Catholic University of Mozambique

Institute of Distance Education

Development and differentiation of village communities, The formation of structures

social in Southern Africa and Mozambique.

Atija José Luís Valente

708211869

Course: Bachelor's Degree in History Teaching

Discipline: History of Societies I
Year of Attendance: 1st
Class‫ ׃‬C

Nampula, January, 2022

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1.1 Assessment criteria (theoretical subjects)

Classification
Categories Indicators Standards Note
Punctuation
do Subtotal
maximum
tutor
Index 0.5
Introduction 0.5
Aspects
Structure Discussion 0.5
organizational
Conclusion 0.5
Bibliography 0.5
Contextualization
(Clear indication of 2.0
problem
Introduction Description two
1.0
objectives
Proper methodology
2.0
to the object of work
Articulation and dominance
of academic speech
Content expression writing 3.0
careful, coherence
Analysis e textual cohesion
discussion Literature review
national and international
2.0
relevant in the area of
study
Data exploration 2.5
Contributions theoretical
Conclusion 2.0
practical
Pagination, type e
Aspects size of lyrics
Formatting 1.0
generals paragraph, spacing
between the lines
APA Standards
Rigour and coherence of the
References 6th edition in
citations/references 2.0
Bibliographic quotes e
bibliographic
bibliography
Sheet for improvement recommendations: To be filled out by the tutor

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Index

Introductiono........................................................................................................................................ 4

1. Objectives.................................................................................................................................... 5

2. Methodologies ............................................................................................................................... 5

3. Theoretical Foundationa ................................................................................................................ 6

3.1. Development and differentiation of village communities ..................................................... 6

3.2. Social Differentiation

4. The formation of social structures in Southern Africa and in Mozambique....................................... 8

The Primitive Communities of Hunters and Gatherers (Khoisan) ............................................ 8

4.1. General characteristics of the Khoi-khoI ........................................................................................ 8

4.2. Social and Historical Characteristics ........................................................................................... 9

5. The First Inhabitants of Mozambiquee .................................................................................. 11

Conclusion

Bibliographic reference ................................................................................................................ 15

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Introduction

One of the issues that any beginner studying the history of Southern Africa and
Mozambique has to relate to the first communities.. Well, that will be the subject at hand.
address throughout this work.

The territory of Southern Africa, and Mozambique was initially inhabited by communities.
belonging to two groups – the Khoi-Khoi and the San, collectively referred to as Khoisan. In
by virtue of having hunting and gathering as their main economic activities are also
known as Hunter and Gatherer communities.

They are communities with quite distinct forms of economic, political, and socio-cultural life.
simple.

This work has a deep and multidimensional dimension, as it reflects on

aspects related to the people who are part of the primitive background of our continent, a people
whose culture and history are little known, as well as its existence is found
threatened, mainly, by the phenomenon of integration and assimilation perpetrated by the Bantu.
Thus, this study can serve as a reference source for scholars and for updates on
school curricula, enrichment of the bibliographic / historiographic collection on the Khoi
therefore contributing to the knowledge of this people's place in the context of History
Mozambique, from the History of Southern Africa and humanity.

The study is guided by a general objective that is operationalized into three specific objectives.
instructions, namely: understanding the development and differentiation of village communities and the
formation of social structures in southern Africa and in Mozambique.
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1. Objectives

The study is guided by a general objective that is operationalized into three objectives.
instructions, namely:

1.1. general objective:

Evaluate the development and differentiation of village communities and the formation of structures.
social in southern Africa and in Mozambique

1.2. Specific Objectives:

Identify the main characteristics of the early societies in the southern region of Africa.
Mozambique.

Explain the differentiation of Farmers' Societies in Mozambique

Understanding the Village Communities and the Formation of Social Structures in Southern Africa

2. Methodologies

In this work, the interpretive paradigm was chosen due to its qualitative characteristics.
corroborating this expectation, Flick (2005) states that the qualitative approach interprets the
realistic perception to assign meaning to them.

