Paragraphs

A paragraph develops one idea with a series of logically connected sentences. Most
paragraphs function as small essays, each with a main topic and several related
sentences that support it.

How many paragraphs do you need in your paper? That depends on what you have to
say. The idea that an essay should consist of five paragraphs—an introduction, three
paragraphs of examples, and a conclusion—is too rigid, although some students are
taught to organize information in this way. You may have more than three examples or
points to make, and you may have an example or point that requires several paragraphs
to develop. Don't limit yourself. Let the topic and supporting points guide you in creating
logical, cohesive paragraphs.

Paragraph length

Paragraphs can vary in length. For example, short paragraphs are used in newspaper
stories where the emphasis is on reporting information without discussion, or in
technical writing where the emphasis is on presenting facts such as statistics and
measurements without analysis. Written dialogue also consists of short paragraphs,
with a new paragraph for each change of speaker. In an essay, a short paragraph can
also be effectively used for dramatic effect or transition.

But the reconciliation was never to take place. Her grandmother died as Jillian was
driving home from the airport.

Generally, you should avoid a series of extremely short paragraphs in your essays.
They suggest poor development of an idea.

On the other hand, paragraphs that are a page or more in length are difficult for most
readers, who like to see a subject divided into shorter sections. Examine long
paragraphs to see whether you have gone beyond covering one idea or if you are guilty
of repetition, wordiness, or rambling. But don't arbitrarily split a long paragraph. Make
sure each paragraph meets the requirement of a single main idea with sentences that
support it.

Paragraph unity

A unified paragraph is one that focuses on only one idea. Look at the following
example of a paragraph that lacks unity.

Identification of particular genes can lead to better medicine. For example, recently
scientists identified a defective gene that appears to cause hemochromatosis, or iron
overload. Iron overload is fairly easily cured if it is recognized and treated early, but
currently it is often misdiagnosed because it mimics more familiar conditions. The
problem is that when not treated in time, iron overload leads to a variety of diseases,
from diabetes to liver cancer. The identification of the faulty gene can prevent
misdiagnosis by allowing physicians, through a screening test, to identify patients who
carry it and treat them before the condition becomes too advanced. It is interesting that
most people don't realize the exact role of iron in the body. They know that it is
important for their health, but few are aware that only about 10 percent of the iron in
food is normally absorbed by the small intestine. Most of the rest is tied up in
hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs.

The first sentence of the paragraph presents the main idea that identification of genes
leads to improved medical care. This idea is developed by the example of how the
identification of a gene causing iron overload can lead to better diagnosis and early
treatment. However, in the italicized sentence, the paragraph begins to wander. It is a
topic sentence for a different paragraph, one about the role of iron in the body, and not
about a benefit of genetic research.

Sometimes a sentence or two buried in the middle of a paragraph can break the unity of
the paragraph, as in this example.

Moving out of my parents' house and into an apartment didn't bring me the
uncomplicated joy that I had expected. First of all, I had to struggle to pay the rent every
month, and the landlord was much less understanding than my parents. Then I realized
I had to do my own laundry, clean up the place now and then, and fix my own
meals. One nice thing about my mother is that she is an excellent cook. She even
attended a French cooking school before she married my father. It's true that I liked the
greater freedom I had in my apartment—no one constantly asking me what time I'd be
home, no one nagging me about cleaning up my room or raking the front lawn—but I
wasn't thrilled with spending most of a Saturday getting rid of a cockroach infestation, or
doing three loads of smelly laundry on a Sunday night.

Notice how the italicized sentences interrupt the flow of the paragraph, which is really
about the down side of leaving home and not about the writer's mother and her cooking
skills.

To test the unity of your paragraphs, locate the topic sentence (the clear statement of
the paragraph's central idea) and then test the other sentences to see if they develop
that particular idea or if they wander off in another direction.

Paragraph coherence

Along with developing a single idea, a paragraph should be well organized. You can use
many of the same principles—chronology, inductive and deductive patterns, and so on
—that you use to organize complete essays.

Once you've decided on the order of your details, make sure the connections between
sentences in the paragraph are clear. The smooth, logical flow of sentences within a
paragraph is called paragraph coherence. Write each sentence with the previous one
in mind.

Connecting sentences through ideas

Connect your sentences through their content, by picking up something from one
sentence and carrying it into the next.

Follow a sentence that makes a general point with a specific, clear illustration of that
point. Look at the following example.

The gap in pay between people with basic skills and people without them seems to be
widening. In one comparison, the pay difference between women of varied
mathematical skills had grown from $.93 an hour in 1978 to $1.71 an hour in 1986.

Here, the second sentence is a clear illustration of the point made in the first sentence.
But look at how coherence can be lost in a paragraph, as in the following example.

The gap in pay between people with basic skills and people without them seems to be
widening. Women are now playing a more important role in the work force than they
have since World War II, when many had to fill the positions of men who were overseas.
The pay difference between women of varied mathematical skills has grown
considerably, from $.93 an hour in 1978 to $1.71 an hour in 1986.

In this example, the second sentence is not clearly connected to the first. Sentence
three returns to the subject, but the continuity of the idea has been weakened.

You can also use one sentence to reflect or comment on the previous sentence, as in
the following example.

The idea that in America hard work leads to financial success has been one of our most
successful exports. For decades immigrants have arrived on American soil with a dream
that here they can have what was impossible in their home countries, where they were
limited by class structure or few opportunities.

As you review your paragraphs, be sure that such reflections logically follow from the
previous statement. In the preceding paragraph, the idea about immigrants arriving on
American soil with the preconceived notion that they will succeed is tied to the point in
the first sentence that the American dream has been a successful export.

You can also connect sentences by asking a question and following it with an answer or
making a statement and following it with a question.

Why should the government invest in research? Research leads to technological

advances that create employment, as was shown in the years following World War II.
Polls indicate that many Americans favor regulation of the Internet. Are they willing to
pay both with their tax dollars and their freedoms?

