Temple Restoration in Java

Dr Uday Dokras

The Java region of Indonesia is home to numerous monuments, reflecting its rich history and
diverse cultural and religious influences. These monuments range from ancient temples to
modern structures and historic sites. Major Javanese monuments like the Prambanan
temples and Borobudur temple were in ruins for centuries before their rediscovery
and extensive restoration efforts, though the local Javanese people always knew of
them. Abandoned after the 10th century, they were buried by volcanic ash and
jungle overgrowth, becoming forgotten to the wider world until Sir Thomas
Stamford Raffles commissioned their clearing in the early 19th
century. Earthquakes in the 16th and 20th centuries also caused damage, and
modern reconstruction projects continue to work on restoring the collapsed
structures.

The temples were abandoned around the 10th century when the central Javanese court
moved to East Java, though the exact reasons, whether a volcano, earthquake, or power
struggles, are not entirely clear. Major earthquakes, such as one in the 16th century, and
volcanic eruptions from Mount Merapi, likely caused significant destruction to the
monuments. Over centuries, the structures became overgrown by the jungle and buried
under volcanic ash, obscuring them from view and leading to further decay.

Rediscovery and Reconstruction

 Thomas Stamford Raffles:
In 1814, Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, the British ruler of Java, heard from native
Indonesians about the hidden ruins and commissioned the clearing of the volcanic ash and
jungle. Following the discovery, significant restoration programs began in the 1930s under
the Dutch and continued by the Indonesian government and UNESCO after World War
II. The process of restoring the temples is an ongoing challenge, involving fitting countless
scattered stones back into place and ensuring the structural integrity of the ancient
buildings, notes the Hinduism Today . Today, Borobudur and Prambanan are major
archaeological sites, cultural tourism attractions, and even UNESCO World Heritage Sites
that attract visitors from around the world.

 Borobudur Temple: A UNESCO World Heritage Site and the world's largest Buddhist
temple, built in the 9th century during the Syailendra Dynasty. It is renowned for its intricate
carvings and bell-shaped stupas.

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 Prambanan Temple Complex: Another UNESCO World Heritage Site and the largest
Hindu temple complex in Indonesia, built in the 9th century under the Sanjaya Dynasty. It is
dedicated to the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva).
 National Monument (MONAS): A prominent landmark in Jakarta, symbolizing Indonesia's
independence.
 Istiqlal Mosque: The largest mosque in Southeast Asia, located in Jakarta.
 Jakarta Cathedral: A prominent Roman Catholic cathedral located opposite the Istiqlal
Mosque in Jakarta.
 Lawang Sewu: A historic building in Semarang, known for its distinctive architecture and
numerous doors.
 Gunung Padang Megalithic Site: An ancient megalithic site in West Java, believed to be
one of the oldest pyramid structures in the world.
 Kota Lama Semarang (Semarang Old Town): A historic district in Semarang featuring
well-preserved colonial architecture.
 Yogyakarta Palace (Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat): The official residence of the
Sultan of Yogyakarta and a center of Javanese culture.
 Arjuna Temple Complex: A group of Hindu temples located on the Dieng Plateau in
Central Java.

The Art of Temple Restoration: Techniques and Challenges

Temple restoration is an art that requires dedication, skill, and a deep respect for our heritage.
The challenges are many, but the rewards are immeasurable. By contributing to the
restoration of ancient temples, you are not only preserving India’s rich cultural and spiritual
heritage but also passing on a legacy to future generations. India’s ancient temples, with their
majestic architecture and deep spiritual significance, are more than just religious sites; they
are living embodiments of the country’s rich cultural heritage. However, the passage of time,
environmental factors, and human neglect have taken a toll on these architectural marvels.
Restoring these temples is an intricate and demanding task that requires a blend of traditional
knowledge and modern technology. In this blog post, we will explore the techniques and
challenges involved in temple restoration, highlighting the importance of these efforts and
encouraging people from India and the Indian diaspora to contribute to this noble cause.

The Significance of Temple Restoration

Restoring ancient temples is not just about preserving bricks and stones; it is about reviving a
part of our heritage that connects us to our ancestors and their spiritual practices. These
temples are repositories of ancient knowledge, art, and culture. Their restoration ensures that
future generations can experience the grandeur and spirituality that have been central to
Indian civilization for millennia.

However, temple restoration is a complex process that involves numerous challenges, ranging
from technical difficulties to the need for specialized skills and materials. Understanding

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 these challenges and the techniques used to overcome them can inspire more people to
support these efforts.

Techniques in Temple Restoration

1. Structural Stabilization

 Challenge: Many ancient temples suffer from structural instability due to the erosion of
foundation materials, seismic activity, or the weakening of load-bearing elements.
 Technique: Structural stabilization involves reinforcing the foundation, walls, and columns
using techniques such as grouting (injecting a mixture to fill cracks), underpinning
(strengthening the foundation), and the use of steel or carbon fiber reinforcements. These
methods help in maintaining the structural integrity of the temple while preserving its original
materials.

1. Conservation of Stone Sculptures and Carvings

 Challenge: The intricate stone carvings that adorn many temples are vulnerable to
weathering, pollution, and biological growth such as moss and lichen.
 Technique: Conservation of stone involves careful cleaning using gentle methods like micro-
abrasive techniques or chemical treatments to remove dirt and biological growth.
Consolidants are applied to strengthen the stone, and missing or damaged parts are
meticulously repaired using materials that match the original stone in composition and
appearance.

1. Restoration of Wall Paintings and Murals

 Challenge: Many temples have murals and frescoes that have faded or deteriorated over time
due to exposure to light, moisture, and environmental pollutants.
 Technique: Restoration of wall paintings involves stabilizing the paint layers and cleaning
the surface with solvents or gels that do not harm the original pigments. Missing or damaged
areas may be carefully in-painted by artists trained in traditional techniques to match the
original style and color scheme.

1. Reconstruction of Damaged or Missing Structures

 Challenge: In some cases, parts of the temple, such as shikharas (spires), mandapas (pillared
halls), or even entire sanctums, may be missing or severely damaged.
 Technique: Reconstruction involves extensive research into the original design and
materials. Architects and craftsmen use old photographs, texts, and architectural treatises to
recreate the missing elements. Traditional building materials like stone, wood, and lime
mortar are often used to ensure authenticity, while modern technology aids in precision and
durability.

1. Use of Traditional Craftsmanship

 Challenge: The traditional skills required for temple restoration, such as stone carving,
woodwork, and fresco painting, are becoming increasingly rare as these crafts are passed
down through generations of artisans.

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 Technique: Restoring a temple often requires the involvement of skilled artisans who are
well-versed in traditional techniques. Efforts are made to revive and sustain these crafts by
training new generations of artisans. In many cases, restoration projects also provide
livelihood opportunities for these artisans, helping to preserve their skills.

1. Integration of Modern Technology

 Challenge: Balancing the use of modern technology with the need to preserve the temple’s
historical authenticity can be challenging.
 Technique: Modern technology plays a crucial role in mapping and documenting the existing
condition of the temple, analyzing structural weaknesses, and even in simulating the effects
of future environmental factors. Techniques like 3D scanning, laser cleaning, and computer-
aided design (CAD) help in planning and executing restorations with greater accuracy.

Challenges in Temple Restoration

1. Environmental Factors

 Ancient temples are often exposed to harsh environmental conditions, including extreme
weather, pollution, and biological growth. These factors accelerate the deterioration of the
structure and complicate the restoration process.

1. Material Degradation

 The original materials used in temple construction, such as stone, wood, and lime mortar,
degrade over time. Finding materials that match the original in composition and appearance is
crucial for maintaining the temple’s authenticity.

1. Limited Documentation

 Many ancient temples lack detailed documentation of their original design and construction
techniques. This makes it challenging to recreate missing or damaged parts accurately.

1. Skilled Labor Shortage

 The specialized skills required for temple restoration, such as stone carving and fresco
painting, are becoming increasingly rare. The restoration of these temples relies heavily on
the availability of skilled artisans who can replicate traditional techniques.

1. Balancing Tradition and Innovation

 While modern technology can aid in restoration, it is essential to balance its use with
traditional techniques to maintain the temple’s historical integrity. This requires a careful and
informed approach to restoration.

1. Funding and Resources

 Temple restoration projects are often expensive and time-consuming. Securing sufficient
funding and resources, especially for temples in remote areas, is a significant challenge.

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 The Role of the Indian Diaspora in Temple Restoration

The Indian diaspora, with its strong emotional and cultural ties to the homeland, has a crucial
role to play in the restoration of ancient temples. Here’s how you can contribute:

1. Financial Support: Your contributions can fund the restoration of specific temples or
support organizations dedicated to this cause. Even small donations can have a significant
impact when pooled together.
2. Awareness and Advocacy: Use your platforms to raise awareness about the importance of
temple restoration. Organize events, fundraisers, and awareness campaigns within your
community to garner support.
3. Collaborative Projects: Collaborate with Indian organizations and NGOs working on temple
restoration. Your expertise, networks, and resources can greatly enhance the effectiveness of
these projects.
4. Volunteer Your Skills: If you have expertise in fields such as architecture, history, art
conservation, or engineering, consider volunteering your time and skills to restoration
projects. Your knowledge can make a substantial difference in ensuring the success of these
efforts.
5. Heritage Tourism: Promote heritage tourism among your network. Visiting and supporting
restored temples can boost local economies and sustain ongoing restoration efforts.

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 Benefits of Temple Renovation From Ancient Texts
The reason when we hear about temple renovation, reconstruction, or kumbabishekam, is to
“Let my contribution be there as well…” and provide whatever we can and earn Punniya
Karma.

When we contribute to temple deeds we clearly realize how much positive impact it has on
our lives! People who participate in these deeds will live like a king or king itself in this birth.
Whatever position they lost, they will gain it and live with respect. They will also reach the
abode of Devas get a head position there and also become Devaraja. This also takes them to
Moksha’s (liberation) fourth step which is called as ‘Sayujyam’. This is the step where we
merge with the almighty and break our endless bondage of life and death cycle. Our 108
successive generations will prosper with health, wealth, and education equivalent to a king.
Our generations will receive the highest accolades from the people living in this universe.
Whoever participates in this noble deed will be treated as Deva while living here.

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Till we are in human form this universe will worship us as Deva and we gain enormous
respect. After abandoning our human body, we not only merge with the Supreme but also
reside in Deva lokha as Devaraja for millions of years, one which can only be attained by
strong thapas. Our progeny will also be involved in similar good deeds and lead a very good
life. When we live in Bhoo lokha (Earth), we gain supernatural powers and will be equivalent
to a Siddha Pursha. We will attain a position where no one will be equal to us. Doing these
noble deeds not only helps us here but also after we renounce this human body. Our mother,
father, grandmother, brother, sister or any blood relations may have passed away recently.
Due to lack of Punniya Karma those Athmas may have been wandering restlessly. Some of
them may have accrued enough Punniya Karma but may have been struck in Pithru Lokha
(abode of ancestors) and could not take next birth and get rid of their existing karmas. Some
may in Naraka lokha experiencing severe punishments. Some may be struggling to attain
Moksha (Salvation). For any of our ancestors struggling in the above said positions, if we do
a Sankalpam (vow) and perform a temple deed, those Atmas (Souls) attain whatever they
require by the grace of Supreme within one Mandalam (48 days) after performing the
Punniya Karma. This is an eternal truth that needs be realized by

Agni Purana: “I will now describe the fruits of making temples for the residence of
Vasudeva and other deities. Those who think of building a temple in their minds are freed
from the sins of a hundred births. The construction of a temple for a deity dissipates even the
sin of Brahmanicide. By building a temple one acquires the fruits of bathing at all the sacred
shrines. By building a temple one goes to heaven.By building with a lakh of rupees, or a
thousand, or a hundred, or fifty, a man goes where the Garuda-emblemed deity resides. By
building temples for other gods, a man reaps the same fruit which he does by building one for
Vishnu. Sins accumulated in seven births are dissipated even at the very commencement. On
building a temple one goes to heaven; he never goes to hell. By building a temple for the
Lord he takes his family, a hundred generations past and a hundred to come, to the region of
Acyuta”.

Agni Purana: “Having acquired wealth and built a temple with a small portion of it, a person
acquires piety and gains favors from Hari.”

Agni Purana XXXVIII, 1-50, “Even a thought of constructing a Temple is adequate to

demolish sins of long-standing nature and establishing a right to reach Vaikuntha. The
devotee who completes the temple construction also redeems the sins of his previous
generations; indeed, his ‘pitaras’ would secure instant relief from the torments of hells and
qualify for substantial dispensations.The person(s) responsible for this deed of extraordinary
merit is eligible for ‘Yagna Phal’, ‘Samasta Tirthta Snaana Phal’, and ‘veera phal’. The
construction of even an ‘Ekayatan’ or single one room temple would attain Swargaloka. A
‘trayayatan’ ‘mandira nirmaan’ enables reaching Brahma loka. Even when children for fun or
playfulness build temples with sand would also qualify for salvation. Persons who undertake
repairs, let alone construct temples new, are also eligible for attaining Mukti. Those who are
responsible for constructing temples of Vishnu, Shiva, Surya or Devi become residents of
those very Lokas and more significantly their family members too to share the same benefit”.

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Vamana Purana: “Whoever constructs or helps to construct a Vishnu temple will protect
eight generations of fathers, grandfathers, and forefathers from falling into hell.” And, “ By
building a temple for Sri Madhava, one can attain the eternal spiritual world (Vaikuntha).
One who offers a garden laden with fruits and flowers for the service of the Deity will attain
heavenly pleasures.”

In the Tamil Siddha Tradition, temple renovation (kovil thiruppani) is one of the most sacred
and meritorious acts that not only dissolves lifetimes of karmas but also blesses families with
abundance on all levels.

Siddha Sage Rajakumar Swami (who spent his entire life feeding people, renovating ancient
temples, and promoting Dharma) listed the following benefits of temple renovations.

 The person who gets into the act of constructing a holy temple is absolved of all
their sins acquired over a thousand of their previous births.

 Even if the idea of constructing a holy temple dawns in a persons mind, they
would be absolved of sins acquired over one hundred births & they would be
redeemed.

Prambanan Temple, located in Prambanan, Indonesia, in the state of Java, is a

vast Hindu temple complex dating back to the 9th century. Recognized as one of the
largest Hindu temples in Southeast Asia, it is dedicated to the three major deities of
the Hindu pantheon: Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. The site is particularly renowned for its tall
and elegant towers (or "candi") adorned with intricately detailed carvings depicting scenes
from the Ramayana and other sacred texts. Prambanan Temple is a UNESCO World Heritage
site and serves as a significant cultural and religious attraction in Indonesia. Monument
profiie

Prambanan temple
Monument category: Hindu Temple
Monument family: Temple
Monument genre: Religious
Cultural heritage: Hindu
Geographic location: Prambanan • Java • Indonesia
Construction period: 9th century AD
This monument in Prambanan is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1991.

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 Prambanan • Prambanan temple: overview

Prambanan • Prambanan temple: stairway to a temple

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 Prambanan • Prambanan temple: Ganesh

The Political and Social Motivations Behind the Construction of Prambanan Temple

Prambanan Temple, located in Prambanan, Indonesia, is a magnificent Hindu temple

complex built in the 9th century. This architectural marvel was constructed under the rule of
the Sanjaya dynasty and serves as a symbol of their political power and religious devotion.
The temple’s construction, its historical significance, and the subsequent transformations it
underwent reflect the dynamic political, social, and cultural changes in the region over the
centuries. This article explores the motivations behind the temple’s construction, the major
historical events that shaped its development, and the challenges it faces today in preserving
its historical integrity.

Political and Social Motivations

Prambanan Temple was constructed around 850 CE by Rakai Pikatan, a king of

the Sanjaya dynasty, during a period of rivalry with the Sailendra dynasty, which had
previously built the nearby Buddhist temple of Borobudur. The construction of Prambanan,
dedicated to the three principal Hindu deities – Shiva, Vishnu, and Brahma – aimed to assert
the power of the Sanjaya dynasty and re-establish Hindu supremacy in Central Java, in
response to the growing influence of Buddhism. This monumental architectural project
served as a symbol of power, intended to legitimize the king's authority by linking it to the
Hindu deities, particularly Shiva, the destroyer and regenerator.

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Socially, Prambanan served as a unifying center for the Hindu communities in the region,
providing a grand site for worship and pilgrimage. The temple complex quickly became a
focal point for religious ceremonies and a symbol of cultural identity for the Javanese people,
reinforcing the social cohesion under the banner of Hinduism.

Major Historical Events and Their Impact

Prambanan Temple has witnessed periods of both prosperity and decline, closely tied to the
political and religious shifts in Java. After its peak under the Sanjaya dynasty, the temple was
gradually abandoned, particularly as Islam began to spread across Java in the 15th century,
eventually becoming the dominant religion.

Natural disasters, including frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in the region, also
contributed to the temple’s decline. By the 16th century, Prambanan was largely abandoned
and overgrown with vegetation until it was rediscovered by British explorers in the early 19th
century. Restoration efforts began in the early 20th century under Dutch colonial rule, and
these efforts have continued into the present day to preserve this exceptional heritage site.
During the period when Prambanan was constructed, other great civilizations were also
engaged in building iconic religious monuments. In Europe, the early Middle Ages saw the
construction of Romanesque cathedrals, while in India, the Pallava and Chola dynasties were
constructing equally impressive Hindu temples, such as the Brihadeeswarar Temple in
Thanjavur.

Like these monuments, Prambanan served both as a place of worship and as a symbol of
political power, asserting the cultural and religious dominance of the Sanjaya dynasty over
Central Java. This strategy of using architecture to legitimize royal authority was common
across many civilizations at the time.Over the centuries, Prambanan Temple underwent
numerous transformations, reflecting changes in political power and external cultural
influences. The period of decline and abandonment following the rise of Islam led to the
temple falling into disrepair, and it was not until the early 20th century that serious efforts
were made to restore the site. Restoration work has allowed the temple to regain much of its
former glory, though many original elements have been lost.

European influences, particularly during the Dutch colonial period, also played a role in the
temple’s conservation efforts. Modern restoration techniques, combined with a growing
awareness of the importance of preserving this world heritage site, have helped to save
Prambanan from total destruction.

Cultural Importance and Current State of Conservation

Today, Prambanan Temple is a site of great cultural and religious significance for Indonesia
and for global heritage. It attracts millions of visitors each year, who come to admire its
towering spires and intricate carvings. However, the site continues to face significant
conservation challenges, including the impact of earthquakes, erosion, and increasing tourist
pressure.

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Conservation efforts must continue to focus on protecting the temple from these threats while
ensuring sustainable management of the site to preserve its historical integrity for future
generations.

Preservation Challenges

Specific challenges related to the preservation of Prambanan Temple include the need to
stabilize the structure against seismic activity, manage the effects of weathering on the stone
carvings, and regulate the flow of visitors to minimize the impact on the site. Restoration and
protection initiatives are crucial to ensuring that this historic site, which is not only a religious
treasure but also a symbol of Indonesia’s cultural identity, is preserved. Prambanan Temple is
an iconic monument that reflects the grandeur of 9th-century Hindu architecture and the
complex political and social dynamics that shaped the history of Java. Its preservation is
essential to maintaining the living link between Indonesia’s past and present, ensuring that it
continues to inspire those who come to discover this exceptional site.

