Knowledge vs Pramā (Indian Philosophy)
Knowledge (jñāna): Any cognition or awareness of an object, irrespective
of whether it is correct or incorrect.
Example: If someone sees a shell on the beach and mistakes it for silver, that mistaken
perception (“there is silver”) is still knowledge in the Nyāya sense—it is a cognition,
though false.
Pramā: Cognition that is true, valid, and corresponds to reality.
True (yathārtha) – corresponds to the actual nature of the object, and
Certain (niścita) – free from doubt or error.
Non-contradicted (Abādhita)- The knowledge should not be contradicted by later valid cognition.
Example: Seeing a shell and correctly identifying it as a shell is pramā.
All pramā is jñāna, but not all jñāna is pramā.
Apramā
Aprāmā means invalid cognition—knowledge that is false, doubtful, or
otherwise unreliable.
A cognition becomes aprāmā when it fails to correspond to reality, lacks
certainty, or is not produced by a valid means of knowledge (pramāṇa).
Nyāya classifies aprāmā mainly into:
Saṃśaya – doubt or indecision.
Viparyaya – error or illusion.
Anadhyavasāya – indeterminate or vague perception.
Smṛti – memory (since it does not arise from present valid cognition).
Pramāṇa
The term pramāṇa means the means or instrument of valid knowledge
(pramā).
It is that which, when properly applied, leads to a true and certain cognition
(yathārtha-niścaya).
Types of Pramāṇa
1. Pratyakṣa (Perception)
•Direct sensory cognition of an object.
•Example: Seeing fire with your eyes.
2. Anumāna (Inference)
•Knowledge derived from reasoning, based on a known relation (vyāpti) between
signs.
•Example: Seeing smoke on a hill and inferring there is fire.
3. Upamāna (Comparison / Analogy)
•Knowledge gained by recognizing similarity between a known and an unknown object.
•Example: Learning what a gavaya (wild ox) is by comparing it with a cow after being
told of its similarity.
4. Śabda (Verbal Testimony)
•Valid knowledge derived from the words of a trustworthy person or authoritative
scripture ((āpta-vākya)).
•Example: Knowing about historical events from authentic records.
5. Arthāpatti (Postulation/Presumption)
• Inferring an unperceived fact to explain an otherwise inexplicable fact.
• Example: A person seen alive yesterday but not today must have gone somewhere.
6. Anupalabdhi (Non-perception)
• Knowledge of non-existence from the absence of perception.
• Example: Knowing “there is no pot on the floor” by not perceiving it.