The sentences in these two examples are linked by words as well as by ideas. In the
first example, the word research has been picked up from the question and repeated in
the answer. In the second example, the pronoun they in the question has its antecedent
( Americans) in the previous statement. Be careful not to overuse the question
technique, or you risk a negative reaction from readers.

Connecting with words and phrases

One way to achieve paragraph coherence is by connecting ideas. As shown in the last
two examples, words and phrases can help strengthen the connection between
sentences.

 Use a pronoun whose antecedent appears in the previous sentence.

Gabriel Garcia Marquez suspends the laws of reality in his novels. He creates bizarre
and even magical situations that reveal character in surprising ways.

 Repeat a key word or phrase.

The idea of a perfect society, though never realized, continues to intrigue

political philosophers. None of these philosophers seem to agree on where perfection
lies.

 Use a synonym.

According to my research, physical beauty is considered a more important asset for

women than for men. Looks are everything, according to several girls I spoke to, while
the boys I interviewed believed their athletic abilities and social status were at least as
important as their appearance.

 Use word patterns, such as first, second, third, and so on.

The reasons the dean announced her decision today are clear. First, students will
recognize that she is listening to their concerns. Second, faculty will applaud the end of
a disruptive period of indecision. Third, wealthy alumni —though not particularly pleased
by the plan —will be happy that the controversy will be off the front page of the paper.

 Use transitional words and phrases. Many words and phrases signal connections
between sentences in a paragraph or between paragraphs in a paper. Look at
the italicized words below.

The main character worships her. Later, his adoration changes to hatred.
The church stood at the top of the hill. Below stretched miles of orchards.
She treated him well. For example, she bought him a car and new clothes.
The product promised to grow new hair. But all he grew was a rash.
Hamlet disdained Ophelia. As a result, she killed herself.
Elizabeth was angry at Travis. In fact, she wanted nothing to do with him.
The plan is too expensive. Furthermore, it won't work.
No one volunteered to help. In other words, no one cared.

In the preceding examples, the italicized words or phrases clearly connect the second
sentence to the first by creating a particular relationship. Vary the transitional words you
use.

Following is a list of transitional words and phrases classified according to the

relationships they suggest. These words and phrases, when used appropriately, can
help you connect ideas in your writing.

 Time or place: above, across from, adjacent to, afterward, before, behind,
below, beyond, earlier, elsewhere, farther on, here, in the distance, near by, next
to, opposite to, to the left, to the right
 Example: for example, for instance, specifically, to be specific
 Contrast: but, however, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand
 Similarity: similarly, in the same way, equally important
 Consequence: accordingly, as a result, consequently, therefore
 Emphasis: indeed, in fact, of course
 Amplification: and, again, also, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, too
 Restatement: in other words, more simply stated, that is, to clarify
 Summary and conclusion: altogether, finally, in conclusion, in short, to
summarize

Write in English
 Lesson Ten

types of paragraphs
The four different types of paragraphs are descriptive,
narrative, expository, and persuasive. These four types allow
you to write about absolutely anything that you want! By
understanding these different types of paragraphs and what they
are used for, the English world is your oyster. Read on to learn
more about these paragraphs and how you will use them.
Many ESL students get nervous when it comes to writing in
English. However, if you spend the time to learn the basics and
become comfortable with the smaller parts of writing in English,
the bigger parts become easier.
For example, don’t stress about writing an essay in English. You
can start smaller by focusing on just the paragraphs that make
up an essay.

The descriptive paragraph

The descriptive paragraph describes something and shows the
reader what a thing or a person is like. The words chosen in the
description often appeal to the five senses of touch, smell, sight,
sound, and taste. Descriptive paragraphs can be artistic and
may deviate from grammatical norms.

An example of a descriptive
paragraph:
The lights grow brighter as the earth lurches away from the sun, and
now the orchestra is playing yellow cocktail music, and the opera of
voices pitches a key higher. Laughter is easier minute by minute,
spilled with prodigality, tipped out at a cheerful word. The groups
change more swiftly, swell with new arrivals, dissolve and form in the
same breath; already there are wanderers, confident girls who weave
here and there among the stouter and more stable, become from a
sharp, joyous moment the center of a group, and then, excited with
triumph, glide on through the sea-change of faces and voices and
color under the constantly changing light.
This excerpt is taken from The Great Gatsby by F. Scott
Fitzgerald. In this paragraph you can hear, see, and feel the
setting in which the story takes place. When you practice writing
a descriptive paragraph yourself, you should address all aspects
of the physical world.

The narrative paragraph

The narrative paragraph tells a story. There’s a sequence of
action or there’s a clear beginning, middle, and end to the
paragraph.

An example of a narrative
paragraph:
It’s been almost ten years since I first ran for political office. I was
thirty-five at the time, four years out of law school, recently married,
and generally impatient with life. A seat in the Illinois legislature had
opened up, and several friends suggested that I run, thinking that my
work as a civil rights lawyer, and contacts from my days as a
community organizer, would make me a viable candidate. After
discussing it with my wife, I entered the race and proceeded to do
what every first-time candidate does: I talked to anyone who would
listen. I went to block club meetings and church socials, beauty shops
and barbershops. If two guys were standing on a corner, I would
cross the street to hand them campaign literature. And everywhere I
went, I’d get some version of the same two questions.
This opening paragraph from Barack Obama’s The Audacity of
Hope tell an interesting story about how a man entered the
arena of politics. It has a beginning, a middle, and an end, and it
raises the reader’s curiosity about what will happen next.

The expository paragraph

The expository paragraph explains something or provides
instruction. It could also describe a process and move the
reader step by step through a method. This type of paragraph
often requires research, but it’s possible that the writer is able to
rely on his or her own knowledge and expertise.

