GAS – Gender and Society

Module 1

Gender and Sexuality as a Social Reality

Unit 1
The topics included in this unit are:
§ Sex, Gender and Sexuality
§ Gender and Sexuality Across Time
§ Gender and Sexuality as a Subject of Inquiry
§ Sociology of Gender

Gender and sexuality can be very complicated issues for young people. Everyone expresses
their sexuality differently with various levels of diversity. Often sexuality and sexual
identity changes at different times of our lives. Some of us are oriented toward the opposite
gender, others toward the same gender, to both genders and many more. To broaden our
understanding of how gender and sexuality differs from each other, this module will
present key concepts that will explain and categorize these topics.

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Lesson 1 Sex, Gender and Sexuality

Learning Outcomes:
§ Discuss Sex, Gender and Sexuality
§ Differentiate Gender from Sexuality
§ Explain gender socialization
§ Identify gender stereotypes and the problem stereotyping brings
§ Analyze the sexual orientation and gender identify and expression

Time Frame: 3 hours or Week 2

Introduction
Sex, Gender and Sexuality affects our life choices. These influences, our identity, tase and
style as a person. To begin, recall your prior knowledge about how your childhood
experiences influence your perception of gender and sexuality.

Activity

What were your favorite toys growing

I remember… up?
Recall the things you like as a
young kid and the instances that
made you realize your identity Why were these toys your favorite?

Were there toys you shield away from

because you felt they were not for you?

When did you realize that you were a

boy or a girl?

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Abstraction

Independent Reading

Readings Sources:
Steinmetz, K. (2017). Beyond “he” or “she”: The changing meaning of gender and
sexuality. Time Magazine. https://time.com/4703309/gender-sexuality-changing/

1.1 Sex and Gender: Its Difference and its Concepts

Different terms are regularly used in theories of sexuality and gender, for example sex,
gender, gender identity, gender expressions, gender roles, sexual orientation. It is
important to be clear about the meanings of such terms.

The World Health Organization (WHO) summarizes the difference between sex and gender
in the following way: 1Sex refers to “the different biological and physiological
characteristics of males and females, such as reproductive organs, chromosomes,
hormones, etc.” 1Gender refers to "the socially constructed characteristics of women and
men – such as norms, roles and relationships of and between groups of women and men.
It varies from society to society and can be changed. The concept of gender includes five
important elements: relational, hierarchical, historical, contextual and institutional. While
most people are born either male or female, they are taught appropriate norms and
behaviors – including how they should interact with others of the same or opposite sex
within households, communities and work places.

Other definitions and general differences between terms:

2
Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define humans as female
or male. These sets of biological characteristics are not mutually exclusive, as there are
individuals who possess both, but these characteristics tend to differentiate humans as
females or males.

§ 2
Sex refers to biological differences between males and females (e.g. gonads,
sexual organs, chromosomes, hormones).
§ 2
Sex is usually assigned at birth (there are examples when it is assigned later,
when sex characteristics do not clearly indicate the sex of the baby, for example in
the case of ‘intersex’ people).

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§ 2
Sex can be changed: in the case of transsexual people, who are born with the sex
characteristics of one sex and gender identity of the other, sex reassignment
surgeries are performed. This includes a change of sex organs and the
administration of hormones.

2
Gender refers to the social attributes and opportunities associated with being female and
male and to the relationships between women and men and girls and boys, as well as to
the relations between women and those between men.

