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Operational Energy 1st Edition Alan Howard Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Alan Howard, Daniel Nussbaum, Brenda Shaffer
ISBN(s): 9783110796476, 3110796473
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 27.39 MB
Year: 2024
Language: english
Alan Howard, Daniel Nussbaum, Brenda Shaffer
Operational Energy
Alan Howard, Daniel Nussbaum,
Brenda Shaffer

Operational
Energy
ISBN (Paperback) 978-3-11-079650-6
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Acknowledgements
Operational Energy is the first textbook on the planning for energy needs in modern
warfare. We thank RuthAnne Darling, Director, Operational Energy – Innovation, US
Department of Defense and Jim Caley, Director for Operational Energy, US Navy, for
the vision and support for this research project and book. Ms. Darling, along with
Dr. Clint Novotny developed the OE Innovation ontology framework. Colonel (retired)
Mace Carpenter further developed the framework and authored the description of the
framework elements.

Colonel (retired) Mace Carpenter and Lt. Col. (retired) Eric Turner provided extensive
insightful commentary and feedback on our research and manuscript and we are
grateful and acknowledge their extensive expertise.

It was great to work with De Gruyter Press, which early on in the development of this
book recognized the importance of publication of this first textbook on operational en-
ergy. We especially thank at De Gruyter Press Michaela Göbels, Gerhard Boomgaarden,
Faye Leerink and Antonia Mittelbach.

Miles Pomper and Jonathan Hoare each provided very useful comments on the book
manuscript and we appreciate this input. Miles also conducted research for the project.
Rabia Haider Khan also provided useful edits. Thank you to John Fleming, Frank Che-
zem, and Brandon Wall for their work on the graphics.

We also are grateful to students at the US Naval Postgraduate School that provided us
with insights from their operational experiences that enhanced our knowledge on OE.

We would also like to thank our team at the Energy Academic Group for supporting
this work. Several colleagues at the Energy Academic Group at the US Naval Postgrad-
uate School contributed extensive research and writing to this book. Lawrence Walzer
authored Chapter 4, “Military Threats to Operational Energy” and the case study on the
attack on the Metcalf electricity substation. Dr. David Alderson and Dr. Daniel Eisen-
berg authored Chapter 6, “Operational Energy Vulnerability and Resilience.” Dr. Arnold
Dupuy led the research of Chapter 7 “Education and Training and his research contrib-
uted greatly to the case study on the cyberattack on the Colonial Pipeline. Charles “Jay”
Lynn contributed significantly to Chapter 8 “Operational Energy Challenges to the
Armed Services Branches.” The case study in chapter 3 on nuclear power plants in
war drew upon the research of Prof. Theresa Sabonis-Helf from Georgetown University.

Alan Howard, Dan Nussbaum and Brenda Shaffer

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110798104-001
Preface
It is a commonplace to say that “energy is the lifeblood of civilization.” Energy funda-
mentally orders the global landscape, including geopolitics, economics, and the conduct
of military operations.

Despite the critical role of energy in the outcome of battles and wars, this is the first
textbook on operational energy (OE). Operational energy is “the energy required for
training, moving, and sustaining military forces and weapons platforms for military
operations.” Until recently, most militaries treated OE needs as a subset of logistics.
Today, the US military views operational energy not only as ensuring supplies to enable
the military’s operations, but as a component of war strategy that increases the power
and lethality of American troops, while denying energy supplies to US adversaries.

Energy is an enabler of – and a constraint on – military power. Operational Energy su-

periority requires the ability to fully exploit one’s own energy capabilities while pre-
venting the adversary from doing the same.

As stated in this book, “Throughout history, militaries have sought to gain energy sup-
plies and deny them to their adversaries” and that energy “has played a role in military
conflicts and the determination of their outcomes. Energy supply options have shaped
decisions in battles; and commanders have leveraged and sought out energy advantag-
es to gain an edge on opponents. Enemy energy supply lines are regularly targeted as
part of battle and war. In many instances, access to energy also played a role in the
initiation of conflict.”

Operational Energy provides military officers with knowledge and skills to plan effec-
tively for the OE needs of their forces. The authors of this textbook have begun to repair
the gap in the energy and logistics literature. Operational Energy also examines multi-
ple cases and lessons learned on the role of OE in the battlespace.

Military historians recount that 150 years ago, OE took the form of food stocks to feed
horses. Today OE takes the form of the enabling power for just about everything – mili-
tary aircraft, ships, land vehicles, space platforms, electrical grids for automation and
communications, forward bases, and directed energy has even become a new weapon.

Operational Energy needs have grown rapidly over the twentieth century. We require
ever-larger overall levels of energy: The operational energy needs of the US military
has increased with the introduction of each new weapon system and platform. This
growth is not only in volumes but in the need for specific types of fuels. The US military
is also facing growing operational energy challenges due to the increased geographic
spread of its missions around the globe.

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110798104-002
VIII Preface

Throughout most of its history, the United States has enjoyed access to almost undis-
rupted energy supplies and operational energy superiority. However, this has changed.
As pointed out in this book, US adversaries—China, Iran and Russia—all intend in con-
flict to target US energy supplies, both at home and abroad. The United States is espe-
cially vulnerable to threats to its energy supplies in conducting operations in Asia, in
contrast to the European theater.

Today, energy is a critical pillar of national defense and a major factor in military
power. In modern warfare, attaining energy superiority over one’s adversaries is a crit-
ical condition for success on the battlefield. Operational energy planning is an integral
part of all combat and regular operations. The centrality and vulnerability of OE is a
major reason that we must educate service members and military civilians on OE
throughout their careers and at all levels of conflict—tactical, operational, and strate-
gic. US Department of Defense personnel must be experts in OE, in any given battle-
space. Since operational energy will undoubtedly remain essential for almost all
forms of combat and at all levels of combat, the need to educate, at all ranks, is urgent
and persistent.

While no text can profess to be a complete compendium on OE, this text makes the
requisite start. Comments from the future readership will undoubtedly shape future
editions. For now, this text is the correct beginning.

Dr. Dan Nussbaum

Chair, Energy Academic Group, US Naval Postgraduate School
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Definition of Operational Energy 3
1.1.1 OE Superiority 4
1.2 OE Needs Are Increasing and Will Increase Further 4
1.3 Establishment of OE Planning in the US Military 7
1.4 OE versus Civilian Energy Security 7
1.5 Energy as a Weapon in the Emerging Battlefield 8
1.6 OE: Long-Term and Short-Term 8
1.7 OE as a Vulnerability 8
1.8 Critical Infrastructure and Critical Energy Infrastructure 9
1.9 DOD OE Guidance and Tools 10
1.10 Textbook Structure 10
1.11 For Study 10
1.12 Topics for Discussion and Research 10

2 Operational Energy throughout History 12

2.1 Energy Transitions and Militaries 12
2.2 Energy Transitions and War 13
2.3 Energy Affects Military Decisions and Outcomes 16
2.3.1 Energy as a Constraint 18
2.3.2 Energy as an Advantage 18
2.4 Anticipating and Developing the Next Energy Transition as Part of Military
Power 20
2.5 For Study 21
2.6 Topics for Discussion and Research 21
2.7 Case Study: Operation Edelweiss 1942 21
2.7.1 Questions for Discussion 26

3 Geopolitics of Operational Energy 27

3.1 Energy Basics 27
3.1.1 Global Fuel Mix 27
3.1.2 Global Energy Total Consumption Trends 28
3.1.3 Energy Density 29
3.1.4 Energy Transportation and Markets 29
3.1.4.1 Oil 29
3.1.4.2 Coal 30
3.1.4.3 Natural Gas 31
3.1.4.4 Renewable Energy 31
3.1.4.5 Nuclear Energy 32
3.1.4.6 Electricity 33
X Contents

3.2 Global Geopolitics of Energy 34

3.2.1 Geopolitics of Different Fuel Sources 35
3.2.1.1 Geopolitics of Oil 36
3.2.1.2 Changing Geopolitics of Oil 36
3.2.2 Geopolitics of Natural Gas 37
3.2.3 Geopolitics of Minerals and Metals for Renewable Energy 38
3.2.4 Energy and Maritime Delimitation Conflicts 38
3.2.5 Maritime Energy Transportation: International Waterways and
Chokepoints 39
3.2.6 US Adversaries Seek to Influence US’s and Allies’ Energy Policies 39
3.2.7 Economic Tools of Geopolitics of Energy 40
3.2.8 Energy Security Policies 40
3.3 Geopolitics of OE 41
3.3.1 US Government and Public Limitations on OE 43
3.3.2 Hybrid Warfare: OE Threats 45
3.3.3 Reliance on Civilian Energy Supply Lines 46
3.3.4 International Legal Conventions Affecting OE 47
3.3.5 OE and Sea Chokepoints 47
3.3.6 OE Implications of the “Pivot to Asia” 47
3.4 Protection of Energy Infrastructure of US Allies and Partners 48
3.4.1 Identification and Planning to Exploit OE Vulnerabilities of American
Adversaries 50
3.5 OE Planning: Geopolitical Factors 50
3.6 Necessary Intelligence on Geopolitics of Energy for OE 51
3.6.1 Cross-Agency Cooperation: OE Supplies and Infrastructure 51
3.7 International and Regional Institutions 52
3.8 For Study 52
3.9 Topics for Discussion and Research 53
3.10 Case Study: Energy in Conflict – the 2020 Armenia-Azerbaijan War 53
3.10.1 Background: The Armenia-Azerbaijan Conflict 54
3.10.2 Energy Export 55
3.10.3 Energy – the Catalyst for Reignition of War 56
3.10.4 Attacks on International Pipelines during the War 59
3.10.5 Weaponization of Energy Infrastructure 60
3.10.5.1 Armenia’s Threats to the Mingachevir Hydropower Station 60
3.10.5.2 Azerbaijan’s Threat to the Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant 61
3.10.6 Energy Post-war 62
3.10.7 Conclusions 62
3.10.8 Questions for Discussion 63
3.11 Case Study: Nuclear Power Plants in War – The Case of Ukraine 64
3.11.1 The Russia-Ukraine War and the Zaporizhzhya Nuclear Power Plant 65
3.11.2 IAEA Plays a Role 67
3.11.3 Russian and Ukrainian Aims 70
 Contents XI