An example of an expository
paragraph:
All toilet flush tanks work about the same. When the toilet is flushed,
the trip handle lifts the tank ball, opening the outlet and letting water
flow into the bowl. When the tank is nearly empty, the ball falls back in
place over the outlet. The float falls with the water level, opening the
water-supply inlet valve just as the outlet is being closed, and the tank
is refilled through the filler tube. Water also flows through the bowl
refill tube into the overflow pipe to replenish trap-sealing water. As the
water level in the tank nears the top of the overflow pipe, the float
closes the inlet valve, completing the cycle.
This paragraph from Reader’s Digest Complete Do-it-yourself
Manual gives detailed information about how how the water
moves through a toilet when it is flushed. It’s instructive, and if
you like this kind of thing, it may even be interesting.

The persuasive paragraph

This type of paragraph tries to get the reader to accept a
particular point of view or understand the writer’s position. This
is the type of paragraph that many teachers focus on because
it’s useful when building an argument. It often requires the
collection of facts and research.

An example of a persuasive
paragraph:
Immigration contributes to the overall health of the American
economy. Despite recent concerns related to the costs created by
illegal and some legal immigration to the United States, this country
has largely benefited from the skills, talents, and ambition that
immigrants bring with them. American businesses gain from a good
source of affordable labor, while town and cities are revitalized by
immigrant families who strengthen communities through civic
participation the generation of new economic activity. The United
States must continue to welcome new arrivals and help those who
already here; otherwise, the country will lose the advantages it has
over other industrialized countries who compete against us in the
global marketplace and seek to recruit from a vast pool of unskilled
and skilled global workers.
This is the paragraph that appeared on the page describing
what a paragraph is. Your teacher wrote it. I have an opinion
about a particular topic, and in this paragraph I want the reader
 to accept or consider my position. The persuasive paragraph is,
perhaps, the most difficult to write but there is a good method I
can show you in order to be successful in writing one.

In the next four lessons, we will take a closer look at each of

these types of paragraphs, starting with what I consider to be
the easiest: the descriptive paragraph.
Next: Lesson Eleven

Conclusions
Knowing when and how to end your paper can be difficult. Writing a
strong conclusion is like tying a ribbon around a gift package. It's the last thing you do,
but it also gives your paper a finishing touch. If the ending is powerful and effective,
your reader will feel satisfied.

What to avoid

Before you can write a strong conclusion, you should know what to avoid. Here are
some common errors.

 Don't introduce a new topic that has not been discussed in your paper. For
example, if your essay has been about the loss of forests and possible solutions
for the high consumption of wood products, don't end with a paragraph about a
different environmental issue, such as the disappearance of the California
condor.
 Don't trail off with a weak statement or a statement that leaves your reader up in
the air.

The Internet, free of regulation, has opened a world of information and ideas to
everyone. Children enjoy learning on the computer.

 Don't simply repeat your thesis or main idea in the same words.

As stated earlier, clothing imagery shows the changes in King Lear throughout the play.

 Don't apologize for or suggest doubts about your thesis.

For a variety of reasons, middle‐class expectations today differ from those in the 1980s.
It is possible, however, that the difference is not particularly illuminating about life in the
United States.
In a short paper (less than five pages, for example), you may use a brief concluding
sentence instead of a formal conclusion. Formal conclusions can sometimes be
superfluous, particularly if the conclusion is a long summary of what he or she just read.
Instead, end your paper with a strong final sentence.

Suggestions for conclusions

A strong conclusion should tie up the loose ends of your essay, refer to the central
theme (thesis), give your readers a sense of completion, and leave them with a strong
impression. You can do this with a single statement or with a paragraph. If you write a
concluding paragraph, consider the following possibilities.

 End with an appropriate quotation. Notice in the following example how the writer
also pulls together loose ends and briefly refers to the thesis.

Throughout the novel the characters suffer both from their isolation and from their
attempts to end it. Kerewin burns her tower, Joe beats his son and goes to prison, and
Simon —who barely survives the beating —must painfully find his way back to those he
loves. Recurring images dramatize their journeys, which end in a reconciliation between
being alone and being part of a community. Kerewin describes the home that will now
take the place of her lonely tower: “I decided on a shell‐shape, a regular spiral of rooms
expanding around the decapitated Tower …privacy, apartness, but all connected and all
part of the whole.”

 Without repeating your thesis word for word, you can unify your essay by relating
the final paragraph to a point in the introduction.

Preserving old‐growth forests and finding substitutes for wood should concern everyone
who cares about the environment. The days when Americans could view this country as
an unlimited provider of resources are as gone as roaming herds of buffalo and
pioneers in covered wagons.

 End with a story related to your thesis.

On a recent trip to the airport, I stood at the ticket counter behind an angry woman. It
seems she'd forgotten her photo ID, and the attendant told her she couldn't fly without it.
After calling the clerk a storm trooper and threatening to sue the airline, the woman
turned to me and said, “You tell me. Do I look like the kind of person who would blow up
a plane?” I didn't answer, but I wondered how in the future this woman would react to a
fifteen‐minute interview about herself or to a uniformed attendant patting her down.

 Another way to conclude a paper is to summarize the main points. But because
summaries aren't particularly interesting conclusions, consider using this
technique only if your paper is fairly long and if a summary would be helpful to
your reader. Keep the summary brief, and avoid indecisive or overly general final
sentences, such as For all these reasons, the Internet should not be regulated.
 Paragraph structure

Learn how to structure a paragraph in a clear and logical way to improve your writing skills.




A paragraph is like a miniature essay
Just like an essay, a paragraph contains three parts;

An introduction > topic sentence

A body > body sentences

A conclusion > concluding sentence.

Each paragraph:

 Is a distinct section of your writing

 Focuses on just one clearly defined idea
 Has to be well organised with all sentences relating to each other, and the topic.
The burger
It's helpful to compare a paragraph to the three parts of a burger; top bun, filling, and
bottom bun.
 The burger paragraph

 Topic sentence
 Body sentences
 Concluding sentence

The topic sentence describes the main idea of the paragraph. It helps the reader
understand what the paragraph is about and the direction your essay is going.

Combine your paragraphs to form an essay

Think of your essay as a series of burgers (paragraphs), set out in a logical order.

