Biomolecules © Biomolecules : Biomolecules are. the naturally occurring organic compounds present as essential constituents of living organism in different cells. e.g., proteins, carbohydrates etc. © Carbohydrates : Carbohydrates may be defined as optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compound which produce such units on hydrolysis. e.g, cellulose, glycogen, starch etc. ‘© Classification of carbohydrates : On the basis of molecular size, carbohydrates have been classified into following four types (0) Monosaccharides : Monosaccharides include non hydrolysable crbohydrates. They are soluble in water. ‘Those containing aldehydic group are called aldoses while other containing a ketonic group aze called etoses. Some monosaccharides with example ae given in the table as shown below : ‘Aidotiove | GH,0, | CHOHCHOH.CHO. Giyceraldehyde Aldotetrose | CJH,0, | CH,OH(CHOH),, CHO Exythrose, Thieose ‘Aldopentose | C;H,,0, | CH,OH(CHOH),CHO. “Arbinose, Ribose, Xylose, Lyxose ‘Aldohexose | C,H,,0, | CHLOH(CHOM,CHO “Glucose, Manose, Galactose, slose,| Todose, Allose, Altrose Ketoses Ketotriose | GH,O, | CH,OHCO.CH,O Dinydrogracetone Ketotetrose | C,H,O, | CH,OHCOCHOHCH,OA | Ariprulose Ketopentoze | C0; | CH,OH.CO(CHOH),CH,OH | Ribulose, Xylulore » Ketohexose | C,Hy,0, _ | CH,OHCO(CHON), CH,OH | Fractose, Sorbore, Tagatose ete, (ii) Disaccharides : Those caboliydrates which on hydrolysis yield two molecules of monosaccharides are called disaccharides They are crystalline eoluble in water and sweetin taste. eg, cane sugar, maltose et. (ii) Otigosaccharides : Those carbohydrates which yield 2 lo 10 monosaccharides molecules on hydrolysis are called oligosaccharides. eg, raffinase on hydrolysis gives glucose, fructose and galactose, (iv) Polysaccharides: Those carbohydrates which produce large number of monosaccharide units on hjdzol ysis are called polysaccharides. They are formed by linking together a large number of monosaccharide ‘nits through glycosidic linkage. eg, starch, amylase and cellslose. + Classification of earbohydrates bse bn reducing propel: ) Reducing sugars: Carbohydrates which reduce Pe reduciogsugar eg, Allthe monostchaedes. fil) Non-reducing sugars : Carbohydrates which do not reduce Tollens’ rea known as oteeedaciag supaceg. sucrose, © Structure of Glucose and Frucace: + Open chain stureue: hling's solution and Tollens’ feagent are known as gent and Fehling’s solution are Glucose Fructose CuO 1 p-( cae Ho-c-l { to n—c-on a eae Chow @ scanned with OKEN ScannerCyellc structure : All the pentoses and hexoses exists in cyclic hemiacetal or hemiketal structures. In the free state, they form six-member cyclic structures called pyranose form while in combined state, some of these form five-member cyclic structures called furanose form. CH,OH ‘ H OH enero H,COH YO. cH,O H\ HH on/oH OH H ; OH -D-() Fructofuranose P-D-(Fructofuranose ee © Glucose : Glucose occurs in nature in free as wellasin Combined form. It is present in sweet fruits and honey. © Methods of preparation of Glucose : NO ge (@ From sucrose: Sucrose Give" Fontore (ii) From starch : Commercially, glucose is obtained by hydrolysis of starch by boiling it with dil. H,SO, at 393K. _ - wie agit : (CoFtioOs)y + FZO— aE > nC eH, Ghose © Reactions of Glucose: a: (i) With HI: CHO om, EL. cui, cii,-cH-cH-CH,-CH, al CH,OH 1 : : jean Glucose D ' Reactions showing the presence of carbonyl