§ 3
Gender is not just about biology. It is a social, cultural, and psychological idea.
We learn about gender through a process called socialization. This means that
people learn what it means to be “masculine” or “feminine” from their families,
schools, media, and culture. Different societies may have different ideas about
gender.
§ 3
Society sets rules for how men and women should behave. These are called
gender norms. These norms often follow a traditional view that there are only two
genders—male and female—and that they are attracted to each other. This view is
called heteronormativity. People who do not fit this view may face discrimination,
exclusion, or even violence.
§ 3
Gender is also a way to understand how society works. It helps us see how power
is shared or not shared among people. Gender is not just personal—it is also political.
§ 3
Gender identity is personal and different for everyone. Some people understand
their gender when they are young, while others find out later in life.
§ 3
Gender is connected to other parts of our identity, such as our race, class,
religion, disability, or culture. We show our gender in many ways—by how we dress,
move, style our hair, or talk with others. This is called gender expression, and we
may do it with or without thinking.
§
Figure 1. Sex versus Gender (Summary)
Sex Gender
Biological and physiological Socially constructed roles, behaviors,
activities, and attributes that a given
society considers appropriate; cultural
Given by Birth Learned through Socialization
Cannot be changed Can be changed
It remains the same regardless of time Its expectations may differ across time
and culture and culture
It is created by the reproduction needs, Its distinctions are created by social
that is, biological features. norms

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My AHA Moment!
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1.2_____________________________________________________________________________
Changing Views on Gender and Sexuality
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Ideas about gender and sexuality have changed over time. In the past, men were seen as
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the dominant sex, while women and members of the LGBTQIA community had fewer rights
and less recognition. Today, there is growing acceptance that each sex and gender has
unique strengths and abilities. Society is learning to value these differences and to give
space for everyone’s voice and rights.

Gender role socialization is the process of learning what society expects men and women
to do, feel, and think. This starts at birth. For example, baby boys are often dressed in blue
and baby girls in pink. As children grow, they observe the tasks, jobs, and responsibilities
that people of their gender perform. These observations shape their understanding of what
is “appropriate” for them. Education, religion, social class, and culture all influence this
process, helping to form the roles that men and women play in society.

Gender stereotypes happen when certain ideas about what men and women “should” do
become fixed and repeated. These ideas often come from powerful institutions like
families, schools, religious groups, the government, and the media. For example, if
television always shows women as caregivers and men as leaders, people may believe that
this is the natural order, even though it is just a social idea. Over time, these stereotypes
can limit people’s choices and opportunities.

Gender Stereotypes are of four types:

1. Sex Stereotypes are generalized view of traits that should be possessed by men and
women, specifically physical and emotional roles. These stereotypes are unrelated to the
roles women and men actually perform.
2. Sexual Stereotypes involve assumptions regarding a person’s sexuality that reinforce
dominant views. For example, a prevalent view is that all men are sexually dominant.

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Another notion is heteronormativity, or the assumption that all persons are only attracted
to sex opposite theirs.
3. Sex-role Stereotypes encompass the roles that men and women are assigned to base on
their sex and what behaviors they must possess to fulfill these roles.
4. Compound Stereotypes are assumptions about a specific group belonging to a gender.
Examples of groups subject to compounded stereotypes are young women, old men, single
men or women, women factory workers and the like.

1.3 Gender and Sexuality as Subject of Inquiry

The abbreviation SOGIE stands for Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity and Expression.
Sexuality is different form sex, as the former is the expression of a persons’ thoughts,
feelings, sexual orientation and relationships, as well as the biology of the sexual response
system of that person. The different terms standing for SOGIE are further defined below.

1. Sexual Orientation coverts the three dimensions of sexuality, namely:

a. sexual attraction, sexual behavior, sexual fantasies;
b. emotional preferences, social preference, self-identification; and
c. heterosexual and homosexual lifestyle.

Sexual orientation involves the person to whom is attracted and how one identifies himself
or herself in relation to this attraction which includes both romantic and sexual feelings.

Basic Types of Sexual Orientation

a. Asexual – not sexually attracted to anyone and/or no desire to act on attention to
anyone. Does not necessarily mean sexless.
b. Bisexual – attracted to people’s own gender and people of other gender(s).
c. Gay – generally refers to a man who is attracted to men.
d. Lesbian – a woman who is attracted to women.
e. Pansexual/Fluid – attracted to people regardless of gender.
f. Questioning – one who be unsure of, reconsidering, or chooses to hold off to identify
their sexual identity or gender expression or identity.
g. Queer – traditionally a derogatory term, yet reclaimed and appropriated by some
LGBTQ individuals as a term for self-identification.
h. Straight – attracted to people of the “opposite” sex’ also sometimes generally used
to refer to people whose sexualities are societally normative.