3.11.4 Case Conclusions 70

3.11.5 Topics for Discussion and Research 71

4 Military Threats to Operational Energy 72

Lawrence M. Waltzer
4.1 What Is a Threat? 72
4.2 Thinking About Threats 73
4.3 Center of Gravity Analysis 74
4.4 Connecting the JIPOE with Planning and Targeting 76
4.5 Control and Weaponization of Energy 77
4.6 Deliberate versus Non-deliberate Threats to OE 78
4.7 Non-deliberate Threats to OE 78
4.7.1 Geography 78
4.7.2 Accidents/Safety 80
4.7.3 Aging or Poorly Constructed, Maintained, and/or Operated
Infrastructure 81
4.7.4 Poor Decision-Making and Policies 81
4.7.5 Theft 81
4.8 Deliberate Threats to OE 82
4.8.1 Terrorism 82
4.8.2 Looting 87
4.8.3 Sabotage 87
4.8.4 Cyberattack 88
4.8.5 Blockade 92
4.8.6 Aerial Bombings / Indirect Military Fires 93
4.9 US Adversaries’ Views on Disruption of Opponents’ OE Supplies 94
4.9.1 China 94
4.9.2 Russia 97
4.9.3 Iran 97
4.9.4 Conclusions on US Adversaries’ Views of American Operational Energy
Vulnerabilities 99
4.10 For Study 100
4.11 Questions for Discussion 100
4.12 Case study: Destroying the Enemy’s Energy Supplies in the Twenty-First
Century 100
4.12.1 Details of Cases 101
4.12.1.1 Russia – Ukraine (from February 2022) 101
4.12.1.2 Israel-Hamas (from October 7, 2023) 103
4.12.2 Case Conclusions 104
4.12.3 Questions for Discussion and Research 105
4.13 Case Study: The Attack on the Metcalf Electricity Substation 105
4.13.1 Background: Metcalf and the Role of Transformers in the Energy Grid 106
4.13.2 Attack on Metcalf 107
XII Contents

4.13.3 Assessment of the Attack 108

4.13.4 Discussion 110

5 Operational Energy Policy, Strategy, and Institutions 111

5.1 Congressional Interest 111
5.2 DOD Interest 111
5.3 National Defense Authorization Legislation 113
5.4 National Security, Defense, and OE Strategies 113
5.5 OE Institutions 115
5.6 Requirements of the Different Services 116
5.7 US DOD Institutions 117
5.7.1 US Transportation Command and the Defense Logistics Agency 117
5.8 For Study 118
5.9 Topics for Discussion and Research 118
5.10 Case Study: The Colonial Pipeline Cyberattack 118
5.10.1 Background 118
5.10.2 The Colonial Pipeline 119
5.10.3 Importance to US National Security 119
5.10.4 Pipeline Performance 120
5.10.5 IT Performance 121
5.10.6 Anatomy of the Attack: Events of May 7, 2021, and After 122
5.10.6.1 Pipeline Recovery Actions 123
5.10.6.2 What Was Targeted and How? 124
5.10.6.3 The Perpetrators 124
5.10.7 Impact and Recovery 125
5.10.7.1 Fuel Hoarding 125
5.10.8 US Federal and State Government Response 126
5.10.8.1 Balance between Commercial and Government Oversight 127
5.10.9 Topics for Discussion and Research 128

6 Operational Energy Vulnerability and Resilience 129

Daniel A. Eisenberg and David L. Alderson
6.1 Background on Vulnerability and Resilience in OE Systems 129
6.2 Vulnerability Analysis for OE Systems 131
6.3 Reliability, Risk, and Adversarial Analysis 134
6.3.1 The Basics 134
6.3.2 The Details 136
6.3.2.1 Reliability Analysis 136
6.3.2.2 Risk Analysis 137
6.3.2.3 Adversarial Analysis 138
6.3.3 Example for How Reliability, Risk, and Adversarial Analyses Produce Different
Results 140
6.4 Resilience Strategies for OE Systems 141
 Contents XIII

6.5 Resilience Outcomes: What Should Systems Do (Rather than Fail) 143
6.6 A Final Thought: Efficiency vs Resilience 145
6.7 Topics for Discussion and Research 146
6.8 Case Study: The US Virgin Islands – the Hurricanes of 2017 146
6.8.1 Vulnerability Analysis of the USVI Energy System 148
6.8.2 Case Conclusions 150
6.8.3 Topics for Discussion and Research 151

7 Education and Training 152

7.1 The Importance of OE Education to the Military Mission 152
7.2 Current Gap in OE Education 153
7.3 Training Requirements and Structure 154
7.3.1 A Multi-Tiered Solution 154
7.3.1.1 Tier 1: Foundational Instruction 155
OE Introduction, Level I 155
7.3.1.2 Tier 2: Advanced OE Instruction 155
OE Introduction, Level II 155
7.3.1.3 Tier 3: Future or Specialized Instruction 156
7.3.2 Potential Additional Curriculum Topics 156
7.3.2.1 Decision Support Tools 156
7.3.2.2 Enhanced or Future OE Instruction 156
7.3.3 Critical Infrastructure Operators and Resilience Specialist Training 157
7.3.4 Climate and Weather Impact on OE 157
7.4 An OE Education and Training Implementation Plan 157
7.5 Education Tools: Wargames, Tabletop Exercises, Case Studies, Best Practices and
Enhancing Cooperation with Allies and Partners 158
7.5.1 Wargames 158
7.5.2 Exercises 158
7.5.3 Case Studies 159
7.5.4 Best Practices Analysis 159
7.6 OE Education Cooperation with Allies and Partners 159
7.7 Conclusions 160
7.8 For Discussion in the Classroom and Study 160

8 Operational Energy Challenges of the Armed Service Branches 161

8.1 OE Challenges for Today’s Military 161
8.1.1 The Costs of Energy 162
8.2 What Changed? 164
8.2.1 Appearance of Digital Devices on the Battlefield 165
8.3 Military Approach to Energy Use 170
8.4 Service-Specific OE Challenges 171
8.4.1 The US Air Force 171
The Air Force’s Approach to Reducing Energy Consumption 172
XIV Contents

8.4.2 The US Naval Services 175

8.4.3 The US Army 179
8.5 Conclusion 181
8.6 Case Study: Closure of the Red Hill Fuel Storage Facility at Pearl
Harbor 182
8.6.1 Questions for Discussion 187

9 Looking Ahead: Operational Energy Adoption of Technology 188

Appendix 191
A.1 OE Ontologies 191
A.2 Operational Energy Ontology 191
A.2.1 Energy Sub-Systems 192
Sources 192
Controls and Power Management 193
Power Generation / Conversion 193
Distribution 194
Storage 195
A.2.2 Enablers 195
Tools and Analytics 195
Training and Education 195
A.2.3 Systems 196
Weapons Systems 196
Platforms and Propulsion 196
Auxiliary Systems 196
A.2.4 Operations 196
Weapon Capability 196
Platform Capability 197
Mission 197
Operational Effect 197

Index 199
1 Introduction
Energy is an enabler of – and a constraint on – military power. Operational Energy pro-
vides military officers with knowledge and skills to plan effectively for the operational
energy needs of their forces. The US Department of Defense (DOD) defines operational
energy (OE) as the “energy required for training, moving, and sustaining military
forces and weapons platforms for military operations.”¹ It includes energy used by
ships, aircraft, combat vehicles, and power generators that serve military operations.

Operational Energy is a textbook for use primarily in DOD courses in US military uni-
versities, colleges, and training programs; US service academies; and US senior service
academies. Operational Energy also provides researchers on US and global energy se-
curity a resource to understand military energy needs. Scholars of geopolitics can learn
from the book about a critical source of military power, as well as a potential national
security vulnerability and source of strength of states.

Energy has always played a role in battlefield outcomes. Over the twentieth and early
twenty-first centuries the importance of energy in warfighting has grown. Today, ener-
gy is a critical pillar of national defense and a major factor in military power. In mod-
ern warfare, attaining energy superiority over one’s adversaries is a critical condition
for success on the battlefield. Correct OE policies optimize missions and affect the stra-
tegic outcome of conflicts.