group (> C = 0): CH=N-OH Glucose oxime i eBOnES (CHOH), ty 1 ane CH,OH a 2. CHO OH 7 1 ceils : HOS cn : a (CHOW), LCN, Cron, Glucose cyanohydrin * z CHO Tae Glucose CH,OH coor : Brwvater | aT » Gluconic acid CH.OH @ scanned with OKEN Scanner(iil) Acetylation of ghtcose : 2 cuo a. \ 1 ‘ (gor, AcctleAubwttide, yy cht), : cHon ‘ Ghicose cH,—-o—Cc—cH, \ Glucose pentaacetate ‘ {iv} Reaction showing the presence of alcoholic (-OH) group t 7 re Ge a x ee OR (Chow, +Sxldation_ CHoH, HOR COOH CH,OH Glucose Saccharic acid. . Gluconic acid CHO (®) Reaction with phenyl hydrazine OH HO. oH OH CHOH . CHOH | D-glucose phenylhydrazone osazone © Fructose : Fructose is found in free state along with gliicose in many fruits and in honey (60%). ©. Methods of preparation of fructose : (i) From hydrolysis of cane sugar: 16 + CoH 0g, Fructose (iy From insuli (CgHy9Os)q, #1 HZO BESO, nO19,,0, (Cath oOs: 1206 Insulin Fructose @ scanned with OKEN ScannerFructose + HI CH, ~CH, ~CH, ~CH, -CH,~CH, > With hydroxylamine : CH,OH re HE-OH ra H-C_OH CHOH D-Fructose With Dry water: Noreacton He With HCN: oo 3 7 Gon eon eae H—-C_ou cHOH D-Fructose wrbenae Frandose cyanohydrin With HINO,: i + pire " , , ) aks reo i) : HC-OH ! so a 9 CELOFE ' 10, i BN f s, H-C_oH coon H-C_on qron (HoH, Coon ' SWyeolicacid — “actaricacia CHOR ee : : D-Enictose ' With pheny! hydrazine: i CH,OH =O ‘ : On CHOH Defructose @ scanned with OKEN ScannerNNHPh : \ NNIIPh , HO : ~PhNH, Sequiv, -NH, PhNHNH, : OH CH,OH b osazone : Test for Glucose and Fructose : Bromine water test ~ When glucose is treated “with bfomine waley red colour of bromine water disay OH group whereas fructose does not rn \ppears as —CHO group changes to —COOH group decolourise the red colour of bromine water. ead . ht - 7 CHO, +10} ES Hows ce CHLOH CH,OH a 2 ane (Gucsee Gluconicacid ' Sucrose : Sucrose on hydrolysis with enzyme invertase gives equimolar mixture of @-D(+}-glucose and B-D(-) fructose. tisa non-reducing sugar, | = utpericat H LOH ++! da kk fo . ene ene BDE}Fructose o Maltose : On hydrolysis, maltose produces ‘only a-D-glycose. It is a reducing sugar’ In maltose, C-1 of one glucose is linked to C-4 of other glucose by glycosidic linkage. | CH,OH CH,OH | jes JG | Hhy H hy H | HOOK HY °. on HAL, i On H OH i x | eD.Glacose ed Glucose os Lactose : On hydrolysis, it produces equimolar mixture of f-D-glucose and B-D-galactose. In lactose, C-l of galaciose is linked with C-4 of glucose by glycosidic linkage. tis found in milk. Itis a reducing sugar. GHROH son vent handel 2T Q ; HAL OH [ OH oH H H OH HOH BD-Calsctose Polysaccharides : They act as food storage or structural ny + Starch t It is one of the main storage polysaccharide of plants. Itis the most important dietary source for human beings. It has two components: {a) Amylose : It constitutes eround 15-20% of starch. It has a straight chain polymer of a-D(+)- glucose units held by C, - C; elycosidic linkage with about 200-1000 units. It is water soluble @ scanned with OKEN ScannerIF / Hoon (©) Amylopectin :It constitutes aro a s o 2 Tt constitutes n polymer A chain is made ort ind 80-85% of starch. It is a branched chain polymer of D-gh ycosidie linkage C17 Ca Blcosldic linkage ond tne eee are joined to each other by GG CHOH i CHOH CHOH ©, 6-glycosidic bonds 1,4 glycosidic bonds) SEiitlose tis the most abundant organic substance plint kingdom avd the'maid Gonstituént ofl vals - ’ Plant ell. tis composed of etraight chain polymer of f-D glucose joined by C.