for fruit trees are quite different, especially with regard
to nutrient than that adopted for field crops. The shift in management system could be
commenced 3-4 years after planting depending on the tree size. Nutrients are required
for flowering and fruiting while at the same time trees are allowed to grow and
maintain sufficient vigour for producing high yields in following years. To maintain
productivity of trees in long run and maintain the sustainability of tree production
capacity, application of nutrient should essential. The Nutrients are chemical elements
which are absorbed by the plants in more or less quantity to transform light energy into
chemical energy and to keep up plant metabolism for the synthesis of organic
materials. These materials constitute among other things, foods for humans and
animals and a range of raw materials for various industrial uses. Feeding of plants with
nutrients is termed as nutrition. Successful growth and production of the plants in
general requires a proper supply of the 16 elements. These elements are regarded as
essential to life in higher plants which are supplied through manure and fertilizer to
the plant.
Types of fertilizers
Inorganic fertilizers Organic fertilizers

Industrially manufactured chemicals. These are plant and animal wastes that
are used as nutrients after
decomposition.
Contains higher nutrient than organic Improves the soil tilth, aeration, water
manures. holding capacity and activity of micro-
48 Practical Book: Grade 11
 organism.
Nutrient input is lost through leaching,
runoff, volatilization, fixation by soil or
consumption by weeds etc.
Time of fertilizer application
 It must be applied when the plants need it
 Timing depends on the type of fertilizer and climate
 Fruit trees require more nutrients at the emergence of new flushes and
differentiations of floral buds
 Utilized more during the course of fruit development
 Nutrients should be available to them in February –March
 So, it would be better to apply them in October-November to be available to the
trees in February to March
Methods of fertilizer application
Broadcasting
Fertilizer in solid state or granular or dust are spread uniformly over the entire field.
Leaching loss may be more.
Band placement
Application of fertilizer on the sides of rows. Fertilizer in solid and liquid forms can
be applied. Quantity of fertilizer may be economized.
Ring placement
Commonly followed in fruit trees. Fertilizers are applied in a ring encircling the trunk
of the trees extending the entire canopy. It is more labor intensive and costly.
Foliar application
Fertilizers are applied in liquid form as foliar sprays. They are easily absorbed by
leaves. Fertilizers are applied in a very low concentration tolerable to the leaves.
Recommended when the nutrients are required in small quantity.
Starter solution
Liquid form of fertilizer application. Seedlings and propagules are kept emerged up to
their root system for varying duration in starter solution. The starter solution is

Practical Book : Grade 11 49

prepared either by dissolving concentrated fertilizer mixture at a concentration not
exceeding 1%.
Fertigation
Application of fertilizers in irrigation water in either open or closed systems. Nitrogen
and sulphur are the principal nutrients applied. Phosphorous fertigation is less common
because of formation of precipitates takes place with high Ca and Mg containing water.
Tree injection
Direct injection of essential nutrients into the tree trunk. Iron salts are injected into
chlorotic trees that are known to suffer from iron deficiency.
Feeding needles
Several types of feeding needles or guns are available. With these fertilizers either in
dry form or in water solution placed in holes.
Methods of fertilizer application in fruit crops
The method of fertilizer application should be appropriate taking into consideration
the age of trees, their root extensibility, type of orchard management, kind and amount
of fertilizers to be applied. The various methods are as follows:
i. Broadcasting
It consists of spreading the fertilizers uniformly over the entire field. This is applicable
in full bearing or closely bearing orchards.
ii. Band\Strip placement
This placement can be made either in bands or trenches around the trees or fertilizers
are drilled or injected into the soil. This method is commonly used when fertilizers in
small quantities to young trees and when P and K fertilizers need to be incorporated
into the root zone or in case of plants with poorly developed root systems.
iii. Foliar application
The spraying entails applications either with manually operated or with power sprays.
Generally foliar sprays include micronutrients application or nutrient which cannot
easily be supplied through soils. This is followed as a means of fertilizer application
in fruit trees, which must be sprayed at regular intervals to affect the growth and fruit
50 Practical Book: Grade 11
quality. Foliar application has been found to be more successful on lighter soils than
on heavier soils that are high in organic matter. Foliar spraying can be used to apply
nutrients like nitrogen or supplementary trace elements such as iron, magnesium,
boron and calcium. Foliar applications are most effective during early growth. The use
of surfactants or spreaders, such as soap solutions, can enhance nutrient uptake through
leaf tissue. To avoid leaf burn, nutrient sprays should not be applied during hot
weather. Never apply pesticides and nutrients together. The fertilizer may also be
applied either as injections to tree trunks or as dabs to cover the pruning wounds as is
done in grapes. Application of concentrated fertilizers should not be applied too close
to the trunks. Each fertilizer application should be followed by copious irrigation.
Fertilizer application through the irrigation system (Fertigation)
Uniform water application is essential when an irrigation system is used for fertilizer
application. Sprinkler operating pressure uniformity can be checked by inserting a
pressure gauge in the nozzle. The minimum pressure should be 30 lb/sq in. (200 kPa).
Pressure from nozzle to nozzle should not vary more than 20%. Fertilizers that can be
spread by irrigation include ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate, calcium nitrate,
ammonium phosphate, muriate of potash, urea and borax. Do not use irrigation to
apply phosphoric acid (a corrosive element), anhydrous ammonia (solutions will be
lost to the air), or super phosphate and lime (cannot be dissolved in water). To apply,
fertilizer is dissolved in a drum, then introduced into the irrigation line through a valve-
either by suction or by pressure over a 10 to 15 minute period. After the application is
completed, continue irrigating for 30 minutes. To avoid burning the foliage, the system
must be run until the plants are rinsed with water free of fertilizers. Do not fertilize at
the beginning of irrigation because nutrients may be leached out of the root zone by
water applied after the fertilizer injection.
Application of fertilizers
In order to obtain maximum benefits and to minimize possibilities of any adverse
effects it is important that fertilization should be done at appropriate time in suitable
manner.
Time of application

Practical Book : Grade 11 51

In Nepal, where summer and winter seasons are well marked, there are definite periods
of growth and dormancy or rest for fruit trees. From February to April the fruit trees
have the highest requirements of nutrients for vegetation, flowering and fruit setting.
To be effective, the nutrients must be readily available at a time when these are needed
the most. The best time of applying N-fertilizers is about two weeks prior to the
initiation of growth and flowering. If the quantity is small, the application can be made
in a single dose. However, if it is large, split the quantity in two equal doses i.e. one
before the initiation of growth and second after fruit set. The P-fertilizers should be
applied along the nitrogen fertilizers. The K-fertilizers should be applied in spring or
in some fruit trees about 4-5 weeks prior to fruit maturity as it improves fruit quality.
The time of application of micro-nutrients depends upon the kind of fruit tree and the
severity of deficiency. If the deficiency is mild, one spray in April may be enough, but
if it is acute 4-5 repeated sprays at monthly intervals may be needed to correct the
deficiency. Usually the sprays are more effective than soil applications. However, in
soils with neutral pH, soil application may be attempted either with pure chemicals or
with chelated compounds. The time of soil application is same as for other fertilizers.
PROCEDURE
 Visit a horticulture orchard near the area
 Practice a different method of manures and fertilizer application
CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