Architectural Innovation and Technological Advancement in Prambanan Temple,

Indonesia

Prambanan showcases both technological innovation and artistic excellence. This

monumental temple complex, built under the Sanjaya dynasty, reflects the grandeur of its era
through its sophisticated construction techniques, use of materials, and its intricate decorative
motifs. The temple's architecture represents a unique synthesis of regional artistic traditions
and foreign influences, making it a significant cultural and historical landmark in Indonesia.
This article explores the technological advancements embodied in Prambanan’s construction,
the materials and techniques used, and the temple's architectural features that have
contributed to its recognition as a UNESCO World Heritage site.

Technological Advancements and Construction Techniques

The architecture of Prambanan Temple is a testament to the advanced technological

capabilities of the 9th century in Java. The temple complex is primarily constructed from
andesite, a durable volcanic rock abundantly found in the region. Andesite was chosen for its
strength and longevity, allowing the temple structures to withstand the test of time and the
harsh environmental conditions of Central Java, including frequent earthquakes.

One of the key construction techniques used in Prambanan was the interlocking method,
where blocks of andesite were meticulously cut to fit together without the use of mortar. This
technique not only provided structural stability but also allowed the temple to flex during
seismic events, a critical feature in a region prone to earthquakes. The precision with which
these stones were carved and assembled reflects a high level of craftsmanship and an
understanding of architectural engineering that was advanced for its time.

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The temple's verticality, with its towering spires, represents an architectural innovation that
aimed to reach towards the divine. The tallest spire, dedicated to Shiva, stands at 47 meters,
making it the centerpiece of the complex. This vertical emphasis not only reflects religious
symbolism but also demonstrates the technical skill required to construct such soaring
structures with the materials and tools available at the time.

Unique Synthesis of Regional and Foreign Artistic Traditions

Prambanan Temple illustrates a unique blend of local Javanese traditions and external
influences, particularly from India, where Hinduism originated. The temple's overall design
follows the Hindu mandala concept, with a layout that symbolizes the cosmic order. The
central courtyard, containing the main temples dedicated to the Trimurti (Shiva, Vishnu,
and Brahma), is surrounded by concentric layers of smaller shrines, reflecting the hierarchical
structure of the universe.

The decorative elements of Prambanan are particularly noteworthy for their intricate detail
and stylistic variety. The bas-reliefs that adorn the temple walls depict scenes from
the Ramayana, one of the great Hindu epics, and are executed with a level of detail that
illustrates both artistic skill and deep cultural knowledge. These carvings not only serve a
religious function but also provide insight into the daily life, attire, and beliefs of the people
of Java during the 9th century.

The influence of Indian art is evident in the iconography and themes of the carvings, yet they
are distinctly Javanese in style, with local flora and fauna incorporated into the designs. This
blend of Indian and Javanese artistic traditions highlights the cultural exchanges that occurred
through trade and religious pilgrimage, contributing to the temple's unique aesthetic.

Notable Structure and Layout

Prambanan's layout is an exemplary representation of Hindu cosmology. The complex is

arranged in a rectangular plan, with the main temples positioned along the central axis. The
Shiva temple, the largest and most significant, is flanked by the temples dedicated
to Vishnu and Brahma, creating a symmetrical and harmonious design that reflects the
balance and order central to Hindu philosophy.

An interesting anecdote about the temple's construction is the legend of Rara Jonggrang,
which tells of a mythical princess who was turned into stone, becoming part of the temple's
structure. This legend, though not historically verified, adds a layer of cultural narrative to the
temple and highlights the integration of myth into architectural identity.

Prambanan Temple was designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 1991, a recognition
that has significantly contributed to its international prominence and conservation efforts.
This status has helped secure funding and expertise necessary for ongoing restoration
projects, particularly after the devastating earthquake in 2006, which caused substantial
damage to the complex. The recognition has also elevated Prambanan as a major cultural and
tourist destination, bringing increased attention to the importance of preserving this historical
site. However, with increased tourism comes the challenge of balancing access with
preservation. The UNESCO status provides a framework for managing these challenges,
ensuring that the temple's historical integrity is maintained while allowing visitors to
experience its cultural significance.

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 Prambanan Temple stands as a monumental example of architectural and artistic
achievement in 9th-century Java. Its construction reflects advanced technological knowledge
and a unique synthesis of regional and foreign influences, creating a site of immense cultural
and historical value. The temple's recognition as a UNESCO World Heritage site has been
crucial in preserving this heritage for future generations, ensuring that Prambanan continues
to inspire awe and reverence in all who visit.

Prambanan underwent a long and ongoing process of reconstruction and

restoration, beginning with the Dutch colonial government in 1918 and continuing with the
Indonesian government after the country's independence, applying the anastylosis method to
use original stones and a minimum of 75% original masonry for rebuilding. Major restoration
efforts included the Shiva temple in the 1950s, the Brahma and Vishnu temples in the 1980s
and 1990s, and continues today with the smaller ancillary (Pervara) temples and shrines, with
the goal of re-erecting the entire-complex.

Sewu

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Prambanan was built as a place to invoke the presence of the trinity Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva
on the earth to act as a ford (tīrtha) between the physical and spiritual world. And to provide a
sacred space in which to make offerings and celebrate festivals for the benefit of the country.
Many years ago, people were predominantly Hindus, Buddhists, or local religious
practitioners, especially in Java. People needed to conduct ceremonies. So, they built temples
and other religious places.But of course, learning about history, religion more often than not
can be utilized as a political tool or be the driving force of politics, or intertwined with it
somewhat somehow.

It was not some sort of schism or religious war. In a way, it was said to symbolize the
prominence of the House Sanjaya, a Mataram ruling family who were predominantly Hindu.
Some had said it was meant to rival the magnificence of Borobudur, a building project
commissioned by the rival-but-still-related House Shailendra. Its construction was a
continuous one. Each ruler added their new sets of temples, enlarging the scale of the
complex

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Have always wanted to visit Prambanan in noons like this. Never got the chance to.
.

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 Prambanan is the largest Hinduism temple in Indonesia and Southeast Asia which has a
stunning architectural building.

Prambanan was built in the 9th century AD. Prambanan is also One of the
UNESCO world heritage sites and the largest Hinduism temple in Southeast Asia. Prambanan
is a building that was built in the 10th century during the reign of two kings, Rakai Pikatan
and Rakai Balitung. Towering 47 meters high (5 meters higher than Borobudur Temple), the
establishment of this temple has fulfilled the wishes of its makers, showing the glory of
Hinduism in the land of Java.

[1]

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Once upon a time, a man named Bandung Bondowoso loved Roro Jonggrang. Because she
did not love, Jonggrang asked Bondowoso to make a temple with 1,000 statues overnight.
The request was almost fulfilled before Jonggrang asked the villagers to pound rice and make
a big fire to form an atmosphere like the morning. Bondowoso was able to make 999
statues with spirit power, then curse Jonggrang into the 1,000th statue because he felt
cheated. Prambanan Temples are often referred to as Loro Jonggrang Temple.

Prambanan Temple has 3 main temples on the main yard, namely Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva
temples.

(Source: Prambanan)

Each main temple has one companion temple. For the Shiva temple accompanied by
the Nandini temple, for the Brahma temple accompanied by the Angsa temple and for the
Wisni temple accompanied by the Garuda temple.

The first report about Prambanan Temple written by C.A. Lons who visited Central Java in
1733.

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(Source: Bagaimana Candi Prambanan Dibangun?)

In this report stated that Prambanan temple was collapse. Then restoration Prambanan
Temple started in 1883 until 2002.

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There are 7 main statues spread in Prambanan temple.

7 main Statues are Siwa, Durga, Agastya, Ganesha, Brahma, Vishnu, and Nandhi.

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Prambanan Temple Relief tells the story of Ramayana.

Along the inside of the wall is carved into the Ramayana relief. This Ramayana story is
starting from the Vishnu scene that was asked to come down to earth by the kings to
overcome the chaos that was done by Ravana. Along the inner wall of the ledge are decorated
with a series of panels containing Krisnayana reliefs. Krisnayana is the story of Krishna's life
since he was born until he succeeded in occupying the throne of Dwaraka Kingdom.

The original name of Prambanan Temple is Siwagrha and the peak of Prambanan Temple like
a crown.

Siwagrha, this name means Shiva House. Shiva is a God who is so special during the reign
of Rakai Pikatan.

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(Source: Sosok Siwa pada Candi)

As a form of respect, Rakai Pikatan established a 3 meter tall Shiva Mahadewa statue located
in the main room of Prambanan Temple.

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(Source: Candi Prambanan)

If the peak of Prambanan Temple is observed, it is a form of crown called Puncak Mastaka.
This peak does not mean only a decoration, but has its own meaning. This Mastaka Peak
means lightning.

8- Design Concept of Prambanan Temple resembles Semeru Mount (The peak of Semeru
Mount named Mahameru)

According to ancient Hindu cosmology, Prambanan Temple was designed to resemble

the peak of Mahameru. This is because ancient people believed that mahameru was the home
of the Gods.

29
 Early Restoration Efforts (1918–1945)

 Dutch Colonial Period:

The Dutch colonial government initiated reconstruction in 1918, with proper restoration
starting in 1930. The anastylosis method was used, which involves restoring a ruined
structure using its original stones, though this was significantly hampered by the loss of
original masonry. The project managed to restore some small Perwara (ancillary) temples
and the central court temples of the Sewu compound by the 1930s.

Post-Independence Reconstruction (1950s–1990s)

 Indonesian Government:
After World War II and Indonesia's independence, the Indonesian government continued
the efforts.
 Key Temples Completed:
 The main Shiva temple was completed and inaugurated by President Sukarno in 1953.
 The Brahma temple was reconstructed between 1978 and 1987.
 The Vishnu temple was rebuilt from 1982 to 1991.
 The Vahana temples and some smaller shrines were completed between 1991 and 1993.

 UNESCO World Heritage Status:

30
 The Prambanan Temple Compounds gained UNESCO World Heritage Site status in 1991,
acknowledging their historical significance.

Ongoing Restoration

 Continued Work:
The extensive reconstruction and restoration of the entire complex continues to this day.
The complex has undergone several restorations and has been repaired even after recent
events, such as the 2006 earthquake, with great care taken to preserve its authenticity.

 Focus on Pervara Temples:

Current efforts are focused on the remaining Pervara (ancillary) temples of the outer
compound.

Borobudur Temple

Borobudur Temple is one of Indonesia's most valuable cultural heritage

sites. Here's a summary of its discovery and restoration:

a. Discovery: Borobudur Temple was discovered by Sir Thomas

Stamford Raffles in 1814 during a trip to Central Java. At that
time, the temple was buried under the ground and overgrown
with trees and bushes.

31
 b. Condition at discovery: Borobudur Temple was found in a
state of severe neglect, resembling a hill covered in
vegetation.
c. Cleaning process: Raffles assigned his assistant, Cornelius, to
conduct cleaning and research. This process took years to
complete.
d. Natural damage: Borobudur Temple suffered damage from
natural disasters such as earthquakes, Mount Merapi
eruptions, and landslides.
e. Restoration: After being cleaned, Borobudur Temple was
restored by the Dutch colonial government in 1907, led by Ir.
Theodoor van Erp. The restoration aimed to repair damage
and prevent further deterioration.
f. The restoration of Borobudur Temple was a crucial step in
preserving Indonesia's cultural heritage. With restoration,
Borobudur Temple can be enjoyed by current and future
generations as one of the world's most valuable cultural
heritage sites.

Borobudur underwent major reconstruction and restoration efforts in the 20th century,
including a significant project from 1907–1911 by Dutch archaeologists and a more extensive
international effort coordinated by UNESCO from 1973–1983. These projects involved
disassembling and reassembling most of the structure, incorporating modern techniques for
monument conservation and drainage, and using original materials to return Borobudur to its
historical-state.

History of Reconstruction

 Early Restoration (1907-1911):

Following its rediscovery in the early 19th century, Dutch archaeologists conducted the
first major restoration, though some methods used were not ideal.
 The UNESCO Project (1973-1983):
This significant restoration involved international cooperation and modern conservation
techniques to address structural issues and erosion.
Key Aspects of the 1973-1983 Restoration

 Modern Techniques:
The project was one of the first to use modern techniques for monument conservation.
 Structural Stabilization:
The restoration involved disassembling and reassembling the temple stones, similar to a
large construction project, to stabilize the monument.
 Drainage System:

32
 A crucial component was the installation of a modern drainage system to prevent water
from pooling and causing damage to the stones.

 Cleaning and Repair:

Murals were cleaned, and cracks in the stone structure were repaired.
 Use of Original Materials:
The reconstruction prioritized using original materials, with additional components added
only to consolidate the monument and improve drainage.
Outcomes

 Return to Former Glory:

The restoration efforts successfully returned Borobudur to its former state by 1983.
 International Collaboration:
The project served as a precursor to the creation of the World Heritage Convention,
highlighting the importance of international cooperation in preserving cultural sites.
 Ongoing Preservation:
The site is now a UNESCO World Heritage site and continues to be an active Buddhist
pilgrimage site, requiring ongoing efforts for its protection and management.

33
34
 SEWU

The reconstruction of Candi Sewu, an 8th-century Buddhist temple complex, began in the
early 20th century and continues today, with the main temple restored in 1993 and parts of
the compound affected by the 2006 earthquake. Restoration efforts aim to revive the
hundreds of pervara (complementary smaller shrines), with a phased approach focusing on
major structures before addressing the majority that remain in ruins. The project is still
ongoing, with efforts concentrated on stabilizing existing structures and virtually
reconstructing sites for study and documentation.

Key Milestones in Reconstruction

 Early 20th Century:

The beginning of a concerted reconstruction effort, which was interrupted by World War
II.
 1993:
The main temple and two smaller temples on the east side were completed and inaugurated
by President Soeharto.
 2006:
The central temple was severely damaged by an earthquake, necessitating structural support
with metal frames, though it was later removed.
 2017:
The restoration of the Bubrah temple, another structure within the complex, was
completed.
Ongoing Efforts

 Phased Restoration:
Work focuses on the main temple and several surrounding secondary temples, with
restoration still ongoing for the majority of the smaller pervara shrines that lie in ruins.
 Digital Reconstruction:

35
 Photogrammetry is used to create 3D models of intact archaeological sites for
documentation and future studies, providing a low-cost alternative to laser scanning.

 Preservation:
Restoration aims to preserve the temple's significant cultural and religious importance for
future generations.
Challenges

 Natural Hazards:
Over the centuries, earthquakes and other factors have contributed to the damage and
fragmentation of the temple complex.
 Missing Stones:
The temple complex has numerous missing stones, a constant challenge in the
reconstruction process.
 Scale of the Project:
The vast number of smaller temples and shrines makes the complete restoration of the
entire complex a long-term and ongoing process.

36
37
 B
The Java region of Indonesia is home to numerous monuments, reflecting
its rich history and diverse cultural and religious influences. These
monuments range from ancient temples to modern structures and historic
sites.
One of the most notable monuments constructed in the Java region
includes:

Gunung Padang is an archaeological site located in Karyamukti, West Java,

Indonesia, 50 kilometres (31 mi) southwest of Cianjur. Located at 885 metres
(2,904 ft) above sea level, the site covers a hill—an extinct volcano—in a series of
five terraces bordered by retaining walls of stone that are accessed by 370
successive andesite steps rising about 95 metres (312 ft). It is covered with massive
hexagonal stone columns of volcanic origin.[1] The Sundanese people consider the
site sacred and believe it was the result of King Siliwangi's attempt to build a palace

in one night

Gunung Padang consists of a series of five artificial terraces, one rectangular and
four trapezoidal, that occur, one through five, at successively higher elevations.
These terraces also become successively smaller with elevation, with the first
terrace as the lowest and largest and the fifth terrace as the highest and smallest.
These terraces lie along a central, longitudinal NW–SE axis. They are artificial
platforms created by lowering high spots and filling in low spots with fill until a flat
surface was achieved. The terrace perimeters consist of retaining walls formed by
volcanic polygonal columns stacked horizontally and built vertically as posts. The
terrace complex is accessed by a central stairway with 370 steps, an inclination of 45
degrees, and a length of 110 m (360 ft).

Geomorphology and geology

The Gunung Padang region consists of steep-sided hills with an altitude of 800–
1,200 metres (2,600–3,900 ft) above sea level. As seen in satellite images and
digital terrain models, Gunung Padang is a small hill partially surrounded by the

38
curved ridge crest of Gunung Empet. The north-facing slopes of Gunung Empet form
a steep escarpment facing Gunung Padang and the partial rim of a deeply eroded,
circular basin. The south-facing slopes are significantly gentler. North of Gunung
Padang, there are Gunung Malang, Pasir Domas, and Pasir Pogor. Gunung Malang
is located in the center of this deeply dissected basin. Gunung Padang lies
somewhat on the edge of this basin, at the tip of a narrow ridge that continues
southward and merges with the northern slope of Gunung Empet According to
the Cianjur geological map by Sujatmiko, the bedrock of the Gunung Padang area
consist of basaltic andesite volcanic rocks regionally classified as the Tuffaceous
Breccia, Lava, Sandstone, and Conglomerate. These volcanic rocks are intruded
by igneous rocks called the Homblenda Pasir Pogor Andesite Intrusion.[5] Based
on K–Ar dating from Pertamina, the Homblenda Pasir Pogor Andesite Intrusion is
inferred to be about 32.3 ± 0.3 million years old.[6] Based on local field studies,
regional geology, and local geomorphology, the circular basin within which Gunung
Padang lies is inferred to be the caldera of an extinct, deeply eroded composite
volcano, called the Karyamukti composite paleovolcano, which lies at the
intersection of the Cimandiri fault (WNW – ENE) and the Gede-Cikondang fault
(NNW – SSE).

Gunung Padang, on which the terraces of the Gunung Padang Site lie, is made up
of hydrothermally altered volcanic rocks consisting of lava flows alternating with
volcanic breccia that are intruded by andesite intrusive rocks. These volcanic rocks,
which have been hydrothermally altered to quartz, pyrite, and kaolinite, are part of
the deeply eroded Karyamukti composite paleovolcano. Because of their pervasive
alteration, they are structurally weak and form an unstable base to Gunung Padang.
The intrusive andesites, which correlate with the Homblenda Pasir Pogor Andesite
Intrusion, form the top of Gunung Padang. This consists of
andesite porphyry exhibiting well-developed columnar jointing, which forms trigonal
to hexagonal stone columns that vary in shape and symmetry and in length from 1–3
metres (3 ft 3 in – 9 ft 10 in). The columnar jointing has formed perpendicular to the
largely vertical sides of the igneous intrusion. The andesite porphyry consists
of plagioclase and pyroxene phenocrysts surrounded by
an aphanitic groundmass of volcanic glass.[4] These stone columns have been used
as ready-made blocks in the construction of the megaliths at the Gunung Padang
Site.

Because of the weak and unstable foundation formed by the hydrothermally altered
Karyamukti volcanic rocks, the summit of Gunung Padang partially collapsed during
the Late Pleistocene, prior to the creation of the Gunung Padang Site. Evidence of
this past collapse can be seen in the deposits of ancient landslides that underlie its
western, upper eastern, and northern slopes and northeastern foot. In exposures of
these deposits, repeated landslides can be seen to have tilted the long axis of the
stone columns parallel to these slopes. This history indicates the continued collapse
of Gunung Padang as well as the threats this has created for the archeological site.