OE planning goes far beyond logistics. OE is emerging as an element of US military

strategy. OE strategy affects US military effectiveness and lethality and that of oppo-
nents. OE planning is an integral part of all combat and regular operations. OE strategy
requires identifying and planning for the challenges of US military global power pro-
jection and the risks posed to the energy supply chain in support of America’s global
missions.² OE strategy requires identifying and planning ways to foil opponents’ access
to energy supplies.

Energy is both a major constraint and at the same time one of the most important en-
ablers of military missions. As stated in the 2016 Department of Defense Operational En-
ergy Strategy: “Energy is a fundamental enabler of military capability, and the ability of
the United States to project and sustain the power necessary for defense depends on
the assured delivery of this energy. It must be available at home and abroad, over

1 Office of the Law Revision Counsel, “United States Code: 10 US Code § 2924 (4): Operational Energy”
(https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title10-section2924&num=0&edition=pre
lim).
2 Department of Defense, 2016 Operational Energy Strategy, December 3, 2015, page 7 (https://www.acq.
osd.mil/eie/Downloads/OE/2016%20OE%20Strategy_WEBd.pdf).

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110798104-003
2 1 Introduction

great distances, through adverse weather, and across air, land, and sea, often against
determined adversaries.”³

“Operational energy in the battlespace is about improving combat effectiveness. It’s about increasing
our forces’ endurance, being more lethal, and reducing the number of men and women risking their
lives moving fuel.”

– Gen. John Allen, USMC, Commander, US Forces in Afghanistan, in a December 2011 policy memoran-
dum

Energy supply capacities determine the time, length, and physical distance of military
operations. Energy is the main limit on military operational reach. More efficient use
of energy means the capacity for longer military operations and at farther distances.
Lower fuel needs mean less risk from operations to supply the fuel and decrease
the ability of US adversaries to disrupt supplies and thus operations.

OE can also be a vulnerability, intentionally disrupted by adversaries, and a source of

causalities. OE needs are an integral input into both tactical and strategic planning
processes and the overall risk identification process. In parallel, America’s adversaries
also have OE vulnerabilities that the US military can exploit.

With the increase in hybrid warfare, the threat of potential disruption of US domestic
energy supplies and targeting of domestic US energy infrastructure has emerged. The
2023 US Department of Defense Operational Energy Strategy recognizes this threat and
states: “The dual realities of a homeland that is no longer a sanctuary and increasingly
contested logistics ensure that access to energy will only grow more challenging over
time.”⁴

OE consumes approximately 85 percent of the US military’s overall energy consump-

tion, with the remainder spent on supporting and running fixed installations. Under
the DOD, the Air Force is the largest consumer of OE. The Air Force consumes close
to half the fuel used by DOD, while the US Navy consumes approximately a third of
the fuel.

General advances in how energy is produced and consumed translate into changes in
warfighting. Each historical energy transition profoundly changed the battlefield. And
vice versa, developments in the battlefield have triggered energy transitions or signifi-
cant changes in how the civilian sector produces and consumes energy.

3 Department of Defense, 2016 Operational Energy Strategy, December 3, 2015, page 3 (https://www.acq.
osd.mil/eie/Downloads/OE/2016%20OE%20Strategy_WEBd.pdf).
4 Department of Defense, 2023 Operational Energy Strategy, May 2023, page 1 (https://www.acq.osd.mil/
eie/Downloads/OE/2023%20Operational%20Energy%20Strategy.pdf).
 1.1 Definition of Operational Energy 3

Decisions on weapons and platform design lock the military into needs for certain
types of fuel and quantities for several decades. For instance, a fighter plane design
based on access to energy-dense petroleum derived liquid fuels cannot likely be adapt-
ed to electricity as a fuel source. Thus, the design decisions should take into consider-
ation the desired future fuel needs of the US military and vice-versa. In addition, the
military’s decisions on main fuel sources impact weapon and platform design options,
and thus need to take into consideration this impact.

“Coalition forces possess the ability to project power around the globe for extended periods, often times
in the harshest environments. Inherent to this capability is our need for fuel, which is greater than at any
time in history. This ‘operational energy’ is the lifeblood of our warfighting capabilities.”

– Gen. David Petraeus, in a 2011 Memorandum to the Force

1.1 Definition of Operational Energy

Operational energy (OE) is:

The energy required for training, moving, and sustaining military forces and weapons platforms for mili-
tary operations. The term includes energy used by forward bases, mobile forces, tactical power systems,
communications, cyber systems, and energy weapons platforms.⁵

OE includes all the energy used in military operations, in direct support of military op-
erations, and in training that supports unit readiness for military operations, and in-
cludes the energy used at non-enduring locations (contingency bases).

OE differs from installation energy, which is “the energy used to power installations
and enduring locations, as well as the non-tactical fleet vehicles used at those loca-
tions.”⁶ Installation energy is referred to at times as facility energy. However, there
is some overlap as energy consumed at installations that directly support military op-
erations falls under the definition of OE.

As operational missions are increasingly performed from US bases and installations,

the distinction between operational and installation energy is becoming less clear.
This distinction is further eroded as warfare becomes more digital.

5 Office of the Law Revision Counsel, “United States Code: 10 US Code § 2924 (4): Operational Energy”
(https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title10-section2924&num=0&edition=pre
lim).
6 Department of Defense, 2016 Operational Energy Strategy, December 3, 2015, page 4 (https://www.acq.
osd.mil/eie/Downloads/OE/2016%20OE%20Strategy_WEBd.pdf).
4 1 Introduction

US Congressional legislation requires that “the Secretary of Defense shall ensure the
types, availability, and use of operational energy promote the readiness of the
armed forces for their military missions in contested logistics environments.” The leg-
islation states that “The Secretary of Defense shall
(1) require the Secretaries concerned and the commanders of the combatant com-
mands to assess the energy supportability in contested logistics environments of
systems, capabilities, and plans;
(2) authorize the use of energy security, cost of backup power, supportability in con-
tested logistics environments, and energy resilience as factors in the cost-benefit
analysis for procurement of operational equipment; and
(3) in selecting equipment that will use operational energy, give favorable considera-
tion to the acquisition of equipment that enhances energy security, energy resil-
ience, energy conservation, and reduces logistical vulnerabilities in contested logis-
tics environments.”⁷

1.1.1 OE Superiority

Success in the OE domain occurs when (1) there is efficient, effective, and sustained
production of combat power when and where it is required by friendly forces, while
(2) the enemy combat power production is disrupted, degraded, or destroyed. OE supe-
riority is the ability to fully exploit one’s own energy capabilities while preventing the
adversary from doing the same.⁸

OE superiority is the ability to fully exploit one’s own energy capabilities while preventing the adversary
from doing the same.

1.2 OE Needs Are Increasing and Will Increase Further

War and conflict have become more energy intensive over the years. OE needs are in-
creasing in both quantity and the need to provide more specific fuels and energy sour-
ces, due to the increased sophistication and range of diversity of weapons systems.
Greater use of electronics in the battlefield also entails increased energy demand for
cooling and heating equipment. All digital functions and modern communications

7 Office of the Law Revision Counsel, “United States Code: 10 US Code § 2926 section 2911(a) Operational
Energy” (https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?req=granuleid:USC-prelim-title10-section2926&num=0&edi
tion=prelim).
8 RuthAnne Darling and Paul Mason Carpenter, “Energy: An Essential Element for Winning Future
Wars – Operational Energy Part 1,” Surge, Summer 2020, Naval Postgraduate School (https://nps.edu/
web/eag/future-wars).
 1.2 OE Needs Are Increasing and Will Increase Further 5

are dependent on energy supplies. Energy is now used directly as a weapon as well on
the modern battlefield.

“Every major system that the U.S. is developing, requires higher fuel demands. Not only more fuel, but
different types of fuel.”

– Eric Turner, Lt. Col USAF retired

The nature of the modern battlefield increases OE needs and vulnerabilities. For in-
stance, the twenty-first-century battlespace requires that the US and allied forces
place a larger number of forward-deployed assets. Energy needs have grown over
time: during World War II, the average fuel demand per soldier was a gallon a day.
In contrast, Operations Iraqi Freedom and Enduring Freedom required 15 – 20 gallons
a day per soldier. In addition, in recent decades, new weapons systems are generally
more energy intensive than the systems which they replace. For instance, the F-35,
which replaces the F/A-18s, and the Littoral Combat Ship (LCS), which replaces legacy
frigates in the US Navy, both use substantially more energy than their predecessors.

OE needs are increasing: the newer generation of weapons demands higher volumes of
energy; the US military is operating over larger operating areas; with flat or declining
fuel logistics capacity⁹ and amidst increasing threats to infrastructure. Due to the ever-
increasing geographic spread of US military missions, and the likelihood of multiple
conflicts taking place in different geographies, OE needs are anticipated to increase.
American adversaries target and will continue to target these longer-stretched energy
supply lines.

OE needs themselves also create increased demands for new military ships and other
vehicles. Ships and other vehicles must not only power themselves, but serve as a
power station for the weapons systems they carry and potentially for troops and
other vehicles in their vicinity. Engineers now design this power provision function
into ships and other vehicles, creating new design demands.