Introduction > Paragraph > Paragraph > Paragraph > Paragraph > Paragraph >
Conclusion

How to write an effective paragraph

Paragraph structure

Watch this video for a clear explanation of how to write effective paragraphs.

4:27
Paragraph example
The paragraph below shows the topic, supporting, and concluding sentences.

Topic sentence Family issues can be the reason why teenagers abuse alcohol. Teens who have problems
at home are more likely to drink or use drugs (Jones, 2021). Low parental supervision
Supporting may result in teenagers making dangerous decisions around alcohol consumption if
sentences they know they can get away with it. According to Smith and West (2021), a lack of
social support can also be a contributing factor. A teen with absent parents, a lack of
Concluding
friends and trouble meeting new people may feel lonely and become depressed,
sentence
turning to alcohol. While family can keep a teenager for self-harm, it can also be a
reason for it to occur.

Paragraph structure activity

Rearrange the paragraph into the correct order.

ENG 101 OER: Paragraph Development

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What is a paragraph?

Paragraphs are the building blocks of papers. Many students

define paragraphs in terms of length: a paragraph is a group of
at least five sentences, a paragraph is half a page long, etc. In
reality, though, the unity and coherence of ideas among
sentences is what constitutes a paragraph. A paragraph is
defined as “a group of sentences or a single sentence that
forms a unit” (Lunsford and Connors 116). Length and
appearance do not determine whether a section in a paper is a
paragraph. For instance, in some styles of writing, particularly
journalistic styles, a paragraph can be just one sentence long.
Ultimately, a paragraph is a sentence or group of sentences
that support one main idea. In this handout, we will refer to
 this as the “controlling idea,” because it controls what happens
in the rest of the paragraph.

How do I decide what to put in a paragraph?

Before you can begin to determine what the composition of a

particular paragraph will be, you must first decide on
an argument and a working thesis statement for your paper.
What is the most important idea that you are trying to convey
to your reader? The information in each paragraph must be
related to that idea. In other words, your paragraphs should
remind your reader that there is a recurrent relationship
between your thesis and the information in each paragraph. A
working thesis functions like a seed from which your paper,
and your ideas, will grow. The whole process is an organic one
—a natural progression from a seed to a full-blown paper
where there are direct, familial relationships between all of the
ideas in the paper.
The decision about what to put into your paragraphs begins
with the germination of a seed of ideas; this “germination
process” is better known as brainstorming. There are many
techniques for brainstorming; whichever one you choose, this
stage of paragraph development cannot be skipped. Building
paragraphs can be like building a skyscraper: there must be a
well-planned foundation that supports what you are building.
Any cracks, inconsistencies, or other corruptions of the
foundation can cause your whole paper to crumble.
So, let’s suppose that you have done some brainstorming to
develop your thesis. What else should you keep in mind as you
begin to create paragraphs? Every paragraph in a paper should
be:
 Unified: All of the sentences in a single paragraph should
be related to a single controlling idea (often expressed in
the topic sentence of the paragraph).
 Clearly related to the thesis: The sentences should all
refer to the central idea, or thesis, of the paper (Rosen
and Behrens 119).
  Coherent: The sentences should be arranged in a logical
manner and should follow a definite plan for development
(Rosen and Behrens 119).
 Well-developed: Every idea discussed in the paragraph
should be adequately explained and supported through
evidence and details that work together to explain the
paragraph’s controlling idea (Rosen and Behrens 119).

How do I organize a paragraph?

There are many different ways to organize a paragraph. The

organization you choose will depend on the controlling idea of
the paragraph. Below are a few possibilities for organization,
with links to brief examples:
 Narration: Tell a story. Go chronologically, from start to
finish. (See an example.)
 Description: Provide specific details about what
something looks, smells, tastes, sounds, or feels like.
Organize spatially, in order of appearance, or by topic.
(See an example.)
 Process: Explain how something works, step by step.
Perhaps follow a sequence—first, second, third. (See an
example.)
 Classification: Separate into groups or explain the
various parts of a topic. (See an example.)
 Illustration: Give examples and explain how those
examples prove your point. (See the detailed example in
the next section of this handout.)

5-step process for paragraph development

Let’s walk through a 5-step process for building a paragraph. For each
step there is an explanation and example. Our example paragraph will
be about slave spirituals, the original songs that African Americans
created during slavery. The model paragraph uses illustration (giving
examples) to prove its point.
Step 1. Decide on a controlling idea and create
a topic sentence
Paragraph development begins with the formulation of the
controlling idea. This idea directs the paragraph’s
development. Often, the controlling idea of a paragraph will
appear in the form of a topic sentence. In some cases, you may
need more than one sentence to express a paragraph’s
controlling idea.
Here is the controlling idea for our “model paragraph,”
expressed in a topic sentence:
Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings.

Step 2. Explain the controlling idea

Paragraph development continues with an expression of the
rationale or the explanation that the writer gives for how the
reader should interpret the information presented in the idea
statement or topic sentence of the paragraph. The writer
explains his/her thinking about the main topic, idea, or focus of
the paragraph.
Here’s the sentence that would follow the controlling
idea about slave spirituals:
 On one level, spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the soul; but on
another level, the songs spoke about slave resistance.

Step 3. Give an example (or multiple examples)

Paragraph development progresses with the expression of
some type of support or evidence for the idea and the
explanation that came before it. The example serves as a sign
or representation of the relationship established in the idea
and explanation portions of the paragraph.
Here are two examples that we could use to illustrate the
double meanings in slave spirituals:
 Example A — For example, according to Frederick Douglass, the
song “O Canaan, Sweet Canaan” spoke of slaves’ longing for
heaven, but it also expressed their desire to escape to the North.
Careful listeners heard this second meaning in the following lyrics: “I
don’t expect to stay / Much longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the
danger. / I don’t expect to stay.”

Example B — Slaves even used songs like “Steal Away to Jesus

(at midnight)” to announce to other slaves the time and place of
secret, forbidden meetings.