Along the eastern side of Gunung Padang, the andesite porphyry and associated
stone columns are relatively unweathered, in contrast to the stone columns of the
western slope, which have been worn by spheroidal weathering. Some stone
columns have weathered further into reddish-brown clay, and some are encased
within clay crusts.[4] These clay crusts, which have been mistaken for manmade

39
mortar, are natural weathering rinds formed as a result of weathering penetrating
inward from the columnar jointing.

History of study

Gunung Padang site

Dutch historian Rogier Verbeek mentioned the existence of the Gunung Padang site
in his book Oudheden van Java: lijst der voornaamste overblijfselen uit den
Hindoetijd op Java, based on a visit and report by M. De Corte in 1890 (translated)

Goenoeng Padang : On the mountain top Goenoeng Padang, near Goenoeng

Melati, a succession of 4 terraces, connected by steps of rough stone, paved
with rough flat stones and decorated with numerous sharp and columnar
upright andesite stones. On each terrace a small mound, probably a grave,
surrounded and covered with stones and topped with 2 pointed stones. In
1890, visited by Mr. De Corte.

—Rogier Verbeek, Oudheden van Java,1891.

The notes on the Gunung Padang site in Verbeek's book are similar to those made
by Dutch archaeologist Nicolaas Johannes Krom in the 1914 "Rapporten van de
Oudheidkundige Dienst" ("Report of the Department of Antiquities").

After 1914, the site was largely forgotten until 1979, when a group of local farmers
rediscovered Gunung Padang. This discovery quickly attracted the attention of the
Bandung Institute of Archaeology, the Directorate of Antiquities, PUSPAN (now the
Center for Archaeological Research and Development), the local government, and
various community groups. Throughout the 1980s, these organizations conducted
joint archaeological research and restoration work at Gunung Padang. In 1998, the
Indonesian Ministry of Education and Culture declared it a heritage site of local
interest.[2] At the end of June 2014, the ministry declared Gunung Padang a National
Site Area, covering a total of 29 hectares (72 acres).[ ivities temporarily, hoping to
begin them again under the new government. The 2014 excavation has been
criticized by archeologists for being improperly conducted.

Age estimates
Archaeologist Lutfi Yondri from the bureau of archaeology in Bandung has estimated
that the structures at Gunung Padang may have been built sometime between the

40
2nd and 5th centuries CE, thus in the Indonesian late prehistoric period,
whereas Harry Truman Simanjuntak has suggested a later date in historical times,
between the 6th and 8th centuries CE. Pottery fragments found at the site were
dated by the bureau of archaeology in the range 45 BCE–22 CE

Fringe date hypothesis

Danny Hilman Natawidjaja, an Indonesian geologist, has claimed that the site had
been built as a giant pyramid 9,000 to 20,000 years ago, implying the existence of an
otherwise-unknown advanced ancient civilization. Natawidjaja's analysis has been
rejected by other scientists. Volcanologist Sutikno Bronto concluded that Gunung
Padang is the neck of an ancient volcano and not an artificially created pyramid.
Archaeologist Víctor Pérez has described Natawidjaja's conclusions
as pseudoarchaeology.

Natawidjaja's ideas gained the attention of Indonesia's president Susilo Bambang

Yudhoyono, who set up a task force.[2] An archaeologist who did not wish to be
named due to the involvement of the country's president stated:

In archaeology we usually find the 'culture' first ... Then, after we find out the
artefact's age we'll seek out historical references to any civilisation which existed
around that period. Only then will we be able to explain the artefact historically. In
this case, they 'found' something, carbon-dated it, then it looks like they created a
civilisation around the period to explain their finding.
Natawidjaja has been joined by activist-turned-politician and member of Yudhoyono's
Democratic Party, Andy Arif, in advancing these pseudoarchaeological ideas. Thirty-
four Indonesian archaeologists and geologists signed a petition questioning the
motives and methods of the Hilman-Arif team and submitted it to Yudhoyono.

In October 2023, an article by Natawidjaja et al., published in Archaeological

Prospection, claimed that Gunung Padang is the oldest pyramid in the world, dating
as far back as 27,000 years ago. In March 2024, the publisher of Archaeological
Prospection, Wiley, and the editors, retracted that paper, stating that:

...the radiocarbon dating was applied to soil samples that were not associated with
any artifacts or features that could be reliably interpreted as anthropogenic or "man-
made". Therefore, the interpretation that the site is an ancient pyramid built 9,000 or
more years ago is incorrect, and the article must be retracted.

41
 Dr Uday Dokras

Dutch Nuances to the History of Borobudur ( & Indonesia )

"Netherlands' most precious jewel," Dutch imperial art by Johan Braakensiek.//Dutch intervention in
Lombok and Karangasem, 1894.

The Dutch played a significant role in the rediscovery and restoration of Borobudur, a major
Buddhist temple in Indonesia, while the English lieutenant governor Thomas Stamford
Raffles initially discovered it. The temple was buried under volcanic ash and overgrown
with vegetation until it was discovered by the English lieutenant governor Thomas
Stamford Raffles in 1814.
Raffles had sent a Dutch engineer, H.C. Cornelius, to find and excavate the temple. When
the Dutch retook control of Java in 1816, the local Dutch administrator ordered work to
continue the excavations. A team of Dutch archaeologists restored the site in 1907–11, and
a second restoration was completed by 1983. Dutch forces surrender to the Japanese after two
months of fighting.

The invasion of Java was a successful British amphibious operation against Java in
the Dutch East Indies between August and September 1811 during the Napoleonic Wars.
Originally established as a colony of the Dutch East India Company, Java remained in Dutch
hands throughout the French Revolutionary Wars, during which the
French invaded the Dutch Republic, transforming it into the Batavian Republic in 1795 and

42
the Kingdom of Holland in 1806. The Kingdom of Holland was annexed to the First French
Empire in 1810, and Java became a French colony, though it continued to be administered
and garrisoned primarily with Dutch personnel.

After their capture of the French West Indies between 1809 and 1810, and a
successful campaign against France's possessions in Mauritius from 1810 to 1811, British
attention turned to the Dutch East Indies. An expedition was dispatched from British India in
April 1811, while a small squadron of Royal Navy frigates was ordered to patrol off the
island, raiding shipping and launching amphibious assaults against targets of opportunity.
British troops landed on 4 August, and by 8 August the undefended city
of Batavia capitulated. The defenders withdrew to a previously prepared fortified position,
Fort Cornelis, which the British besieged, capturing it early in the morning of 26 August. The
remaining defenders, a mixture of Dutch and French regulars and native militiamen,
withdrew, pursued by the British.[ A series of amphibious and land assaults captured most of
the remaining strongholds, and the city of Salatiga surrendered on 16 September, followed by
the official capitulation of the island to the British on 18 September.

The island remained in British hands for the remainder of the Napoleonic Wars, but was
returned to Dutch control in 1816, as per the terms of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814.

Background
The Dutch had been under French control for several years and were already at war with
Britain. The strongly pro-French Herman Willem Daendels was appointed governor-general
of the Dutch East Indies in 1807. He arrived in Java aboard the French privateer Virginie in
1808, and began fortifying the island against the British threat. In particular, Daendels
established an entrenched camp named Fort Cornelis a few miles south of Batavia. He also
improved the island's defences by building new hospitals, barracks, arms factories and a new
military college.[2]

In 1810, the Kingdom of Holland were formally annexed by France. As part of the resulting
changes, Jan Willem Janssens was appointed personally by Napoleon Bonaparte to replace
Daendels as governor-general. Janssens had previously served as governor of the Dutch Cape
Colony, and had been forced to capitulate after being defeated by British forces at the Battle
of Blaauwberg in 1806. Janssens accompanied a French frigate division under Joseph-
François Raoul, which consisted of the frigates Méduse and Nymphe and the corvette Sappho,
tasked with supporting Java. The division was accompanied by several hundred light
infantrymen and several senior French officers. They arrived in Java in April 1811 without
mishap. On 2 September, the frigates arrived at Surabaya, tailed by the 32-gun
frigate HMS Bucephalus. Two days later, the British sloop HMS Barracouta joined the
chase, but lost contact on 8 September. Four days
later, Méduse and Nymphe chased Bucephalus, which escaped and broke contact the next day.
The squadron was back in Brest, France on 22 December 1811.[2]

British forces had already occupied the Dutch colonies of Ambon and the Molucca Islands;
they had also recently captured the French colonies of Réunion and Isle de France in
the Mauritius campaign of 1809–1811. Stamford Raffles, an East India Company official
who had been forced to leave the Dutch colony at Malacca when Holland was annexed,
suggested to Lord Minto, the Governor-General of India, that Java and the other Dutch
possessions should be captured. With the large forces which had been made available to him

43
for the Mauritius campaign, Minto enthusiastically adopted the suggestion, and even
proposed to accompany the expedition himself.

Naval raids
The Navy was active off the Javanese coastline before and during the expedition. On 23 May
1811 a party from HMS Sir Francis Drake attacked a flotilla of fourteen Dutch gun vessels
off Surabaya, capturing nine of them.Merak, in north-western Java, was attacked and the fort
defending the town largely demolished by a party from HMS Minden and HMS Leda on 30
July. On the same day HMS Procris attacked a squadron of six Dutch gunboats flying French
colours, capturing five and destroying the sixth.

Invasion
The British force, initially under the command of Vice-Admiral William O'Bryen Drury, and
then after his death in March 1811, under Commodore William Robert Broughton, assembled
at bases in India in early 1811.The first division of troops, under the command of
Colonel Rollo Gillespie, left Madras on 18 April, escorted by a squadron under
Captain Christopher Cole aboard the 36-gun HMS Caroline. They arrived at Penang on 18
May, and on 21 May the second division, led by Major-General Frederick Augustus
Wetherall, which had left Calcutta on 21 April, escorted by a squadron under
Captain Fleetwood Pellew, aboard the 38-gun HMS Phaeton joined them.The two squadrons
sailed together, arriving at Malacca on 1 June, where they made contact with a division of
troops from Bengal under Lieutenant-General Sir Samuel Auchmuty, escorted by
Commodore Broughton aboard the 74-gun HMS Illustrious. Auchmuty and Broughton
became the military and naval commanders in chief respectively of the expedition.

With the force now assembled Auchmuty had roughly 11,960 men under his command, the
previous strength having been reduced by approximately 1,200 by sickness. Those too ill to
travel on were landed at Malacca, and on 11 June the fleet sailed onwards. After calling at
various points en route, the force arrived off Indramayu on 30 June.[ On 31 July Captain
Maunsell commanding the sloop the Procris, discovered a convoy of 40 or 50 proas, escorted
44
by six French gunboats in the mouth of the Indromayo river. Launching boats they were able
to board and capture five of the French gunboats in quick succession; the sixth blew up.
Meanwhile, however, the convoy escaped up the shallow muddy river.

There the fleet waited for a time for intelligence concerning the Dutch strength. Colonel
Mackenzie, an officer who had been dispatched to reconnoitre the coast, suggested a landing
site at Cilincing, an undefended fishing village 12 miles (19 km) east of Batavia. The fleet
anchored off the Marandi River on 4 August, and began landing troops at 14:00. The
defenders were taken by surprise, and nearly six hours passed before Franco-Dutch troops
arrived to oppose the landing, by which time 8,000 British troops had been landed. A brief
skirmish took place between the advance guards, and the Franco-Dutch forces were repulsed.

Fall of Batavia
On learning of the successful British landing, Janssens withdrew from Batavia with his army,
which amounted to between 8,000 and 10,090 men, and garrisoned themselves in Fort
Cornelis. The British advanced on Batavia, reaching it on 8 August and finding it
undefended. The city surrendered to the forces under Colonel Gillespie, after Broughton and
Auchmuty had offered promises to respect private property. The British were disappointed to
find that part of the town had been set on fire, and many warehouses full of goods such as
coffee and sugar had been looted or flooded, depriving them of prize money. On 9 August
1811 Rear-Admiral Robert Stopford arrived and superseded Commodore Broughton, who
was judged to be too cautious. Stopford had orders to supersede Rear-Admiral Albemarle
Bertie as commander in chief at the Cape, but on his arrival he learnt of Vice-Admiral
Drury's death, and the planned expedition to Java, and so travelled on.

British advances
General Janssens had always intended to rely on the tropical climate and disease to weaken
the British army rather than oppose a landing. The British now advanced on Janssens's
stronghold, reducing enemy positions as they went. The Dutch military and naval station at
Weltevreeden fell to the British after an attack on 10 August. British losses did not exceed
100 while the defenders lost over 300. In one skirmish, one of Janssens's French
subordinates, General Alberti, was killed when he mistook some British riflemen in their
green uniforms for Dutch troops. Weltevreeden was six miles from Fort Cornelis and on 20
August the British began preparing fortifications of their own, some 600 yards from the
Franco-Dutch positions.

Siege of Fort Cornelis

Diagram of Fort Cornelis, Batavia.

Fort Cornelis measured 1 mile (1,600 m) in length by between 600 yards (550 m) and 800
yards (730 m) in breadth. Two hundred and eighty cannon were mounted on its walls and
45
bastions. Its defenders were a mixed bag of Dutch, French and East Indies troops. Most of the
locally raised East Indian troops were of doubtful loyalty and effectiveness, although there
were some determined artillerymen from Celebes. The captured station at Weltevreeden
proved an ideal base from which the British could lay siege to Fort Cornelis. On 14 August
the British completed a trail through the forests and pepper plantations to allow them to bring
up heavy guns and munitions, and opened siege works on the north side of the Fort. For
several days, there were exchanges of fire between the fort and the British batteries, manned
mainly by Royal Marines and sailors from HMS Nisus.

A sortie from the fort early on the morning of 22 August briefly seized three of the British
batteries, until they were driven back by some of the Bengal Sepoys and the 69th Foot. The
two sides then exchanged heavy fire, faltering on 23 August, but resuming on 24 August. The
Franco-Dutch position worsened when a deserter helped General Rollo Gillespie to capture
two of the redoubts by surprise. Gillespie, who was suffering from fever, collapsed, but
recovered to storm a third redoubt. The French General Jauffret was taken prisoner. Two
Dutch officers, Major Holsman and Major Muller, sacrificed themselves to blow up the
redoubt's magazine.

The three redoubts were nevertheless the key to the defence, and their loss demoralised most
of Janssens's East Indian troops. Many Dutch troops also defected, repudiating their
allegiance to the French. The British stormed the fort at midnight on 25 August, capturing it
after a bitter fight. The siege cost the British 630 casualties. The defenders' casualties were
heavier, but only those among officers were fully recorded. Forty of them were killed, sixty-
three wounded and 230 captured, including two French generals. Nearly 5,000 men were
captured, including three general officers, 34 field officers, 70 captains and 150 subaltern
officers. 1,000 men were found dead in the fort, with more being killed in the subsequent
pursuit. Janssens escaped to Buitenzorg with a few survivors from his army, but was forced
to abandon the town when the British approached.[

Total British losses in the campaign after the fall of Fort Cornelis amounted to 141 killed,
733 wounded and 13 missing from the Army, and 15 killed, 45 wounded and three missing
from the Navy; a total of 156 killed, 788 wounded and 16 missing by 27 August.

Later actions
Royal Navy ships continued to patrol off the coast, occasionally making raids on targets of
opportunity. On 4 September two French 40-gun frigates, the Méduse and
the Nymphe attempted to escape from Surabaya. They were pursued by the 36-
gun HMS Bucephalus and the 18-gun HMS Barracouta, until Barracouta lost contact.
Bucephalus pursued them alone until 12 September, when the French frigates came about and
attempted to overhaul her. Bucephalus's commander, Captain Charles Pelly, turned about and
tried to lead the pursuing French over shoals, but seeing the danger, they hauled off and
abandoned the chase, returning to Europe.

On 31 August a force from the frigates HMS Hussar, HMS Phaeton and HMS Sir Francis
Drake, and the sloop HMS Dasher captured the fort and town of Sumenep, on Madura
Island in the face of a large Dutch defending force. The rest of Madura and several
surrounding islands placed themselves under the British soon afterwards. Suspecting Janssens
to be in Cirebon, a force was landed there
from HMS Lion, HMS Nisus, HMS President, HMS Phoebe and HMS Hesper on 4
September, causing the defenders to promptly surrender. General Jamelle, a member of

46
Janssens's staff, was captured in the fall of the town. The town and fort of Taggal surrendered
on 12 September after HMS Nisus and HMS Phoebe arrived offshore.

While the navy took control of coastal towns, the army pushed on into the interior of the
island. Janssens had been reinforced on 3 September by 1,200 mounted irregulars under
Prince Prang Wedono and other Javanese militia. On 16 September Salatiga fell to the
British. Janssens attacked a British force under Colonel Samuel Gibbs that day, but was
repulsed. Many of the native militia killed their Dutch officers in the ensuing rout. With his
effective force reduced to a handful of men, Janssens surrendered two days later, on 18
September.

Aftermath
The Dutch-held islands of Amboyna, Harouka, Saparua, Nasso-
Laut, Buru, Manipa, Manado, Copang, Amenang, Kemar, Twangwoo, and Ternate had
surrendered to a force led by Captain Edward Tucker in 1810, while Captain Christopher
Cole captured the Banda Islands, completing the conquest of Dutch possessions in
the Maluku Islands. Java became the last major colonial possession in the East not under
British control, and its fall marked the effective end of the war in these waters. Stamford
Raffles was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Java. He ended Dutch administrative methods,
liberalized the system of land tenure, and extended trade.

Britain returned Java and other East Indian possessions to the newly independent United
Kingdom of the Netherlands under the terms of the Convention of London in 1814. One
enduring legacy of the British occupation was the road rules, as the British had decreed
that traffic should drive on the left, and this has endured in Indonesia to this day.

Sepoy revolt
The Bengali sepoy regiments stationed in Yogyakarta in 1815, inspired by the Hindu rituals
of the Surakarta court and the glory of the Javanese temples
of Prambanan and Borobodur planned a revolt against the British. This plot was conjured
with the help of Sunan and the sepoys planned to kill all the British officers, overthrow
European power, and install a Bengali administration over the whole island. In the end, the
plan never came to fruition. As described by British officer Sir Stamford Raffles:

the Hindus appear to have been gratified at discovering relics of their ancient religion and
faith [in Java] and to have received without dislike a country in which they found themselves
so much at home...the sepoys always pointed out that Java was the land of Brama. This they
would say was the country in which their gods took delight; this must be the country
described in their sacredbooks and not Hindustan, which, if ever the abode of the gods must
have since been strangely altered, and that it was a sin and a shame that the land of Brama
should remain in the hands of infidels

— Sir Stamford Raffles

He further stated that this revolt would ultimately have led to the reestablishment
of Hinduism in Java and the expulsion of European power

The intimacy between this prince [Pakubuwana IV] and the Sepoys first commenced from his
attending ceremonies of their religious worship, which was Hindu, and assisting them with
several idols of that worship which had been preserved in his family. The conspirators

47
availing themselves of the predilection of the prince for the religion of his ancestors, flattered
him by addressing him as a descendant of the great Ráma [Rama], and a deliberate plan was
formed, the object of which was to place the European provinces once more under a Hindu
power. Had this plan been attended with success, it would probably have been followed by
the almost immediate and general reconversion of the Javanese themselves to the Hindu faith

— Sir Stamford Raffles

The Sunan of Surakarta took an avid interest in the Hindu sepoys, and would
attend Pooja with the Bengalis, who prayed to Javanese idols which likely had not seen
worship in centuries. He would also allow them to take part in his court, and use his facilities
for worship and training.