-C, hyeosdicinkage, CHLOH ‘ | + Glycogen : It is present in animal body as stored carbohydrate. It is highly br glucose. Its found in liver, muscles'and brain. It is also present in yeast and fu * Importance of carbohydrates : 4 Itacts as food reserve in animals and plants. Itis the major source of energy for human beings and animals. ‘Cel wall of bacteria and plants is made up of cellulose. ‘Wines are made by fermentation of carbohydrates. Nudeic acids contain D-ribose and a-deoxy-Daibose. ‘now the Terms * Triose: Monosaccharide which has three © Invert Sugar: An ranched polymer of a-D- ng , Jucose and fructose which is formed as a result of hyctrolysis of sucrose cther of the two forms of glucose Is dissolved in water, there is a spontancous change in librium value of +825 degree, This is known as mutarotation contig subon other than anomedle carbon are calle eplnvets, tion at C, hence called epimers. @ scanned with OKEN Scannere complex polyamides formed from amino, acids, They are essential for proper growth 9 Proteins: Proteins ar : 1 ditty i ‘de (— C--NH—) bonds. ed mintenance of body. Tey have many peptide ( cC—NH-) maids The compounds which contain carboxy eid group and amino group, are called amino ‘eds, Amino acid form proteins. © Typesof Amino Acids: soe! : ‘Atidic, Basic and Neutral Amino Aids: i pasicor neutral depending upon therelative ne ale If equal muraber of amino and carboxy! BIOHP makes it basic and more cazboxyl ‘amber of amino and carboxyl group in present itis neutral. More number of amino Be. zs compared to arnino group makes it acidi éssential and ‘Non-essential Amino. Acids : The amit je non-essential amino acids. eg. glycine, alanine, gluta synthesized in'the body and must be “obtained by diet are known as essential amino acids. _o Zwitter fon : Tn aqueous solution, the carboxyl group can Tose a proton and amino group can accept a proton, giving rise toa dipolar ion known as ‘2witter fon, This is neutral but contains both positive and negative charges. Ese H acdie H 4 p tuires - ee | Beer i : ‘ 1 H.N—C—COOH —— ‘HN —C—Ccoo . | ee i pyar! H R antino 34 iter on . Teoclecrie point : The hydrogen ion concentration of the solution (or pH) in which the concentration of i migrate under the influence of electric field is known as isoelectic cation and anion is equal and does not point ofthat amino aid Each amino cid has a characteristic isoelectric point. © -Ptassfieation of Proteins: Proteins are classified into two types onthe basis oftheir properties {) Fibrous Proteins : They have thread lke molecules which tend to Hie side by side to form fibers. 8 keratin, collagen etc. (ii) Globular Proteins : They have molecu! spheroidal shape. eg, insulin, alburnins, haemoglobin, ete. ao acids which can be synthesized in the body are. known seeetc- On the other hand, those which cannot be Jes which are folded into compact units that often approach @ scanned with OKEN Scannert Snetes raeeeratelns on the basts of hydrolysis producians a) ingle: These yleld ony alpha aminoacss pe foseee : vi) Condusated protelns: These yield alpha amino aig roy: albumin glycoprotein ‘80M protein part called prosthetic group. e: (ii) Derived protein: These are obtained by partial hy dt of sis secondary, tertiary and quaternary level. Proteins are studied. These are primary, () Reimary structure : The