Step 4. Explain the example(s)

The next movement in paragraph development is an
explanation of each example and its relevance to the topic
sentence and rationale that were stated at the beginning of the
paragraph. This explanation shows readers why you chose to
use this/or these particular examples as evidence to support
the major claim, or focus, in your paragraph.
Continue the pattern of giving examples and explaining them
until all points/examples that the writer deems necessary have
been made and explained. NONE of your examples should be
left unexplained. You might be able to explain the relationship
between the example and the topic sentence in the same
sentence which introduced the example. More often, however,
you will need to explain that relationship in a separate
sentence.
Look at these explanations for the two examples in the
slave spirituals paragraph:
Model explanation for Example A — When slaves sang this song,
they could have been speaking of their departure from this life and
their arrival in heaven; however, they also could have been
describing their plans to leave the South and run, not to Jesus, but
to the North.
Model explanation for Example B — [The relationship between
example B and the main idea of the paragraph’s controlling idea is
clear enough without adding another sentence to explain it.]
Step 5. Complete the paragraph’s idea or
transition into the next paragraph
The final movement in paragraph development involves tying
up the loose ends of the paragraph and reminding the reader
of the relevance of the information in this paragraph to the
main or controlling idea of the paper. At this point, you can
remind your reader about the relevance of the information that
you just discussed in the paragraph. You might feel more
comfortable, however, simply transitioning your reader to the
next development in the next paragraph.
Here’s an example of a sentence that completes the slave
spirituals paragraph:
What whites heard as merely spiritual songs, slaves discerned as
detailed messages. The hidden meanings in spirituals allowed
slaves to sing what they could not say.
Notice that the example and explanation steps of this 5-step
process (steps 3 and 4) can be repeated as needed. The idea is that
you continue to use this pattern until you have completely
developed the main idea of the paragraph.

Here is a look at the completed “model”

paragraph:

Slave spirituals often had hidden double meanings. On one level,

spirituals referenced heaven, Jesus, and the soul, but on another
level, the songs spoke about slave resistance. For example,
according to Frederick Douglass, the song “O Canaan, Sweet
Canaan” spoke of slaves’ longing for heaven, but it also expressed
their desire to escape to the North. Careful listeners heard this
second meaning in the following lyrics: “I don’t expect to stay / Much
longer here. / Run to Jesus, shun the danger. / I don’t expect to
stay.” When slaves sang this song, they could have been speaking
of their departure from this life and their arrival in heaven; however,
they also could have been describing their plans to leave the South
and run, not to Jesus, but to the North. Slaves even used songs like
“Steal Away to Jesus (at midnight)” to announce to other slaves the
 time and place of secret, forbidden meetings. What whites heard as
merely spiritual songs, slaves discerned as detailed messages. The
hidden meanings in spirituals allowed slaves to sing what they could
not say.
6.2 Effective Means for Writing a Paragraph

Learning Objectives

1. Identify characteristics of a good topic sentence.

2. Identify the three parts of a developed paragraph.
3. Apply knowledge of topic sentences and parts of a developed paragraph in an assignment.

Now that you have identified common purposes for writing and learned how to select appropriate
content for a particular audience, you can think about the structure of a paragraph in greater
detail. Composing an effective paragraph requires a method similar to building a house. You
may have the finest content, or materials, but if you do not arrange them in the correct order,
then the final product will not hold together very well.

A strong paragraph contains three distinct components:

1. Topic sentence. The topic sentence is the main idea of the paragraph.
2. Body. The body is composed of the supporting sentences that develop the main point.
3. Conclusion. The conclusion is the final sentence that summarizes the main point.

The foundation of a good paragraph is the topic sentence, which expresses the main idea of the
paragraph. The topic sentence relates to the thesis, or main point, of the essay (see Chapter 9
“Writing Essays: From Start to Finish” for more information about thesis statements) and guides
the reader by signposting what the paragraph is about. All the sentences in the rest of the
paragraph should relate to the topic sentence.

This section covers the major components of a paragraph and examines how to develop an
effective topic sentence.

Developing a Topic Sentence

Pick up any newspaper or magazine and read the first sentence of an article. Are
you fairly confident that you know what the rest of the article is about? If so, you
have likely read the topic sentence. An effective topic sentence combines a main
idea with the writer’s personal attitude or opinion. It serves to orient the reader and
provides an indication of what will follow in the rest of the paragraph. Read the
following example.
 Creating a national set of standards for math and English education will improve student
learning in many states.

This topic sentence declares a favorable position for standardizing math and
English education. After reading this sentence, a reader might reasonably expect
the writer to provide supporting details and facts as to why standardizing math and
English education might improve student learning in many states. If the purpose of
the essay is actually to evaluate education in only one particular state, or to discuss
math or English education specifically, then the topic sentence is misleading.

Tip

When writing a draft of an essay, allow a friend or colleague to read the opening line of your
first paragraph. Ask your reader to predict what your paper will be about. If he or she is
unable to guess your topic accurately, you should consider revising your topic sentence so
that it clearly defines your purpose in writing.

Main Idea versus Controlling Idea

Topic sentences contain both a main idea (the subject, or topic that the writer is
discussing) and a controlling idea (the writer’s specific stance on that subject). Just
as a thesis statement includes an idea that controls a document’s focus (as you will
read about in Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?”), a topic
sentence must also contain a controlling idea to direct the paragraph. Different
writers may use the same main idea but can steer their paragraph in a number of
different directions according to their stance on the subject. Read the following
examples.

 Marijuana is a destructive influence on teens and causes long-term brain damage.

 The antinausea properties in marijuana are a lifeline for many cancer patients.
 Legalizing marijuana would create a higher demand for Class A and Class B drugs.

Although the main idea—marijuana—is the same in all three topic sentences, the
controlling idea differs depending on the writer’s viewpoint.
Exercise 1
Circle the main idea and underline the controlling idea in each of the following topic
sentences.

1. Exercising three times a week is the only way to maintain good physical health.
 2. Sexism and racism are still rampant in today’s workplace.
3. Raising the legal driving age to twenty-one would decrease road traffic accidents.
4. Owning a business is the only way to achieve financial success.
5. Dog owners should be prohibited from taking their pets on public beaches.