In Surakarta, however, the Sunan immediately responded to the sepoys’ overtures by lending
them Hindu images from the court collections and by providing money for the decoration of
the statues and to light up the ghāt (platforms) on which they were placed. He also attended
various ceremonies inside the fort, usually alone and dressed as a common Javanese, but
sometimes also accompanied by members of his family when he would arrive by carriage
(Carey 1977:302). In return, the Sunan welcomed leading sepoy conspirators into his court,
sitting with them in the evenings at the Randingan, the place set aside for archery practice in
the kraton, where he would interrogate them on the manner and customs of India and watch
their gymnastic displays (Carey 1977:303, 317 note 61). The sepoys also told him about the
history of Bengal, the strength of the British army in India and their victories there, stressing
that the power of the farang (British) was entirely dependant on their British-Indian troops [.

Java, an island of modern-day Indonesia, lies southeast of Malaysia and Sumatra, south of Borneo
and west of Bali. The Dutch had been in Java since 1596, establishing the Dutch East India
Company, a trading company with headquarters at Batavia (modern-day Jakarta), which the Dutch
commandeered in 1619. The Dutch East India Company began to assert greater and greater
control over the Muslim kingdoms of the East Indies, transforming them into vassal states, with
peasants growing rice, sugar, pepper and coffee for the Dutch government. The company was
dissolved in 1799 because of debts and corruption, and the Dutch government took control of the
East Indies directly.

The British supplanted the Dutch in Java for a brief period (1811-1816), but the Dutch returned to
power, slowly granting native Javanese more local control, even giving them a majority on the
People’s Council. But on January 11, 1942, the Japanese declared war on the Royal Dutch
government with its invasion of Borneo and the Island of Celebes, a date that also marked the
beginning of the end of the Dutch presence in the East Indies. Sumatra was the next site of
Japanese occupation, with paratroopers and troops landing from transports on February 14-16.
Seven thousand British and Australian troops reinforced the Dutch fighters on Java, but the Allies
pulled out of the fight in late February at the approach of two more large Japanese invasion forces
that arrived on March 1.

The Dutch finally ended all resistance to the superior Japanese forces on March 9 (some sources
say March 8), surrendering on Java. Java’s independence of colonial control became a final fact of
history in 1950, when it became part of the newly independent Republic of Indonesia.

48
 II

The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East

Indies (Dutch: Nederlands(ch)-Indië; Indonesian: Hindia Belanda), was a Dutch
colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which declared
independence on 17 August 1945. Following the Indonesian War of Independence,
Indonesia and the Netherlands made peace in 1949. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824,
the Dutch ceded the governorate of Dutch Malacca to Britain, leading to its eventual
incorporation into Malacca (state) of modern Malaysia.

49
The Dutch East Indies was formed from the nationalised trading posts of the Dutch East
India Company, which came under the administration of the Dutch government in 1800.
During the 19th century, the Dutch fought many wars against indigenous rulers and
peoples, which caused hundreds of thousands of deaths. Dutch rule reached its greatest
territorial extent in the early 20th century with the occupation of Western New Guinea
The Dutch East Indies was one of the most valuable colonies under European rule,
though its profits depended on exploitative labor

The colony contributed to Dutch global prominence in spice and cash crop trade in the
19th century, and coal and oil exploration in the 20th century. The colonial social order
was rigidly racial with the Dutch elite living separately from but linked to their native
subjects. The term Indonesia was used for the geographical location after 1880. In the
early 20th century, local intellectuals conceived Indonesia as a nation state, setting the
stage for an independence movement.

Japan's World War II occupation dismantled much of the Dutch colonial state and
economy. Following the Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945, Indonesian nationalist
leaders Sukarno and Hatta declared independence, instigating the Indonesian National
Revolution. The Dutch, aiming to re-establish control of the archipelago, responded by
deploying roughly 220,000 troops,[11] who fought the Indonesian nationalists in attrition
warfare. The United States threatened to terminate financial aid for the Netherlands under
the Marshall Plan if they did not agree to transfer sovereignty to Indonesia, leading to
Dutch recognition of Indonesian sovereignty at the 1949 Dutch–Indonesian Round Table
Conference. Indonesia became one of the leading nations of the Asian independence
movement after World War II. During the revolution and after Indonesian independence,
almost all Dutch citizens repatriated to the Netherlands.

In 1962, the Dutch turned over their last possession in Southeast Asia, Dutch New
Guinea (Western New Guinea), to Indonesia under the provisions of the New York
Agreement. At that point, the entirety of the colony ceased to exist. The
word Indies comes from Latin: Indus (Names for India). The original name Dutch
Indies (Dutch: Nederlandsch-Indië) was translated by the English as the Dutch East
Indies, to keep it distinct from the Dutch West Indies. The name Dutch Indies is recorded
in the Dutch East India Company's documents of the early 1620s..

Scholars writing in English use the terms Indië, Indies, the Dutch East Indies,
the Netherlands Indies, and colonial Indonesia interchangeably.

50
 A sketch of life in
the sultanate in the Indonesian region before the arrival of Europeans depicts a boat on
the Bengawan Solo River.
At the time when Europeans arrived, the Indonesian archipelago supported various states,
including commercially oriented coastal trading states and inland agrarian states (the most
important were Srivijaya and Majapahit). Since centuries BCE the islands were part of
migratory and commercial exchange within Southeast Asia, India, Arabian
peninsula and east-Africa. From classical antiquity onwards the archipelago was also a
major part of the global spice trade. For centuries Hindu-Buddhist civilizations were
dominant; however, increasing trade links instigated the spread of Islam. By the 16th
century, a large part of the archipelago was ruled under Islamic kingdoms,
except Bali that retained a Hindu majority. Sultanates, city states, local kingdoms and
tribes were all connected through trade, creating a mixed Hindu-Buddhist-Islamic culture,
and Malay as a lingua franca throughout the region. The islands were known to the
Europeans and were sporadically visited by expeditions such as that of Italians Marco
Polo in 1292 and Odoric of Pordenone in 1321. The first Europeans to establish
themselves in Indonesia were the Portuguese in 1512 who established a network
of trading posts and fortresses throughout the region, including at the Spice Islands of
the Maluku Islands. In 1580, Portugal formed a union with Spain, and therewith
entered the war with the Dutch Republic.

Dutch East Indies Company rule

Expansion of the Dutch East Indies in the

Indonesian Archipelago
Following disruption of Dutch access to spices,[17] the first Dutch expedition set sail to
reach the East Indies in 1595 to access spices directly from Asia. After many skirmishes
and hardships, only one third of the original crew made it back to Holland and other
Dutch expeditions soon followed. Recognising the potential of the East Indies trade, the
Dutch government amalgamated the competing companies into the United East India
Company (Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie or VOC)

51
In March 1602 the VOC was granted a charter to wage war, build fortresses, and make
treaties across Asia. A capital was established in Batavia (now Jakarta), which became
the center of the VOC's Asian trading network. To their original monopolies
on nutmeg, peppers, cloves and cinnamon, the company and later colonial administrations
introduced non-indigenous cash crops like coffee, tea, cacao, tobacco, rubber, sugar and
opium, and safeguarded their commercial interests by taking over surrounding territory
Smuggling, the ongoing expense of war, corruption, and mismanagement led to
bankruptcy by the end of the 18th century. The company was formally dissolved in 1800
and its colonial possessions in the Indonesian archipelago (including much of Java, parts
of Sumatra, much of Maluku, and the hinterlands of ports such
as Makasar, Manado and Kupang) were nationalized under the Dutch Republic as the
Dutch East Indies.

Slavery

When the VOC arrived in the Indonesian archipelago, they started to use and expand
upon the then-existing indigenous system of slavery. In certain places, slaves were used
on plantations such as on the Maluku islands, namely the Banda islands where most of
the local population had been deported or exterminated by the VOC to be replaced with
slaves.[21] Dutch slaves worked in agriculture, manufacturing, and services, but most were
used as domestic servants including housemaids and houseboys, cooks, seamstresses,
musicians, and concubines.

Slaves could be acquired through trade at indigenous slave markets or captured on raids.
In certain cases, the VOC stirred up ethnic tensions between rivalling populations in the
hope they could cheaply buy war captives at slave markets after the conflict. Slaves were
transported from islands in Indonesia itself, or from other countries such as India and
China. Estimates of the scale of the slave trade in the Dutch East Indies are scant, but it is
suggested that around 1 million slaves were active during its peak in the 17th and 18th
century.

Punishments for slaves could be extremely harsh— for instance, runaway slaves and their
accomplices could be subject to whipping, chain gangs, or death. Other punishments
included the cutting of hands, ears, breasts and noses, forms of scaphism, being burned
alive and the breaking wheel.[25] In theory, slave masters did not have free rein to punish
their own slaves as they wished. Punishments of slaves had to be decided in court, and
certain punishments could only be applied when the slave was found guilty in an official
court case. In reality, however, abuse of slaves by their masters was rampant and often
went unpunished. Beatings and whippings were a commonplace punishment for
disobedient slaves. Rape of female slaves by their masters was a common occurrence as
well, as these women and girls were obliged to provide sexual services for their masters.
Refusing to do so could result in severe physical punishment. Slavery and its excesses
did not end with the bankruptcy of the VOC in 1798, but continued under Dutch state
rule. Due to growing international criticism slavery was eventually abolished in the Dutch
East Indies in 1860. In reality, this was mostly limited to the slaves present on Java and
Madura, whose masters were financially compensated for the loss of their workforce.
However, on many other islands where slave masters were more often indigenous rulers,
little changed. The main reason for this was financial, as the Dutch state at that time did

52
not want to spend the money necessary to free the slaves on the more distant islands.
Another reason was to appease local rulers and to prevent political turmoil. Due to the lax
policy of the Dutch state slavery persisted in parts of the Dutch East Indies well into the
20th century.

Dutch conquests- First Dutch Expedition, Second Dutch Expedition, and French and
British rule

Collectie Stichting Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen Figure Megalith found year 1931 Location of
the Kepaksian Pernong Sekala Brak in Hanibung Batu Brak, independent Dutch control securing British
settlements in Sumatra./Prince Diponegoro was a noble figure who fought against the Dutch conquest
which overwhelmed the Dutch. Known in the Diponegoro war
From the arrival of the first Dutch ships in the late 16th century, to the declaration of
independence in 1945, Dutch control over the Indonesian archipelago was always
tenuous. Although Java was dominated by the Dutch, many areas remained independent
throughout much of this time, including Aceh, Bali, Lombok and Borneo. There were
numerous wars and disturbances across the archipelago as various indigenous groups
resisted efforts to establish Dutch hegemony, which weakened Dutch control and tied up
its military forces. Piracy remained a problem until the mid-19th century. Finally, in the
early 20th century, imperial dominance was extended across what was to become the
territory of modern-day Indonesia.

In 1806, with the Netherlands under Imperial French domination, Emperor Napoleon
I appointed his brother Louis Bonaparte to the Dutch throne, which led to the 1808
appointment of Marshal Herman Willem Daendels as Governor-General of the Dutch
East Indies. In 1811 Daendels was replaced by Governor-General Jan Willem Janssens,
but shortly after his arrival, British forces occupied several Dutch East Indies ports
including the Spice islands in 1810 and Java the following year, leading to Sir Thomas
Stamford Raffles becoming Lieutenant Governor. Following Napoleon's defeat at the
1815 Battle of Waterloo and the Congress of Vienna, independent Dutch control was
restored in 1816 on the basis of the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814. The Commissioners-
General of the Dutch East Indies reformed the public finances of the colony and drew up
a new Regeringsreglement that would define the government of the colony for a century.
Under the 1824 Anglo-Dutch Treaty the Dutch secured the Kepaksian Pernong Sekala
Brak and British settlements such as Bengkulu, both in Sumatra, and the British secured
the Dutch settlement of Singapore as well as Dutch possessions in the Malay

53
Peninsula (Malaya) and Dutch India. The resulting borders between former British and
Dutch possessions remain today between modern Malaysia and Indonesia.

Since the establishment of the VOC in the 17th century, the expansion of Dutch territory
had been a business matter. Graaf van den Bosch's governor-generalship (1830–1835)
confirmed profitability as the foundation of official policy, restricting its attention to Java,
Sumatra and Bangka. However, from about 1840, Dutch national expansionism saw
them wage a series of wars to enlarge and consolidate their possessions in the outer
islands. Motivations included the protection of areas already held, the intervention of
Dutch officials ambitious for glory or promotion, and the aim to establish Dutch claims
throughout the archipelago to prevent intervention from other Western powers during
the European push for colonial possessions. As exploitation of Indonesian resources
expanded off Java, most of the outer islands came under direct Dutch government control
or influence.

The Submission of Prince Dipo Negoro to

General De Koc k, by Nicolaas Pieneman
The Dutch subjugated the Minangkabau of Sumatra in the Padri War (1821–38) and
the Java War (1825–30) ended significant Javanese resistance. The Banjarmasin
War (1859–1863) in southeast Kalimantan resulted in the defeat of the Sultan. After
failed expeditions to conquer Bali in 1846 and 1848, an 1849 intervention brought
northern Bali under Dutch control. The most prolonged military expedition was the Aceh
War in which a Dutch invasion in 1873 was met with indigenous guerrilla resistance and
ended with an Acehnese surrender in 1912. Disturbances continued to break out on both
Java and Sumatra during the remainder of the 19th century. [ This included the Banten
Peasant's Revolt in the aftermath of the tremendous eruption of Krakatoa in 1883.
However, the island of Lombok came under Dutch control in 1894, and Batak resistance
in northern Sumatra was quashed in 1895. Towards the end of the 19th century, the
balance of military power shifted towards the industrialising Dutch and against pre-
industrial independent indigenous Indonesian polities as the technology gap widened.
Military leaders and Dutch politicians believed they had a moral duty to free the native
Indonesian peoples from indigenous rulers who were considered oppressive, backward, or
disrespectful of international law.

Although Indonesian rebellions broke out, direct colonial rule was extended throughout
the rest of the archipelago from 1901 to 1910 and control taken from the remaining
independent local rulers. Southwestern Sulawesi was occupied in 1905–06, the island of

54
Bali was subjugated with military conquests in 1906 and 1908, as were the remaining
independent kingdoms in Maluku, Sumatra, Kalimantan and Nusa Tenggara. Other rulers
including the Sultans of Tidore in Maluku, Pontianak (Kalimantan)
and Palembang in Sumatra, requested Dutch protection from independent neighbours
thereby avoiding Dutch military conquest and were able to negotiate better conditions
under colonial rule.[44] The Bird's Head Peninsula (Western New Guinea), was brought
under Dutch administration in 1920. This final territorial range would form the territory
of the Republic of Indonesia. The colonial wars in the Dutch East Indies exacted a heavy
toll on the Indonesian population, with around 3 to 4 million deaths including both direct
war casualties and indirect victims of war due to famine and disease.
Cultivation System and Coolie Ordinances
Painting of the city of Batavia during the Dutch colonial period, which was previously Sunda
Kelapa, owned by the Banten Sultanate.
Due to the high monetary costs of several Dutch conquests in the 19th century, the
Cultivation System ("Cultuurstelsel") was implemented in 1830. Under this system it was
stipulated that Indonesian farmers had to use 20% of their farmland for the cultivation of
cash crops for export such as indigo, coffee and sugar. Through this system considerable
profits were made; the net profit for the Dutch treasury is estimated at 4% of the Dutch
GDP at the time and around 50% of total state revenue.

The system proved disastrous for the local population; at its height, over 1 million
farmers worked under the Cultuurstelsel and the extreme incentive for profit resulted in
widespread abuses. Farmers were often forced to either use more than 20% of their
farmland, or the most fertile land, for cultivation of cash crops. The system led to an
increase in famine and disease among Javanese peasants in the 1840s. According to one
estimate, the mortality rates increased by as much as 30% during this period.Due to
widespread criticism of the system, it was abolished in 1870. According to one study, the
mortality rate in Java would have been 10–20% higher by the late 1870s if the Cultivation
system had not been abolished. The introduction of trucks, railways, telegraph systems,
and more coordinated distribution systems all contributed to famine elimination in Java
which had historically been common. Java experienced rapid population growth during
the 19th century and there were no significant famines in Java after the 1840s.

Another source of profit were the so-called coolies, a name for low-wage indentured
laborers. After the abolition of the Cultivation System in 1870, the economy shifted to
private companies such as the Deli Company, which was founded on Sumatra in 1869.
Large-scale plantations were built to grow cash crops and Javanese, Chinese, Malay,
Batak and Indian people were shipped to the plantations in Sumatra and Java to perform
harsh labor. It is estimated that over 500,000 coolies were transported to Sumatra during
the late 19th and early 20th century. The precise death rate among coolie laborers is hard
to estimate due to scarce or unreliable records but has been estimated to be as high as
25% in certain places, with a possible death toll of many tens of thousands.

While coolies were often paid laborers who worked out of free will, in practice their
circumstances often involved forced labor and more closely resembled slavery. They
were often misled when signing work contracts or even forced to sign contracts. Others
were kidnapped or forced to work due to debts or were criminals sentenced to forced

55
labour by the colonial justice system. The Coolie Ordinances ("Poenale sanctie") of 1880,
which allowed the plantation owners to serve as judge, jury and executioner resulted in
widespread atrocities. It included a penal sanction which allowed owners to physically
punish their coolies as they saw fit. Punishments that were used against coolies included
whippings or beatings, after which the open wounds were rubbed with salt. Other
punishments used were electrocution, crucifixion and suspending coolies by their toes or
thumbs until they broke. Medical care for the coolies was scarce and often aimed at
healing punished coolies so they could return to work or be tortured more extensively.
Rape of adult female coolies as well as their children was also common. [

The coolie system was heavily criticized, especially after 1900 with the rise of the so-
called "Ethical Politics". A critical pamphlet named "De miljoenen uit Deli" was
published by J. van den Brand. The document described abuses committed against coolies
including the torture and sexual abuse of a 15-year-old female coolie who had rejected
sexual advances of a Dutch plantation overseer. The penal sanction was eventually
abolished in 1931 and the Coolie Ordinances ended in the early 1940s.

Njai System
During earlier stages of colonization female indigenous sex slaves were bought by Dutch
colonials, but this practice was cut short after 1860 with the abolition of slavery. In the
late 19th century, increasing numbers of Dutch immigrants arrived in colonial Indonesia,
leading to a shortage of available women, as most immigrants were men. The Dutch then
bought the "Njai", who were indigenous women who officially served as maids but were
often also used as concubines. While officially contract workers, these women enjoyed
few rights. They could be bought and sold together with the house they worked in as so-
called "Indigenous Furniture" (Inlands Meubel). Njai were also not allowed custody of
the children they had with their Dutch masters, and when they were fired, their children
would be taken away.

By the 1910s the number of Njai had decreased, although prostitution had become more
prevalent. The practice had not died out, however, by the time the Empire of
Japan invaded and occupied the Indies. During the occupation, the Njai and their mixed-
race children were forcefully separated from European men, who were put into
internment camps. After Sukarno proclaimed an independent Indonesia, the Njai were
forced to choose between going with their partners to Europe, or staying in Indonesia.

World War II and independence

The Netherlands capitulated their European territory to Germany on May 14, 1940. The
royal family fled to exile in Britain. Germany and Japan were Axis allies. On 27
September 1940, Germany, Hungary, Italy and Japan signed a treaty outlining "spheres of
influence". The Dutch East Indies fell into Japan's sphere.

The island of Java.