sequence of om is known as pri (ii) Secondary stencture These are of two types (©) achelix structure: t folding of polypeptide chains by H-bonds, disulphide linkages, Quateenwials and electrostatic form of attraction te hie eeiena globular proteins. = tertiory structure in three dimensiénal space called quaternary vac anins ate the polymers of a-amino acids and they are connected to each other by peptide bond or peptide linkage. When two a-aminowcle combine ~COOH of one condense with—NH of second rps oe amino acid with the elimination 2th Trae ah : of water forms: —C— NH or peptide linkage, |... -- © Different Proteins and their function ais ts S.No: |ypeor Protea] SOE Rape a 1._| Enzyme“ “| tiypsin, Pepsin] as a catalyst in biochemical reactions. : 2. | Structural Collagen, Keratin_| Structural and protective action in teeth, nails and har 3: | Transport Haemoglobin | Transport of oxygen from lungs, by blood steam t a different tissues. 4. | Motion -| Myocin, Actin |For motion of musdles. |_ 5. | Hormone. | Insulin Regulate body metabolism. 6. [Storage Ferritin, Caesin | Store nutrients, in 4 polypeptide chains. 2 chains containin, i chains and 2 chains containing 146 amino acid residues are calléd beta chains ; ©. Sickel cell anaemia is caused by defective haerioglobiti obtained by slutamic acid by valine. Denaturation of Protein : When a protein in its native form is subjected to change, like changein temperature races ithe hydrogen bonds are disturbed. Due to this, globules unfold and Ieee get uncoiléd and protein {ones its biological activity. It fs called denaturation of protein. ag, coagulation of egg white on boiling, curding of milk etc, : A tnzyme Enzymes are essential biological catalysts which are needed to catalyse biochemical reaction e.g., altace, lactase, invertase ete. Almost all enzymes are globular proteins, ms © Some specific Enzymes and the reactions catalyzed by them + [Ee ZOE Engyme hb i 2S Reaction Catalysed 7 Maltase *Maltose —» Glucose Lactase : Lactose —+ Glucose + Galactose Amylase or Ptyalin Starch —> Glucose» Tnvertase Sucrose —» Glucose + Fructose Urease ‘Urea —+ NH, +'CO; ‘Trypsin, Pepsin Protein —> Amino acid > Hormones: Hormones re the chemical substances produced by ductiess glands called endocrine gandaich tae Tid, adrenal etc. They are released into the blood stzeam and influence and segulate the feectione oF {nt other organs of the body. Hormonal deficiency leads to specifi biological disondes ohich era bo ened by the administration of the specific hormones. Steroid hormones : Those hormones which have structure similar to ster estrogen and progesterone. a Various Hormones, gland of secretion and their functions : s, eg. Comtisone, testosterone, @ scanned with OKEN Scanner| \ — 2 Ei eT Funetion Steriod Teas ~—Gland 7 = we (a) Testosterone (androgens) | Testes é Responsible for development’ 6f mate sa), organs. \ ©) Estrogen and progesterone | Ovary fafluences development of 'se%° organs, (9. Cortisone . maintains pregnancy. 