The US military continually strives to increase energy efficiency. However, when the
military becomes more energy efficient, it rarely reduces the volumes of energy it con-
sumes, but rather translates the efficiency gained into longer and more distant mis-
sions and increased energy use in weapons systems.

Since the conclusion of World War II, the US has not fought in a conflict where stra-
tegic logistical supply lines were seriously threatened or disrupted by an adversary.

9 Department of Defense, 2016 Operational Energy Strategy, December 3, 2015, page 9 (https://www.acq.
osd.mil/eie/Downloads/OE/2016%20OE%20Strategy_WEBd.pdf).
6 1 Introduction

Figure 1.1: Historic Fuel Consumption. Source: DESC Rand Corporation, AMSAA, Deloitte Analysis.

This may have resulted in creating several generations of military leaders and troops
who have become complacent in their views and practices regarding access to OE.

“Operational energy requires not only meeting the energy needs of our forces, but complicating the en-
emy’s access to energy, and creating problems for the enemy.

For example, destroying the power grid at your enemy’s base is the best way to keep aircraft from lifting
off the ground from that base. Least risky and usually most cost efficient.

Every conflict from World War Two until now demonstrates that we’re going to a posture of more dis-
tributed forces. This allows carrying out missions at higher speeds and at greater ranges. However, this
creates new challenges to fuel the distributed forces. This also means the US military needs to access
energy from commercial networks.

We need to increase the monitoring and measurement of energy use in the military in order to reduce
consumption and raise efficiency.
 1.4 OE versus Civilian Energy Security 7

In order to reduce our energy consumption, we need to measure the energy needs of a weapon system
or platform across its lifecycle, not just during military operations.

Weapon system designers need to also account the energy requirements of their designs.

Hybrid systems and vehicles that incorporate electricity and fuels can enhance the operational energy
performance.”

- Interview with James C. Caley, Director of Operational Energy, Department of the Navy.

1.3 Establishment of OE Planning in the US Military

While militaries throughout history have planned to ensure supplies of their energy
needs (see Chapter 2), up until 2010 the DOD treated OE as a subset of logistics plan-
ning. That year, the DOD established OE strategy and planning as a separate discipline
from logistics planning, with the establishment of the Operational Energy Plans and
Programs directorate within the Office of the Under Secretary of Defense of Acquisi-
tion, Technology & Logistics (see Chapter 5). Congress requires each service to have a
similar office.

The OE strategy of the DOD is codified in the DOD Operational Energy Strategy. The first
Operational Energy Strategy was issued in 2011 and new strategies are required by law
to be issued every five years (see Chapter 5).¹⁰ Despite the importance of OE to war-
fighting, at the time of publication the DOD had not developed an OE doctrine.

1.4 OE versus Civilian Energy Security

OE planning is very different from energy security planning in the civilian sector. The
civilian sector can endure “blackouts” and other energy supply disruptions. Civilian en-
ergy supply disruptions generally result in economic damage. In contrast, the costs for
supply disruptions to the military often result in significant loss of life, failure of mili-
tary operations, the loss of battles, and failure in war. In addition, in contrast to the
civilian sector, OE needs to provide for the peak power needs of the military. While
the civilian sector can tolerate some disruptions during peak power needs, disruptions
to the military are not tolerable since those peak needs are usually critical to the fulfill-
ment of military missions.

OE must provide for the peak power needs of the military. While the civilian sector can tolerate some
disruptions during peak power needs, disruptions to the military are not tolerable since those peak
needs are usually critical to the fulfillment of military missions. Since energy disruption carries such

10 Department of Defense, 2016 Operational Energy Strategy, December 3, 2015 (https://www.acq.osd.mil/

eie/Downloads/OE/2016%20OE%20Strategy_WEBd.pdf).
8 1 Introduction

high costs to militaries, optimal OE planning requires a much larger margin of backup, diversification,
and system redundancy than the civilian sector.

Since energy disruption carries such high costs to militaries, optimal OE planning re-
quires a much larger margin of backup, diversification, and system redundancy than
the civilian sector. The US military also needs highly specialized fuels, and often at
short notice and thus can’t rely on commercial markets alone to supply them. More-
over, unlike the civilian sector, the military also is required to supply energy over
long distances – essentially anywhere on the globe, at short notice, all the time.

1.5 Energy as a Weapon in the Emerging Battlefield

Another reason OE needs are increasing is that the emerging battlefield involves great-
er use of directed energy weapons, such as lasers, particle beam weapons, microwave
arms, and railguns and electronic warfare capabilities. In the coming years, it is likely
that directed energy weapons will play a major role in the battlespace.¹¹

With directed energy, electronic warfare, and the future use of new tools like power
beaming, forces will need to adapt their approach to energy planning. The energy
used for powering energy weapons is becoming the “bullets.” When you get low on en-
ergy, you run out of bullets. Optimizing energy use will become analogous to the con-
servation of ammunition for the future warfighter.

1.6 OE: Long-Term and Short-Term

OE planning involves long-term and short-term components, which generally occur at

different command levels. Senior commanders need to plan for the acquisition and de-
velopment of fuel sources that increase US military power and to foil enemy access to
energy. At the same time, operational commanders need to plan for short-term OE
needs that maximize performance in a specific operation and/or theater, while denying
fuel supplies to enemy forces.

1.7 OE as a Vulnerability

In post-World War II warfighting, the United States military rarely encountered serious
challenges to its energy supply lines. However, this likely has changed. The large geo-

11 Mason Carpenter, Paul Sullivan, and Dan Nussbaum, “Operational Energy: Essential Knowledge for
Military Officers” (https://nps.edu/web/eag/operational-energy-essential-knowledge-for-military-officers).
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
"Hallo, Lennon!" said Murdock; "why, you are dressed in silk, man,
and have a cap to match; I heard nothing of that. I could not afford
silk, and our sleeves are plain calico."

"So are ours, and I could afford silk still less than you could; but my
men presented me with these sleeves and this cap, and I shall wear
them."

"Of course, of course, Lennon. But I cannot say much for the color;
blue would have looked much better; and, perhaps, have been more
appropriate."

"I left that for the girls to wear in their bonnets," replied Lennon,
sarcastically. He knew that Winny Cavana's holiday bonnet was
trimmed with blue, and thought it not unlikely that Murdock knew it
also.

They then shook hands, but it was more formal than cordial; and
Murdock took a half-crown from his pocket. He was determined to
be down on Emon-a-knock's poverty, for a penny would have done
as well; and he said, "Shall I call, or will you?"

"The challenger generally 'skies,' and the other calls," he replied.

"Here then!" said Murdock, standing out into a clear spot, and
curling the half-crown into the air, eighteen or twenty feet above
their heads.

"Head," cried Lennon; and head it was.

It was the usual method on such occasions for the leader who won
the toss to throw the ball with all his force as high into the air as
possible, and, as a matter of course, as far toward his opponent's
goal as he could. The height into the air was as a token to his
friends to cheer, and the direction toward his opponent's goal was
considered the great advantage of having won the toss.
This was, however, the first occasion in the annals of hurling where
this latter point had been questioned. Emon-a-knock and Phil
M'Dermott were both experienced hurlers; and previous to their
having taken the high bank in such style, from the field outside the
common, they had stepped aside from their men, and discussed the
matter thus:

"Phil, I hope we'll win the toss," said Emon.

"That we may, I pray. You'll put the ball a trifle on its way if we do,
Emon."

{699}

"No, Phil, that is the very point I want to settle with you. I have
always remarked that when the winner of the toss throws the ball
toward the other goal, it is always met by some good man who is on
the watch for it; and as none of the opposite party are allowed into
their ground until 'the game is on,' he has it all to himself, and
generally deals it such a swipe as puts it half-way back over the
others' heads. Now my plan is this. If I win 'the toss,' I'll throw the
ball more toward our own goal than toward theirs. Let you be there,
Phil, to meet it; and I have little fear that the first puck you give it
will send it double as far into our opponent's ground as I could
throw it with my hand. Beside, the moment the ball is up, our men
can advance all over the ground, and another good man of ours may
help it on. What say you, Phil?"

"Well, Emon, there's a grate dale of raison in what you say, now that
I think of it; but I never seen it done that way afore."

It had been thus settled between these two best men of Shanvilla;
and Emon, having won the toss, cast his eye over his shoulder and
caught a side glance of Phil M'Dermott in position, with his hurl
poised for action.
Contrary to all experience and all expectation, Emon-a-knock,
instead of casting the ball from him, toward the other goal, threw it
as high as possible, but unmistakably inclining toward his own. Here
there was a murmur of disappointed surprise from Shanvilla on the
hill. But it was soon explained. Phil M'Dermott had it all his own way
for the first puck, which was considered a great object. Never had
such an expedient (nunc dodge) to secure it been thought of
before. M'Dermott had full room to deal with it. There was no one
near him but his own men, who stood exulting at what they knew
was about to come. M'Dermott with the under side of his hurl rolled
the ball toward him, and curling it up into the air about a foot above
his head, met it as it came down with a puck that was heard all over
the hills, and drove it three distances beyond where Emon could
have thrown it from his hand. The object of the backward cast by
the leader had now been explained to the satisfaction of Shanvilla,
whose cheers of approbation loudly succeeded to their previous
murmurs of surprise.

"Be gorra, they're a knowing pair," said one of the spectators on the
hill.