2. Gender identity refers to one’s personal experience of gender or social relations. It

determines how one sees himself or herself in relation to gender and sexuality. A person
could identify himself or herself as a masculine or feminine.

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3. Gender Expression determines how one expresses his or her sexuality through the
actions or manner of presenting oneself.

Gender identity and expression describe how a person sees themselves and shows their
gender to others. This includes self-image, how they look, how they act, and the roles they
take. Sex (male, female, intersex) is usually assigned at birth based on physical biology.
Gender (man, woman, genderqueer, etc.) is a person’s inner sense of who they are. Gender
expression (masculine, feminine, androgynous, etc.) is how a person shows their gender
through appearance, behavior, or role.

Key Terms
a. Heteronormativity – The belief that being heterosexual (attracted to the opposite
sex) is the normal or correct standard.
b. Heterosexual – Also called straight. Men who are attracted to women, and women
who are attracted to men.
c. Androgyny – A mix of masculine and feminine expressions, or having no specific
gender identification. Some people use terms like androgyne, agender, or non-
gendered for themselves.
d. Cisgender – A person whose gender identity matches the sex they were assigned at
birth.
e. Coming Out – Telling oneself or others about one’s sexual orientation or gender
identity.
f. Gender Binary – A system that only recognizes male and female as the two
categories of sex and gender, and discourages mixing or creating other options.
g. Heterosexism – The belief that everyone is straight or that heterosexuality is better
than other sexualities.
h. Homophobia – Negative feelings or attitudes toward people who are not
heterosexual.
i. Internalized Oppression – When LGBTQ people believe negative stereotypes about
themselves, or think that being straight or cisgender is better.
j. LGBTQ – Stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer. It is also used as
a general term for people marginalized because of their sexual orientation or
gender identity.
k. Transphobia – Negative feelings or discomfort toward transgender people or those
whose gender identity/expression does not follow traditional gender roles.

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Application
Gender equality means that all people, no matter their gender, have the same rights,
opportunities, and conditions in life. Everyone should be free to reach their full potential
and take part in improving their community and country. It also means that men and
women are treated equally, can be seen in both public and private areas of life, and can
take part fully in society.

Instruction: Read the sample case about a gender issue. After reading, write your opinion
and explain what you think should be done to address the issue. Use the space provided
below.

Maria and James have been working for the same company for five years. They hold the
same position, perform similar tasks, and consistently meet or exceed their performance
targets. Both have received positive feedback from clients and colleagues, and both have
completed additional training offered by the company to prepare employees for
leadership roles.

One day, a managerial position opens in their department. Maria and James both express
interest in applying. However, when the manager announces the shortlist of candidates,
only James’s name is included. During a private conversation, Maria asks her manager
why she was not considered despite her strong track record. The manager responds,
“Men are better leaders, and clients usually prefer to deal with male managers.” He adds
that Maria’s current role is “more suited for women” because it involves coordination
and administrative tasks.

Maria feels disappointed and questions whether her efforts and achievements matter
in the company’s promotion process. She wonders if the decision was based on her skills
and qualifications or simply on her gender. This situation also sparks conversations
among other female employees, who recall similar experiences where men were given
leadership roles over equally qualified women.

My Personal Note
After reading the sample case, I realized that __________________________________
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References
1
World Health Organization - Gender, equity and human rights: Glossary of terms and tools.
2
European Institute for Gender Equality (EIGE) - Glossary & Thesaurus.
3
Diagram of Sex and Gender. Center for Gender Sanity.

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Lesson 2 Sociology of Gender

Learning Outcomes
§ Define sociology of gender, social constructionism and gender role.
§ Define the difference between masculinity and femininity.

Introduction
In sociology, we make a distinction between sex and gender. Sex are the biological traits
that societies use to assign people into the category of either male or female, whether it
be through a focus on chromosomes, genitalia or some other physical ascription. When
people talk about the differences between men and women, they are often drawing on sex
– on rigid ideas of biology – rather than gender, which is an understanding of how society
shapes our understanding of those biological categories.