2. Y Amine hormones? AdrswaLeorles__—} Repu es (9) Adrenaline : Pm increases blood pressure and-pulse rate. jt Adrenal medulla | ig release glucose fom glycogen and fatty acids from fats. f (6) Thyroxine Thyroid Stimulates rate of oxidative metabolism arid wt é regulates general growth and development, 3. "| Peptide hormone? ae 7 TT (@) Oxytocin __| Posterior pituitary | Causes constriction of some smooth muscles, : . It causes contraction of uterus during child : if birth, we tee (b) Vasopressin Posterior pituitary | Controls the reabsorption; of water in Kidneys. : | (ADH-antidiuretic hormone). (©) Insulin, Pancreas Controls blood glucose level. . () Glucagon Pancreas Increases blood glucose level. Vitamins : Vitamins are group of organic compounds which are required in very small amount for the part of our diet. " wete © Types of Vitamins: aie : 1 () Fat soluble vitamins : Vitamins A, D, E and Kare fat soluble but insoluble in waier.~-~ Gi) Water soluble vitamins : Vitamins belonging to grotip BB, By Be B,, etc) and vitamin C are soluble in water, © Different Types of Vitamins : “ healthy growth and functioning of living organisms. They cannot be made by organism and so have to be Vitamin 2 [aro Sources Op Rae “Deficiency Diseases Vitamin A Milk, butter, egg, fish, spinach, | Essential for - vision | Night blindness, green vegetable, carrot etc. | and growth. Develops | xerophthalmia , retarded- F resistance . against | growth and decrease diseases. the immunity of 26... | Body towards various digeases. Vitamin By Egg, fish, meat, rice, wheat, | For proper functioning | Beri-Beri, anaemin yeast etc. of nervous system. | weakness of muscles etc. Vitamin By Milk, cheese, egg, meat, Essential for growth of | Cracking skin particularly green vegetables, liveretc. | body. at the corners of mouth, i. | glossitis, and dermatitis. Vitamin B Wheat, maize, husk of rice, | Inblood formation. | Anaemia, meat, fish, egg etc. » | paralysis. z Vitamin By Liver, egg, fish, meat, milkete. | In blood formation. | Macroytic anaemia or pernicious anaemia, Vitamin © Citrus fruits such as Temon,| For bones, teeth and| Scurvy, pyria, pain ia orange, tomatoes,amla, green | healing of, wounds,| joints, loosening of teeth, vegetables ete. healthy skin. mental depression, a anaemia, bleeding of gums. Vitamin D Egg, meat fish, liver oil, butter | Control of metabolism | Rickets, osteomalacia. etc. of calcium and phosphorus in the ' formation of bones. Vitamin E Milk, egg, meat, pulses, green | Antisterility ‘or | Loss of reproductive vegetables, seeds, beansetc._| reproduction. ability or sterility. Vitamin K Cabbage, spinach, green| Help in clotting off Delay in Blood clot | (itamin Ky ork) | vegetables, egg, fish ete blood, haemorrhage, Nucleic acids are of two type: (}) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) (ii) Ribonucleic acid (RNA) @ scanned with OKEN ScannerConstituents of nuclele acids: Pentose sugar, ph agen containing bases : Ser Phosphoric acid and nitrogenous bases, 1 “Pyrimidine s : These are three bases derived from, pyrims uncil (tnt DNA, Tis present but in RNA, Uis ee Mines Thess are cytsine (0 thymine (and + Purines : There are two bases derived from purine. These are adenin: guanine, + Nucleoside: A unit formed by jhe attachment of abase to position cette aaae O. Base : . Nucleotide seeteh nucleosides linked to Phosphoric acid attpostion of sugarmolety,theuritob i ¢ Simple structure of nucleic acid chain: ot aus Base Bi Base setts “at teas ~Sugar- Phosphate{-Sugar- Phosphate-, Sugar- © DNA DNA consists of twro polynticleotide chains, each chain form a right handed helical spiral with ten bases in one turn 6f the spiral. The two chains coil to double helix ard run in opposite direction. These are held together by hydrogen bonding, : : ‘Nuelefcacid (DNA) tis Josten 1 + : Nucleotide - i Jpreenss *", Phosphoric acid + Nucleoside piotrtpats Sugar’ Purine base Pyrimidine base @-deoxy ribose) (Adenine + Guanine) (Cylosine + Thymine) © RNA: ) m-RNA (Messenger RNA) (ii) -RNA (Ribosomal RNA) (ii) -RNA (Transfer RNA) Nucleic acid (RNA) oot Nudeotide Yertenis Phosphorous acid Nucleoside {bretetysis Dosblehelistetue = ‘polecile y y + of DNA rl Sugar Purine base Pyrimidine base (Ribose) (Adenine + Guanine) — (Cytosine + Uracil) @ scanned with OKEN ScannerTtis the genetic material. fenetic material except in certain It is not the n /, Reovirus. viruses. 6+ RNA is single stranded with’ some ‘viruses ‘as @ double stranded with a-helix structure with two strands coiled spirally. exception. (Gi) _ | Tecontains deoxyribose sugar Ttcontains ribose sugat. (iv) ‘Bases presentare thymine, adenine, cytosine Bases present are uracil, adenine, cytosine and and guanine. guanine. @) | DNA transeribes genetic information to] RNA. translates, the transcribed message for RNA. forming polypeptides. @ scanned with OKEN ScannerReactions of Glucose: Reductic ith 7 tionwithNVHB_ 5 sorbitol CH,OH (CHOH),,CH,0H Reduction with Hl : : toh Eoieane n-Hexane CH,CH,CH,CH;CH;CHs, wW_ Ovidaiton, Naope PO HE [ano otic cso, > Sluconicacid HOOC(CHOH),.CH;0! |_OniwithCone NOs 5 saccharide acid, HOOC{CHOCH)4. COOH bd | —Fenlings Solution 5 Cy,0 and Gluconic acid CH,OH(CHOH),COOH } eve 3°f ‘olen’s reagent |_tllensseasent 5 sitver mirror and Gluconic acid 4 oe Glucose cyanohydrin CH,OH(CHOH),-CH(OH)CN J eo |“ _HNOH __s Glucose oxime! NNHCH, Tneguinelesusequanany, CUCO*SAZIN® Excess HNNHCHS 5 Glucosazone | Pe pentachloro glucose CHCI(CHCH),. CHO (nse > Penta-o-methy/ glucose CH;OCHs(CHOCHs), CHO (HCO Gucose penta-acetate CH,OCOCH,(CHOCOCH;),,CHO 2 50 With metallic hydroxide. ‘ ae esos BOTs Ca or Ba glucosate |_ With CHOH-+ECLES 5». and f-methylglucosides CH;QH(CHOH),CHOCHs |___witnscetone__> Giucose mono and diacetone ,” panmiaieanibyents wictnh veoh I | fakadids 7 |__Weakacids_s No Action - trong Acids siti E |__strong Acids __ Decomposition J B2HC___ 5 srydroxy methyl furfural which then decomposes into Jaevulinic acid and HCOOH |_Consentsatedatistl_ Turns yellow or brown Diutealalesor_ y4icture of glucose, fructose and mannose organic bases |_(CH,COO)FerHIO 5 Formic acid and Formaldehyde @ scanned with OKEN Scanner> Reactions of Fructose: Reduction a [NaS > sorbitol + Mannitol _MIlA Oa. with AgOvete_| : [ECR wih ABO. te shihydroxybutyric acid + Glycolic acid Strong Oxi. with HNO, E [ER MINIIN) > Glutaric acid + Tattaric acid + Glycolic acid Fehling’s Solution [Sisto __. u,0 (eed) + Tiihydrony butric acid + Glycolic acid ‘tensa sare scepat Ag + Tihydroxybutyric acid + Glycolic acid Hie : [| > Friictose cyanohyadrin HyNow : : >a > Fructose oxime HN.NH.CGHy - | —Epuinaientss san —> Bructose phyenylhydrazone Wah ocessof NNEC 5 ne PO, | __—_—“ __-+» Pentachloro fructose With Methyl phynyl hydrazone one cuycoct es [So > Fructose penta acetate |_wimcwor,sotormie 5 Cat or Barium Fructsate |___CHJOH + HClass__ and fimethyl fructosides Fermentation NYS! 5 ALcghot + COz j___tsk Acids __s, No Action Strong Acids Decomposition 32% HO. > 5-Hydroxy methyl furfural which then decomposes into Iaevulinic acid and HCOOH |_Concentssted tial _s, rns yellow or brown Dilute alkalies oF Mixture of glucose, fructose and mannose ‘Organicbases @ scanned with OKEN Scanner