The Netherlands, Britain and the United States tried to defend the colony from the
Japanese forces as they moved south in late 1941 in search of Dutch oil. On 10 January
1942, during the Dutch East Indies Campaign, Japanese forces invaded the Dutch East
Indies as part of the Pacific War. The rubber plantations and oil fields of the Dutch East
Indies were considered crucial for the Japanese war effort. Allied forces were quickly

56
overwhelmed by the Japanese and on 8 March 1942 the Royal Dutch East Indies
Army surrendered in Java.

Fuelled by the Japanese Light of Asia war propaganda and the Indonesian National
Awakening, a vast majority of the indigenous Dutch East Indies population first
welcomed the Japanese as liberators from the colonial Dutch empire, but this sentiment
quickly changed as the occupation turned out to be far more oppressive and ruinous than
the Dutch colonial government. The Japanese occupation during World War II brought
about the fall of the colonial state in Indonesia, as the Japanese removed as much of the
Dutch government structure as they could, replacing it with their own regime. Although
the top positions were held by the Japanese, the internment of all Dutch citizens meant
that Indonesians filled many leadership and administrative positions. In contrast to Dutch
repression of Indonesian nationalism, the Japanese allowed indigenous leaders to forge
links among the masses, and they trained and armed the younger generation

According to a UN report, four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the

Japanese occupation.

Following the Japanese surrender in August 1945, nationalist

leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta declared Indonesian independence. A four-and-a-
half-year struggle followed as the Dutch tried to re-establish their colony; although Dutch
forces re-occupied most of Indonesia's territory a guerrilla struggle ensued, and the
majority of Indonesians, and ultimately international opinion, favoured Indonesian
independence. The Netherlands committed war crimes: summary and arbitrary killings of
Indonesian villagers and farmers, torture of Indonesian prisoners and execution of
prisoners. Ad van Liempt documented the mass murder of 364 Indonesians by Dutch
soldiers in the village of Galoeng Galoeng. Alfred Edelstein and Karin van Coevorden,
documented later the execution of hundreds of men in the village of Rawagede. The
independence movement during the later phases of the Bersiap also targeted Dutch and
Eurasian civilians, particularly under the direction of Sutomo who personally supervised
the summary executions of hundreds of civilians.

After the political situation in Indonesia devolved into a deadlock the new Dutch
government, led by Louis Beel of the Catholic People's Party, formed a Commissie-
Generaal voor Nederlands-Indië (Commission General for the Dutch Indies) on 14
September 1946. This Commission-General consisted of Willem Schermerhorn, Dutch
Prime Minister from 1945 to 1946; F. De Boer, Liberal politician; Max van Poll, Catholic
Party politician; and Hubertus van Mook, Lieutenant-Governor General (ex officio). The
Commission achieved a cease-fire on 14 October (a month after its arrival in Batavia) and
a draft agreement on 15 November with the negotiators for the Republik Sutan Sjahrir,
Prime Minister, Amir Sjarifuddin, Defense Minister, and Johannes Leimena, Junior
Minister of Health, chairman of the Indonesian Christian Party. This so-called Linggadjati
Agreement was first "elucidated" by the Dutch Minister of Foreign Affairs Jan
Jonkman on 10 December, and in this form accepted by the Dutch Parliament on 20
December 1946. It was formally signed by the parties on 25 March 1947 in Djakarta, with
the Indonesian side rejecting the "elucidation".

After this high point in the relations between the two countries, the situation rapidly
deteriorated. On both sides more extreme parties got the upper hand. The Dutch

57
unilaterally instituted an interim government for the colony on a "federal" basis, with
representation for the parts of the colony not represented by the Republik. This was
unacceptable to Sukarno. Sjahrir proposed a compromise, but this was rejected by the
Dutch. Sjahrir resigned and was replaced by Sjarifuddin. Sukarno declared a state of
emergency in the areas that were in the hands of the Republik and assumed charge of the
negotiations. The situation deteriorated further, and the Dutch resorted to military
intervention under Operation Product (or first "politionele actie"). The Commission
General was dissolved on 15 November 1947 after Schermerhorn and Van Poll resigned.
The Politionele Actie did not achieve its goals, and international pressure forced the
Dutch government to accept a cease-fire and the Renville Agreement (17 January 1948).
This agreement, however, did not lead to a solution. Provocative actions from both sides
led to a tense military situation, and the Dutch for the second time resorted to military
intervention with the second politionele actie, or Operation Kraai, in December 1948.
This was militarily successful (the Dutch managed to capture Sukarno), but again
international political pressure forced the Dutch to back down and be party to the Roem–
Van Roijen Agreement (7 May 1949). The Dutch–Indonesian Round Table
Conference then started on 22 August 1949, which led to the agreement to transfer
sovereignty to a Republic of the United States of Indonesia.

In December 1949 the Netherlands formally recognised Indonesian sovereignty with the
exception of the Dutch New Guinea (Western New Guinea). Sukarno's government
campaigned for Indonesian control of the territory, and with pressure from the United
States, the Netherlands agreed to the New York Agreement which ceded the territory to
Indonesian administration in May 1963.

In 2013 the Netherlands government apologised for the violence used against the
Indonesian people, an apology repeated by King Willem-Alexander on a state visit in
2020.To this day, the colonial war is commonly referred to as "police actions" in the
Netherlands.

Since the VOC era, the highest Dutch authority in the colony resided with the office of
the governor-general. During the Dutch East Indies era the governor-general functioned
as chief executive president of colonial government and served as commander-in-chief of
the colonial army (KNIL). Until 1903 all government officials and organisations were
formal agents of the governor-general and were entirely dependent on the central
administration of the 'office of the governor-general' for their budgets. Until 1815 the
governor-general had the absolute right to ban, censor or restrict any publication in the
colony. The so-called exorbitant powers of the governor-general allowed him to exile
anyone regarded as subversive and dangerous to peace and order, without involving any
Court of Law

Until 1848 the governor-general was directly appointed by the Dutch monarch, and in
later years via the Crown and on advice of the Dutch metropolitan cabinet. During two
periods (1815–1835 and 1854–1925) the governor-general ruled jointly with an advisory
board called the Raad van Indie (Indies Council). Colonial policy and strategy were the
responsibility of the Ministry of Colonies based in The Hague. From 1815 to 1848 the
ministry was under direct authority of the Dutch king. In the 20th century the colony
gradually developed as a state distinct from the Dutch metropole with its treasury
separated in 1903, public loans being contracted by the colony from 1913, and quasi-

58
diplomatic ties were established with Arabia to manage the Haji pilgrimage from the
Dutch East Indies. In 1922 the colony came on equal footing with the Netherlands in the
Dutch constitution, while remaining under the Ministry of Colonies.

House of the Resident (colonial

administrator) in Surabaya
The governor-general led a hierarchy of Dutch officials: the residents, the assistant
residents, and district officers called controllers. Traditional rulers who survived
displacement by the Dutch conquests were installed as regents and indigenous aristocracy
became an indigenous civil service. While they lost de facto control, their wealth and
splendour under the Dutch grew. This indirect rule did not disturb the peasantry and was
cost-effective for the Dutch; in 1900, only 250 European and 1,500 indigenous civil
servants, and 16,000 Dutch officers and men and 26,000 hired native troops, were
required to rule 35 million colonial subjects. From 1910, the Dutch created the most
centralised state power in Southeast Asia. Politically, the highly centralised power
structure established by the Dutch administration, including the exorbitant powers of
exile and censorship, was carried over into the new Indonesian republic.

A People's Council called the Volksraad for the Dutch East Indies commenced in 1918.
The Volksraad was limited to an advisory role and only a small portion of the indigenous
population was able to vote for its members. The council comprised 30 indigenous
members, 25 European and 5 from Chinese and other populations, and was reconstituted
every four years. In 1925 the Volksraad was made a semilegislative body; although
decisions were still made by the Dutch government, the governor-general was expected to
consult the Volksraad on major issues. The Volksraad was dissolved in 1942 during the
Japanese occupation.

The legal system was divided by the three main ethnic groups classified under the Dutch
colonial administration— Europeans, Foreign Orientals (Arabs and the Chinese) and the
indigenous— which were subject to their own legal systems that were all simultaneously
in force .

The Dutch government adapted the Dutch codes of law in its colony. The highest court of
law, the Supreme Court in Batavia, dealt with appeals and monitored judges and courts

59
throughout the colony. Six councils of justice (Raad van Justitie) dealt mostly with crime
committed by people in the European legal class and only indirectly with the indigenous
population.

Administrative divisions

The Dutch East Indies was divided into three gouvernementen—Groot Oost, Borneo and
Sumatra—and three provincies in Java. Provincies and gouvernementen were both
divided into residencies, but while the residencies under the provincies were divided
again into regentschappen, residencies under gouvermenten were divided
into afdeelingen first before being subdivided into regentschappen.

III

Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur (is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist

temple in Magelang Regency, near the city of Magelang and the town of Muntilan, in Central
Java, Indonesia.

Constructed of gray andesite-like stone, the temple consists of nine stacked platforms, six
square and three circular, topped by a central dome. It is decorated with 2,672 relief panels
and originally 504 Buddha statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues,
each seated inside a perforated stupa.[2] The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive
system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and
the balustrades. Borobudur has one of the world's most extensive collections of Buddhist
reliefs.

Built during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple design follows Javanese Buddhist
architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous tradition of ancestor worship and the
Buddhist concept of attaining nirvāṇa. The monument is a shrine to the Buddha and a place
for Buddhist pilgrimage. Evidence suggests that Borobudur was constructed in the 8th
century and subsequently abandoned following the 14th-century decline of Hindu kingdoms
in Java and the Javanese conversion to Islam.[4] Worldwide knowledge of its existence was
sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British ruler of Java, who was
advised of its location by native Indonesians. [5] Borobudur has since been preserved through
several restorations. The largest restoration project was completed in 1983 by the Indonesian
government and UNESCO, followed by the monument's listing as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.

Borobudur is the largest Buddhist temple in the world and ranks

with Bagan in Myanmar and Angkor Wat in Cambodia as one of the great archeological sites
of Southeast Asia. Borobudur remains popular for pilgrimage, with Buddhists in

60
Indonesia celebrating Vesak Day at the monument. Among Indonesia's tourist attractions,
Borobudur is the most-visited monument.

Following its capture, Java was under British administration from 1811 to 1816. Britain's
representative and governor-general was Stamford Raffles, who took great interest in the
history of Java. He collected Javanese antiques and made notes through contacts with local
inhabitants during his tour throughout the island. On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814,
he was informed about a big monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro. He
sent Hermann Cornelius [nl], a Dutch engineer who, among other antiquity explorations had
uncovered the Sewu complex in 1806–07, to investigate. In two months, Cornelius and his
200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the
monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. Cornelius
reported his findings to Raffles, including various drawings. Although Raffles mentioned the
discovery in only a few sentences in his book, and did not visit the site himself, he has been
credited with the monument's rediscovery, as the one who had brought it to the world's
attention.

Christiaan Lodewijk Hartmann, the resident of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius's work,
and in 1835, the whole complex was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur was more
personal than official. Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities, in particular, the
alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa.[ In 1842,
Hartmann investigated the main dome, although what he discovered is unknown and the main
stupa remains empty.

The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned Frans Carel Wilsen, a Dutch
engineering official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. Jan
Frederik Gerrit Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument,
which was completed in 1859. The government intended to publish an article based on
Brumund's study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to cooperate. The
government then commissioned another scholar, Conradus Leemans, who compiled
a monograph based on Brumund's and Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the
detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by its French translation a year later.
[42]
The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1872 by the Dutch-
Flemish engraver Isidore van Kinsbergen.

61
 Terrace on the
temple of Borobudur 1913
In 1882, the chief inspector of cultural artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely
disassembled with the relocation of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of the
monument.[44] As a result, the government appointed Willem Pieter Groeneveldt, curator of
the archaeological collection of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, to undertake a
thorough investigation of the site and to assess the actual condition of the complex; his report
found that these fears were unjustified and recommended it be left intact.

Borobudur was considered as the source of souvenirs, and parts of its sculptures were looted,
some even with colonial-government consent. In 1896 King Chulalongkorn of Siam visited
Java and requested and was allowed to take home eight cartloads of sculptures taken from
Borobudur. These include thirty pieces taken from a number of relief panels, five buddha
images, two lions, one gargoyle, several kala motifs from the stairs and gateways, and a
guardian statue (dvarapala). Several of these artifacts, most notably the lions, dvarapala,
kala, makara and giant waterspouts are now on display in the Java Art room in The National
Museum in Bangkok.

62
Borobudur after van Erp's restoration in 1911. The chhatra pinnacle is now dismantled.
The Unfinished Buddha (front) and the main stupa's chhatra (rear) at Karmawibhangga

Museum.

Water spout of drainage systems in Borobudur templeConcrete and PVC pipe improve
drainage system (1973).
Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when the Dutch engineer Jan Willem IJzerman,
chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, discovered that the temple base
enclosed a hidden foot.

General
Full name Dr. Jan Willem IJzerman (Far left Pic)

63
 Born April 9, 1851
Dead October 10, 1932
Side Liberal Union

Jan Willem IJzerman ( Leerdam , April 9, 1851 – The Hague , October 10 , 1932 ) was
an engineer in the oil extraction industry in the Dutch East Indies , member of the House of
Representatives , chairman of the Royal Dutch Geographical Society and an important person
for the preservation of Borobudur and other temples on Java .

Jan Willem IJzerman was the son of Arie IJzerman, a blacksmith in Leerdam, and Johanna
van Malsen. IJzerman married Francisca JJA Junius on 27 February 1873, who acquired
some fame as an Indies writer, under the pseudonym Annie Foore . After her death on 2 June
1890, he remarried Suzanna C. Koch on 14 June 1892. From the first marriage he had a son
and three daughters, from the second two sons and two daughters, and he was the father-in-
law of Hermien IJzerman . After training at the Royal Military Academy, he worked for a
few years in Nijmegen and Breda with the engineers , after which (1874-1896) he worked as
a (chief) engineer on various railway lines in Java and Sumatra for the purpose of extracting
raw materials.

In 1885, IJzerman (the first chairman of the Yogyakarta Archaeological Society ) discovered
the hidden base of Borobudur. The path around it was excavated and photographer Kassian
Cephas was asked to photograph all 160 reliefs that emerged. The reliefs were then covered
up again. Therefore, Cephas's photographs remain the only source for studying these reliefs
to this day.

After his retirement from military service in 1896, IJzerman was founder/director of the NV
Petroleum Company "Moeara Enim" in Amsterdam from 1897 to 1904. The company had
a concession and an oil well near Palembang in South Sumatra . In 1904, Moeara Enim was
taken over by the predecessor of the Bataafsche Petroleum Maatschappij (Royal Oil),
founded on 26 February 1907, while IJzerman became a member of the supervisory board .
Moeara Enim became a holding company for shares in Royal Oil (until around 2000).

IJzerman also became politically active for the Liberal Union , first as a member of
the Amsterdam city council (1899-1906), later as a member of the House of Representatives
(19 September 1905 - 21 September 1909 and again 12 January 1917 - 17 September 1918).
IJzerman was chairman of the Royal Dutch Geographical Society (KNAG) from 1899 to
1921, and also held numerous other administrative positions at the Linschoten-Vereeniging ,
Royal Institute for Linguistics, Geography and Ethnology of the Dutch East Indies, Council
of Appeal for Mining, and many exhibition committees.

He was the main initiator of the establishment of the Bandung Technical College , which was
founded in 1920. The park in front of the main entrance was named after him (since 1950 it is
called Taman Ganesa); however, in view of his merits, a street in Bandung (Jalan IJzerman)
was named after him after 1950.

On 8 January 1921, IJzerman was awarded an honorary doctorate

in literature and philosophy by the University of Amsterdam and on 7 April 1925 in technical
sciences by the Bandung University of Technology. In 1921, he was also awarded the
Plancius medal. IJzerman received various knighthoods : Knight in the Order of the
Netherlands Lion, Commander in the Order of Orange-Nassau and Grand Officer in the

64
Order of Orange-Nassau. In 1921, he became an honorary member of the KNAG and in 1922
of the Royal Institute of Engineers (of which he had been a member since 1874).

Photographs made in 1890–1891 revealed reliefs on the hidden foot; the coverings were then
replaced. The discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the
monument. In 1900, a three-member commission formed to plan protection, and in 1902, the
commission submitted a threefold proposal. [ First, collapse could be avoided by resetting the
corners, removing stones that endangered the adjacent parts, strengthening the first
balustrades and restoring several niches, archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, care
should be maintained and water discharge should be improved by restoring floors and spouts.
Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first balustrades,
disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored. In 1905, the proposal was approved,
and the total cost was estimated at that time around 48,800 Dutch guilders (equivalent
to ƒ1,392,279 in 2022).

The restoration began in 1907, led by Theodoor van Erp, a Dutch army engineer. The first
seven months of restoration were occupied with excavating the grounds around the
monument to find missing Buddha heads and panel stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt
the upper three circular platforms and stupas. Along the way, van Erp discovered more things
he could do to improve the monument; he submitted another proposal in 1908, which was
approved with the additional budget of 34,600 guilders (equivalent to ƒ875,176 in 2022).[
The restoration was completed in 1911 and at first glance, Borobudur had been restored to its
old glory. Van Erp went further by carefully reconstructing the chattra (three-tiered parasol)
pinnacle on top of the main stupa. However, he later dismantled the chattra, citing that there
were not enough original stones used in reconstructing the pinnacle, which means that the
original design of Borobudur's pinnacle is actually unknown.[50] The dismantled chattra now
is stored in Karmawibhangga Museum, a few hundred meters north from Borobudur.

Portrait of Theodoor van Erp/(by CJL Vermeulen).

Theodoor van Erp ( Ambon , March 26 , 1874 – Laren (North Holland) , May 7, 1958 ) was
the first restorer of the Borobudur temple in Indonesia between 1907 and 1911.

65
Van Erp was the second youngest son (of six) of Willem Vitus van Erp, a major in
the KNIL and Anna Susanna Elizabeth van Swieten. At the age of four, Theo was sent to the
Netherlands to receive a Dutch education. The journey by sailing ship around the cape took
144 days, and the ship was also stuck on a reef in the Sunda Strait for six weeks . Theo spent
his youth far from his parents, partly at boarding schools in North Brabant . In 1892 he
entered the Royal Military Academy in Breda.

Dutch East Indies

In 1896 Van Erp went to the Dutch East Indies as a second lieutenant of the Engineers ,
where he experienced part of the Aceh War . At that time he made the first architectural
drawings for the Great Mosque and the Maimoon Palace in Medan , which were further
elaborated and completed in terms of construction by JA Tingdeman at the beginning of
1900, because Van Erp was then transferred to the garrison town of Malang (East Java), in
the rank of first lieutenant of the Engineers. He also worked on the fort at Cilacap . On 27
May 1903 he married WHE (Betsy/Bets) Grevers in Batavia , daughter of JAP Grevers,
major general of the infantry of the KNIL, and MAL Grevers-Trip.