52 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 13
IDENTIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT OF NUTRITIONAL
DEFICIENCIES IN FRUIT CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be able to identify the nutritional deficiencies in fruit crops
 To know the management methods of nutritional deficiencies in fruit crops
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Fruits crops, Plant nutrients
THEORY
Plants may exhibit nutrient deficiency symptom if soil levels of one or more essential
nutrients are lower than the needs of a specific plant or if soil conditions prevent one
or more plant nutrients from being in a form that plant roots can absorb. Even though
these nutrient deficiencies often present visual symptoms, it may be difficult to identify
specific plant nutrient deficiencies without plant tissue testing. This is because many
deficiencies will present symptoms that look very similar to one another. As a rule of
thumb, biotic problems tend to appear with asymmetrical patterns, while nutrient
deficiency symptoms tend to be distributed symmetrically over the plant tissue surface.
Plus, if plants are under additional stress (e.g., water, insect or disease) or if more than
one nutrient is deficient, visual symptoms may be misleading.
The first step to visual identification of a nutrient deficiency is to determine the
symptoms. This will be dictated by whether the nutrient is mobile or immobile in the
plant. A nutrient is considered mobile if the plant is able to move it from one part of
the plant to another as it is needed. In contrast, immobile plant nutrients cannot move
to different parts of the plant. Therefore, deficiency symptoms of mobile nutrients will
appear first in older parts of the plant, while symptoms for immobile nutrients will be
seen first in new growth. For example, symptoms of N, P, K and Mg deficiencies will
manifest in the old growth because they are mobile, while symptoms of Ca, Cu, B, Fe,
Mn and Zn deficiencies will appear in the new growth because they are immobile.
The deficiency symptoms can be distinguished based on the region of occurrence,

Practical Book : Grade 11 53

presence or absence of dead spots, and chlorosis of entire leaf or inter veinalchlorosis.
Table: Common Nutritional deficiencies and toxicity symptoms of plant nutrients in
crop plants.
Element/status Visual symptoms
Nitrogen (N)
Deficiency Light green leaf and plant colour with the older leaves turning
yellow, leaves that will eventually turn brown and die. Plant
growth is slow; plants will be stunted, and will mature early.
Excess Plants will be dark green in colour and new growth will be
succulent; susceptible, if subjected to disease and insect
infestation; and subjected to drought stress, plants will easily
lodge. Blossom abortion and lack of fruit set will occur.
Phosphorus (P)
Deficiency Plant growth will be slow and stunted, and the older leaves
will have a purple coloration, particularly on the underside.
Excess Phosphorus excess will not have a direct effect on the plant,
but
may show visual deficiencies of Zn, Fe and Mn. High P may
also interfere with the normal Ca nutrition, with typical Ca
deficiency symptoms occurring.
Potassium (K)
Deficiency On the older leaves, the edges will look burned, a symptom
known as scorch. Plants will easily lodge and be sensitive to
disease infestation. Fruit and seed production will be
impaired and of poor quality.
Excess Plants will exhibit typical Mg, and possibly Ca deficiency
symptoms due to a cation imbalance.
Calcium (Ca)
Deficiency The growing tips of roots and leaves will turn brown and die.
The edges of the leaves will look ragged as the edges of
emerging leaves stick together. Fruit quality will be affected
with the occurrence of blossom-end rot on fruits.
Excess Plants may exhibit typical Mg deficiency symptoms, and
when in
high excess, K deficiency may also occur.
Magnesium (Mg)
Deficiency Older leaves will be yellow in colour with inter veinal
chlorosis (yellowing between the veins) symptoms. Plant
growth will be slow and some plants may be easily infested
54 Practical Book: Grade 11
 by disease.
Excess Results in a cation imbalance showing signs of either Ca or
K deficiency.
Sulfur (S)
Deficiency A general overall light green colour of the entire plant with
the older leaves being light green to yellow in colour as the
deficiency intensifies.
Excess A premature senescence of leaves may occur.
Boron (B)
Deficiency Abnormal development of the growing points (meristematic
tissue) with the apical growing points eventually becoming
stunted and dying. Flowers and fruits will abort. For some
grain and fruit crops, yield and quality is significantly
reduced.
Excess Leaf tips and margins will turn brown and die.
Chlorine (Cl)
Deficiency Younger leaves will be chlorotic and plants will easily wilt.
Excess Premature yellowing of the lower leaves with burning of the
leaf margins and tips. Leaf abscission will occur and plants
will easily wilt.
Copper (Cu)
Deficiency Plant growth will be slow and plants stunted with distortion
of the young leaves and death of the growing point.
Excess A Fe deficiency may be induced with very slow growth.
Roots may be stunted.
Iron (Fe)
Deficiency Interveinal chlorosis will occur on the emerging and young
leaves with eventual bleaching of the new growth. When
severe, the entire plant may be light green in colour.
Excess Bronzing and tiny brown spots on the leaves.
Manganese (Mn)
Deficiency Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves while the leaves and
plants remain generally green in colour. When severe, the
plants will be stunted.
Excess Older leaves will show brown spots surrounded by a chlorotic
zone and circle.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Deficiency Symptoms will frequently appear similar to N deficiency.
Older and middle leaves become chlorotic first, and in some
instances, leaf margins are rolled and growth and flower

Practical Book : Grade 11 55

 formation are restricted.
Excess Not of common occurrence.
Zinc (Zn)
Deficiency Upper leaves will show interveinal chlorosis with an eventual
whiting of the affected leaves. Leaves may be small and
distorted with a rosette form.
Excess Fe deficiency will develop.
Table: General recommendation for amelioration of nutritional disorders
Deficiency Soil application (kg ha-1) Foliar spray (%)
Nitrogen i. Application of 50 kg urea/ha (or) Spraying of 1% urea
ii. Application of 50 kg DAP/ha
Phosphorus Application of 25-50 kg DAP kg/ha Spraying of 2% DAP

Potassium Application of Calcium chloride at Spraying of KCl 1%

60 to 80 kg ha-1 or CAN at 50 kg/ha

Calcium Application of Calcium chloride at Spraying of 0.5% CaNO3 (or)

60 to 80 kg ha-1 or CAN at 50 CaCl2 (or) Calcium
kg/ha ammonium nitrate
Sulphur Application of Gypsum at 50 kg/ha Spraying of 0.5% gypsum

Magnesium Application of magnesium sulphate Spraying of 0.5% MgSO4 +

25-50 kg/ha 1% urea

Iron Application of ferrous sulphate 50- Spraying of FeSO4 1 to 2%

100 kg/ha

Zinc Application of zinc sulphate 25 Spraying of 0.5% ZnSO4

kg/ha
Manganese Application of 25 kg manganese Spraying of 0.5% MnSO4
sulphate/ha

Copper Application of 5 to 10 kg copper Spraying of 0.1% CuSO4

sulphate/ha

Boron Application of sodium tetraborate Spraying of borax at 0.05%

or borax at 10 kg/ha

56 Practical Book: Grade 11

PROCEDURE
 Take a field visit near the fruit orchards
 Observe the deficiencies and toxicity symptoms of common plant nutrients in
fruit crops
 Record the data on following observation table
OBSERVATION
S.N Fruit Crops Nutrient Nutrient toxicity Symptoms
deficiencies

CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 11 57

 PRACTICAL NO: 14
TO STUDY DIFFERENT METHODS OF IRRIGATION OF FRUIT CROPS
AND THEIR LAYOUT
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be familiar with different methods of irrigation system used in fruit crop
orchard
 To know the technique of preparing different irrigation methods based on
requirements
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Rope, Pegs, Spade, Hoe, Irrigation pipe
THEORY
Irrigation is one of the most important components of the orchards and it should be
need based. The low or excess irrigation as well as the inappropriate irrigation interval
can result in inappropriate growth of citrus plants and hence results in low yield of
poor quality fruit. Moreover, underground water table is constantly depleting by the
existing cropping pattern and creating sacristy of water resources, hence, irrigation is
becoming a critical input as the bulk of annual rainfall is restricted primarily in the
monsoon season i.e. July to September. It is an artificial application of water to the
soil. It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes,
and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate
rainfall. The various methods of irrigation which can be employed for irrigating fruit
orchards are as under:
Flood system
In flood irrigation system, orchards are irrigated by flooding of the border strips which
are connected to water source by a water channel. Water distributed by this method is
not uniform and large amount of water is required to obtain the desired results. This
method not only results in wastage of irrigation water but also invites fungal diseases
like Phytophthora foot and root rot.