In the same vein, here is the contribution of Sampieri (2003), stating that exploratory studies
they usually determine trends, identify areas, environments, contexts, study situations
and to facilitate later more elaborate and rigorous research.

Both Richardson's (2008) and Vilela's (2009) perspectives refer to the techniques of
non-participant observation, that in which the researcher is not part of the action regarding
treatment of the phenomenon.

On the other hand, the authors who have been pointing out are unanimous in stating that the technique of

direct observation occurs when the researcher is involved as a subject and protagonist of the
scientific investigation, as is the case of a historian teaching the subject of history in the
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perspective of reaffirming the place of the discipline in relation to other sciences and its importance in
course of history in the narrative of history or historiography.

3. Theoretical foundation

3.1. Development and differentiation of village communities

The Khoi-khoi were hunters and the San were gatherers, all are called Khoisan.

Anthropologically, the Khoisan are composed of two groups: the Khoi-khoi (Khoi) is a
word in the Khoikhoigowab language, which means person. With an estimated population of
200,000 speakers in Africa, distributed among various ethnic groups with cultures.
related, among them we have the Kwadi or Ovakedi (Konig, 2008; Jones, 2019) and by the San–
composed of the !Kung and others). They are traditionally hunter-gatherers and nomads. The
your diet and economic activity are based on plant roots and wild fruits,
game meats and seafood. Similar to the Khoi, in language and appearance, the San do not
they dedicate themselves neither to herding nor to agriculture (Kondja, 2021, p. 10).

The first inhabitants of Southern Africa or the oldest population of Southern Africa were
probably the speakers of the koisan language, whose survivors are the koi-koi or (hottentots) from
small stature and yellowed skin, and the Bushmen (San). The distinction between the two lies
basically at the cultural level.

The koi-koi or hotentots were shepherds and mastered the techniques of pottery and basketry.
weaving and metallurgy, meanwhile the San (bushmen) were hunters
nomadic gatherers in the Stone Age. It is possible that this was generically the
cultural status of the Khoisan when the Bantu came on the scene. "The term Khoisan must
undoubtedly to be preferred, as it results from the designations that the Hottentots and
bushmen attributed to themselves - koi and San respectively." (Fage, 1995,
p:121).
The Bantu were a group of people who inhabited Southern and Central Africa. It is believed
that this people originated from the same region, the area that includes the Ubangui and Chari rivers in
West Africa, therefore its languages have common characteristics.
In Southern Africa, the people with these characteristics were the Khoi-Khoi and San or Khoisan.
community of Bushmen and Hottentots. The former were of average height and robust,
hunters and the seconds were tall and slender, recognized as gatherers.
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The remaining group of this community still lives today in the inhospitable Kalahari desert.
these peoples who were in interaction or were dominated by the Bantu origin peoples.

3.2. Social Differentiation

One of the characteristics of today's societies is social differentiation, that is, the distinction of
its members in classes or extracts. Today, in any society, we find groups of
people who have more wealth than others, or we find people who have the function of governing
and others only to be governed.

The first societies in the world and in Mozambique showed no differentiation.

social. People lived in small groups, where work was done collectively and the
product of this work divided by all. Therefore, children, the elderly, women,
men. Everyone participated in the activities necessary for survival. The tasks considered
heavier and more dangerous tasks, like hunting, were performed by men, while the others
how the gathering was done by women, children, and the elderly. This form of division of
work based on sex and age was called the Natural Division of Labor.
Hunter-gatherer communities did not need to permanently maintain the
bonds between themselves, coming together only to jointly carry out certain activities, such as a
hunted, and reproduced through mating, therefore without permanent bonds.
As these primitive communities depended on an economy based on hunting and gathering,
they did not produce surpluses. Thus, there was nothing for people to appropriate. In these
conditions in which each one produced what they needed for their sustenance, there was no
form of exploitation and no one accumulated wealth at the expense of others. Therefore, the ideas of
Wealth and power were absent from the earliest societies.