Restoration Borobudur
In 1900, at the age of 26, he was appointed to a committee that would consider measures for
the preservation of Borobudur . This was in response to a visit by two military engineers,
Governor-General Willem Rooseboom , former General of the Military Engineers and Major
General Alexander Staal - later Minister of War in the Netherlands - to Borobudur. Chairman
of this Borobudur committee of three was Dr JLA Brandes , who was also chairman of the
Committee in the Dutch East Indies for Archaeological Research on Java and Madura in
1901. Another member of the committee was BW van de Kamer , supervisor 1st Class at the
Water Board. He proposed, due to drainage problems, to cover Borobudur with a
colossal pyramidal roof of galvanized sheet iron on forty uprights of angle iron. The costs
were estimated at f 135,000. Van Erp and Brandes were unanimous about the
"unfortunateness" of this plan. Chairman Brandes supported the 'vision and approach of Van
Erp' in the report that was sent to the Netherlands in 1902. The driving force behind the
Assistance Committee for the Borobudur project that was formed in the Netherlands in 1901
was Dr. Jan Willem IJzerman , the "discoverer" of the buried foot of Borobudur and the first
chairman of the then Archaeological Association of Yogyakarta. It was not until 1905 that the
report with advice from the Netherlands was received back and further decisions and
measures could be taken.

In the meantime, Van Erp was occupied with archaeology in Central Java . He carried out
provisions on the Prambanan , the Sewu and the Mendut . He carried out work on
the Ngawen , Selgrijo and the Candi Pringapus . He also put a stop to something that had
hitherto been tolerated or even encouraged by the government: the removal of temple stones
by the cartload to serve as road surfaces, property boundaries, building materials for sugar
factories and other 'useful' things.

After various follow-up recommendations, the 'Plan Van Erp' was decided upon by
Government Decree in 1907. Van Erp was also charged with the execution. The first
restoration of the Borobudur by Van Erp in 1907-1911 was mainly aimed at preventing
further decay. There was no experience with the restoration of such extensive monuments.

Under the inspiring leadership of Van Erp, with the cooperation of many, including the
skilled photographer JJ de Vink , the Javanese artists M Kartodisastro and M Karto as well as

66
many local employees, a unique restoration was accomplished. In April 1907 Van Erp started
with f 48,800,-- and began the restoration that would last until December 1911. For 'complete
photographic recording' of the Borobudur, f 10,000,-- was made available.

In 1908 Van Erp submitted additional proposals for an amount of f 34,600. The original plans
aimed 'mainly at improving the drainage of rainwater and were otherwise limited to some
repairs and partial restorations.' The plateau and the temple square, which had to be lowered
by approx. 1.30 m, were excavated. This was done in a very systematic way for that time by
dividing the square into squares of 10 by 10 m and keeping everything that was found within
such a section together. The excavation took seven months, but also led to the recovery and
partial replacement of numerous important parts: ornamental pieces, monumental kala heads,
including those of gates, spouts, two lions and twenty Buddha heads, fragments of
expressive reliefs , niche frames, stupa-shaped crownings, antfixes and so
on. Javanese helpers, who had a remarkably good eye for the smallest details, provided the
same indispensable services in tracing the connections with stones still in the work as they
later did in the reconstruction of the Prambanan.

During the work, Van Erp came to the conclusion that more was possible and desirable. After
he received permission in 1910 for the supplementary plans submitted in 1908, he now partly
proceeded with reconstructions that pursued a higher goal, namely, to return the monument to
its original state here and there where this was appropriate: dismantling and rebuilding the
round terraces and the openwork stupas (except for two, to give an impression of the Buddhas
inside). The fifth balustrade was dismantled over its entire length and rebuilt.

Before and after photos show the big difference. Many niches could be rebuilt. Not all,
because only original fragments were restored. All these provisions made it possible to regain
the silhouette line that defines the image of Borobudur from certain angles.

Van Erp's insights, which have also served as a guideline for many archaeologists after him,
deviated completely from what was customary in the Netherlands in the restoration of old
buildings. Not only with regard to the addition of sculptures, but also for the architectural part
of the restorations.

In the first period around 1915, Cuypers - De Stuers , a restoration was an " architectural act":
one added to and continued to build in the "old", that is to say, for example, neo-Gothic style.
Around 1911, when Van Erp had already completed his work, there were already voices
raised against this type of restoration that affected the character of a monument. But even
when people came to the conclusion after 1915 that this building-in-the-old-style was out of
the question and that the documentary value of the building had to be respected, they
continued to build, albeit to show the difference in "contemporary" style, for example, from
the Amsterdam School . This remained the case until about 1940.

Van Erp was extremely progressive in 1907-1911, both in comparison with what was done in
the Netherlands and with what had been done not long before in Java. His attitude towards
Borobudur and his principles regarding the work required to save it arose from a respect for
the monument and led on the one hand to an effort to preserve the original, on the other hand
to making a clear distinction between what was original and what had to be changed if
restoration was to be possible. Only that which was necessary to bring out the main
characteristic elements was restored: the horizontal lines, the striking silhouette by restoring
the niche temples, the stupa-shaped ornaments with their pointed tops and the openwork
stupas of the round terraces. Furthermore, those parts that could be restored because their

67
form was completely certain on the basis of what had been recovered. For example, the main
stupa, which had a pinnacle , of which some details are known, others are not. Van Erp
restored this as a test, but after the result had been photographed, the hypothetical pinnacle
was dismantled again, because complete certainty could not be obtained.

Van Erp and his team dismantled and rebuilt the three upper circular terraces and the
collapsed stupas. Van Erp made possible the restoration of 151 of the 432 niche temples of
Borobobudur, rebuilt all but two of the 72 openwork stupas of the circular terraces, excavated
27 spouts and managed to complete 27 reliefs completely and 104 to a greater or lesser
extent. As much as possible, the sculptures and reliefs were cleared of mosses and lichens .
Van Erp found 20 Buddha heads (even in chicken coops), two stone lions , 900 triangular top
pieces of antifixes and 350 tops of stupa-shaped ornamental pieces of niche temples.
Through this detective work and metaculsive puzzle work, Van Erp restored much of the
original beauty of the building in four years. From the rubble and the ruins, which were
overgrown with earth - Van Erp initially had to work his way through 500 m³ of earth with
his staff - and jungle, the ancient stupa largely emerged in its former glory.

Scientists state that Borobudur was cared for by a great restorer, an architect and artist as
well as a man of science, at a critical moment in its existence at the beginning of the 20th
century. The fact that so much could be preserved and restored and especially that the
character of the monument was not violated, can certainly be attributed to that. The water
management of Borobudur, built on a hill, remained a major problem after the first
restoration. Fifteen years after that first restoration, walls of galleries were already sinking
and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration.

After the second restoration , Borobudur has been on the UNESCO World Heritage List
since 1991 .

Van Erp also provided a series of some 2000 unique and now irreplaceable photographs of
reliefs and of the monument. In 1931, as a complement to the monograph 'Description of the
Barabudur - Archeological description' (1920) edited by NJ Krom , a second monograph
appeared, this time by Van Erp: 'Description of the Barabudur - Architectural description'.
This monograph, produced in only 215 copies, is still considered a unique and masterful
work, according to AJ Bernet Kempers , among others .

The Netherlands
During the First World War, Van Erp, who had been promoted to colonel, was commander of
the Hellevoetsluis Fortress from 1914 to 1918, after 16 years in the tropics and 2 years of
leave . JWF Werumeus Buning , who was stationed here as a young lieutenant, wrote about
it: "It was the most charming garrison town, the most charming I have ever known. This was
mainly due to the man who had restored the Boro-Boedoer, the lieutenant-colonel of
engineers, Van Erp. Through his association with that mighty temple and his experiences in
the Indies, he had become a wise, strict and humane man. He promoted the works of peace in
times of war (it was during the First World War). Hellevoetsluis had the richest and cheapest
canteens in the Netherlands, and the officers' mess was decorated with twelve large photos of
the Boro-Boedoer. The colonel was fond of decent language and manners. When a young
officer indulged in a spicy joke, he would become quiet, then draw on his memories of the
Indies and let out something of the kind, which would silence the rest of the table. It always
proved to be an effective remedy."

68
After Hellevoetsluis, Theo van Erp, now retired, devoted the rest of his life as a kind
of Privatgelehter to the further publication of more than 75 articles on Hindu -Javanese and
East Asian art, giving lectures, providing advice on Hindu-Javanese restoration work and art,
and working on his major monograph: the Architectural description of the Barabudur (1931).

Van Erp was involved once more in the restoration of a large old Javanese building. That was
in 1925, when serious differences of opinion arose about the way in which the reconstruction
of the Shiva Temple in Prambanan should be continued. Van Erp was invited as an expert to
sit on the restoration committee that had to advise on this. He went to Java and after a careful
investigation on site submitted a voluminous report, which had a great influence on the
activities that since then led to the complete reconstruction of this Shiva Temple. This
journey to Java, which was originally supposed to last six weeks, was followed by a journey
to Bali . The journey ultimately lasted six months, during which much material was collected
for a study of the architecture of that island. Due to circumstances, the book on
the architecture of Bali was never published. However, several articles by Van Erp about the
antiquities discovered on Bali shortly before, including the reliefs of Jeh Pulu , were
published as a result of the journey.

In 1933, at the request of Professor Johan van Eerde, Van Erp was temporarily charged with
the care of the Hindu-Javanese antiquities in the new building of the National Museum of
Ethnology in Leiden. He ensured that the treasures from the buildings
on Rapenburg and Breestraat were made accessible to the public in an artistic manner, and
also collected data on Old Javanese prayer bells, wall clocks, hand mirrors, finger rings and
especially offering bowls.

From 1918 to 1946 Van Erp was on the board of the (Royal) Society of Friends of Asian Art ,
24 years as vice-chairman and 4 years as chairman during WWI. He was an honorary
member of this society, and also of the Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences and
the Oriental Society in the Netherlands . He was a member of the Society of Dutch
Literature .

In 1935 Theo van Erp was a delegate of the Dutch government to the 19th International
Orientalists Congress in Rome. In 1938 he was to temporarily replace Dr. W.F. Stutterheim,
who was on leave, as head of the Archaeological Service of the Dutch East Indies. Due to
Theo's health reasons this did not happen in the end.

On March 3, 1945, the Van Erp family home at Albertinestraat 12 in The Hague was wiped
out by the British bombing of Bezuidenhout . A collection of scientific work and art was
destroyed. Van Erp was unable to rebuild and/or restore this ruin.

From 1946 to 1958 Theo van Erp and his wife lived in the gardener's house (Lange Wijnen 4)
of the Dennenoord Estate (Laren NH), where the Student Sanatorium was also located. Due
to the loss of all his possessions and scientific material, Theo could no longer bring himself to
be very active in his old field and the ties with science were severed. In Laren, he fervently
took up his old hobbies of drawing and painting again. Some 400 drawings and sketches and
countless paintings appeared from his hand during this time. As a painter and draftsman he
was taught by Willem van Konijnenburg . He was a member of the Pulchri Studio in The
Hague. Friends of painters and draftsmen included Willem van den Berg , Sixta
Heddema, Dirk Nijland, JFE ten Klooster , Rie Cramer , Willem van Konijnenburg , Pol
Dom , Emilie van Kerckhoff , Theodoor van Lelyveld and Ina Rahusen .

69
In 1937 Theo van Erp was appointed Knight in the Order of the Netherlands Lion . For his
great services to Hindu-Javanese and East Asian art he received an honorary doctorate in
Literature and Philosophy from the University of Amsterdam on 17 September 1951. His
supervisor was Th. P. Galestin .

Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the
sculptures, and van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery
walls were sagging, and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration. [49] Van Erp
used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported
into the rest of the construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough
renovation was urgently needed.

Small restorations had been performed since then, but not sufficient for complete protection.
During World War II and Indonesian National Revolution in 1945 to 1949, Borobudur
restoration efforts were halted. The monument suffered further from the weather and drainage
problems, which caused the earth core inside the temple to expand, pushing the stone
structure and tilting the walls. By 1950s some parts of Borobudur were facing imminent
danger of collapsing. In 1965, Indonesia asked the UNESCO for advice on ways to
counteract the problem of weathering at Borobudur and other monuments. In 1968,
Soekmono, then head of the Archeological Service of Indonesia, launched his "Save
Borobudur" campaign, in an effort to organize a massive restoration project.

In the late 1960s, the Indonesian government had requested from the international community
a major renovation to protect the monument. In 1973, a master plan to restore Borobudur was
created. Through an Agreement concerning the Voluntary Contributions to be Given for the
Execution of the Project to Preserve Borobudur (Paris, 29 January 1973), Australia, Belgium,
Cyprus, France and Germany agreed to contribute to the restoration. [54] The Indonesian
government and UNESCO then undertook the complete overhaul of the monument in a big
restoration project between 1975 and 1982.

In 1975, the actual work began. Over one million stones were dismantled and removed during
the restoration, and set aside like pieces of a massive jig-saw puzzle to be individually
identified, catalogued, cleaned and treated for preservation. Borobudur became a testing
ground for new conservation techniques, including new procedures to battle the
microorganisms attacking the stone. The attempt was made to restore the structure as much as
possible using reassembled original materials (anastylosis method), with new andesite stone
blocks used sparingly to replaces some missing stones, only to ensure structural integrity. The
foundation was stabilized, and all 1,460 panels were cleaned. The restoration involved the
dismantling of the five square platforms and the improvement of drainage by embedding
water channels into the monument. Both impermeable and filter layers were added. This
colossal project involved around 600 people to restore the monument and cost a total
of US$6,901,243 (equivalent to US$48,882,942 in 2024).

After the renovation was finished, UNESCO listed Borobudur as a World Heritage Site in
1991. It is listed under Cultural criteria (i) "to represent a masterpiece of human creative
genius", (ii) "to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or
within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology,
monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design", and (vi) "to be directly or tangibly
associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and literary
works of outstanding universal significance".

70
In December 2017, the idea to reinstall chattra on top of Borobudur main stupa's yasthi has
been revisited. However, an expert said a thorough study is needed on restoring the umbrella-
shaped pinnacle. By early 2018, the chattra restoration has not yet commenced.

The restoration of Borobudur becomes a necessity and is carried out by Th. Van Erp in 4
years, starting from 1907 to 1911. The first study on Borobudur was conducted
during the Dutch East Indies era by Van Erp and N. J. Kroom, which
coincided with the temple’s restoration project. Based on the
similarities with regard to the architectural style and ornamentation of
the three temples it indicated an association between the three
namely Pawon Temple and Mendut Temple and Borobudur. They seem
to have been built in the same period, that is, the Sailendra dynasty
era. The next study was conducted by J. L. Moens in the 1950s which
connected the three temples with Banon Temple, a Hindu temple
located near Pawon Temple. Furthermore, it shows that Borobudur,
Pawon, and Mendut Temples were all ritual centers of Mahayana
Buddhism, whereas Banon Temple was a place for the followers of
Siwa-Siddhanta.
Nicolaas Johannes Krom ('s-Hertogenbosch, 5 September 1883 – Leiden, 8 March 1945)
was a Dutch orientalist, epigraphist, archaeologist, and an Indonesian early
history and traditional culture researcher. He was one of the figures of the "Dutch school" of
Indonesian philological historiography studies. One of his works that has long been a
reference regarding ancient Indonesian history is Hindoe-Javaansche Geschiedenis (1926)

NJ KROM

Isaäc Groneman ( Zutphen , 15 August 1832 – Jogjakarta , 2 December 1912 ) an

Indonesian expert was also a Dutch physician in the Dutch East Indies and gained fame
through his many publications on Javanese culture and antiquity not in the least Borobudur

Groneman was born in 1832 in Zutphen as a son of Johannes Casparus Theodorus Groneman
and Florentia Adriana Francina de Bruin. He married (by proxy) on 23 August 1860 with

71
Johanna Amalia de Wilde. From this marriage a son and a daughter were born. The son,
Louis Florentinus Johannes died at the age of 9. The daughter, Theodora Maria Bernardina
Justina Groneman married, back in the Netherlands, with Pieter Jan Bijleveld . After the
death of his wife in 1903, Groneman married Radhen Ajoe Retno Kasyan in 1904.

Physician and publicist

Groneman studied medicine and then practiced as a midwife for a time in Zutphen
and Vorden . In 1858 he left for the Dutch East Indies , where he settled first in Bandung and
then permanently in Jogjakarta, where he became the personal physician of the sultan . Once
in Java, Groneman became fascinated by traditional Javanese culture, especially as he
encountered it in the Jogjakarta sultanate , and by the Hindu - Javanese monuments, most of
which were still in a state of disrepair in his day. For example, he was personally involved in
the excavation of the Prambanan near Jogjakarta. In addition, he regularly published on what
he called 'Javanese conditions', such as marriage regulations, concubinage , the native legal
process and social issues that resulted from the rules and regulations of the Dutch colonial
government.

Groneman and the Javanese kris

Groneman will remain known for his research into the Javanese kris . As one of the first
interested foreigners, he attended forging sessions by an empu , the Javanese weapon smith,
and recorded how the complicated kris blade with its characteristic decorative line structure
was created. At the end of the 19th century, he was the President of the Yogyakarta
Archaeological Society, Isaac Groneman, extract deeper into the religious context of
Borobudur. He believes that Borobudur is a Buddhist sanctuary, but he needs authoritative
support. Fortunately, at that time, King Chulalongkorn was on his way to Java heading to
explore civilization. Then, Grooneman invites the king to Borobudur.

For Groneman, this is the beginning of friendship on the way to understanding the ancient
Javanese heritage. For the Dutch East Indies colonial government, the noble visit brought
about a different significance. As a sign of political friendship, the Dutch colonial
government gave eight carts full of artifacts from Borobudur, including the guard statue of
the Borobudur area found near the Dagi hill. The statue is very important because it is a guide
to the location of the Buddhist monastery that once existed near the monument.

At that time, Borobudur became an image suitable for kings. And Borobudur hadith as a
royal mark for the Dutch Kingdom at the world exhibition. Being a trade forum, the world
exhibition became a colonial attraction until the 1930s. Archeology is viewed as a filler of the
exhibition, as well as ethnology, zoology, and botany, as well as other disciplines. Tensions
between professionalism and political interests unfolded in modern Java and other colonial
areas in the early 20th century.

At the same time, archaeologists began to see this heritage from different angles. Preservation
in place is even more important: the restoration of Borobudur becomes a necessity and is
carried out by Th. Van Erp in 4 years, starting from 1907 to 1911. The work and the results,
as well as the results of investigative support, were recorded in 1920, in a book with two parts
and six volumes. This Book became the base of the Borobudur conservation study. Part of the
significance is that it is an instrument in the submission of the second restoration of
Borobudur done by the Indonesian government. The country gained its independence in

72
1945, through armed efforts and diplomacy, an achievement that gave national pride in the
eyes of the world.

This so-called pamor technique is created by repeatedly forging and working layers of
different steel. Groneman reported on his research in two groundbreaking articles. With these
and a number of smaller articles, he also wanted to bring the craft of the krissmith, which was
rapidly disappearing due to the influence of modern times, to the attention of the intellectual
world and the Dutch government in the Dutch East Indies, who would then have to commit
themselves to a rescue operation. However, despite Groneman's cries for help, there was
hardly any response. At the age of 80, he ended his life.

The Tyandi-Barabudur In Central Java (1906) is a book written by Isaac Groneman that
provides a detailed description of the famous temple complex of Borobudur in Central Java,
Indonesia. The book was first published in 1906 and has since become a valuable resource for
scholars, historians, and tourists interested in the history and architecture of this ancient
monument.