58 Practical Book: Grade 11

Basin system
To avoid water loss, basin system should be used during initial few years of orchard
establishment. In this system a circular basin, a little wider than the tree canopy is
made around the young plant and this basin is linked with one another through straight
channel. There is less wastage of water and weed growth would remain checked.

Fig: Basin system

Modified basin system
In bearing orchards, to reduce risk of water transmissible disease, modified basin
method should be used invariably over the flood irrigation. This method involves
modification of basin method and in this system water supplying channel runs between
the tree rows and basin of individual trees are independently linked through small sub-
channels.

Fig: Modified basin system

Drip irrigation
Drip irrigation is also known as “trickle irrigation” involves dripping water into the

Practical Book : Grade 11 59

soil at very low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a system of small diameter plastic pipes
fitted with outlets called emitters or drippers. Water is applied close to plants so that
only part of the soil in which the roots grow is wetted, unlike surface and sprinkler
irrigation, which involves wetting the whole soil profile. With drip irrigation water,
applications are more frequent (usually every 1-3 days) than with other methods and
this provides a very favourable high moisture level in the soil in which plants can
flourish. Under water scarcity conditions, drip irrigation method should be used as it
is an efficient means of irrigation and 2 to 3 times more economical than conventional
system. The drip system supplies water to meet the daily requirement of fruit crop at
low pressure. Thus, it maintains an optimum moisture and nutrient in the wetted root
zone for greater water and nutrient efficiency.

Fig: Drip irrigation

PROCEDURE
 Collect the all required materials for preparing irrigation channel system
 Layout the field for system preparation
 Make an irrigation channel system according to purpose, design, layout in fruit
orchard
CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

60 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 15
USES OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATORS IN FRUIT CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be familiar with the plant growth regulators used in fruit crops
 To acquire the knowledge about the use of plant growth regulators in fruit crops
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Plant growth regulators, Measuring cylinder, Sprayer
THEORY
Growth regulator may be defined as chemical substance, other than nutrient and
vitamin regulate the growth of plant when applied in small quantities. Plant growth
regulators play an integral role in controlling the growth and development of plants. A
plant growth regulators is generally described as an organic compound synthesized in
one part of the plant and translocate to another part, where in low concentrations (e.g.,
<1mM and often <1 M) it elicits a physiological response.
Types of Growth Regulators
1. Auxin
2. Gibberellins
3. Cytokines
4. Ethylene
5. Inhibitors
6. Growth retardants.
Uses of plant growth regulators in fruit crops
Propagation
Gibberellins are used for seed germination and substitution of chilling requirement.
Rooting of cuttings
100-500 ppm IBA for soft wood
500-1500 ppm for semi hard wood
2000-5000 ppm for hard wood

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GA has antagonistic effect on rooting of cuttings
Root initiation in layered plants
Use in Tissue culture
In banana, low conc. of IAA and high level of BA essential for rapid growth of explant.
In grapes, BA and NAA for establishment of explants
IBA helps in rapid multiplication.
Breaking of seed and bud dormancy
GA used for accelerated seed germination in citrus, aonla, grapes, ber, Annona, apple,
peach etc.
In pecan, GA significantly reduced/substituted the period of seed stratification.
GA sprays for termination of rest period of buds in peach and apple
Use of dormax for substitution of chilling in Kiwi and pecan.
Control of Vigour
SADH/ paclobutrazol effective in reducing the growth of pear, peach, lemon, apple,
litchi, apricot, plum and mango.
Ethrel treatment beneficial in mango, grapes and avocado.
Flowering
Ethylene responsible for flowering in pineapple.
Acetylene, calcium carbide, ethephon and NAA(10-15 ppm) used to induce flowering
in pineapple.
Soil application of paclobutrzol (cultar) @ 5 g per tree is effective in regulating fruiting
in mango.
In litchi, NAA replaces girdling for improved flowering.
SADH promots flowering in apple, pear, peach and blueberry.
Grapes and lemon respond to CCC with increased flowering.

62 Practical Book: Grade 11

Inhibition or delay of flowering
In fruits like apple, pear, fig, grapes etc. GA application produces parthenocarpic
fruits.
Cytokininin grapes for parthenocarpic fruit set.
Application of GA increases fruit set in strawberry, peach, plum and cherry.
Fruit Thinning
NAA application at post bloom for thinning in apple.
DNOC (sodium 4,6-dinitro-o-cresol) in stone fruits.
Pre-bloom application of GA for optimum fruit set and loose and attractive clusters in
grapes.
Fruit growth and maturity
Post bloom application of CPPU, a derivative of cytokinins to increases the berry size
in kiwi.
Prevention of Fruit drop
NAA, 2,4-D and 2.4.5-T for controlling fruit drop in mango and citrus.
Harvesting
Ethrelsprays for induced harvesting in walnut, pecan, olive, cherry and grapes.
Improvement of fruit quality
GA3 for loose clusters, decrease fruit set, reduce number of berries per cluster increase
size of remaining berries and improvement of berry size in grapes. GA3 (50-100 ppm),
NAA (25-50 ppm).
Dipping bunches in GA3 (75 ppm)for 10 seconds for size improvement in grapes.
Fruit Ripening
Ethrel application in apple for uniform ripening and early fruit maturity.
Ethephon in citrus prior to storing ensures post harvest degreening.
In lemons, dipping in 1000 ppm ethephon for attaining marketable yellow colour.

Practical Book : Grade 11 63

For ripening of banana, mango etc.
PROCEDURE
 Collect the required materials
 Select a suitable plant growth regulators for uses in fruit crops
 Measure an accurate quantity of plant growth regulators for uses
 Apply uniformly the plant growth regulators in fruit crops
 Observe the change in fruit crops after application of plant growth regulators in
fruit crops.
CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

64 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 16
JUDGMENT OF HARVEST MATURITY IN FRUIT CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To know the technique of maturity judgment in different fruit crops
 To acquire knowledge about the maturity judgment of important fruit crops
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Fruit crops, Diary, Pen, Maturity judgment chart
THEORY
Maturity indices and their adoption at harvesting and in post-harvest management of
fruits provide information against quality loss, microbial decay and deterioration of
external appeal. Fruit harvesting at proper stage of maturity has direct effect on quality
and market value of produce. Stage of harvesting also influence the after harvest
enzymatic activities of the horticultural produce, which determines the levels of
different pigments, sugars, acids and vitamins in fruits, flowers and vegetables .
Maturity can be described as the attainment of a particular size, stage after which
ripening takes place. However, horticultural maturity is defined as the stage of
development when a plant or plant part possess the prerequisites for utilization by
consumers for a particular purpose.
There are many methods to determine produce maturity. The most common is the size
of the individual commodity. Some other commonly used crude methods are colour
change, Softening of the tissues (fig, sapota) ease of detachment from the stalk (
Sapota, annona), shrivelling of fruit stalk (water melon), time elapsed from the date of
flowering to picking maturity, sound by tapping jack and water melon when ripe
produce hollow and dull sound on tapping but produce metallic sound if unripe etc.
Another physical characteristic is the firmness and it is determined with a pressure
tester. Firmness is often correlated with chemical changes that occur during ripening.
Chemical characteristics include TSS, acidity, sugar, vitamins and pigments. There is
certain test which accurately gives the maturity measurements such as use of colour
charts (judge colour), penetrometers (firmness), brix: acid ratio etc.