Social differentiation actually arises as a reflection of development of

society. With the emergence of agriculture, which is an activity that lasts months until
to yield results, human societies began to become sedentary and on the other
the side of the need for solidarity in productive activities led men
adopt social organization forms based on the family. (COVANE, 2010)
With the emergence of family and other forms of social organization, it begins to be necessary
define the activities of each person, divide the product of the work, defend the group, or
simply, to manage at the level of the social group in question. Initially, this task was assigned to the
head of the family.
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In the societies of Mozambique, as time went by, families were growing.

becoming extended families or lineages, integrating all people from the same
ancestor. When it was thus, it became necessary to expand the areas for agriculture. But the
the search for new areas was not always peaceful as the intended areas could belong to or be
claimed by another group.
Thus began to arise disputes between groups over land ownership. In these disputes, the group
the defeated era integrated into the winning groups. In other cases, when a certain group found itself
threatened sought to join another stronger. In this process, clans and tribes were formed,
leaderships, etc.

4. The formation of social structures in southern Africa and in Mozambique.

The Primitive Communities of Hunters and Gatherers (Khoisan)

Before the Bantu settlement in Mozambique, extensive areas of our territory were occupied.
by hunter-gatherer communities, the Khoisan, that is, the community of Bushmen and
Hotentotes.

4.1. General characteristics of the Khoi-khoi

Collector economy, hunting, and fishing;

Without a clearly defined social organization, as its relationships were somewhat
short and discontinuous;
Designated Paleolithic communities, that is, communities that still lived in the age of
stone (predominance of lithic technique);
Weak level of development of the productive forces, or in other words, weak knowledge
from nature and consequently great dependence on it;
They were communities with a null productive process (immediacy in production and consumption),
on the other hand, they would seek their sustenance from nature without working or restoring it;

We were nomads, a fact that conditioned the existence of weak family ties, that is,
constant displacement in search of better living conditions originated a
permanent instability and consequently the absence of strong family ties;
Without the exploitation of Man by Man and consequently without a state.
Division of labor by sex and age.
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The earnings from hunting operations were instant and daily and required cooperation.
for high-yield operations (hunting with nets or for hunting large animals and
for defense against the large predators).

4.2. Social and Historical Characteristics

Somatic Aspects

According to Redinha (1969), the Khoisan generally have an average height of 1.60 meters.
men are 1.50 meters tall, for women with fine bone structure, with small feet and hands
the head, in general, is dolichocephalic, the hair grows in small curled tufts, distancing itself
of each other, resembling degrees of pepper. (P. 8)

The shape of the face is faintly triangular, due to the prominence of the cheekbones, the eyes slightly
oblique; the nose is wide and flattened with very wide nostrils and sometimes slightly
turned upwards; generically they present a protruding belly, the same happens with the part
post sex for women 'steatopygia'. (Estermann, 1983, p. 36).

According to Fituni (1985), pigmentation is lighter compared to that of the Bantu and Vátua, roughness.
skin puberty, especially in females (p. 47).

4.3. Socio-Political Organization

These peoples live grouped in small nuclei whose members are usually united by
blood relation. Each nucleus occupies a camp made up of a few huts or
before shelters (Parkington, 2010, p. 733)

Normally, a core is made up of a number that varies between 15 and 50 people, being the
power exercised by the oldest in the nucleus, each individual can leave their nucleus and connect to the
Other whenever you want. The difficulties in meeting the most basic needs of life.
they make it impossible to form larger groups, sometimes these families are forced to separate.
because the same place cannot sustain everyone (Parkington, 2010, p. 733).
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These groups, however, do not recognize any ethnic authority, the only authority being the one that
they submit to the camp chief, a chief who is not necessarily a man. In
meanwhile, nothing prevents that, in complicated cases, a certain number of leaders gather
camps to counsel or make decisions or judgments (Estermann,
1960a, p. 22). In these nuclei, it is the woman who decides when, how, and where to change the
camps.