Characteristics of a Good Topic Sentence

Five characteristics define a good topic sentence:
1. A good topic sentence provides an accurate indication of what will follow in the
rest of the paragraph.

Weak example. People rarely give firefighters the credit they deserve for such a
physically and emotionally demanding job. (The paragraph is about a specific
incident that involved firefighters; therefore, this topic sentence is too general.)

Stronger example. During the October riots, Unit 3B went beyond the call of
duty. (This topic sentence is more specific and indicates that the paragraph will
contain information about a particular incident involving Unit 3B.)
2. A good topic sentence contains both a topic and a controlling idea or opinion.

Weak example. In this paper, I am going to discuss the rising suicide rate among
young professionals. (This topic sentence provides a main idea, but it does not
present a controlling idea, or thesis.)

Stronger example. The rising suicide rate among young professionals is a cause
for immediate concern. (This topic sentence presents the writer’s opinion on the
subject of rising suicide rates among young professionals.)
3. A good topic sentence is clear and easy to follow.

Weak example. In general, writing an essay, thesis, or other academic or

nonacademic document is considerably easier and of much higher quality if you
first construct an outline, of which there are many different types. (This topic
sentence includes a main idea and a controlling thesis, but both are buried beneath
the confusing sentence structure and unnecessary vocabulary. These obstacles
make it difficult for the reader to follow.)

Stronger example. Most forms of writing can be improved by first creating an

outline. (This topic sentence cuts out unnecessary verbiage and simplifies the
previous statement, making it easier for the reader to follow.)
4. A good topic sentence does not include supporting details.
 Weak example. Salaries should be capped in baseball for many reasons, most
importantly so we don’t allow the same team to win year after year. (This topic
sentence includes a supporting detail that should be included later in the paragraph
to back up the main point.)

Stronger example. Introducing a salary cap would improve the game of baseball
for many reasons. (This topic sentence omits the additional supporting detail so
that it can be expanded upon later in the paragraph.)
5. A good topic sentence engages the reader by using interesting vocabulary.

Weak example. The military deserves better equipment. (This topic sentence
includes a main idea and a controlling thesis, but the language is bland and
unexciting.)

Stronger example. The appalling lack of resources provided to the military is

outrageous and requires our immediate attention. (This topic sentence reiterates the
same idea and controlling thesis, but adjectives such
as appalling and immediate better engage the reader. These words also indicate the
writer’s tone.)
Exercise 2
Choose the most effective topic sentence from the following sentence pairs.
1. a. This paper will discuss the likelihood of the Democrats winning the next election.

b. To boost their chances of winning the next election, the Democrats need to listen to
public opinion.
2. a. The unrealistic demands of union workers are crippling the economy for three main
reasons.

b. Union workers are crippling the economy because companies are unable to remain
competitive as a result of added financial pressure.
3. a. Authors are losing money as a result of technological advances.

b. The introduction of new technology will devastate the literary world.

4. a. Rap music is produced by untalented individuals with oversized egos.

b. This essay will consider whether talent is required in the rap music industry.
 Exercise 3
Using the tips on developing effective topic sentences in this section, create a topic sentence
on each of the following subjects. Remember to include a controlling idea as well as a main
idea. Write your responses on your own sheet of paper.
1. An endangered species

____________________________________________
2. The cost of fuel

____________________________________________
3. The legal drinking age

____________________________________________
4. A controversial film or novel

____________________________________________

Writing at Work

When creating a workplace document, use the “top-down” approach—keep the topic
sentence at the beginning of each paragraph so that readers immediately understand the gist
of the message. This method saves busy colleagues precious time and effort trying to figure
out the main points and relevant details.

Headings are another helpful tool. In a text-heavy document, break up each paragraph with
individual headings. These serve as useful navigation aids, enabling colleagues to skim
through the document and locate paragraphs that are relevant to them.

Developing Paragraphs That Use Topic

Sentences, Supporting Ideas, and Transitions
Effectively
Learning how to develop a good topic sentence is the first step toward writing a
solid paragraph. Once you have composed your topic sentence, you have a
guideline for the rest of the paragraph. To complete the paragraph, a writer must
support the topic sentence with additional information and summarize the main
point with a concluding sentence.
This section identifies the three major structural parts of a paragraph and covers
how to develop a paragraph using transitional words and phrases.

Identifying Parts of a Paragraph

An effective paragraph contains three main parts: a topic sentence, the body, and
the concluding sentence. A topic sentence is often the first sentence of a paragraph.
This chapter has already discussed its purpose—to express a main idea combined
with the writer’s attitude about the subject. The body of the paragraph usually
follows, containing supporting details. Supporting sentences help explain, prove, or
enhance the topic sentence. The concluding sentence is the last sentence in the
paragraph. It reminds the reader of the main point by restating it in different words.

Figure 6.2 Paragraph Structure Graphic Organizer

Read the following paragraph. The topic sentence is underlined for you.
After reading the new TV guide this week I had just one thought—why are we still being
bombarded with reality shows? This season, the plague of reality television continues to
darken our airwaves. Along with the return of viewer favorites, we are to be cursed with yet
another mindless creation. Prisoner follows the daily lives of eight suburban housewives
who have chosen to be put in jail for the purposes of this fake psychological experiment. A
preview for the first episode shows the usual tears and tantrums associated with reality
television. I dread to think what producers will come up with next season, but if any of them
are reading this blog—stop it! We’ve had enough reality television to last us a lifetime!

The first sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence. It tells the reader that the
paragraph will be about reality television shows, and it expresses the writer’s
distaste for these shows through the use of the word bombarded.

Each of the following sentences in the paragraph supports the topic sentence by
providing further information about a specific reality television show. The final
sentence is the concluding sentence. It reiterates the main point that viewers are
bored with reality television shows by using different words from the topic
sentence.