But I cannot attend to the game, which is now well "on,"' and tell
you what each party said during the struggle.

Of course the ball was met by Rathcash, and put back; but every
man was now at work as best he might, where and when he could,
but not altogether from under a certain sort of discipline and eye to
their leaders. Now some fortunate young fellow got an open at the
ball, and gave it a puck which sent it spinning through the crowd
until stopped by the other party. Then a close struggle and clashing
of hurls, as if life and death depended on the result. Now, again,
some fellow gets an open swipe at it, and puck it goes over their
heads, while a rush of both parties takes place toward the probable
spot it must arrive at; then another crowded struggle, and ultimately
another puck, and it is seen like a cannon-ball on the strand at
Sandymount. Another rush, another close struggle and clashing of
hurls, and puck, puck; now at the jaws of this goal, now at the jaws
of that, while the cheers and counter-cheers re-echo through the
surrounding hills.

It is needless to say that Tom Murdock and Emon-a-knock were

conspicuous in all these vicissitudes of the game. No man took the
ball from either of them if he was likely to get a puck at it in time;
but no risk of a counter-puck would be run if an opponent was at
hand to give it. This was the use of the distinguishing colors, and
right curious it was to see the green and red sleeves twisting
through each other and rushing in groups to one spot.

{700}

After all, Emon's color "did not look so bad;" and Shanvilla held their
own so gallantly as the game went on, that betting—for it was a sort
of Derby-day with the parish gamblers—which was six, and even
seven, to four on Rathcash at the commencement, was now even for
choice. Ay, there is one red-haired fellow, with a small eye and a big
one, who shoves three thimbles upon a board at races, has offered
five fippenny-bits to four upon Shanvilla; and well he may, for Emon
and his men had got the ball amongst them, and Emon's orders
were to keep it close—not to puck it at all, now that they had it, but
to tip it along and keep round it in a body. This was quite fair, and
would have been adopted by the other party had they got the
chance.

They were thus advancing steadily but slowly. The Rathcash men
were on the outside, but found it difficult, if not impossible, to enter
the solid body of Shanvilla men, who were advancing with the ball in
the middle of them toward Rathcash goal.

"To the front, to the front, boys, or the game is lost!" roared Tom
Murdock, who was himself then watching for an open to get in at
the ball.
Forthwith there was a body of the green-sleeves right before
Shanvilla, who came on with their ball, tip by tip, undaunted.

Still Rathcash was on the outside, and could not put a hurl on the
ball. It was a piece of generalship upon the part of the Shanvilla
leader not often before thought of, and likely to be crowned with
success. The cheers from Shanvilla on the hills were now deafening
—the final struggle was evidently at hand. Rathcash on the hills was
silent, except a few murmurs of apprehension.

"This will never do, boys!" said Tom Murdock, rushing into the center
of Shanvilla and endeavoring to hook the ball from amongst them;
but they were too solid for that, although he had now made his way
within a hurl's length of Emon.

Emon called to his men to stoop in front that he might see the goal
and judge his distance.

"A few yards further, boys," he cried, "and then open out for me to
swipe: I will not miss either the ball or the goal."

"Steady, Emon, steady a bit!" said Phil M'Dermott; "don't you see
who is, I may say, alongside of you? Keep it close another bit."

"In with you, men! what are you about?" roared Tom Murdock; and
half a score of the green-sleeves rushed in amongst the red. Here
the clashing of hurls was at its height, and the shouts from both
sides on the hill were tremendous. Shanvilla kept and defended their
ball in spite of every attempt of Rathcash to pick it from amongst
them; but nothing like violence was thought of by either side.

Shanvilla seemed assured of victory, and such of them as were on

the outside, and could not get a tip at the ball, kept brandishing
their hurls in the air, roaring at the top of their voices, "Good boys,
Shanvilla, good boys!" "Through with it—through with it!" "Good
boys!"
Emon looked out. Though he did not see the stones, he saw the
goal-masters—one red, the other green—ready expecting the final
puck, and he knew the spot.

"Give me room now, Phil," he whispered, and his men drew back.

Emon curled the ball into the air about the height of his head, and
struck it sure and home. As if from a cannon's mouth it went over
the heads of Rathcash, Shanvilla, and all, and sped right through the
center of the stones—hop—hop—hop—until it was finally lost sight
of in some rushes. But another blow had been struck at the same
moment, and Emon-a-knock lay senseless on the ground, his face
and neck, shirt and sleeves, all the same color, and that color was—
blood.

Tom Murdock's hurl had been poised ready to strike the all the
moment Lennon had curled it into the air. Upon this one blow the
whole {701} game depended. Emon was rather sideways to Tom,
who was on his left. Both their blows were aimed almost
simultaneously at the ball, but Tom's being a second or two late, had
no ball to hit; and not being able to restrain the impetus of the blow,
his hurl passed on and took Emon's head above the top of the left
ear, raising a scalp of flesh to the skull-bone, about three inches in
length, and more than half that breadth.

The cheers of Shanvilla were speedily quashed, and there was a

rush of the red-sleeves round their leader. Phil M'Dermott had taken
him in his arms, and replaced the loose piece of flesh upon Emon's
skull in the most artistic manner, and bound it down with a
handkerchief tied under the chin. He could see that no injury had
been done to the bone. It was a mere sloping stroke, which had
lifted the piece of flesh clean from the skull. But poor Emon still lay
insensible, his whole face, neck, and breast covered with blood.

There was some growling amongst the Shanvilla boys, and those
from the hill ran down with their sticks to join their comrades with
their hurls; while the Rathcash men closed into a compact body,
beckoning to their friends on the hill, who also ran down to defend
them in case of need.

This was indeed a critical moment, and one that, if not properly
managed, might have led to bloodshed of a more extended kind. But
Tom Murdock was equal to the occasion. He gave his hurl to one of
his men the moment he had struck the blow, and went forward.

"Good heaven, boys, I hope he is not much hurt!" he exclaimed.

"Rathcash should lose a hundred games before Shanvilla should be
hurt."

As he spoke he perceived a scowl of doubt and rising anger in the

faces of many of the Shanvilla men, some of whom ground their
teeth, and grasped their hurls tighter in their hands. Tom did not
lose his presence of mind at even this, although he almost feared
the result. He took Emon by the hand and bid him speak to him. Phil
M'Dermott had ordered his men to keep back the crowd to give the
sufferer air. Poor Emon's own remedy in another cause had been
resorted to. Phil had rubbed his lips and gums with whiskey—on this
occasion it was near at hand—and poured a few thimblefuls down
his throat. He soon opened his eyes, and looked round him.

"Thank God!" cried Tom Murdock. "Are you much hurt, Lennon?"

The very return to life had already quashed any cordiality toward
Emon in Tom's heart.

"Not much, I hope, Tom. I was stunned; that was all. But what
about the game? I thought my ear caught the cheers of victory as I
fell."

"So they did, Emon," said M'Dermott; "but stop talking, I tell you.
The game is ours, and it was you who won it with that last puck."
"Ay, and it was that last puck that nearly lost him his life," continued
Tom, knowingly enough. "We both struck at the ball nearly at the
same moment; he took it first, and my hurl had nothing to hit until it
met the top of his head. I protest before heaven, Lennon, it was
entirely accidental."

"I have not accused you of it's being anything else, Murdock; don't
seem to doubt yourself," said Emon in a very low weak voice. But it
was evident he was "coming-to."

Still the Shanvilla men were grumbling and whispering. One of them,
a big black-haired fellow named Ned Murrican, burst out at last, and
brandishing his hurl over his head, cried out:

"Arrah, now, what are we about; boys? Are we going to see our best
man murdered before our eyes, an' be satisfied wid a piper an' a
dance? I say we must have blood for blood!"

"An' why not?" said another. "It was no accident; I'm sure of that."

"What baldherdash!" cried a {702} third; "didn't I see him aim the
blow?" And the whole of Shanvilla flourished their hurls and their
sticks in the air, clashing them together with a terrific noise of an
onslaught.

Tom Murdock's cheeks blanched. He feared that he had opened a

floodgate which he could not stop, and that if there had not been,
there would soon be, murder. His men stood firm in a close body,
and not a word was heard to pass amongst them.

"Don't strike a blow, for the life of you, boys!" he cried, at the same
time he took back his hurl from the man to whom he had given it to
hold, who handed it to him, saying, "Here, Tom, you'll be apt to
want this."

The Shanvilla men saw him take the hurl, and thought it an
acceptance of a challenge to fight. They now began to jump off the
ground, crying, "Whoop, whoop!" a sure sign of prompt action in an
Irish row.

At this still more critical moment, Father Farrell, the parish priest of
Shanvilla, who had been sent for in all haste "for the man who was
killed," was seen cantering across the common toward the crowd;
and more fortunately still he was accompanied by Father Roche, the
parish-priest of Rathcash. They were both known at a glance;
Shanvilla on his "strawberry cob," and Rathcash on his "tight little
black mare."

It is needless to say that the approach of these two good men

calmed to all appearance, if not in reality, the exhibition of angry
feeling amongst the two parties.

"Here, your reverence," said one of the Shanvilla men to Father

Farrell,—"here's where the man that was hurt is lying; poor Emon-a-
knock, your reverence."