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 Table : Maturity indices of some important fruits

Index Examples
Elapsed days from full bloom to
Apple, pears
harvest
Mean heat units during development Peas, apples
Development of abscission layer Apples, feijoas
Surface morphology and structure Cuticle formation on grapes, Gloss of
some fruits (development of wax)
Size All fruits
Specific gravity Cherries
Shape Angularity of banana fingers Full
cheeks of mangos
Textural properties
Firmness Apples, pears, stone fruits
Color, external All fruits
Internal color and structure Flesh color of some fruits
Compositional factors
Starch content Apples, pears
Sugar content Apples, pears, stone fruits, grapes
Acid content, sugar/acid ratio Pomegranates, citrus, papaya, kiwifruit
Juice content Citrus fruits
Oil content Avocados
Astringency (tannin content) Persimmons, dates
Internal ethylene concentration Apple, pears

PROCEDURE
 Take a visit to near fruit orchard during fruit maturity stage.
 Make a study about the maturity judgment of different fruits crops based on
observation.
 Record the data and fill the following observation table.
OBSERVATION

S.N Fruit crops Maturity indices

66 Practical Book: Grade 11

CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 11 67

 PRACTICAL NO: 17
GRADING, PACKAGING AND STORAGE OF FRUIT CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be familiar with grading, packaging and storage of fruit crops
 To know the technique of grading, packaging and storage of fruit crops
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Dairy, Pen, Grading, Packaging instruments, Storage chamber or equipment
THEORY
Grading
Fruit are sorted by quality into different (two or more) grades according to country
standards. It comprises of sorting product in grades or categories of quality. Two main
systems exist: static and dynamic. Static systems are common in tender and/or high
value crops, where produce is placed on an inspection table and sorters remove units
not meeting the requirements for the grade or quality category. The dynamic system is
probably much more common. In this system product moves along a belt in front of
the sorters who remove units with defects. Main flow is the highest quality grade.
Grading is probably one of the best practices to better price of the produces in market.
Packaging (or) packing
The term packaging encompasses both the direct or primary packaging around the
product and the secondary and tertiary packaging, the over packaging such as over
warts, cartons and crates etc. The main purpose of packaging is to ensure that the
product is inside a container along with packing materials to prevent movement and to
cushion the produce (plastic or moulded pulp trays, inserts, cushioning pads, etc.) and
for protection (plastic films, waxed liners, etc.). It needs to satisfy three basic
objectives. These are to:
Contain product and facilitate handling and marketing by standardizing the number of
units or weight inside the package.
Protect product from injuries (impact, compression, abrasion and wounds) and adverse

68 Practical Book: Grade 11

environmental conditions (temperature, relative humidity) during transport, storage
and marketing.
Provide information to buyers, such as variety, weight, number of units, selection or
quality grade, producer's name, country, area of origin, etc. Recipes are frequently
included such as nutritional value, bar codes or any other relevant information on
traceability.
Storage
Storage of the fruits at the temperature lower than ambient temperature. The low
temperature requirement varies from crop to crop. If the fresh fruits are stored at the
temperature below their optimum low requirement, develop chilling injury and
therefore, loose the marketability. The fruits stored at low temperature exhibit more
shelf life than those stored at ambient temperature. The cold storage requirement and
storage life of fruits are given below:
Table: Cold Storage Requirement and Storage Life of Fruits
Product Temperature Relative Humidity Approximate
(percent) storage life
°C °F
Apples -1-4 30-40 90-95 1-12 months
Apricots -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 1-3 weeks
Artichokes, globe 0 32 95-100 2-3 weeks
Asian pear 1 34 90-95 5-6 months
Avocados, Fuerte, 7 45 85-90 2 weeks
Hass
Bananas, green 13-14 56-58 90-95 14 weeks
Barbados cherry 0 32 85-90 7-8 weeks
Blackberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-3 days
Blood orange 4-7 4044 90-95 3-8 weeks
Blueberries -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2 weeks
Cashew apple 0-2 32-36 85-90 5 weeks
Coconuts 0-1.5 32-35 80-85 1-2 months
Custard apples 5-7 41-45 85-90 4-6 weeks
Dates -18 or 0 0 or 32 75 6-12 months
Grapes, Vinifera -1 to -0.5 30-31 90-95 1-6 months
Guavas 5-10 41-50 90 2-3 weeks

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Jackfruit 13 55 85-90 2-6 weeks
Jaffa orange 8-10 46-50 85-90 8-12 weeks
Kiwi Fruit 0 32 90-95 3-5 months
Kumquats 4 40 90-95 2-4 weeks
Lemons 10-13 50-55 85-90 1-6 months
Limes 9-10 48-50 85-90 6-8 weeks
Mangoes 13 55 85-90 2-3 weeks
Mangosteen 13 55 85-90 2-4 weeks
Persimmons, -1 30 90 34 months
Japanese
Pineapples 7-13 45-55 85-90 24 weeks
Plums and prunes -0.5-0 31-32 90-95 2-5 weeks
Pomegranates 5 41 90-95 2-3 months
Pummelo 7-9 4548 85-90 12 weeks
PROCEDURE
 Take a fruits of different size of different fruit crops
 Practice a methods of grading, packaging process
 After grading and packaging storage a fruit at suitable temperature
 Observe results and record the data i.e. days to storage life
CONCLUSION
___________________________________________________________________

70 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 18
VISIT OF FRUIT ORCHARD
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To get an idea about fruit orchards
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Paper sheet and pen to note down the instruction and observations.
THEORY
Field visit is the method of exposing to the technology being used by the different
stakeholders. It is the direct method of observation of different technologies or farming
practices. So that field visit should be conducted frequently to the different farms
operated by government or private sectors for gaining knowledge and skill.
PROCEDURE
Plan a visit to fruit orchard where fruits are grown and collect the information about
methodology and products. Record the following information;
1. Name of the fruit orchard
2. Location and accessibility.
3. What are the major fruit crops being grown and produced ?
4. Note down various steps involved in the production and make a flow chart.
5. Note down the ingredients used in establishment of fruit orchards.
CONCLUSION
REFERENCE
Bakshi, P. and Wali, V.K. 2011.Practical manual of fruit production.Sher-e-Kashmir
University of Agricultural Sciences & Technology of Jammu
Bhattarai B.P and Sharma. S. 2010. A practical manual on fundamental of
horticulture.Himalayan College of Agriculture Science and Technology, Sanothimi,
Bhaktapur.
W. Lee. Dr. Chiwon.2009. Lab manual. Department of Plant Sciences, North Dakota
State University

Practical Book : Grade 11 71

Hartman, H.T. and D.E. Kester. 1986. Plant Propagation: Principles and Practices, 4th
ed., Prentice Hall
Singh, S.P. 2004. Commercial fruits. A. Kalyani publishers, India
Shrestha, G.K. ,Shaykya, S.M., Baral, D.R. and Gautam, D.M . 2001. Fundamental of
Horticulture. Delta offset press, Kathmandu , Nepal .
https://www.agriinfo.com
https://www.agriglance.com
https://www.researchgate.net/

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 Participatory Agriculture Extension and
Marketing

Practical Book : Grade 11 73

 PRACTICAL NO: 1
CONDUCT A BASELINE SURVEY INTO A RURAL COMMUNITY AND
ANALYZE THE SITUATION

OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be able to conduct a baseline survey into a rural community
 To be able to analyze the situation of rural community
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, pen, pencil, Eraser, Paper, Questionnaire
THEORY
This community baseline survey constitutes an essential component of the preparation
and learning process of the rural community by providing information on citizen
perceptions of rural people, and various issues such as livelihood, economics and
safety within the areas they are returning to. The baseline survey was undertaken to
establish a starting point to measure the situation of rural community. The study
gathered and assessed quantitative and qualitative data from the rural community
areas. Qualitative and quantitative data related to outcome indicators is summarized
for each rural community situations. Baseline survey helps to analyze the impact of
food insecurity at the household level, clarify households’ livelihoods strategies, and
identify communities’ coping mechanisms when shocks occur. As well as providing
valuable insights into the situation in the villages studied, the process of conducting
this baseline study provided staff and partners from both government and international
agencies with experience in conducting data collection and highlighted a number of
issues related to assessing livelihoods and food security in the rural community context
which will be considered in more depth in the bigger study.
Methods of baseline survey
1. Sampling and preparation
2. Data collection tools
3. Data entry and analysis

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4. Translation and cultural translation
PROCEDURE
 Select the rural community areas for baseline survey
 Coordinate with the rural community people
 Conduct a base line survey to know about the present situation in the rural
community.
 Record the information and develop a report based on case study.