Paragraphs that begin with the topic sentence move from the general to the
specific. They open with a general statement about a subject (reality shows) and
then discuss specific examples (the reality show Prisoner). Most academic essays
contain the topic sentence at the beginning of the first paragraph.

Now take a look at the following paragraph. The topic sentence is underlined for
you.
Last year, a cat traveled 130 miles to reach its family, who had moved to another state and
had left their pet behind. Even though it had never been to their new home, the cat was able
to track down its former owners. A dog in my neighborhood can predict when its master is
about to have a seizure. It makes sure that he does not hurt himself during an epileptic
fit. Compared to many animals, our own senses are almost dull.

The last sentence of this paragraph is the topic sentence. It draws on specific
examples (a cat that tracked down its owners and a dog that can predict seizures)
and then makes a general statement that draws a conclusion from these examples
(animals’ senses are better than humans’). In this case, the supporting sentences are
placed before the topic sentence and the concluding sentence is the same as the
topic sentence.
This technique is frequently used in persuasive writing. The writer produces
detailed examples as evidence to back up his or her point, preparing the reader to
accept the concluding topic sentence as the truth.

Sometimes, the topic sentence appears in the middle of a paragraph. Read the
following example. The topic sentence is underlined for you.
For many years, I suffered from severe anxiety every time I took an exam. Hours before the
exam, my heart would begin pounding, my legs would shake, and sometimes I would
become physically unable to move. Last year, I was referred to a specialist and finally found
a way to control my anxiety—breathing exercises. It seems so simple, but by doing just a
few breathing exercises a couple of hours before an exam, I gradually got my anxiety under
control. The exercises help slow my heart rate and make me feel less anxious. Better yet,
they require no pills, no equipment, and very little time. It’s amazing how just breathing
correctly has helped me learn to manage my anxiety symptoms.

In this paragraph, the underlined sentence is the topic sentence. It expresses the
main idea—that breathing exercises can help control anxiety. The preceding
sentences enable the writer to build up to his main point (breathing exercises can
help control anxiety) by using a personal anecdote (how he used to suffer from
anxiety). The supporting sentences then expand on how breathing exercises help
the writer by providing additional information. The last sentence is the concluding
sentence and restates how breathing can help manage anxiety.

Placing a topic sentence in the middle of a paragraph is often used in creative

writing. If you notice that you have used a topic sentence in the middle of a
paragraph in an academic essay, read through the paragraph carefully to make sure
that it contains only one major topic. To read more about topic sentences and
where they appear in paragraphs, see Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I
Begin?”.

Implied Topic Sentences

Some well-organized paragraphs do not contain a topic sentence at all. Instead of
being directly stated, the main idea is implied in the content of the paragraph. Read
the following example:
Heaving herself up the stairs, Luella had to pause for breath several times. She let out a
wheeze as she sat down heavily in the wooden rocking chair. Tao approached her cautiously,
as if she might crumble at the slightest touch. He studied her face, like parchment; stretched
across the bones so finely he could almost see right through the skin to the decaying muscle
underneath. Luella smiled a toothless grin.
 Although no single sentence in this paragraph states the main idea, the entire
paragraph focuses on one concept—that Luella is extremely old. The topic
sentence is thus implied rather than stated. This technique is often used in
descriptive or narrative writing. Implied topic sentences work well if the writer has
a firm idea of what he or she intends to say in the paragraph and sticks to it.
However, a paragraph loses its effectiveness if an implied topic sentence is too
subtle or the writer loses focus.

Tip

Avoid using implied topic sentences in an informational document. Readers often lose
patience if they are unable to quickly grasp what the writer is trying to say. The clearest and
most efficient way to communicate in an informational document is to position the topic
sentence at the beginning of the paragraph.
Exercise 4
Identify the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and concluding sentence in the following
paragraph.
The desert provides a harsh environment in which few mammals are able to adapt. Of these hardy
creatures, the kangaroo rat is possibly the most fascinating. Able to live in some of the most arid
parts of the southwest, the kangaroo rat neither sweats nor pants to keep cool. Its specialized
kidneys enable it to survive on a miniscule amount of water. Unlike other desert creatures, the
kangaroo rat does not store water in its body but instead is able to convert the dry seeds it eats into
moisture. Its ability to adapt to such a hostile environment makes the kangaroo rat a truly amazing
creature.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Supporting Sentences
If you think of a paragraph as a hamburger, the supporting sentences are the meat
inside the bun. They make up the body of the paragraph by explaining, proving, or
enhancing the controlling idea in the topic sentence. Most paragraphs contain three
to six supporting sentences depending on the audience and purpose for writing. A
supporting sentence usually offers one of the following:
 Reason

Sentence: The refusal of the baby boom generation to retire is contributing to the
current lack of available jobs.
 Fact

Sentence: Many families now rely on older relatives to support them financially.
 Statistic

Sentence: Nearly 10 percent of adults are currently unemployed in the United

States.
 Quotation

Sentence: “We will not allow this situation to continue,” stated Senator Johns.
 Example

Sentence: Last year, Bill was asked to retire at the age of fifty-five.

The type of supporting sentence you choose will depend on what you are writing
and why you are writing. For example, if you are attempting to persuade your
audience to take a particular position you should rely on facts, statistics, and
concrete examples, rather than personal opinions. Read the following example:
There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car. (Topic sentence)

First, they get 20 percent to 35 percent more miles to the gallon than a fuel-efficient gas-
powered vehicle. (Supporting sentence 1: statistic)

Second, they produce very few emissions during low speed city driving. (Supporting
sentence 2: fact)

Because they do not require gas, hybrid cars reduce dependency on fossil fuels, which helps
lower prices at the pump. (Supporting sentence 3: reason)

Alex bought a hybrid car two years ago and has been extremely impressed with its
performance. (Supporting sentence 4: example)

“It’s the cheapest car I’ve ever had,” she said. “The running costs are far lower than previous
gas powered vehicles I’ve owned.” (Supporting sentence 5: quotation)

Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid car, it is likely
that many more people will follow Alex’s example in the near future. (Concluding
sentence)

To find information for your supporting sentences, you might consider using one
of the following sources:

 Reference book
 Encyclopedia
 Website
 Biography/autobiography
 Map
 Dictionary
 Newspaper/magazine
 Interview
 Previous experience
 Personal research

To read more about sources and research, see Chapter 11 “Writing from Research:
What Will I Learn?”.