In more remote times, the sociopolitical organization of the San differs from that of the Khoi-khoi, due to the
their way of life. The Khoi's lifestyle is more complex than that of the San and is closer to that of the peoples

Bantu. Each ethnic group has a chief, a fixed territory. The ethnic group comprises several clans.

patrilineal and exogamous, with a classificatory system in which each clan uses the name of its
ancestor. A strict hierarchy, based on age, governs social relations within the clan.
The chief of the ethnicity is the first, as he is the chief of the oldest clan (Paulme, 1996, p. 63)

It is verified that within the lineages and the extended families in the early societies,
the policies of production relations were crystallizing. At the head of each lineage or family
elongated was a chief with political, legal, and religious powers and with a council of
ancestors. Political functions were performed by men. The land being the heritage of the lineage.
In the family, it was the chief's responsibility to distribute it and establish relationships and marriage alliances.

4.4. Ideology of the Khoisan

The khoisam had magical beliefs and venerated the spirits of their ancestors, to whom
they made offerings to them, for they believed that these brought them protection. The magical practices
religious affairs were led by older members of the group - the elders - due to having greater
experience.

The Khoisan, like other great hunters, left marks of paintings and engravings on the walls.
rocky (rock or parietal art), representing animals, human figures, and other themes that
they portrayed scenes from everyday life. They also dedicated themselves to mobile art (sculptures and objects

(with animal engravings). These artistic manifestations had a decorative function and also
magic aimed at ensuring success in hunting activities.

The magical-religious beliefs and other ideological aspects played a role in these societies.
a very important role, constituting a fundamental weapon of power, cohesion and
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apparent immobility. The heads of the lineages and the territorial leaders begged the
ancestors for you and your people, the rains, health, protection.

There were cults such as: mhondoro, which was the territorial cult developed in the regions of Tete,
Manica and Sofala; and mwari, among the karanga-shona. These cults were attended by specialists
like the swikiro who should deeply know the genealogical history of the Mwenemutapas
(case of central Mozambique); they told the story of the empire and memorized the
events related to the history of the leaders' families and their succession

5. The First Inhabitants of Mozambique

The first inhabitants of Mozambique were probably the Khoisan, who were hunters and
collectors. About ten thousand years ago, the coast of Mozambique already had an approximate profile of
which presents today: a low coast, cut by alluvial plains and partially
separated from the Indian Ocean by a strip of dunes. This configuration gives the region a
great fertility, still boasting large stretches of savanna where animals abound
indigenous peoples, essential conditions for the settlement of hunter-gatherer societies and even of

farmers.

In the 1st to 4th centuries, the region began to be invaded by the Bantu, who were farmers and already
they dominated iron. The basis of the Bantu economy was agriculture, mainly of cereals
places such as mapira (sorghum) and mexoeira, pottery, weaving, and metallurgy were present
a well-developed stage, but at that time the manufacturing was meant to supply the
family needs and trade were innate, that is, direct exchange was made. For this reason, the
the social structure was quite simple, based on the 'extended family' (or lineage) to which it was
recognized a chief.

Although Mozambican society has become much more complex, many of the rules
traditional forms of organization are still based on "lineage".

Between the 9th and 13th centuries, populations from inland began to settle on the eastern coast of Africa.
from the Persian Gulf region, which at that time was an important trading center. These peoples
warehouses were established on the African coast, and many geographers of that time referred to a
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active trade with the 'lands of Sofala', including the exchange of Indian textiles for iron, gold and
other metals.

In fact, iron was so important that it is believed that the "irons" - in the shape of an X, with
about 30 cm in length, which form abundant archaeological finds in this region,
they were used as currency. Later, apparently this "currency" was replaced by another:
tubes of bird feathers filled with gold dust, the meticais whose name gave rise to the current currency
from Mozambique.

With population growth, new invasions and especially with the arrival of
merchants, the political structure became more complex, with lineages dominating others and
finally, true states were formed in the region. One of the most important was the first
state of Zimbabwe.