Father Farrell turned for a moment and whispered to his companion,

"I'll see about the hurt man, and do you try and keep the boys quiet.
I can see that Shanvilla is ready for a fight. Tell them that I'll be with
them in a very few minutes, if the man is not badly hurt. If he is, my
friend, I'm afraid we shall have a hard task to keep Shanvilla quiet.
Could you not send your men home at once?"

"I'll do what I can; but you can do more with your own men than I
can. Rathcash will not strike a blow, I know, until the very last
moment."

They then separated, Father Farrell dismounting and going over to

where Emon-a-knock still lay in M'Dermott's arms; and Father Roche
up toward the Rathcash men.

"Boys," said he, addressing them, "this is a sad ending to the day's
sport; but, thank God, from what I hear, the man is not much hurt.
Be steady, at all events. Indeed, you had better go home at once,
every man of you. Won't you take your priest's advice?"

"An' why not, your reverence? to be sure we will, if it comes to that;

but, plaise God, it won't. At worst it was only an accident, an' we're
tould it won't signify. We'll stan' our ground another while, your
reverence, until we hear how the boy is. Sure, there's two barrels of
beer an' a dance to the fore, by-an'-by."

"Well, lads, be very steady, and keep yourselves quiet. I'll visit the
first man of you that strikes a blow with condign—"

"We'll strike no blow, your reverence, if we bant struck first. Let

Father Farrell look to that."

"And so he will, you may depend upon it," said Father Roche.

The Shanvilla men had great confidence in Father Farrell in every

respect, and there was not a man in the parish who would not
almost die at his bidding from pure love of the man, apart from his
religious influence. They knew him to be a good physician in a
literal, as well as a moral, point of view; and he had been proving
himself the good Samaritan for the last seventeen years to every
one in the parish, whether they fell among thieves or not. He had
commenced life as a medical student, but had (prudently, perhaps)
preferred the Church. {703} In memory, however, of his early
predilections, he kept a sort of little private dispensary behind his
kitchen; and so numerous were the cures which nature had effected
under his mild advice and harmless prescriptions, that he had
established a reputation for infallibility almost equal to that
subsequently attained by Holloway or Morrison. Never, however, was
his medical knowledge of more use as well as value than on the
present occasion.

Shanvilla grounded their weapons at his approach, and waited for

his report. Father Farrell of course first felt the young man's pulse.
He was not pedantic or affected enough to hold his watch in his
other hand while he did so; but, like all good physicians, he held his
tongue. He then untied the handkerchief, and gently examined the
wound so far as possible without disturbing the work which Phil
M'Dermott had so promptly and judiciously performed. His last test
of the state of his patient was his voice; and upon this, in his own
mind, he laid no inconsiderable stress. In reply to his questions as to
whether he felt sick or giddy, Emon replied, much more stoutly than
was expected, that he felt neither the one nor the other. Father
Farrell was now fully satisfied that there was nothing seriously wrong
with him, and that giving him the rites of the Church, or even
remaining longer with him then, might have an unfavorable effect
upon the already excited minds of the Shanvilla men. He therefore
said, smiling, "Thank God, Emon, you want no further doctoring just
now; and I'll leave you for a few minutes while I tell Shanvilla that
nothing serious has befallen you."

He then left him, and hastened over toward his parishoners, who
eagerly met him half-way as he approached.

"Well, your reverence?" "Well, your reverence?" ran through the

foremost of them.

"It is well, and very well, boys," he replied; "I bless God it is nothing
but a scalp wound, which will not signify. Put by your hurls, and go
and ask the Rathcash girls to dance."

"Three cheers for Father Farrell!" shouted Ned Murrican of the black
curly head. They were given heartily, and peace was restored.

Father Farrell then remounted his strawberry cob, and rode over
toward where Father Roche was with the Rathcash men. They were,
"in a manner," as anxious to hear his opinion of Emon-a-knock as his
own men had been. They knew nothing, or, if they did, they cared
nothing, for any private cause of ill-will on their leader's part toward
Emon-a-knock. They were not about to espouse his quarrel, if he
had one; and, as they had said, they would not have struck a blow
unless in self-defence.

Father Farrell now assured them there was nothing of any

consequence "upon" Emon; it was a mere tip of the flesh, and would
be quite well in a few days. "But, Tom a-wochal," he added,
laughing, "you don't often aim at a crow and hit a pigeon."

"I was awkward and unfortunate enough to do so this time, Father

Farrell," he replied. And he then entered into a full, and apparently a
candid, detail of how it had happened.

Father Farrell listened with much attention, bowing at him now and
then, like the foreman of a jury to a judge's charge, to show that he
understood him. When he had ended. Father Farrell placed his hand
upon his shoulder, and, bending down toward him, whispered in his
ear, "Oh, Tom Murdock, but you are the fortunate man this day! for
if the blow had been one inch and a half lower, all the priests and
doctors in Connaught would not save you from being tried for
manslaughter."

"Or murder," whispered Tom's heart to himself.

By this time Emon-a-knock, with M'Dermott's help, had risen to his

feet; and leaning on him and big Ned Murrican, crept feebly along
toward the boreen which formed the entrance to the common.

{704}

Father Farrell, perceiving the move, rode after him, and said, as he
passed, that he would trot on and send for a horse and cart to fetch
him home, as he would not allow him to walk any further than the
end of the lane. Indeed, it was not his intention to do so; for he was
still scarcely able to stand, and that not without help.

Before he and his assistants, however, had reached the end of the
lane, Father Farrell came entering back, saying, "All right, my good
lads; there is a jennet and cart coming up the lane for him."

Emon cocked his ear at the word jennet; he knew who owned the
only one for miles around. And there indeed it was; and the sight of
it went well-nigh to cure Emon, better than any doctoring he could
get.

TO BE CONTINUED. Page 816

 From The Month.

INQUIETUS.

We put him in a golden cage

With crystal troughs; but still he pined
For tracts of royal foliage.
And broad blue skies and merry wind.

We gave him water cool and dear;

All round his golden wires we twined
Fresh leaves and blossoms bright, to cheer
His restless heart: but still he pined.

We whistled and we chirped; but he

Trilled never more his liquid falls,
But ever yearned for liberty,
And dashed against his golden walls.

Again, again, in wild despair,

He strove to burst his bars aside;
At last, beneath his pinion fair,
He hid his drooping head and died!

And so against the golden bars—

Life's golden bars—our poor souls smite.
Pining for tracts beyond the stars.
Freedom and beauty, truth and light

Those bars a Father's hands adorn

With leaves and flowers—earth's loveliest things—
 With crystal draughts; but still we mourn
With thirsting for the "living springs."

Nor crystal draughts, nor leaves and flowers,

The exiled heart can satisfy:
We shake the bars; and some few hours
We droop and pine, and then we die,

We die! But, oh, the prison-bars

Are shatter'd then: then far away,
We pass beyond the sky, the stars—
Beyond the change of night and day.

{705}
 From Chambers's Journal.

A KINGDOM WITHOUT A KING.

Lichtenstein is the name of the smallest principality in the great

German "Vaterland," and this has hitherto been the most remarkable
thing that could be said about it, for in the great political world it has
as yet played no part. It appears, however, that its time has now
arrived; and for the benefit of those who might receive this bit of
intelligence with a sceptical smile, I subjoin a few words of
explanation.

In order fully to appreciate this important question, it will be

necessary to commence by going back into the past—if not so far as
to the Flood, at least to some part of the twelfth century.

It will not do to believe that the Lichtensteiners are people of vulgar

extraction. True, their ancestors hardly anticipated that the house of
Lichtenstein would ever be reckoned among the reigning families of
Europe; but this did not affect the nobleness of their quarterings.
The founder of the house was a lively and enterprising Lombard, and
related to the Este family. He went to Germany with the object of
making his fortune, and there he married, 1145 A.D., a little princess
of the house of Schwaben. They had not the slightest fraction of a
principality, but they had plenty of children to educate and provide
for. Their fortune was not very large, but, in his quality of Lombard,
the father exercised the lucrative business of an usurer, whenever
the occasion presented itself. The sovereigns of those times were
often in want of money, and our Lombard supplied them with this
article, proper security being forthcoming. When the time of
restitution arrived, it was not always convenient to the debtors to
pay in cash, and the affair was therefore generally settled by means
of small pieces of land, titles, or privileges. The Lichtensteiners soon
became allied to the greatest German families. In the year 1614, the
Emperor Matthias ceded to them, in settlement of their pecuniary
claims, the principality of Troppau, in Schlesien. Ten years later, the
Emperor Ferdinand II. added to their possessions the principality of
Jagendorff. Then they obtained the title of "Prince of the Holy
Roman Empire;" and by this time they had purchased the districts of
Vadutz and Schnellenberg, on the borders of the Rhine, and close to
the Swiss frontier. These possessions form the actual principality of
Lichtenstein, which has the small town of Vadutz for its capital.

The Congress of Vienna—contrary to its principles of mediatization—

resolved, for reasons which we abstain from investigating, to
maintain Lichtenstein as a sovereign and independent state, and
gave it an entire vote in the German Confederation.