Gender is more fluid – it may or may not depend upon biological traits. More specifically, it
is a concept that describes how societies determine and manage sex categories; the
cultural meanings attached to men and women’s roles; and how individuals understand
their identities including, but not limited to, being a man, woman, transgender, intersex,
gender queer and other gender positions. Gender involves social norms, attitudes and
activities that society deems more appropriate for one sex over another. Gender is also
determined by what an individual feels and does.

Abstraction

Independent Learning

Sources:
CrashCourse. (2018). Theories of Gender: Crash Course Sociology #33 [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CquRz_cceH8

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2.1 The Sociology of Gender

It examines how society influences our understandings and perception of differences
between masculinity (what society deems appropriate behavior for a “man”) and femininity
(what society deems appropriate behavior for a “woman”). We examine how this, in turn,
influence’s identity and social practices. We pay special focus on the power relationships
that follow from the established gender order in a given society, as well as how these
changes over time.

Sex and gender do not always align. Cisgender describes people whose biological body they
were born into matches their personal gender identity. This experience is distinct from
being transgender, which is where one’s biological sex does not align with their gender
identity. Transgender people will undergo a gender transition that may involve changing
their dress and self-presentation (such as a name change). Transgender people may
undergo hormone therapy to facilitate this process, but not all transgender people will
undertake surgery. Intersexuality describes variations on sex definitions related to
ambiguous genitalia, gonads, sex organs, chromosomes or hormones. Transgender and
intersexuality are gender categories, not sexualities. Transgender and intersexual people
have varied sexual practices, attractions and identities as do cis-gender people.

People can also choose to be gender queer, by either drawing on several gender positions
or otherwise not identifying with any specific gender (nonbinary); or they may choose to
move across genders (gender fluid); or they may reject gender categories altogether
(agender). The third gender is often used by social scientists to describe cultures that
accept non-binary gender positions.

Sexuality is different again; it is about sexual attraction, sexual practices and identity. Just
as sex and gender don’t always align, neither does gender and sexuality. People can
identify along a wide spectrum of sexualities from heterosexual, to gay or lesbian, to
bisexual, to queer, and so on. Asexuality is a term used when individuals do not feel sexual
attraction. Some asexual people might still form romantic relationships without sexual
contact.

Regardless of sexual experience, sexual desire and behaviors can change over time, and
sexual identities may or may not shift as a result. Gender and sexuality are not just personal
identities; they are social identities. They arise from our relationships to other people, and
they depend upon social interaction and social recognition. As such, the influence how we
understand ourselves in relation to others.

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2.2 Sex Roles

The definition of sex (the categories of man versus woman) as we know them today comes
from the advent of modernity. With the rise of industrialization came better technologies
and faster modes of travel and communication. This assisted the rapid diffusion of ideas
across the medical world.

Sex roles describe the tasks and functions perceived to be ideally suited to masculinity
versus femininity. Sex roles have converged across many (though not all) cultures due to
colonial practices and also due to industrialization. Sex roles were different prior to the
industrial revolution, when men and women worked alongside one another on farms, doing
similar tasks. Entrenched gender inequality is a product of modernity. It’s not that
inequality did not exist before, it’s that inequality within the home in relation to family life
was not as pronounced.

In the 19th Century, biomedical science largely converged around Western European
practices and ideas. Biological definitions of the body arose where they did not exist before,
drawing on Victorian values. The essentialist ideas that people attach to man and woman
exist only because of this cultural history. This includes the erroneous ideas that sex:

§ Is pre-determined in the womb;

§ Defined by anatomy which in turn determines sexual identity and desire;
§ Differences are all connected to reproductive functions;
§ Identities are immutable; and that
§ Deviations from dominant ideas of male/female must be “unnatural.”

There is more variation across cultures when it comes to what is considered “normal” for
men and women, thus highlighting the ethnocentric basis of sex categories. Ethnocentric
ideas define and judge practices according to one’s own culture, rather than understanding
cultural practices vary and should be viewed by local standards.