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 11 75

 PRACTICAL NO: 2
IDENTIFICATION AND PRIORITIZATION OF FARMERS’ PROBLEMS
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be able to identify the farmer's problems
 To prioritize the farmers problems for solving urgent needs
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Pencil, Eraser, Paper, Questionnaire etc.
THEORY
Identification of farmer problems is one of the five key principles of the revised
extension approach. It is the process of finding out the key problems and opportunities
which farmers face, and the types of information that they require, in order to provide
a responsive extension service.
Farmer’s problems and prioritization is important because it helps:
 Knowing their major as well as minor problems
 Effectively prioritize problems based on situation
 Ensure demand driven extension
 Gain farmers participation in extension
 Improve cost-effectiveness
 Ensure proper targeting of extension programs
 Develop accountability towards farmers
Extension workers learn about farmers needs in a variety of ways
 regular reporting by field staff to the authority and information needs raised by
farmers during extension events, meetings and farm visits
 informal information needs identification using participatory rural appraisal
 problem census, a participatory rural appraisal technique specifically adopted in
which field staff meet with groups of farmers to review their agricultural
situation, identify their main problems and discuss opportunities for overcoming
them

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 formal farmer information needs surveys conducted periodically by extension
workers
 feedback from field staff on the situation in the field during regular meetings and
training sessions at than a level
 Sharing information with extension workers providers during meetings
PROCEDURE
 Conduct the field visit in farmers’ fields
 Collect the information from the farmers through different extension method
such as questionnaire or direct interviews
 Record the problems faced by the farmers in their field as well as farms
 Prioritize the problems based on situation they faced
 Identify the best solution for solving the farmer’s problems
OBSERVATION AND SURVEY
Farmer No: 1 Date:
Farmer’s Name:
Address/location:
Farmer’s Occupation:
S.N Farmers problems Prioritization of problem Recommendation

Farmer No: 2
Farmer’s Name:
Farmer’s Occupation:
S.N Farmers problems Prioritization of problem Recommendation

Farmer No: 3

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Farmer’s Name:
Farmer’s Occupation:
S.N Farmers problems Prioritization of Recommendation
problem

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

78 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 3
LEARN ABOUT RRA AND PRA TOOLS AS A QUALITATIVE APPROACH
OF INFORMATION COLLECTION
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To explain the concept of RRA and PRA tools used as a qualitative approach of
information collection
 To describe the principal tools and techniques of RRA and PRA
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Flip chart paper, marker pens, card, scissors, scale, tape, pencil, eraser, duster, white
board
THEORY
Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) reflects the new thinking about development, needs, and
people oriented responsibilities. It is a process that is highly systematic and structured,
relying on interdisciplinary teamwork and special strategies for data collection and
analysis such as triangulation, probing, and iteration. Some critics consider RRA to be
a quick and dirty technique. There is a wide range of participatory tools and techniques
available. People can use these tools and techniques according to their situation or
needs. Generally, the application of different tools may vary from one situation to
another.
Methods and technique of RRA
There are several methods used in collection of information. Some of common
methods used in RRA is as follows:
a. Direct observation
Observations are related to questions: What? When? Where? Who? Why? How?
b. Do it yourself
Villagers are encouraged to teach the researcher how to do various activities. The
researcher will learn how much skill and strength are required to do day to-day rural
activities, gaining an insider's perspective on a situation.

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c. Participatory mapping and modeling
Using local materials, villagers draw or model current or historical conditions. The
researcher then interviews the villager by “interviewing the map." This technique can
be used to show watersheds, forests, farms, home gardens, residential areas, soils,
water sources, wealth rankings, household assets, land-use patterns, changes in
farming practices, constraints, trends, health and welfare conditions and the
distribution of various resources.
d. Transect walks and guided field walks
The researcher and key informants conduct a walking tour through areas of interest to
observe, to listen, to identify different zones or conditions, and to ask questions to
identify problems and possible solutions. With this method, the outsider can quickly
learn about topography, soils, land use, forests, watersheds, and community assets.
e. Seasonal calendars
Variables such as rainfall, labor, income, expenditures, debt, animal fodder or pests,
and harvesting periods can be drawn (or created with stones, seeds, and sticks) to show
month-to-month variations and seasonal constraints and to highlight opportunities for
action. An 18-month calendar can better illustrate variations than a 12-month calendar.
f. Daily-activity profiles
Researchers can explore and compare the daily-activity patterns of men, women,
youth, and elders by charting the amount of time taken to complete tasks.
g. Semi structured interviewing
A semi structured interviewing and listening technique uses some predetermined
questions and topics but allows new topics to be pursued as the interview develops.
The interviews are informal and conversational but carefully controlled.
i. Types, sequencing, and chain interviews
Individual, pair, and group interviews are combined in a sequence to take advantage
of key informants and specialist groups.
j. Permanent-group interviews
Established groups, farmers' groups, or people using the same water source can be
interviewed together. This technique can help identify collective problems or

80 Practical Book: Grade 11

solutions.
k. Time lines
Major historical community events and changes are dated and listed. Understanding
the cycles of change can help communities focus on future actions and information
requirements.
l. Local histories
Local histories are similar to time lines but give a more detailed account of how things
have changed or are changing. For example, histories can be developed for crops,
population changes, community health trends and epidemics, education changes, road
developments, and trees and forests.
m. Shared presentations and analysis
Participants are encouraged to present their findings to other villagers and to outsiders,
providing another opportunity for cross checking, feedback, comment, and criticism.
n. Night halts
The researchers live in the village during the research process. This facilitates all
interactions between the outsiders and the villagers, invites change in the outsiders'
attitudes, and allows for early-morning and evening discussions, when villagers tend
to have more leisure time.
o. Short questionnaires
Short and issue-specific questionnaires can be useful if conducted late in the research
process.
p. Field report writing
Key findings are recorded before leaving the village. (This assumes that the
community has consented to having the research data leave the village.) Brief
summaries are made of each diagram, model, and map, as well as of the process
involved in creating them.
q. Intriguing practices and beliefs
Indigenous practices and beliefs are noted, even if they are based on myth or
superstition. Even practices that are unusual or don't fit in with conventional scientific

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thinking are worth exploring because they are meaningful to local people.
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) is a flexible set of techniques designed to enable
rural people to appraise and analyses their situations. The information generated can
be used to plan development activities. PRA is used by the Department to assist
farmers’ analyses their constraints and opportunities; identify ways of overcoming
problems or exploiting opportunities and implementing agreed solutions.
PRA comprises a menu of techniques, which can be used according to the context.
Nine techniques are listed below,
 physical maps
 social maps
 transect walks
 wealth ranking
 venn diagram
 daily routine
 seasonal diagrams
 matrix ranking and matrix scoring; and problem census
Methods and technique of PRA
a. Triangulation
Triangulation is simply a method of linking different survey methods in order to cross
check the information collected from each method. These are often carried out in
groups of three to increase the credibility of each survey technique. Triangulation is of
particular use when employing mapping, ranking and scoring, flow diagrams, Venn
diagrams and wealth ranking techniques, as these involve group participation which
may require some verification.
b. Observation
Prior to conducting any PRA techniques, researchers should be clear in their mind as
to what exactly it is they are researching and to have some realistic objectives of the
PRA surveys. Researchers should act on what they see and recognize distinctions in
gender, age and wealth etc. amongst the community.