Tip

When searching for information on the Internet, remember that some websites are more
reliable than others. websites ending in .gov or .edu are generally more reliable than websites
ending in .com or .org. Wikis and blogs are not reliable sources of information because they
are subject to inaccuracies.

Concluding Sentences
An effective concluding sentence draws together all the ideas you have raised in
your paragraph. It reminds readers of the main point—the topic sentence—without
restating it in exactly the same words. Using the hamburger example, the top bun
(the topic sentence) and the bottom bun (the concluding sentence) are very similar.
They frame the “meat” or body of the paragraph. Compare the topic sentence and
concluding sentence from the previous example:
Topic sentence: There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car.

Concluding sentence: Given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a
hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex’s example in the near future.

Notice the use of the synonyms advantages and benefits. The concluding sentence
reiterates the idea that owning a hybrid is advantageous without using the exact
same words. It also summarizes two examples of the advantages covered in the
supporting sentences: low running costs and environmental benefits.
 You should avoid introducing any new ideas into your concluding sentence. A
conclusion is intended to provide the reader with a sense of completion.
Introducing a subject that is not covered in the paragraph will confuse the reader
and weaken your writing.

A concluding sentence may do any of the following:

 Restate the main idea.

Example: Childhood obesity is a growing problem in the United States.

 Summarize the key points in the paragraph.

Example: A lack of healthy choices, poor parenting, and an addiction to video

games are among the many factors contributing to childhood obesity.
 Draw a conclusion based on the information in the paragraph.

Example: These statistics indicate that unless we take action, childhood obesity
rates will continue to rise.
 Make a prediction, suggestion, or recommendation about the information in the
paragraph.

Example: Based on this research, more than 60 percent of children in the United
States will be morbidly obese by the year 2030 unless we take evasive action.
 Offer an additional observation about the controlling idea.

Example: Childhood obesity is an entirely preventable tragedy.

Exercise 5
On your own paper, write one example of each type of concluding sentence based on a topic
of your choice.

Transitions
A strong paragraph moves seamlessly from the topic sentence into the supporting
sentences and on to the concluding sentence. To help organize a paragraph and
ensure that ideas logically connect to one another, writers use transitional words
and phrases. A transition is a connecting word that describes a relationship
between ideas. Take another look at the earlier example:
There are numerous advantages to owning a hybrid car. First, they get 20 percent to 35
percent more miles to the gallon than a fuel-efficient gas-powered vehicle. Second, they
produce very few emissions during low speed city driving. Because they do not require gas,
hybrid cars reduce dependency on fossil fuels, which helps lower prices at the pump. Alex
bought a hybrid car two years ago and has been extremely impressed with its performance.
“It’s the cheapest car I’ve ever had,” she said. “The running costs are far lower than previous
gas-powered vehicles I’ve owned.” Given the low running costs and environmental benefits
of owning a hybrid car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex’s example in the
near future.

Each of the underlined words is a transition word. Words such

as first and second are transition words that show sequence or clarify order. They
help organize the writer’s ideas by showing that he or she has another point to
make in support of the topic sentence. Other transition words that show order
include third, also, and furthermore.

The transition word because is a transition word of consequence that continues a

line of thought. It indicates that the writer will provide an explanation of a result.
In this sentence, the writer explains why hybrid cars will reduce dependency on
fossil fuels (because they do not require gas). Other transition words of
consequence include as a result, so that, since, or for this reason.

To include a summarizing transition in her concluding sentence, the writer could

rewrite the final sentence as follows:
In conclusion, given the low running costs and environmental benefits of owning a hybrid
car, it is likely that many more people will follow Alex’s example in the near future.

The following chart provides some useful transition words to connect supporting
sentences and concluding sentences. See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do
I Begin?” for a more comprehensive look at transitional words and phrases.

Table 6.1 Useful Transitional Words and Phrases

For Supporting Sentences

above all but for instance in particular moreover subsequently

also conversely furthermore later on nevertheless therefore

 aside from correspondingly however likewise on one hand to begin with

at the same time for example in addition meanwhile on the contrary

For Concluding Sentences

after all all things considered in brief in summary on the whole to sum up

in
all in all finally on balance thus
conclusion

Exercise 6
Using your own paper, write a paragraph on a topic of your choice. Be sure to include a topic
sentence, supporting sentences, and a concluding sentence and to use transitional words and
phrases to link your ideas together.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

Writing at Work

Transitional words and phrases are useful tools to incorporate into workplace documents.
They guide the reader through the document, clarifying relationships between sentences and
paragraphs so that the reader understands why they have been written in that particular order.

For example, when writing an instructional memo, it may be helpful to consider the
following transitional words and phrases: before you begin, first, next, then, finally, after you
have completed. Using these transitions as a template to write your memo will provide
readers with clear, logical instructions about a particular process and the order in which steps
are supposed to be completed.
 Key Takeaways
 A good paragraph contains three distinct components: a topic sentence, body, and
concluding sentence.
 The topic sentence expresses the main idea of the paragraph combined with the writer’s
attitude or opinion about the topic.
 Good topic sentences contain both a main idea and a controlling idea, are clear and easy
to follow, use engaging vocabulary, and provide an accurate indication of what will follow
in the rest of the paragraph.
 Topic sentences may be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a paragraph. In most
academic essays, the topic sentence is placed at the beginning of a paragraph.
 Supporting sentences help explain, prove, or enhance the topic sentence by offering facts,
reasons, statistics, quotations, or examples.
 Concluding sentences summarize the key points in a paragraph and reiterate the main
idea without repeating it word for word.
 Transitional words and phrases help organize ideas in a paragraph and show how these
ideas relate to one another.