2.3 Social Construction of Gender

Gender, like all social identities, is socially constructed. Social constructionism is one of
the key theories sociologists use to put gender into historical and cultural focus. Social
constructionism is a social theory about how meaning is created through social interaction
– through the things we do and say with other people. This theory shows that gender it is
not a fixed or innate fact, but instead it varies across time and place.

Gender norms (the socially acceptable ways of acting out gender) are learned from birth
through childhood socialization. We learn what is expected of our gender from what our

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parents teach us, as well as what we pick up at school, through religious or cultural
teachings, in the media, and various other social institutions.

Gender experiences will evolve over a person’s lifetime. Gender is therefore always in flux.
We see this through generational and intergenerational changes within families, as social,
legal and technological changes influence social values on gender. Australian sociologist,
Professor Raewyn Connell, describes gender as a social structure – a higher order category
that society uses to organize itself.

Gender is the structure of social relations that centers on the reproductive arena, and the
set of practices (governed by this structure) that bring reproductive distinctions between
bodies into social processes. To put it informally, gender concerns the way human society
deals with human bodies, and the many consequences of that “deal” in our personal lives
and our collective fate. Like all social identities, gender identities are dialectical: they
involve at least two sets of actors referenced against one another: “us” versus “them.” In
Western culture, this means “masculine” versus “feminine.” As such, gender is constructed
around notions of Otherness: the “masculine” is treated as the default human experience
by social norms, the law and other social institutions. Masculinities are rewarded over and
above femininities.

Take for example the gender pay gap. Men in general are paid better than women; they
enjoy more sexual and social freedom; and they have other benefits that women do not by
virtue of their gender. There are variations across race, class, sexuality, and according to
disability and other socio-economic measures.

2.4 Masculinity and Femininity

2.4.1 Masculinity
Professor Connel defines masculinity as a broad set of processes that include gender
relations and gender practices between men and women and “the effects of these practices
in bodily experience, personality and culture.” Connell argues that culture dictates ways of
being masculine and “unmasculine.” She argues that there are several masculinities
operating within any one cultural context, and some of these masculinities are:

§ Hegemonic masculinity – the most powerful and respected form, which sets the
standard for how men are expected to behave.
§ Subordinate masculinity – seen as weaker or less valued because it does not follow
the dominant standard (for example, traits linked to gay men in many cultures).
§ Compliant masculinity – accepts the rules of the dominant standard and benefits
from them, even without fully living up to it.

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§ Marginalized masculinity – limited by other factors like race, social class, or

disability, which stop men from having the same power as those in the dominant
group.

In Western countries, the most social and cultural power is held by white, well-educated,
middle-class, able-bodied straight men. This group represents hegemonic masculinity,
which is seen as the ideal standard for being a man. Other forms of masculinity are
compared to it, expected to follow it, or challenged by it.

Hegemonic masculinity is accepted without direct force. It works like an unwritten set of
rules learned through culture. These rules are seen in movies that celebrate straight white
male heroes and in sports where male physical strength is highly valued and respected.

Masculinity is shaped by social hierarchies such as class, race, and age. Hegemonic
masculinity depends on the culture it exists in and it reflects the social inequalities already
present in that society.

In the Philippines, similar patterns appear. Traditional Filipino culture has placed men in
leadership roles within the family and community, while expecting women to take on
caregiving and household duties. Public images of masculinity, such as strong and
protective fathers or men who provide for their families, are reinforced in television
dramas, politics, and sports like boxing where figures such as Manny Pacquiao are
celebrated as national heroes. These cultural expectations, like in the West, are shaped by
history, religion, and social norms, and they influence how men are expected to behave.

2.4.2 Femininity
Sociologists Judith Lorber and Susan Farrell explain that the social constructionist view of
gender looks at the everyday assumptions people make about being male or female,
feminine or masculine. This perspective does not just compare men and women. Instead, it
studies how different social groups define these categories and how they keep these
definitions in place in daily life and in major institutions like the family, the workplace, and
the economy. Femininity is shaped by patriarchal ideas. In a patriarchal system, femininity
is treated as less important or less powerful than masculinity. This means women as a
group have less cultural power than men.