82 Practical Book: Grade 11

c. Semi- structured interviews
Interviewing is one of the main techniques used in development studies. Participatory
methods have contributed to adjusting the interview to make it more conversational
while still controlled and structured.
d. Ranking and Scoring techniques
Ranking and scoring have long been used to assess people expectation, beliefs,
attitudes, preference and opinions. Ranking and scoring means placing something in
order.
PROCEDURE
 Select an area such as a village, a farm, or a sub-block;
 Visit the area through walking, and meet local farmers;
 Build rapport through open relationship with local farmers. Explaining that they
are there to understand their lives and farms, in order to help provide effective
services;
 Select suitable method or materials such as implement the RRA and PRA
technique for solving the problems.
CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 11 83

 PRACTICAL NO: 4
LEARN ABOUT HOW TO DEVELOP QUESTIONNAIRE TO GENERATE
QUANTITATIVE INFORMATION

OBJECTIVE(S)
 To learn about the development of questionnaire for generating quantitative
information
 To know about the technique of questionnaire development
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Pencil, Eraser, Paper
THEORY
Questionnaire development refers to the design of a questionnaire to gather statistically
useful information about a given topic. When properly constructed and responsibly
administered, questionnaires can provide valuable data about any given subject.
Questionnaires can be defined as a kind of written interview. They can be carried out
face to face, by telephone or post. Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap, quick and
efficient way of obtaining large amounts of information from a large sample of people.
Questionnaires can be an effective means of measuring the behavior, attitudes,
preferences, opinions and intentions of relatively large numbers of subjects more
cheaply and quickly than other methods.
Types of questionnaires
1. Closed Questions
Closed questions structure the answer by allowing only answers which fit into
categories that have been decided in advanced by the researcher. The options can be
restricted to as few as two (e.g. 'yes' or 'no', 'male' or 'female'), or include quite complex
lists of alternatives from which the respondent can choose.
2. Open Questions
Open questions allow people to express what they think in their own words. Open-
ended questions enable the respondent to answer in as much detail as they likes in their
84 Practical Book: Grade 11
own words. For example: “can you tell me how happy you feel right now?". Open
questions are often used for complex questions that cannot be answered in a few simple
categories but require more detail and discussion.
Designing a Questionnaire
With some questionnaires suffering from a response rate as low as 5% it is essential
that a questionnaire is well designed. There are a number of important factors in
questionnaire design.
 Aims: Make sure that all questions asked address the aims of the research.
 Length: The longer the questionnaire the less likely people will complete it.
Questions should be short, clear, and be to the point; any unnecessary
questions/items should be omitted. Two sides of A4 is usually an ideal length.
 Pilot Study: Run a small scale practice study to ensure people understand the
questions. People will also be able to give detailed honest feedback on the
questionnaire design.
 Question order: Easy questions first progressing to more difficult questions.
 Terminology: There should be a minimum of technical jargon. Questions
should be simple, to the point and easy to understand.
 Presentation: Make sure it looks professional, include clear and concise
instructions. If sent through the post make sure the envelope does not signify
‘junk mail’.
PROCEDURE
 Collect a required materials for questionnaire development
 Select a suitable topic for questionnaire development
 Practice a questionnaire development for specific topic
CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 11 85

 PRACTICAL NO : 5
PREPARATION OF FARM LEVEL PRODUCTION PLAN: CROP
PRODUCTION AND LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION

OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be able to prepare the farm level production plan
 To know the method of farm planning for production
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Pencil, Eraser, Paper, Calculators
THEORY
Farm management may be defined as making and implementing of the decisions
involved in organizing and operating a farm for maximum production and profit. Farm
management draws on agricultural economics for information on prices, markets,
agricultural policy, and economic institutions such as leasing and credit. It also draws
on plant and animal sciences for information on soils, seed, and fertilizer, on control
of weeds, insects, and disease, and on rations and breeding; on agricultural engineering
for information on farm buildings, machinery, irrigation, crop drying, drainage, and
erosion control systems; and on psychology and sociology for information on human
behavior. In making his decisions, a farm manager thus integrates information from
the biological, physical, and social sciences.
Farm planning, can be defined as, “To determine the existing or available resources on
the farm, which resources will still be needed to maintain future goals and also to have
an unmistakable objective of where we are aiming to?”Integrated farm planning is one
on the components that will contribute to the success of the farming business. There
must be proper planning of the production system, marketing, quality of products and
financial planning.
The principles of Farm planning are
 Whole farm planning is a process that assists farmers to analyse the farming
operation

86 Practical Book: Grade 11

 Each production system must be planned and combined with the other systems
 Both the physical infrastructure and the economical and management inputs
must be planned
 Accurate information need to be obtained to ensure proper planning
Steps involved in whole farm or integrated farm planning
The following steps are involved in whole farm planning
1. Setting of goals
2. Making an inventory and assessment of existing farm resources
3. Developing and implementing an action plan
4. Monitoring on-farm processes towards the goal
Step 1: Setting of goals
Whole farm planning begins with the development of a long-term goal or vision for
the farming business. The farmer needs to determine the following:
 The quality of life expectancy for his family and himself
 What is his vision or aim for the future of the farming business
 The amount of income needed from the farming business to ensure atmosphere
in which his family, his workers and their families may live a sensible life.
 The farming business needs to determine long term goals e.g. the reduction of
debt, the improving of soil fertility, etc. Short term goals e.g. the planning of
tillage methods, diversification of crops or enterprises and the improving the
marketing of products.
 Human and social resources which include the manpower available, the skills
level and training of the different farm workers.
 Environmental resources
 Economic and financial resources
Step 2: Inventory and assessment
These goals should relate to the following resource areas to be able to properly plan
an inventory of resources which include natural resources, human resources and
financial resources.