The book begins with an introduction to the history of Borobudur and its significance in the
Buddhist religion. It then provides a detailed description of the temple complex, including its
layout, architecture, and decoration. The author also discusses the various inscriptions and
sculptures found at Borobudur, which provide valuable insights into the culture and beliefs of
the people who built the temple.Throughout the book, Groneman provides numerous
illustrations and photographs of the temple complex, allowing readers to get a better
understanding of its design and beauty. He also includes a glossary of terms and a
bibliography of sources for further reading.Overall, The Tyandi-Barabudur In Central Java
(1906) is an important work that provides a comprehensive and detailed account of one of the
most important historical and architectural sites in Indonesia. It is a must-read for anyone
interested in the history and culture of this fascinating country.This scarce antiquarian book is
a facsimile reprint of the old original and may contain some imperfections such as library
marks and notations. Because we believe this work is culturally important, we have made it
available as part of our commitment for protecting, preserving, and promoting the world's
literature in affordable, high quality, modern editions, that are true to their original work.

73
Isaac Groneman in 1900

Building of the Batavian Society (around 1875-1885)

In the middle and end of the eighteenth century, several societies were founded in Europe that
focused on research into nature and science. The Haarlem ' Hollandsche Maatschappij van
Wetenschappen ' (1752) and its ' Oeconomie Tak van de Hollandsche Maatschappye der
Wetenschappen ' (1797), the ' Batavian Society of Experimental Philosophy ' in Rotterdam
(1769) and the Zeeuwsch Genootschap der Wetenschappen from Vlissingen (1769) are
examples from the Dutch Republic.

letters and knowledge in Batavia and in the other Eastern settlements on the throne .
Wijnand Otto Jan Nieuwenkamp (Amsterdam, July 27, 1874 – Fiesole, April 23, 1950),
was a Dutch multi-faceted autodidact. As an artist he was active as a painter, draftsman,
sculptor, etcher, lithographer, and designer of book covers and of ex-libris. In addition, he
was also known as a writer, architect, explorer, ethnologist and collector of East Asian art.
After 1925, much of Nieuwenkamp's work was related to the Barabudur, a major 9th-
century Buddhist monument in Central Java. A scholar of Hindu and Buddhist architecture,
Nieuwenkamp developed 1931 the Borobudur ancient lake theory, according to which
the Kedu Plain was once a lake, and Barabudur initially represented a lotus flower floating on
that lake. Nieuwenkamp's theory is up to the present the basis for discussion and debate
among archaeologists and geologists, involved in research of this important site.

He was the one of the first European artists to visit Bali, being greatly influenced by and
himself influencing the island's art and culture, and making it better known in wider world.
He was also deeply involved with various other parts of the then Dutch East Indies.

Though he took some lessons at the Amsterdamse Kunstnijverheidsschool (Amsterdam

School of Applied Arts), Nieuwenkamp was mainly a self-taught artist – reckoned more
a graphic artist than a painter. Working primarily in ink, his drawings were executed in rich

74
sepia tones. There is a clear influence of Art Nouveau on his work, though he did not strictly
belong to that movement.
In 1900, the year of his marriage to Anna Wilbrink, he built a houseboat called De
Zwerver (The Wanderer), which was also his own nickname. In it, he sailed through the
Netherlands, Belgium and Germany, holding exhibitions on board where his works could be
purchased. At the time he had considerable interest in the old Dutch towns and villages of
the Zuider Zee and his book on the subject was also translated to English and German.

Travels to the East, artistic and scientific activity, involvement with Bali

Nieuwenkamp on a bike, Pura Meduwe Karang temple, Bali/"Ruins of Denpasar" (1906) by

Nieuwenkamp, originally published in the book Bali and Lombok Eyewitness Travel, p.49

From the late 1890s and for several decades afterwards, he repeatedly journeyed to Far East
and Middle East, and in particular to various islands of the Dutch East Indies – starting
with Java in 1898 and 1904, and then Bali and Lombok in 1906 and 1907. In the aftermath of
the brutal Dutch military intervention of 1906, destroying the last independent kingdom on
Bali, he painted the ruins of the town of Denpasar, destroyed by Dutch troops (see
illustration).

The drawing appeared in his book "Bali and Lombok" (1906–1910), which also included
pioneering ethnographic and archaeological studies and is considered an important early book
about this island. Bali made a deep impact on Nieuwenkamp, and he returned to the island
again and again over the years – not only to make his own art but to learn the Balinese
traditional painting.

The Access Bali website, maintained by the island's present-day authorities, notes that
Nieuwenkamp "played a critical role in creating the myth of Bali, most importantly through
his support of the German doctor and amateur photographer, Gregor Krauser. Together they
held the first exhibition of Balinese Art in Amsterdam in 1918, with Krauser's photos and
Nieuwenkamp's drawings. It is Krauser's later book which brought many later artists to Bali".

In 1913 and 1914, he was in British India. From 1917 to 1919 he traveled to Java, Bali
and Timor. In 1924–1925 he traveled to Sumatra, Java and Bali, under an assignment for
the Handelsvereeniging Amsterdam (Commercial Association of Amsterdam). In 1933–1934
he traveled to Egypt. In 1936/1937 he traveled to Bali for the last time. A planned later trip
was prevented by the outbreak of World War II.

75
Following these travels, he wrote and illustrated various articles and books. Many of his
articles were published in the journal "Nederlandsch Indië, Oud en Nieuw" (Dutch Indies,
Old and New). Also scientific journals published his contributions.

Nieuwenkamp was the first person to systematically describe the Bronze Age object known
in Bali as the Moon of Pejeng, the largest single-cast bronze kettle drum in the world and the
focus of various local legends and myths. Nieuwenkamp reproduced the Moon's famous face
motif.

The Royal Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences (in short: Batavian Society ) was a Dutch
colonial scientific society in Batavia . The society studied the natural wealth and cultures of
the Dutch East Indies. The building of the Batavian Society - on the Koningsplein in
the Weltevreden district - included a museum (the 'cabinet'), a printing house and a library
with an extensive collection. A paid membership of the Batavian Society of Arts and
Sciences was highly valued by the European elite of the country. In 1910 the society
received the predicate Royal . After the independence of Indonesia, the Batavian Society was
renamed 'Lembaga Kebudajaan Indonesia'. In 1962 the former Batavian Society ceased to
exist. The society's museum and library collection were incorporated into the new National
Museum of Indonesia . The book collection was one of four collections that were merged in
1980 to form the Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia , the national library of
Indonesia.

76
Coin from 1779 made by Johan Georg Holtzhey to commemorate the founding of the
Bataviaasch Genootschap
Extraordinary Councillor of the Indies Jacobus Radermacher - in 1762 the founder of 'la
Choisie', the first Freemason lodge in the Dutch East Indies - wanted to establish a similar
society for science and art in the Dutch East Indies. Motivated by the 25th anniversary of the
' Hollandsche Maatschappij van Wetenschappen ' in 1777, a group of other interested parties
had gathered around him. For example, friend and author Willem van Hogendorp , director-
general of the Council of the Indies Adriaan Moens , preacher and linguist Josua van Iperen ,
preacher Johannes Hooyman, physician at the VOC hospital Jacobus van der Steeg and
lawyer Jacob Meijer supported Radermacher's plans

Despite the opposition of Governors-General Petrus Albertus van der Parra (until 1775)
and Jeremias van Riemsdijk (until 1777), the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences was
founded on 24 April 1778 with the motto 'For the benefit of the common people'. In the first
Proceedings of the Society (published in 1779), Radermacher described that they jointly
attempted:

77
to gather together a considerable Company, which, with combined strength, might exert all
its efforts to establish the fine.

Independence

In 1959, the Dutch began to withdraw back to their country, and Indonesia began to organize
itself. In 1965, there was a change of leadership, from Soekarno to Suharto. Suharto declared
a new period better known as the New Order period, which began in 1966 (Liddle, 1985).
President Suharto, the second President of the Republic of Indonesia who served In the more
than two decades, from 1965-1998 was a President with anti-colonial thoughts and followed
the political system in Indonesia is called the "new order" as opposed to the "old order" of
Sukarno. The basic fact in Indonesian politics, whether the "new" or the "old" order is a
search for a viable political system for an identity through which the leaders can shape and
modernize society (Ghoshal, 1979) Borobudur has since been preserved through several
restorations. The largest restoration project was completed in 1983 by the Indonesian
government and UNESCO, followed by the monument's listing as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site. Netherlands FIT to enhance management effectiveness at Borobudur from
Wednesday, 15 October 2008.

With a view to enhancing the capacity of the Indonesian national and local authorities to
improve the state of conservation at Borobudur Temple Compound World Heritage property,
the World Heritage Centre developed a technical cooperation project under the Netherlands
Funds-In-Trust with UNESCO.The project aims to enhance the management effectiveness at
Borobudur Temple Compound World Heritage property and to provide technical assistance
to the Indonesian authorities in the process for the review and revision of the Presidential
Decree, the current zoning system as well as land-use regulations within and around the
World Heritage area. A UNESCO and ICCROM technical assistance mission to Indonesia
will take place from 25 October to 2 November 2008 within the framework of this project.

The mission aims to assist the Indonesian authorities in the implementation of the
recommendations made by the World Heritage Committee over the past years concerning the
state of conservation of this World Heritage property, in consultation with all stakeholders. In
particular, the mission will try to assist Indonesia’s Ministry of Culture and Tourism in
developing an Action Plan for improving the management system, including institutional and
legal framework, for the protection of Borobudur Temple and its surrounding area, along
with the recommendations from a joint World Heritage Centre/ICOMOS Reactive
Monitoring Mission of February 2006.

Meanwhile, mission members will participate in an on-site Training Workshop on the

Management of World Heritage Properties in Indonesia to bring together national and local
officials responsible for the management of this World Heritage property as well as experts
and other concerned
stakeholders.oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

78
 C
Francophones and the Angkor legacy
Dr Uday Dokras

Cambodian legends describe how Angkor Wat was rediscovered in the mid-16th century CE
by a Cambodian king on an elephant hunt (Thompson 2004). While the exact details of this
legend are fuzzy, we do know from evidence at Angkor Wat itself that King Ang Chan did
return during this period. Inscriptions describe how in 1564 he commissioned the completion
of bas-reliefs on the northeastern gallery of Angkor Wat, which had been left unfinished in
the 12th century. King Ang Chan may have also been involved with the hidden paintings that
were recently identified at Angkor Wat.

Was Angkor Ever Lost? The Myth of French “Discovery”

The narrative of Angkor as a lost city rediscovered by Europeans is a myth. Though its role
evolved, the Khmer people never abandoned it.

79
The medieval capital of the Khmer Empire, commonly known as “Angkor,” is often
described in terms of a “lost” city. The general idea is that it was suddenly abandoned in the
1400s, vanished into the jungles of Cambodia, and was eventually “discovered” by an
intrepid European explorer in the mid-1800s. However, the notions that Angkor was lost, that
it required rediscovery, or indeed that it was hastily abandoned in the first place are simply
untrue.

Angkor, City of the God Kings

Yasovarman I
atop the sacred mountain by Maurice Fievet. Source: Angkor Database Asia

80
Angkor, located in the northwest of Cambodia near the modern-day city of Siem Reap, is the
former seat of the Khmer Empire. This civilization, which arose around the 9th century, for a
time, dominated much of mainland Southeast Asia. Yasodharapura, the name the Khmer gave
this city, is renowned for its grandiose temples and the development of a sophisticated water
management and canal system that supported up to one million residents at its height. The
Khmer kings, known as Devaraja, spent centuries on the construction of various “temple
mountains,” causeways, and other impressive stone structures to project their power and
authority.
However, the golden age in which many of these impressive monuments were built did not
last forever. Over a period of centuries, a combination of societal and economic changes
produced a transformation in what the Khmer civilization would become. The growing
importance of maritime trade with China, as well as the shift from Hinduism to Theravada
Buddhism, have been pointed to as potential causes. There was also increased military
pressure from the powerful rising kingdom that would become Siam. More recently,
archaeologists have suggested that climatic changes and the effects of extended periods of
drought and flooding were responsible. They claim this may have caused the intricate water
management and canal system that supported the city to cease functioning. It is fair to say
that some combination of these factors led to an extended period of change for the Khmer
civilization. The effect was a depopulation of Angkor and a gravitation southeast toward the
banks of the Mekong River. This was in the vicinity of the modern-day capital of Phnom
Penh and occurred by the early 1500s.

Mau
rice Fievet’s painting of workers constructing Angkor Wat. Source: Angkor Database Asia
Angkor: A Jungle Atlantis?

81
 A
ngkor Wat. Source: Wikipedia Commons

Angkor was subjected to successive invasions and periods of administration by the Siamese.
There were Khmer campaigns to win back the city over several decades. However, once the
center of power had shifted toward Phnom Penh, it would never return to the old capital.
Angkor would only be sparsely populated, and with its water management system left
inoperable, by around 1560, it ceased to be the city it had once been. The wooden and thatch
housing that supported the hundreds and thousands of former inhabitants was eroded by the
hot and wet conditions of the region. The stone temples, roads, and walls remained to stand
the test of the climate, but the jungle encroached upon it over the subsequent centuries.
However, Angkor’s history is not about endless decline and collapse or a city forgotten and
then found, but about a continuum of transformation and change.

Despite this, a “lost city” narrative about the old Khmer capital emerged and was popularized
after European colonization of the region. This version of the story is still prominent today
and will casually be shared in documentaries, news articles, and popular history websites.
This romantic version of events carries connotations of Western civilization having found
what the native population had naively “lost.” This was also used to legitimize the colonial
projects which followed. It is a misleading and patronizing understanding of Khmer history
that needs to be challenged. Doing so requires knowledge of how this common trope about
Angkor was created and about the transformation the Khmer civilization went through.

Henri Mouhot’s “Discovery” of Angkor

82
 Henri Mouhot, drawing by
H Rousseau. Source: Wikipedia Commons

The French naturalist Henri Mouhot had been in the kingdom of Cambodia for more than a
year by 1859. He had met the king and visited the royal capital of Oudong and the market
city of Phnom Penh. He had studied the region’s flora and fauna and hunted big game, like
tigers, monkeys, and elephants. At the time, France was engaged in a war to
colonize neighboring Vietnam, and Mouhot would write about how, if Cambodia could also
be possessed, it would add “a magnificent jewel to her crown.” He felt that Cambodia had
fallen into a “deplorable” state, and he worried for the country’s future. However, he also
compared the current condition to a glorious past when it was a “powerful and populous
country.” The evidence for this, he wrote, “is testified by the splendid ruins which are to be
met with in the provinces … and which I intend on visiting.”

The ruins he was planning to visit were the vast complex of stone temples and pyramids of
Angkor. Mouhot was taken there in January of 1860 by a French missionary, Abbe E.
Silvestre, whom he singled out for thanks in his diary for the courtesy and energy displayed
when guiding him through the forest to the destination. The descriptions that Mouhot wrote
of what he saw at Angkor do well to capture the overwhelming beauty of what remains of the
medieval city. The most praise is given to Angkor Wat, the sprawling temple surrounded by a
moat and perhaps the pinnacle of Khmer architecture and design. He describes it as “the most
beautiful and best preserved of all the remains … making him forget all the fatigues of the
journey, filling him with admiration and delight, such as would be experienced on finding a
verdant oasis in the sandy desert.”

Mouhot’s Legacy

83
 Sk
etch of Angkor Wat in Mouhot’s Diary. Source: Angkor Database

Mouhot would die in the year after his expedition to Cambodia and Angkor, succumbing to
malaria while exploring Laos. However, the diary he kept on his journeys was translated and
published posthumously soon after. It included plenty of detailed descriptions and drawings
of Angkor, and these vivid depictions caused a sensation in Europe. Outside of his chapters
on Angkor, his diary also represents a valuable source for historians studying pre-modern
Cambodia and a snapshot of life in various parts of the country prior to the French Colonial
Period, which began in 1863.

Mouhot was imbued with a colonialist spirit and a belief that Western civilization could cure
Cambodia’s problems. He was a man of his time, but his diary does illustrate someone
passionate about his explorations. His writings reveal a genuine curiosity and desire to learn
more, albeit mixed with derisory comments common to the time. In his own words, he stated
that it was not his desire to impose his opinions on anyone, but “simply to disclose the
existence of these monuments.” His writings also show that he himself didn’t think the
Khmer had lost these ruins, noting how important they were to locals. His diary also contains
no claims or suggestions that he had “discovered” Angkor. However, this legend spread after
his death, stuck, and has been repeated to the present day.

European Claims of Angkor’s Discovery

84
 Another sketch of
Angkor Wat by Mouhot. Source: Angkor Database

Refuting the idea that Angkor was “rediscovered” in this era by Europeans is more than just
an example of historical nitpicking. Even from a Eurocentric viewpoint, the story that
emphasizes Mouhot’s being given the sole credit for “discovering” Angkor is clearly false.
While his work played a crucial role in bringing knowledge of the city to a Western audience,
this does not necessitate his being viewed as having “rediscovered” the medieval city. From
the diary he kept, notice that he had been told months prior about the “splendid ruins” that he
would visit, meaning he didn’t find them by accident. Likewise, he was guided there by a
missionary familiar with their location. These facts indicate that the temple complex was a
known quantity even to foreigners in the country and contradict any idea that Mouhot found
Angkor single handedly or through his own exploration.

Similarly, claiming that it was Mouhot who, from a Western point of view, “found Angkor”
ignores the many Westerners who had visited Angkor before him. Aside from the French
missionaries who had been established in the region for decades, the Portuguese friar Antonio
Da Magdalena can stake a claim to being the first European who visited the temple in the late
1500s. There was also interest in the site from non-European travellers in Asia and the
regions surrounding Cambodia. Japanese pilgrims had sketched the layout of Angkor Wat,
which had become a kind of pilgrimage site for Buddhists.

85
 Buddhist
monks at Angkor Wat today. Source: Wikipedia Commons

The idea that Mouhot “discovered” Angkor would be the modern equivalent of a social media
influencer “discovering” a restaurant while on holiday in some exotic location. The restaurant
was already being used regularly by locals or those visiting but not looking to share their
experience with millions of people online. A more accurate term would be “popularized,”
which would require the caveat of being popularized among a particular overseas audience.
Little would change for the regular patrons. But this clearly highlights the problem at the
heart of saying that Angkor was “discovered” or “rediscovered” at all — it ignores local
populations and the civilization that had built it in the first place.
Angkor’s Lost City Myth

Angkor Wat from above. Source: Wikipedia Commons

Perhaps the most critical challenge to the idea that Angkor was “rediscovered” by Europeans
is the fact that the Khmer themselves had never lost their old capital city. As established, the
city was subjected to numerous invasions and the slow collapse of the water management

86
system that supported most of its population. While it is true that over a period of centuries it
was depopulated and ceased to be a functioning, living city, this does not mean that it was
suddenly abandoned in some cataclysmic event and then forgotten. The city and area of
Angkor were used as a staging ground for Khmer military campaigns against Siam and,
therefore, remained important. Recent archaeological work also provides evidence from
ceramic finds that the greater Angkor region was in continuous habitation after the supposed
collapse of the city.

Also, remember that Angkor Wat, separate to the larger city, was never ‘abandoned’ and
remained in use by religious adherents. It was and is a fundamental cultural feature of the
Khmer civilization, even in the wake of the shift away from using the area as the capital city.
Khmer folklore tells the story of a king who returned to Angkor within a century of its
supposed abandonment. Inscriptions on Angkor Wat and partial restorations of it and other
temples confirm this reconnection of power and authority with the site. Subsequently, there
were frequent expeditions made by various royal families to Angkor Wat as further
inscriptions and renovations were made in the late 16th and 18th centuries. When French
colonial archaeological and conservation efforts were undertaken in the 19th century, there
were still monks living within the perimeter of Angkor Wat.