Social Organization

They were organized in extended families or small groups, to this regime of

cooperation that led men to live in groups, to work and to share the product of
common work was designated primitive community. As nomads they were completely
dependents on nature.

5.2. Division of labor

Within the group, the division of labor corresponded to the assignment of different tasks.
agreement with sex and age:

The elders held greater authority, for the purpose of hunting was entirely
held responsible to men, and the collection of women and children, as these from the latter
social elements played a very important role in food supply
from this community, through the gathering which was an activity that required knowledge of plants
edibles, where they collected berries, herbs, resins, bulbous roots, underground stems, honey
insects and grasshoppers.
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5.3. Economic organization

According to Fage p:121, the koi-koi or Hottentots were shepherds and mastered the techniques of pottery.
sourcing, weaving and metallurgy, meanwhile the San (Bushmen) were hunters
nomadic gatherers in the Stone Age.

The economy of hunters and gatherers is the set of activities aimed at satisfying the
basic needs of primitive man, gathering edible fruits and roots, hunting and
fishing. It was the first way to make the rudimentary economies of hunters and gatherers.

The first forms of making savings were directly connected to the

conditionalities that nature imposed on man, that is, with the climatic conditions that
determined the flora and fauna.

The economy of the Khoisan communities was based on hunting and gathering. Therefore, the Khoisan
they were limited to hunting or gathering fruits, honey, eggs, leaves, and other products available in the environment

in which they lived. Does this mean that these communities did not develop any activities
productive.

In the community, all members were involved in economic and social life, but each one
he/she engaged in tasks that were in accordance with his/her physical ability.

Thus, women, the elderly, and children performed relatively lighter tasks and
less dangerous such as collecting, cleaning the camps, and others while for the men
the heaviest and most dangerous tasks, especially hunting, fit in.
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Conclusion

The ethnonym 'Khoisan' is the combination of two words: khoi-khoin (man) and san.
(to harvest and pull fruits, to pull roots from the ground)

After the arguments made by the above authors, it is noted that, before the presence of this
Bantu people in Mozambique, this territory was already occupied by peoples who did not have dominance.
from agriculture and iron mastery for the manufacture of improved instruments for purposes of
profitable or lucrative acquisition for the survival of these people and another aspect that is not of
of lesser importance is that the society of hunters and gatherers already had their organization
social and professed its cults that still prevail in current societies.

Although the Khoisan constitute the so-called 'ethnic minorities' or 'marginalized ethnic groups', they
they are a relic for humanity, as they constitute what Africanist historians
they refer to the primitive foundation of Africa – the first inhabitants of Africa, in particular, and of

planet, in general, while facing serious risks of extinction of its socio-

historical and anthropological (physical and cultural).
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Bibliographic reference

From Primitive Community to Feudalism

ZERBO, J. (1999). History of Black Africa. Volume 1, 4th Edition, Americas Publications–
Europe, Portugal.

Ki-ZERBO, Joseph. (2010). General History of Africa vol. I: Methodology and Prehistory of
Africa, 2nd ed., Brasília, UNESCO.

MINEDH. Module 5 of History: Mozambique – From Hunter and Gatherer Communities

to the Exploration Societies. Institute of Open and Distance Education (IEDA), Mozambique,
s/d.

PARKINGTON, J. E. A. (2010), Southern Africa: hunters and gatherers. In: MOKHTAR, G..
General History of Africa II: Ancient Africa. 2nd ed. rev. Brasília, UNESCO.
PAULME, D. (1996), The African Civilizations, 2nd edition, Santa Sinta, Publications
EuropaAmerica, Ltd

JONES, K. (2019), Contemporary Khoesan Languages of South Africa. In Critical Arts

FAGE, J. D. The evolution of African historiography. In: Ki-Zerbo, J (Org): General History
Africa: Methodology and Prehistory of Africa. São Paulo, Ática Publishing/Paris: UNESCO