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 Natural resources can be determined by using a farm map, soil maps, soil testing,
and availability of water, types and vegetation. It can be obtained through the
study of the maps and other documentation or by conducting a natural resource
audit where the person collects the necessary data form the source. Human
resources including manpower availability, the skills level and training of the
different farm workers. The financial assets or resources are the capital available
or the collateral the farmer has to secure a loan from financial institutions.
With this step in the planning process the farmer determines (stock take) which sources
are available, how these can be used and the means of getting to the goals.
Step 3: Action plan
The planning that was done in the previous steps needs to be put in action. The
management alternatives need to be identified and evaluated and then be used to
develop an action plan.
The action plan must fit in with the goals set in the first step and must make use of all
existing positive resources as it can influence future planning.
Step 4: Monitoring and control
Management alternatives must be evaluated separately to determine which plan suites
the farming business best.
As the whole farm plan is implemented, you need to evaluate the different options and
plans to determine if it works. It might be necessary to make minor adjustments to the
plan as time goes on. Keep accurate records and evaluate to see if the farming business
is still on the right tract and achieving the goals set out.
PROCEDURE
 Make a suitable farm planning for crop and livestock production.
CONCLUSION
_________________________________________________________________

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 PRACTICAL NO: 6
INTERACTION VISIT AND MEETING WITH I/NGO/CBOS/CO-
OPERATIVES/PRIVATE SECTORS AND ITS LOCAL GROUP AND STUDY
THEIR PLAN OF WORK AND IMPLEMENTATION

OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be familiar with NGOs, INGOs, CBOS, Co-operative and related
stakeholders
 To know about the plan of work and implementation activities carried out by
related organizations.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, pen, vehicle etc.
THEORY
NGOs, INGOs, COBS, Co-operative and related stakeholders are primarily a bridge
between agricultural research and farmers, transferring technology from research
fields directly to farmers. It is focused on new technologies for increasing production
and the productivity of agricultural crops. It coordinates and cooperates with other
institutions working in agricultural development on district agriculture planning and
implementation. It also regulates activities relating to pesticides, seeds, inorganic
fertilizers, and agriculture markets. They also provide training and workshops on
agriculture technology, livestock health, livestock development, feed, and fodder
development.
PROCEDURE
 Conduct visit to NGOs, INGOs, CBOS, Co-operative and related stakeholders
 Coordination with the related organization for interaction and discussion about
the present situation, their plan and implementation process
 Records the information obtain from the related organization.
EXERCISE
1. List out the organizations that you visit.

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2. What are the major plan and implementation program NGOs, INGOs, CBOS,
Co-operative and related stakeholders in visit area?
3. Prepare a report on the basis of visit.

CONCLUSION
_________________________________________________________________

90 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 7
CONDUCT CASE STUDY OF A FARMER GROUP FORMED BY DADO
AND/OR DLSO
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be able to conduct the case study on farmers group formed by DADO or
DLSO
 To know about the present situation of farmers group in the community
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, pen, pencil, eraser, paper, questionnaire
THEORY
Agricultural extension service is one of the major undertakings of Department of
Agriculture (DOA) and Department of livestock (DOL) to educate, disseminate
technologies and provide information to the farmers so that they can increase
agricultural production and productivity thereby enhancing their living standard. With
an aim of providing extension services to the farmers, DADO and DLSO has been
practiced several extension methods and approach with support from donors or from
the government’s own resources.
Participatory and decentralized approach of extension was brought into practice to
make clients/farmers more capable and independent to solve their problems by them.
In order to make decentralized mode of extension more effective and self-functional,
capacity development of groups and cooperatives is more important.
PROCEDURE
 Select the farmers group in the community formed by the DADO or DLSO
 Coordinate with the farmer groups in the community
 Conduct a case study to know about the present situation in the community
 Record the information and develop a report based on case study
CONCLUSION
_________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 11 91

 PRACTICAL NO: 8
PREPARATION OF VARIOUS KIND OF CHARTS-FLOW, TREE,
SUSPENSE, FLIP, BROCHURES, POSTERS, LEAFLETS,
PAMPHLETS ETC.
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be familiar with visual aids such as Posters, Charts, Pamphlets, Flash card
and Graphs
 To know the methods of preparing different visual aids used in extension
MATERIALS REQUIRED
A4 Size paper, Chart paper, Pen, Pencil, Eraser, Scale, Stapler, Pin, Color, etc.
THEORY
Pamphlet
It is a single sheet of unfolded paper dealing with only one important subject or
problems. The best pamphlet contains following characteristics:
 written in farmers language
 Simple message
 Source
 Local unit of measurements
Leaflet
It is a single sheet of paper dealing with only one important subject matter folded 3 or
4 times. Printing of the content could be either one or both sides of the folded paper.
Booklet
A booklet is a book and enlarged form of leaflet or folders. It is generally of many
pages with detail information about the technology and sometimes more than one
topic. A booklet contains following characteristics:
 Standard language
 Standard unit of measurement

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 Simple and complex information
 Figure or pictures
 Source
Some guidelines for the preparation of pamphlet, leaflet, and booklet are as follows:
 The topic or subject matter selected for writing should be on simple idea.
 The information on the printing materials should be interesting to the people or
farming community.
 Use of difficult word or lengthy sentences should be avoided.
 The information on any subject or topics should be complete and should be more
accuracy. The instruction should be properly checked.
 Give the information either in the beginning or in the end about author, place,
date of publication, etc.
Poster
A poster is a visual aid which is prepared by using a sheet of paper with pictures and
usually of few simple words. It is designed with the view to attract the attention of the
audience and convey a message at a glance so as to stimulate them to get more
information about an idea. It is generally used as a part of teaching materials and they
are generally put off on wall of building, fences, trees, poles and other place where
people pass by.
Design on presentation of poster should be such that people get the idea at a glance.
For this, poster has to be bold in design, simple to understand and attractive in colors.
An ideal size of poster should be 20”x30”. Poster should not be heavily loaded with
picture and words rather there should be adequate space. Poster contains the following
components:
 Border
 Picture
 Slogan
 Source
Procedure of preparing poster
1. Take a sheet of paper of poster size

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2. Write the words and make a picture that tells the message
3. Use bold letters and colors to attract the attention of the visitors
4. Provide adequate space between letters and words so that the viewers don’t get
confused
Charts
Charts are visuals or symbols used for summarizing, comparing or performing the
useful services in explaining subject matter. In other words, charts are diagrammatic
representation of facts and ideas and it can present any information in an easily
understandable method. There are some commonly useful charts. They are as follows:
1. Flow chart
Flow chart shows that how the product is obtained as a result of series of producer step
by step direction until the final product is obtained. Step by step direction is followed
by means of indicated arrow marks.
2. Tree chart
Tree chart shows the development or growth of the things from the original source.
Original source represents the main terms and various developments as branches and
sub branches. Classification of animal and plant kingdom is the example of tree chart.
3. Tabular chart
In tabular chart, the result or the data or the records are presented in tabular form to
make qualitative and quantitative comparison. School time table is the example of
tabular chart.
4. Pictorial chart
Pictorial chart is a chart which is represented into picture with suitable colors and
written materials.
5. Flip chart:
Flip chart is a visual method and containing a number of charts on a particular topic or
theme put together and bound together at the top of it. The flip chart looks like an
album of drawing or chart which is shown to the audience by turning the page.

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6. Suspense chart
In suspense chart, the full story is detected in writing or in a picture and keep covered
with paper. They are fixed with tape so that they can be removed easily.
7. Organizational chart
Organizational chart shows the structure of an organization or an institution. This type
of chart is shown in lines or arrows, rectangle, circle, etc.
CONCLUSION
_________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 11 95

 PRACTICAL NO: 9
PREPARATION OF POWERPOINT SLIDES AND PRESENTATION
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To be familiar with power point slides and presentation
 To know the method of preparing different power point slides and presentation
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Computer, Diary, Pen etc.
THEORY
PowerPoint can be a useful tool for creating engaging presentations. A well-designed
slide show serves as a visual aid and helps keep an audience’s attention. Effective
power point presentation requires following key points;
Content
The content of any presentation should be geared toward the audience and setting in
which it’s given. Keep the main goal of the speech in mind. Make sure that all content
is relevant and points to the desired outcome, whether that is persuading, informing,
or entertaining people. Use authentic sources for research. On the Internet, this
generally means government and university websites.
Design
The visual design of a PowerPoint presentation is an important part of using it
effectively. Text should be done in a simple font that is large enough for the audience
to read. Lettering that is too complicated or curvy will be difficult to distinguish. The
colors that are used should match one another, be pleasing to the eye, and easy to read.
Unity of design, or using the same design theme throughout a slide show, helps to
make the presentation flow from one slide to another. You can also add images for
visual interest.
Preparation
It’s always a wise idea to be fully prepared for public speaking. Planning ahead and
practicing will help everything to run smoothly. With PowerPoint, this means