However, women can challenge these ideas. They can choose to reject gender norms that
limit them and redefine what femininity means for themselves. This might involve refusing
cultural “scripts” that expect women to act in certain ways. Examples include:

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1. Sexist and racist judgments about women’s sexuality. Unfair opinions about women
based on both gender and race. In the Philippines, this can include stereotyping women
from certain provinces or ethnic groups as “more conservative” or “more liberated” without
knowing the person.
2. Fighting rape culture and sexual harassment. Rape culture happens when society
excuses or ignores sexual violence. In the Philippines, examples include “green jokes” or
blaming women for how they dress. Challenging this means speaking out, supporting
victims, and promoting respect and consent.
3. Entering male-dominated fields. Some jobs or activities are mostly done by men. In the
Philippines, examples include women becoming jeepney drivers, engineers, or police
officers. Joining these fields challenges the idea that only men can do them.
4. Rejecting unrealistic romantic ideals. Movies and teleseryes sometimes show women
as passive or waiting for a man to rescue them. Rejecting these ideals means choosing
relationships based on equality and mutual respect.
5. Questioning gender norms and speaking out on sexism. Gender norms are rules about
how men and women “should” act. In the Philippines, women are often expected to do
most of the household chores even if they also work outside the home. Questioning this
means promoting shared responsibilities and fair treatment.
6. Sexist comments as everyday policing. Sexist remarks keep old gender roles in place.
In the Philippines, this could be telling a woman she should stay home after having a child,
or that she is “too ambitious” for wanting leadership. These comments pressure women to
follow traditional roles.

Hegemonic Femininity and Social Privilege

Women do not have the same cultural power as men, so there is no version of hegemonic
femininity equal to hegemonic masculinity. However, there are dominant ideas about how
women should act, which tend to favor those in socially advantaged positions, such as
being middle-class, able-bodied, cisgender, and heterosexual. Women from marginalized
groups do not have the same social advantages.

Some believe women do not succeed because they lack confidence, but this ignores how
gender inequality is linked to other disadvantages like ethnicity, class, and disability. The
popular idea of “leaning in” encourages women to ask for more support at work and at
home, but it mainly benefits those already in privileged positions and still follows the
existing gender order. Women who try to challenge this order, even by asking for a pay
raise, may face strong barriers. Indigenous women and others from marginalized
communities face even more disadvantages.

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In the Philippines, beauty and behavior standards in media often favor light-skinned, urban,
middle-class women. This leaves out women from rural areas or indigenous groups like the
Lumad or Igorot, who may face both gender and ethnic discrimination. In politics, female
leaders are sometimes judged more for their looks or family background than for their
abilities and achievements.

2.5 Gender Roles

A gender role is a set of rules and expectations in society about how people should act
based on their sex or how others see their sex. These rules guide what is seen as
acceptable, proper, or desirable for someone to do. Gender roles are usually built around
ideas of femininity (what is “for women”) and masculinity (what is “for men”), but there
are many exceptions and variations in real life.

The details of gender roles can differ from one culture to another. For example, what is
expected of men and women in one country may be very different in another. However,
some expectations, like the idea that women are caregivers or men are protectors, are
common in many cultures. Over time, different groups have challenged gender roles they
see as unfair or incorrect. The feminist movement is one of the most active in pushing for
changes, especially in areas like work, education, and politics.

The term “gender role” was first used by psychologist John Money in 1955. He studied
intersex individuals — people born with both male and female physical traits — and used
the term to describe how these individuals showed their identity as male or female,
especially when their biological sex was not clearly defined.

In today’s society, gender roles are learned from an early age through family, school,
religion, media, and peers. These roles can influence career choices, family responsibilities,
clothing styles, hobbies, and even how people speak or express emotions. While some
people follow traditional roles, others challenge or reject them to create their own ways of
living.

My Takeaways
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