In return for these advantages, Lichtenstein had to provide a

contingent of ninety men and one drummer to the federal army. It is
important not to lose sight of these ninety men and one drummer,
for they play a principal part in the impending question. The subjects
of the principality of Lichtenstein, according to the last census,
numbered 7,150; they are clever people, of a peaceable disposition,
but impressed with no particular awe for authorities. They even have
a slight taint of independence, undoubtedly owing to the close
vicinity of Switzerland.

{706}

A year had scarcely elapsed after the remodelling of the map of

Europe by the Congress of Vienna, when the inhabitants of
Lichtenstein addressed themselves to their sovereign, John I., and
declared with rustic frankness that they had no objection to being
ruled by him, since the Congress had decided it so; but that they
found it entirely superfluous to pay any civil list; beside, they were
too few in number to contribute every year ninety men and one
drummer to the federal army. Prince John was an excellent man,
and, moreover, he was immensely rich. He informed his subjects that
he could do very well without any civil list; and as for the federal
contingent, he concluded a convention with the Austrian
government, by which the latter undertook to furnish it together
with its own. With this the loyal subjects declared themselves
satisfied; and everything went on well until the year 1836, when
Prince Aloysius I. ascended the throne. In the meantime, the natives
of Lichtenstein had made various reflections. The conclusions arrived
at were: that a prince, even if paid nothing, entails sundry expenses
on the country where he is reigning; festivals have to be given, as
well as solemn audiences, illuminations, fire-works, etc.

Accordingly, they sent a deputation to their new lord and master,

and made it obvious, to him that he must indemnify the country for
all expenses of the description alluded to. Aloysius I. was as
excellent a monarch as his predecessor; he admitted the claims of
his subjects, and made an agreement with them concerning an
annual indemnity, which he paid with exemplary regularity.

The Lichtensteiners had now attained the object of their wishes;

they led an existence entirely ideal. They occupied a position unique
in Europe, nay, in the whole world; for, instead of paying for
government, they actually were paid for submission to it. It would
now be supposed that nothing in future could disturb the good
understanding existing between prince and people. But alas! that the
old saying should here find its application—namely, that he who has
got yellow hair, wants it also to be curled.

John II. became Prince of Lichtenstein. One fine morning he said to

himself: "Since I have no civil list, nay, since I—contrary to all
established usages—pay a tribute to my subjects, I ought at least to
have full liberty to live according to my tastes. This small capital is a
bore. I have plenty of money; I will set out for Vienna!" No sooner
said than done. John II. built a magnificent palace in the capital of
Austria, and there he lived in a luxurious style. The government of
the principality he intrusted to a minister, with whom he
corresponded. But when were those stupid Lichtensteiners to be
satisfied? They put their heads together and resolved to send a
deputation to their supreme master in Vienna; and one particular
morning, just as the prince had got out of bed, a dozen of the most
distinguished among his subjects made their appearance. After the
customary reverences and ceremonies, the deputation put forth its
request with becoming solemnity, expressing itself somewhat to the
following effect: "We don't pay your serene highness any civil list; on
the contrary, your serene highness pays an annual indemnity to us.
But your serene highness is in possession of a large fortune, and
spends it in a royal manner, by the which formerly your principality
benefited. If, now, your serene highness continues to reside in
Vienna, you inflict a serious loss upon your subjects; and it appears
therefore to us but just that you should in future inhabit at least six
months of the year your own capital." Several demands of a political
nature were appended to this petition. John II. granted their
request, and issued, moreover, a brand-new constitution, with a
parliament of fifteen members, whom he promised to pay out of his
own pocket.

{707}

But what about the ninety men and the drummer? Well, now the
difficulty arises, for they are exactly the cause of the present
dispute.

Austria having long furnished this contingent, sent, some time ago, a
bill of the resulting expenses to the prince. But the prince thought
that, as he had renounced his claims to a civil list, and even paid his
subjects a round sum every year, it could be no very heavy burden
for the said subjects to pay their own federal contingent. This the
Lichtensteiners obstinately refuse to do; the prince, on the other
side, tired of so much trouble, has expressed his intention to
abdicate, and to cede his dominions to Austria. But against this
scheme his people protest most energetically—they would rather
belong to Switzerland. Beside, if Austria annexes Lichtenstein, then
Prussia will regard the transaction with an envious eye. The prince
will neither pay nor govern. Such is the present state of things, of
which nobody can predict the end.
 From The St. James Magazine.

A NOVEL TICKET-OF-LEAVE; OR, MISTAKEN

IDENTITY.

"No two things are alike." Such is the dictum of science. "Nature,"
say the wise men, "resembles the charms of Cleopatra, which
custom cannot stale, so infinite is their variety." Even in so humble a
thing as a flock of sheep there is a personal identity, and the
shepherd of Salisbury Plain will vow to you that he can discriminate
between the countenances of each member of his woolly family, and
particularize their features. So with the herdsman and his drove, the
trainer and his stud. But why pursue the theme? Why dwell upon
these flocks qui passent et ne se resemblent pas? Is it to prove
that these resemblances are mere fallacies, and have no real
existence; that they ought to be classed with Sir Thomas Browne's
"vulgar errors?" No; but to lament that whereas each member of a
flock of sheep, of a herd of oxen, or a stud of horses, carries his
individuality so markedly, the privilege is not more extended in the
genus homo. I solemnly aver that the number of cases of mistaken
identity which have lately come to my knowledge is not only
astounding, but exceedingly embarrassing; I may add, too, quorum
magna pars fui; which, being translated, means, in which I have
formed a no inconsiderable portion of the quorum. It is no pleasant
sensation to know that your "counterfeit presentment" is walking the
earth; in fact, it is monstrously unpleasant. The other day I felt a
heavy hand placed rapidly upon my shoulder, in the most
unceremonious and familiar of ways, accompanied with an equally
unceremonious and familiar exclamation: "Why, Perkins, old boy,
how are ye? Haven't seen ye for an age! Glad to see you again in
London! How are all the folks at Nottingham?"
How far this familiar stranger would have gone on in this fluent
strain of amity I know not. It was time to stop his exuberance of
friendship, and acquaint him with the fact that my name was not
Perkins; that I had not come from Nottingham; and, I fear, added, in
the bitterness and irritation of the moment, that I had never been to
Nottingham, and never wished to go there. "Oh, nonsense, Perkins!
I'm not going to be knocked off in that style. How are Mrs. Perkins
and the chicks?" "I tell you again, sir, you are mistaken in your man;
my name {708} is not Perkins." "It may not be Perkins now, but it
was three months ago; and whatever your new name may be, I am
not going to be turned off in this way. Not Perkins! Why, you can't
get rid of that mole on your cheek with your new name; and as to
your wig, old fellow, there never was but that shade of red I ever
saw. Come, where shall we dine?" "I must plainly tell you, sir," I
replied to my would-be friend, "you are carrying your pleasantry too
far; and if you do not leave me at once, I will give you in charge of
the police." The fellow, evidently chagrined, left me to chew the cud
of bitter reflection. "Well, well," were his parting words, "it can't be
Perkins after all; Perkins was a jolly good fellow, and this chap is
———" He had by this time got out of hearing. What an unpleasant
rencontre this! I thought to myself. Then again the subject took
another aspect. What if the real, the true Perkins, should ever be
persecuted by my friends as I have been by one of his?

And this leads me on to another incident in the same category,

which occurred still more recently, and might have led to very
deplorable results. In fact, I am not sure that the end is yet. I had
business out of town for a day or two, and returned punctually at
the appointed hour. Whom should I meet on the platform of the
terminus but Tom Cridlins! Now Tom is a great gossip, and an
immense favorite with the ladies. He frequents the theatres and the
operas, conversaziones and balls, and retails all the news and
scandal of the day to his fair friends. Well, I met him accidentally at
the terminus; in an instant he was full of apologies and excuses.
"Hope, Sam, done no mischief; didn't mean it, didn't mean it, 'pon
honor; deuced sorry, hope it's all over." "Why, what's the matter?"
"Didn't know you'd gone out of town, you sly dog. I understand it
all. Called at Mrs. Sam's yesterday; told her—didn't do it intentionally
—saw you at the opera Monday night with Countess Tarascona;
magnificent woman; saw at once made mistake. Why didn't she tell
me you'd gone out of town? wouldn't have breathed a word. 'Pon
honor, accidental." "Opera, Tom! I wasn't at the opera; I have been
out of town since Monday morning; you're mistaken." "Capital joke,
that. Why, Sam, think I'm 'flicted with color-blindness? No, my boy,
nothing blinds me but friendship; wouldn't have said a word had
known you didn't want it." Need I say what a miserable vista was
opened up before me? A jealous wife's jealousy accidentally inflamed
in this innocent manner, and even Tom Cridlins incredulous. These
men of the world won't believe in—in anything.

"Tom," I said, seriously, "this is very unfortunate; but you were

never more mistaken in your life. I have not been at the opera for
weeks." Oh that wicked twinkle of his eye! "Well, my boy, I don't
want to believe you were there; disbelieve anything you like; only
——" "Tom, I can stand this no longer; I must not be played with;
you must admit that I was not at the opera. I can bring the whole
village of Cudgleton to prove an alibi. " "Glad to hear it, for peace of
home's sake. Mrs. Sam took it very ill, can assure you; sorry,
'ceedingly sorry; but really the countess is a magnificent woman."
"Who the devil cares now about the countess? I affirm that I have
been at Cudgleton from Monday 4 P.M. till this morning 10 A.M. Left
by express, and just arrived." "There's the bell, Sam; must say good-
bye; remember me to your wife; purely accidental; 'ceedingly regret
it; believe every word you say—will back it 'gainst all odds;
remember me to your wife, and tell her I believe you, my boy. "

"Believe me, my boy!" and that's how Tom Cridlins left me,—light-
hearted and gay-spirited, after having kindled a torch which Acheron
itself could not quench.