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practicing the entire presentation out loud using the slides. It’s also a good idea to
practice in front of another person and ask for feedback, especially the first time you
plan to use PowerPoint. Also, know how to use the equipment that will be available,
whether you’ll be using your laptop or a projector remote to advance your slides. You
should be able to navigate between slides easily.
Giving the Presentation
Make sure the equipment you’re using, whether a computer rental or your own laptop,
has PowerPoint installed. If your presentation requires sound equipment or a
microphone, make those arrangements in advance. Adjust your projector carefully to
ensure the best focus and light levels. One of the most common mistakes that people
make when doing a PowerPoint presentation is simply reading the information that’s
on the slides. This is very boring for the audience. The slide show should be used as
an outline or guide for the speech. Only include important points, and elaborate on
them verbally. Timing is another important concept. Don’t speak too fast or too slowly,
stay within the time limit, and be sure to switch slides at appropriate points so that it
isn’t too distracting.
Creating a PowerPoint Slide
Step 1
Open Microsoft PowerPoint.
Step 2
Go to File at the top of the screen and click New. A box that says “New Presentation”
should appear on the right side of your screen.
Step 3
In the “New Presentation” dialog box, click on “From Design Template.” You may
then scan through design templates and choose one that you like.
Step 4
Slide Design Select a design template by clicking on the template you like. You may
choose a different color for your template by clicking on “Color Schemes” in the “New
Presentation” dialog box.

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Step 5
Slide Layout Change the Slide Layout. You may change the slide layout (how
information is presented in the slide) by going to the top of the screen and clicking on
“Format” – “Slide Layout.” A box will appear on the right side of your screen (where
“New Presentation” appeared) labeled “Slide Layout.” You may select a design by
clicking on it.
Step 6
Adding Text Enter your text by clicking and then typing in the box titled “Click to Add
Text” or “Click to Add Title.”
Step 7
Adding Pictures You may add pictures by clicking on the box that says “Click to add
content.” Inside that box, there will be a smaller box with six icons. Click on the icon
that looks like a photograph of a mountain. A new window will open, allowing you to
browse for a picture on your computer or a CD. Once you find your picture, click on
it and then click “Insert.”
Step 8
Resizing Pictures You may change the size of your picture by clicking on the picture.
The picture will then have black lines around it with small bubbles or boxes in the
corners. Place your mouse over the bubbles or boxes and click. Holding the mouse
pointer down, drag the picture to the size you want.
Step 9
You’re done!
PROCEDURE
 Study the instruction and procedure of computer operation system
 Follow the procedure to prepare power point presentation
 Practice to make better presentation
CONCLUSION
_________________________________________________________________

98 Practical Book: Grade 11

 PRACTICAL NO: 10
LEARN ABOUT WORKING MODALITY OF COOPERATIVES IN NEPAL
OBJECTIVE(S)
 To learn about working modality of cooperatives in Nepal
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen etc.
THEORY
A cooperative (also known as co-operative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous
association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and
cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned and democratically-controlled
enterprise. Cooperatives may include :
 non-profit community organizations
 businesses owned and managed by the people who use their services (a consumer
cooperative)
 organizations managed by the people who work there (worker cooperatives)
 organizations managed by the people to whom they provide accommodation
(housing cooperatives)
 hybrids such as worker cooperatives that are also consumer cooperatives or
credit unions
 multi-stakeholder cooperatives such as those that bring together civil society and
local actors to deliver community needs
 second and third-tier cooperatives whose members are other cooperatives
Cooperatives have long history in Nepal. People used to help each other and create
resources jointly in different form such as Guthi, Parma, Dhukuti, Dharma bhakari etc
from ancient time. Modern cooperative history of Nepal was initiated from
establishment of cooperative for helping flood relief and resettlement program in 1954
AD (2011 BS).
Cooperative has become integral part of community to provide financial access to
unbanked people. Commercial bank and other financial institution have not been able

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to reach in rural area. Cooperative in different form has reached in very rural area and
helping them for saving and taking loan. Cooperative has also helped in providing
other financial services such as remittances, insurance etc. As of 2070 BS (Mid July
2013), there are 29,526 cooperatives registered in department of cooperatives. Nearly
4 million people have become members of cooperative. The major types of co-
operative societies operating in Nepal are;
1. Agricultural Cooperatives
2. Dairy Cooperatives
3. Small Farmer Cooperative (SFCL)
4. Coffee Cooperatives
5. Multipurpose Cooperatives
6. Herbal Cooperatives
7. Tea Cooperatives
8. Electricity Cooperatives
9. Savings and Credit Cooperatives
10. Health Cooperatives
11. Science and Technology Cooperatives
12. Consumer Cooperatives
13. Other Cooperatives
Impacts of Cooperatives at Agriculture Sector in Nepal
Co- operatives have direct and indirect impacts on socio-economic development by
promoting and supporting entrepreneurial development, creating productive
employment, raising incomes and helping to reduce poverty while enhancing social
inclusion, social protection and community-building. Whilst cooperatives directly
benefit their members, they also offer positive externalities for the rest of society, and
have a transformational impact on the economy. Some of the specific ways
cooperatives contribute to development goals include:
1. Agricultural cooperatives play an important role in food production and
distribution, and in supporting long-term food security.
2. Agricultural cooperatives also promote the participation of women in economic

100 Practical Book: Grade 11

 production, which, in turn helps in food production and rural development:
through cooperatives.
3. Financial cooperatives (credit unions, savings and credit cooperatives or
cooperative banks) enable easy access to savings and credit at low-cost.
4. In Nepal, cooperatives are substantial providers of social and economic
protection, especially health coverage and loan.
5. Cooperatives have been instrumental in peace building.
The program-promoted by the cooperative had wider reach compared to the self-
promoted ones as they had poverty alleviation as their objective.
 Loan Utilization
 Sources of Loan
 Repayment Problem
 Diversification, Profitability and Profit Use
 Increase in Income
 Expenditure Pattern
 Well-being Status
 Empowerment
 Wider Impact
PROCEDURE
 Make a visit near the more successful cooperatives
 Coordinate with cooperative staff for information
 Take an information about the cooperatives their aim, goal, function and
responsibilities
 Make a report based on the information
CONCLUSION
_________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 11 101

REFERENCE
Adams, M.E.1982. Agricultural Extension in Developing countries. Longman Group
Limited, Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow, Essox, UK.
Ban, A.W., Van Den and H.S. Hawkins. 1998. Agricultural Extension. S.K.Jain for
CBS Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi, Inida
Basnyat, B.B. 1990. Agricultural Extension system in Nepal. Development pioneer
(Pvt. Ltd), Satdobato, lalitpur, Nepal.
Bhatnagar, O.P. and O.P. Dahama. 2005. Extension and Communication for
Development. Oxfordand IBH Publishing Co. Ltd., New Delhi, India
Dahama, O.P and Bhatnagar, O.P. 1985. Extension and Communication for
Development (Second Edition).Oxford and IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi,
India.
Dangol, B.B.S. Extension Education. Dongol Printers, GopalTole Kathmandu.
Dongol, B.B.S and Joshi, N.N 1991. A Text Book of Extension Education.IAAS,
Rampur, Chitwan, Nepal.
FAO.1972. Extension Teaching Methods.Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nation, Rome, Italy.
Sharma, D.P and Singh, U.1984. Principle of Agriculural Extension.V.K. Prakashan,
Meerut, India.
Supe, S.V. 1983. An Introduction to Extension Education.Oxford and IBH Publishing
Co., New Delhi, India.

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