{709}
I returned home. Of course Mrs. Sam was prepared to receive me.
In vain I protested; in vain I insisted that Tom Cridlins was laboring
under an illusion; I had brought him to confess as much. "Oh, then,
you have seen him to-day; planning and scheming, I suppose, to get
up a pack of contradictions. I understand; but you are not going to
deceive me. Natural evidence is better than got-up evidence, and I
shall prefer to take Mr. Thomas Cridlins's first statement to his
second. There are some things better fresh, and testimony I take to
be one of those things. Whatever you and Mr. Cridlins may choose to
concoct, for the future I shall believe what I please to believe."

And so on till bedtime. Would that I could say we had had it out
even then! At midnight we were only in the thick of it; and to
acquire renewed vigor for future assaults, Mrs. Sam prudently fell
asleep.

But what a time for me! Oh that I could reverse the hand of the
clock eight-and-forty hours, or push it on until this trouble had blown
over! Plague on that man, whoever he is, that looked so like me!
Why was he at the opera? why was he there with a fine woman?
Cridlins saw nothing of the Countess Tarascona—only seen her once
—and his foolish head jumps to the conclusion it must be the
countess. Ass that he is! Why isn't he honestly employed, like other
people, instead of idling about on his five thousand a year,
philandering and making mischief? He can scarcely count the fingers
on his hand, yet he can create a devil of a row between man and
wife!

Two o'clock struck. I had fallen into a distempered doze; still it was
somewhat soothing. With the waking reflection came back, not quite
so excited. After all it might have been worse. I remember reading
of a Bishop of Siena who had a sovereign antidote against every
attack of despondency.

"When I am disappointed or vexed, or embarrassed or dissatisfied,"

he said, "I look round upon the world and notice how many
hundreds and thousands are worse off than myself, and the result
invariably is, that grumbling and vexation take wings and fly away,
and contentment and cheerfulness return and nestle in my bosom."

What, thought I, as I lay awake,—what if, instead of this conjugal

contretemps, I had been wrongly seized for theft and murder, and
unable to prove an alibi? Such cases have been. Such cases have
been! Why, they have taken place by scores—are taking place, and
will to the end of the chapter. And my imagination vividly portrayed
the mental agonies of the innocent convict. Memory ransacked the
dusty tomes of history to supply fresh food for meditation, fresh fuel
to feed my horror. Does not Pliny cite innumerable instances? Had
not the twin brothers of Ephesus just cause to exclaim, each to his
unknown counterpart, in the anguish and bitterness of his spirit,
"Oh, Dromio, Dromio, wherefore art thou, Dromio?" Does not the
"Newgate Calendar" teem with cases of men's lives perjured by false
witnesses, or sacrificed to a false tissue of circumstances? Did not
Richard Coleman and Clinch and Mackley suffer death for crimes of
which they were subsequently proved to be guiltless, simply because
each was mistaken for the "right man," who was not, and never is,
in the "right place." Was not Hoag tried at New York, in 1804, for
bigamy, through a similar misconception? And did not Redman in
1822, and Robinson in 1824, just escape the gallows by a hair's-
breadth? And were not these instances enough to scarify any man's
imagination, and shiver his every nerve? My "counterfeit
presentment" was evidently wandering about somewhere. What sort
of a character was he? Did ho belong to the dangerous classes? was
he a respectable member of society or an impostor? was he cunning
and clever, and capable of swindling? was he cold-blooded and
resolute, capable {710} of murder? was he passionate and
revengeful? was he anything and everything that could lead a man
into a violent scrape?

No wonder the perspiration ran off my brow as my brain scudded

through the chapter of probabilities and revealed a long gloomy vista
of perils. I bethought me of the police. Should I make known that
my "counterfeit" was abroad "stalking the world around?" Should I
seek the protection of Scotland Yard, and warn them if they heard of
a robbery or a murder, or some other villainy or felony committed by
a man answering to my description, that I was not the culprit? To be
forewarned is to be forearmed; to tell them this might save loss of
time, and spare a world of trouble, inconvenience, and annoyance.
Beside, was it not exactly what my late friend Richter had done? Ah!
by-the-bye, you didn't know Richter—thereby hangs a tale. Richter,
poor fellow, is dead now; but there is a moral attached to his life,
and we, whose eidola are walking the earth, may as well extract it.

Richter was a wealthy rentier, living in Vienna; and a thorough

Austrian by birth, education, and nature. Quiet, inoffensive, kindly;
there was nothing striking about him in person or position. He never
meddled with that firebrand—politics; he had never troubled the
most immaculate government of the imperial and royal apostolic
Kaiser with unseasonable and unreasonable comments on its virtues
or defects; he had never violated that most sacred thing, the
concordat; had never offended lord or prince; had hated Hungary,
and had always wished Venice at the bottom instead of on the
surface of the sea. He was a peaceable citizen, obedient to the
decrees of his sovereign, and pursued the even tenor of his life with
well-balanced footstep, inclining to nothing that was likely to lead
him or his neighbor into the dark and dreary desert of trouble and
vexation. Nevertheless the Nemesis of envy marked him for her
own; and he was pointed at during the latter part of his life as one
who could set the vast army of spies and detectives formed and
disciplined by that arch-policeman, Metternich, at absolute defiance.

It was the custom of Herr Richter of an afternoon or morning—as

any one might who had nothing better to do—to stroll up and down
the principal thoroughfares of Vienna, gaze into its splendid shops,
and admire the beauty and the becrinolined silks and satins, muslins
and grenadines, of the stately dames of that ancient and quaint city.
One day—it was in the summer of 1849—Herr Richter was flâning
along the Kätner Strasse, and, impelled neither by curiosity nor
covetousness, but that indefinable something which of directs our
course and shapes our conduct without our consciousness, stopped
before the "Storr and Mortimer" of the Hapsburg capital. Why did he
thrust himself in amongst that band of ragged gamins, who, with
gaping mouth and burning eyes, were devouring the splendors of
the plate-glass window, and wistfully wishing that that glittering
heap of rings and chains, brooches and necklaces, cassolettes and
lockets, bracelets and eardrops, emeralds, diamonds, pearls, rubies,
turquoises, etc., were theirs? Why did he mingle with them? He
could not have told you, nor can I. Only he was there, and it was
evident his heart, too, was overflowing, like Mr. Pickwick's, with the
milk of human kindness. "Poor fellows!" such was his train of
thought, "you can never get any of these treasures, though you
should toil for a century;" and then turning away, he muttered aloud,
still continuing his train of thought, "Any of them might be mine in a
moment if I chose." Was he speculating on the iniquitous force of
the Austrian guild laws, or the false system of political economy in
vogue in Austria? was he pondering over the mysteries of meum et
tuum, or endeavoring to solve that profound problem, "La
proprieté c'est le vol?"

{711}

Possibly yes, possibly no; but just at that moment a strong hand was
laid on his shoulder. "One word with you, if you please," said a low
musical voice, imperative yet polite.

The invitation was irresistible. With the utmost complacency Herr

Richter retired with the gentleman who accosted him underneath
one of those huge gateways, porte-cochères, which form the
entrance of the old Vienna houses. The stranger then took a paper
from his pocket, and looking intently, now at its contents, now at the
features of Herr Richter, opened the conversation in a curt and
peremptory manner:
"Sir, I am under the painful necessity of requesting you to follow
me."

Herr Richter, incensed, grows restiff.

"Pray, sir, who are you that dare—" and without finishing the
sentence he threw himself into an attitude of defence, if not
defiance.

"Had you not better give less trouble?" coolly asked the stranger.
"Am I to call assistance?"

Rapidly the truth dawned upon the Herr. The stranger, though clad in
the ordinary attire of a bourgeois, belonged to that mysterious
body, dreaded by every section of the community, since it received
its orders, so it was universally believed, directly from the cabinet, or
a joint committee of the holy alliance itself. Yes, he must be an
agent of the secret police.

Herr Richter, however, is not hurried off to the star chamber where
political offenders are dealt with, but is conducted to the Scotland
Yard of Vienna—the headquarters of the gendarmerie—the central
station for criminal suspects. In Austria it is safer to be classed with
common thieves and felons than to be suspected of meddling with
politics. So the Herr's mind was materially relieved; though
ignominious his fate, on perceiving his destination he scarcely felt
enraged at the indignity offered him.

When they had arrived within the gloomy precincts of the gaol
barracks, things began to explain themselves. There was evident
satisfaction, not to say exultation, on the faces of the officials. The
captor was specially gratified; and waving his warrant, as though it
were an honorable trophy, over the head of his unfortunate prize, he
exclaimed—

"I've captured him at last; I've found him and caught him, this
prince of pickpockets!" and he enacted the passion of triumph so
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