All of this proves that Angkor Wat, specifically, and the greater region of Angkor generally,
should not be considered in the simplistic terms of a “lost city.” Cataclysmic sudden collapse
or destruction never occurred, the area was known to Khmer royalty and remained inhabited
by local populations, and temples like Angkor Wat were maintained and inhabited physically
and spiritually by adherents.

Dispelling the Angkor Myths: Why It Matters

The faces of
the Bayon Temple. Source: Wikipedia Commons

Perpetuating the idea that Angkor or other similar locations were lost imposes a Western-
centric and simplistic view of history. Aside from it being proven false and indulging in
tropes more appropriate for the realm of fiction, it legitimizes colonialist visions of the world
that are far outdated. The Khmer civilization did not disappear; their empire underwent
changes and transformations over many centuries. This process is not as exciting as the
clichéd idea of the lost city myth, but it is the historical reality. Today, perpetuating the

87
French colonial myth of “discovering” Angkor is unlikely done knowingly or with ill intent.
Instead, it persists via an ignorance of history, a willingness to lean on catchy headlines, or a
reliance on poor sources.
The Angkor Wat Discovery is the somewhat controversial concept that refers to the visit of
French naturalist Henri Mouhot to Angkor Wat in 1860 and the publication of his travel notes
in 1863. These memoirs had an umprecedented reception in Europe and Mouhot was credited
with the discovery of the "lost city of Angkor". However, the French explorer was not the
first European to visit Angkor Wat nor the first one to write about it. The earliest and most
detailed account of Angkor was written by the Portuguese Diego de Couto in the mid 16th
century and described how a Cambodian King came upon the ruins while hunting elephants.
During the 15th and 16th centuries various Spanish missionaries traveled to the site and left
written reports about their visits. In 1603 the Spaniard Gabriel Quiroga wrote "In 1507 a city
was brought to light that had never been seen or heard of by the natives".

Moreover, the 17th century brings us accounts of Japanese settlements at Angkor. An

inscription with Japanese calligraphic characters found on a pillar on the second floor of
Angkor Wat dating back to 1632 is good proof of it. Another Japanese man, Kenryo
Shimano, is the author of the oldest known Angkor Wat plan. During his travels to Angkor
some time between 1632 and 1636 he drew a very detailed map of the temple.

Angkor Wat temple in 1866.

Buddhist pilgrimage to Angkor Wat

While the Europeans were writing at different times about the discovery of the "lost city",
Angkor Wat and the other Angkor Temples were already known to the buddhist monks that
cared for them from the 15th to the 19th centuries. It is in part thanks to them that Angkor
Wat remains mostly intact. In the 16th century a Khmer court returned briefly to Angkor to
restore it as a Buddhist shrine.
French protectorate of Cambodia
The Cambodian king has the status to demonstrate national sustainability. However, French
rule in Cambodia changed the elective monarchy system. Originally a matter of succession, it
was changed to an election for the interests of France. In the first constitution of Cambodia
under French rule, it was established that the Royal Council of the Throne would be
appointed to select the new king. This detail still appears in every constitution that has
established a constitutional monarchy system and has been adhered to until the present day.
The Cambodian monarchy has a long tradition as a symbol of the continuity of the nation.

88
However, it was abolished in the 1970s due to a change in the form of government of the
Republic country, and it was reestablished according to the 1993 constitution. The
Cambodian monarchy stabilized under French rule. Initially, the French set up the elective
monarchy system for Cambodia by colonial authority, in contrast to a hereditary monarchy,
which was automatically passed down as a family inheritance. This pattern makes the power
succession unusual from Cambodia's royal traditions. The research aims to study the factors
and background events in the French colonization period that changed the monarchy system
and the result to the Cambodian monarchy until the present day, using historical methods
mainly based on primary and secondary documents. The results show that the idea of electing
a king put in place by France was considered appropriate, partly because the selection of
King Sihanouk to the throne ended quarrels within the royal family over his reign, and in the
Constitution 1947 preciously specifies those who have the right to reign. It must be inherited
from King Ang Doung, King Norodom, and King Sisowath, chosen by The Royal Council of
The Throne, a nine-member council of Cambodia responsible for selecting the Cambodian
monarch. When Cambodia became independent, every constitution with a constitutional
monarchy regime stipulated the elective Monarchy by insisted on establishing the Royal
Council of the Throne.

The French legacy in Cambodia is complex. Initially welcomed for ending Cambodia’s
domination by Siam (now Thailand) and Vietnam, the French introduced modern
infrastructure, restored Angkor Wat, and helped reconstruct the history of the Khmer empire.
However, they also exploited Cambodia’s resources and limited its sovereignty in a typical
colonial dynamic. Independence came in 1953 through King Sihanouk’s “Royal Crusade,”
and the 1954 Geneva Accords affirmed Cambodia’s self-determination.

Alexandre Henri Mouhot (15 May 1826 – 10 November 1861) was a French naturalist and
explorer of the mid-19th century. He was born in Montbéliard, Doubs, France, near the Swiss
border. He died near Luang-Prabang, Laos. He is remembered mostly in connection
to Angkor. Mouhot's tomb is located just outside of Ban Phanom, to the east of Luang
Prabang.

Mouhot traveled throughout Europe with his brother Charles, studying photographic
techniques developed by Louis Daguerre. In 1856, he began devoting himself to the study
of natural science. Upon reading The Kingdom and People of Siam by Sir John Bowring in
1857, Mouhot decided to travel to Indochina to conduct a series of botanical expeditions for
the collection of new zoological specimens. His initial requests for grants and passage were
rejected by French companies and the government of Napoleon III. The Royal Geographical
Society and the Zoological Society of London lent him their support, and he set sail
for Bangkok, via Singapore.

Expeditions

89
 Facade
of Angkor Wat, by Mouhot

From his base in Bangkok in 1858, Mouhot made four journeys into the interior
of Siam, Cambodia and Laos. Over a period of three years before he died, he endured
extreme hardships and fended off wild animals, to explore some previously uncharted jungle
territory.On his first expedition, he visited Ayutthaya, the former capital of Siam (already
charted territory), and gathered an extensive collection of insects, as well as terrestrial and
river shells, and sent them on to England.In January 1860, at the end of his second and
longest journey, he reached Angkor (already charted territory) — an area spread over more
than 400 km2., consisting of many sites of ancient terraces, pools, moated cities, palaces
and temples, the most famous of which is Angkor Wat. He recorded this visit in his travel
journals, which included three weeks of detailed observations. These journals and
illustrations were later incorporated into Voyage dans les royaumes de Siam, de Cambodge,
de Laos which were published posthumously.

Angkor
Mouhot is often mistakenly credited with "discovering" Angkor, although Angkor was never
lost — the location and existence of the entire series of Angkor sites was always known to
the Khmers and had been visited by several westerners since the 16th century. Mouhot
mentions in his journals that his contemporary Father Charles Emile Bouillevaux, a French
missionary based in Battambang, had reported that he and other Western explorers and
missionaries had visited Angkor Wat and the other Khmer temples at least five years before
Mouhot. Father Bouillevaux published his accounts in 1857: "Travel in Indochina 1848–
1846, The Annam and Cambodia". Previously, a Portuguese trader Diogo do Couto visited
Angkor and wrote his accounts about it in 1550, and the Portuguese monk Antonio da
Magdalena had also written about his visit to Angkor Wat in 1586. Mouhot did, however,
popularise Angkor in the West.

Perhaps none of the previous European visitors wrote as evocatively as Mouhot, who
included interesting and detailed sketches. In his posthumously published Travels in Siam,

90
Cambodia and Laos, Mouhot compared Angkor to the pyramids, for it was popular in the
West at that time to ascribe the origin of all civilization to the Middle East. For example, he
described the Buddha heads at the gateways to Angkor Thom as "four immense heads in the
Egyptian style" and wrote of Angkor:

"One of these temples—a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michael
Angelo—might take an honourable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander
than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of
barbarism in which the nation is now plunged."
Mouhot also wrote that:

"At Ongcor, there are ...ruins of such grandeur... that, at the first view, one is filled with
profound admiration, and cannot but ask what has become of this powerful race, so civilized,
so enlightened, the authors of these gigantic works?"
Such quotations may have given rise to the popular misconception that Mouhot had found the
abandoned ruins of a lost civilisation. The Royal Geographical Society and The Zoological
Society, both interested in announcing new finds, seemed to have encouraged the rumor that
Mouhot — whom they had sponsored to chart mountains and rivers and catalog new species
— had discovered Angkor. Mouhot himself erroneously asserted that Angkor was the work
of an earlier civilization than the Khmer. For although the very same civilization which built
Angkor was alive and right before his eyes, he considered them in a "state of barbarism" and
could not believe they were civilized or enlightened enough to have built it. He assumed that
the authors of such grandeur were a disappeared race and mistakenly dated Angkor back over
two millennia, to around the same era as Rome. The true history of Angkor Wat was later
pieced together from the book The Customs of Cambodia written by Temür Khan's
envoy Zhou Daguan to Cambodia in 1295–1296 and from stylistic and epigraphic evidence
accumulated during the subsequent clearing and restoration work carried out across the whole
Angkor site. It is now known that the dates of Angkor's habitation were from the early ninth
century to the early 15th century.

Some have argued that Mouhot may have been a tool for French expansionism and the
annexation of territories which followed shortly after his death. Mouhot himself, however,
did not seem to be a hardcore colonialist, for he occasionally doubted the beneficial effects of
European colonisation:
"Will the present movement of the nations of Europe towards the East result in good by
introducing into these lands the blessings of our civilization? Or shall we, as blind
instruments of boundless ambition, come hither as a scourge, to add to their present
miseries?"
However, Mouhot appears in his notes as genuinely interested in South East Asia and its
culture, and kept in mind the benefits he thought France could provide to those countries. He
notably wrote in the Tour du Monde:
Page 174: " European domination, the abolition of slavery, protective and wise laws, and
faithful, experienced and scrupulously honest administrators, would alone be capable of
regenerating this State, so close to Cochinchina, where France is seeking to establish itself
and where it will undoubtedly establish itself; then it would certainly become a granary of
abundance, as fertile as lower Cochinchina "
Page 175: "People are astonished to see insignificant production and no industry in these
regions that are so fertile and so rich, but they are generally unaware that the kings and
mandarins enrich themselves through despoilment and corruption, through all the abuses

91
that ruin work and halt progress. Let this country be administered with wisdom and
prudence, with loyalty and protection for the people, and everything will change with
marvellous rapidity.”
Mouhot also highlighted he saw France already provided Cambodia, at his time: (page
179) "Had it not been for the war that France has been waging against the Empire of Annam
for the past two years, it is probable that today the last hour would have sounded for the little
kingdom of Cambodia, whose destiny, with little doubt, is to die out and be assimilated into
the neighbouring peoples
In Alison in Cambodia a blog about archaeology and related issues in
Cambodia(https://alisonincambodia.wordpress.com/2014/10/05/stop-saying-the-french-
discovered-angkor/)

Stop saying the French discovered Angkor

There is the old myth about how the French, specifically the explorer and researcher Henri
Mouhot, “discovered Angkor” in 1860. This myth is based on an idea that the Cambodians
had no knowledge of their past, and therefore helped the French justify their colonial rule in
“restoring a nation to its past grandeur” (Dagens 1995:47). As Angkor has been in the news
lately, due to the recent BBC documentary, this factual inaccuracy continues to be
perpetuated. It’s time for this myth to die.

A drawing of Angkor Wat by Henri Mouhot, who did not discover Angkor.
Here’s what we do know. In the early 15th century CE, a variety of socio-political, and
probably environmental, factors contributed to a shift of the Angkorian capital to the area
around Phnom Penh. Conflicts with Ayutthaya and a breakdown of the water management
system may have served to push people out of the Angkor region, but it is also important to
remember that increasing trade with China, and the improved access to this trade in the
Phnom Penh area, served to pull people further south as well (Chandler 2008: 92). While the
Angkor region appears to have been de-populated and many of the temples fell into disrepair
and were abandoned, the region was not entirely forgotten. The temple of Angkor Wat was
specifically the focus of continued occupation and worship until the French colonial period.

92
Detail of part of the 16th century CE bas-reliefs at Angkor Wat.
-The first westerner to visit Angkor Wat was apparently a Portuguese Capuchin friar
named Antonio da Magdalena in 1586. (A brief description of his account, as told to Diogo
do Couto, can be read in Dagens 1995: 133-5).Several members of the Khmer royal family
returned to Angkor Wat in the mid-late 16th century, leaving several inscriptions around
Angkor Wat. It was during this period that the upper level of Angkor Wat, called the Bakan,
was transformed from a Vaishnavite sanctuary, to a Buddhist one. Several openings of the
central sanctuary were covered with images of the Buddha. It was also this period that
Angkor Wat appears to have been transformed into a Buddhist pilgrimage site (Thompson
2004).

-Angkor Wat was an important spiritual center not just for Cambodians, but for people in
surrounding regions. In 1668 a French missionary described how Angkor Wat
was “renowned among the Gentiles [heathens] of five or six kingdoms,” (Dagens 1995: 27).

-The first plan of Angkor Wat was drawn by a Japanese pilgrim sometime in the early 17th
century, and was copied later in 1715.

93
Japanese plan of Angkor Wat from 1715.
-In the early 18th century CE, a Cambodian “court dignitary” built a large stupa in honor of
his wife and sons just outside the eastern gallery of Angkor Wat. A large inscription, written
in Khmer verse, describes the construction of this stupa. Members of a family in Siem Reap
still gather at the stupa once a year to pay homage to their ancestors (Thompson 2004: 104-
106).

Inscription by a Cambodian court dignitary describing the construction of the stupa on the
eastern side of Angkor Wat.

94
The stupa on the eastern side of Angkor Wat, constructed in the early 18th century CE. Here
you can see members of a family from Siem Reap paying homage to their ancestors in the
stupa.
-Another French missionary, Charles-Emile Bouillevaux, visited Angkor and Angkor Wat in
1850, publishing his account of his visit in 1858, two years before Henri Mouhot arrived.
Additionally, a translation of the Chinese Missionary, Zhou Ta-Kuan’s visit to Angkor in the
late 13th century had been published in 1819 (Dagens 1995). Still, Westerners had a hard
time envisioning Angkor until Henri Mouhot visited and his journal and drawings were
published. It was these images that captured the imagination of the West. Mouhot never
claimed to have discovered Angkor, this topic was not discussed in his publications, and as
detailed above, Angkor was well-known in the region. As Dagens (1995: 41-42) notes “the
word was bandied around…until the idea that Mouhot had ‘discovered’ Angkor simply
became an accepted fact.”

-As part of our excavations with the Greater Angkor Project in 2013, we also found evidence
for continued use/occupation of the enclosure around Angkor Wat into the 17th century, in
the form of Chinese tradeware ceramics.
-The French moved out a group of monks that had been living in front of Angkor Wat when
they arrived in the 19th century.
So, all this is to say that the temple of Angkor Wat specifically was never abandoned by the
Cambodians and continued to be an important spiritual center for hundreds of years after
Angkor.
But the way that the Cambodians perceived of their past was complicated and not well-
understood or investigated by the French. Penny Edwards has explored how the French used
the past to shape the modern Cambodian nation in her book Cambodge: The Cultivation of a
Nation 1860-1945. She discusses how the Khmer monks and others that the French
interviewed had a “non-linear historical perspective,” which caused the French to think that
the Khmer people had no memory of their past and who constructed the temple of Angkor
Wat (Edwards 2007: 25). She says that
“Khmers living in the vicinity of the temple [Angkor Wat] did not identify with Angkor as a
monument of Khmer nationhood or a lodestone of national pride, but rather as a religious
site connected in popular belief-systems with celebrated monarchs and mythical figures.”

95
During the French Colonial period the Angkor Wat and the Angkorian past became an
integral part of the Cambodian nation and national identity. Angkor Wat first appeared on the
Cambodian flag during the French Protectorate period and has remained, with a few brief
exceptions, ever since. While the French Protectorate certainly influenced our
perceptions and understanding of Cambodian history, it is important to acknowledge that they
did not discover Angkor. Many Cambodians were already aware of Angkor Wat and knew it
played an important role in their past. However, Mouhot’s writings did popularize Angkor in
the West and that was a significant milestone. So let’s give him credit for that and stop
saying he discovered Angkor.

ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
ooo

II

The French protectorate of Cambodia Protectorat français du Cambodge refers to the

Kingdom of Cambodia when it was a French protectorate within French Indochina, a
collection of Southeast Asian protectorates within the French colonial empire. The
protectorate was established in 1863 when the Cambodian King Norodom requested the
establishment of a French protectorate over his country, meanwhile Siam (modern Thailand)
renounced suzerainty over Cambodia and officially recognised the French protectorate on
Cambodia.

Cambodia was integrated into the French Indochina union in 1887 along with the French
colonies and protectorates in Laos and Vietnam (Cochinchina, Annam, and Tonkin). In 1947,
Cambodia was granted self-rule within the French Union and had its protectorate status
removed in 1949. Cambodia later gained independence. The day was celebrated
as Independence Day on 9 November 1953.

96
 Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchéa
Royaume du Cambodge

Start of French rule

97
 King Norodom, the monarch who initiated overtures to France
to make Cambodia its protectorate in 1863 to escape Siamese pressure
During the 19th century, the kingdom of Cambodia had been reduced to a vassal state of
the Kingdom of Siam (Rattanakosin rule) which had annexed its western provinces,
including Angkor while growing influence from the Vietnamese Nguyễn dynasty threatened
the eastern portion of the country. After the French establishment of a colony in Cochinchina
(present-day southern Vietnam) in 1862, King Norodom of Cambodia requested a French
protectorate over his kingdom. At the time, Pierre-Paul de La Grandière, colonial governor of
Cochinchina, was carrying out plans to expand French rule over the whole of Vietnam and
viewed Cambodia as a buffer between French possessions in Vietnam and Siam.

Norodom was the eldest son of Ang Duong. In 1850, he and his half-brother
Prince Sisowath were sent to study in Bangkok by their father Ang Duong, where
they grew up near members of the Siamese royal family. In 1857, Norodom (Prince
Phrom Borirak) served in the Royal Siamese Army as a military adviser, for which
later he was awarded the Order of the White Elephant.

In 1861, Norodom's half-brother Si Votha rebelled and Norodom abandoned the

capital of Oudong and fled to safety in Bangkok. The Siamese court returned him to
Phnom Penh early in 1862, and in 1863 he signed a treaty with the French placing
himself under French protection. Initially, in a desperate attempt to show that
Cambodia was still under their control, the Siamese withheld the crown jewels of
Cambodia, which Khmer monarchs needed to become a legitimate ruler of
Cambodia. This was a problem, and the French sent a steamboat up the Chao
Phraya river to Bangkok. After French military pressure, the Siamese reluctantly
returned the crown jewels to Cambodia, and it was the French who crowned
Norodom, finally freeing Cambodia from Siamese control in 1867.

98
French protectorate

1860 gold piastre depicting King Norodom I the year he assumed the throne.
On 11 August 1863, Norodom signed a treaty acknowledging a French protectorate over his
kingdom. Under the treaty, the Cambodian monarchy was allowed to remain, but power was
largely vested in a resident general to be housed in Phnom Penh. France was also to be in
charge of Cambodia's foreign and trade relations as well as provide military protection. Siam
later recognised the protectorate after France ceded the Cambodian province
of Battambang and recognised Thai control of Angkor. On 17 June 1884, French
authorities forced King Norodom to sign a treaty that consolidated their position in
Cambodia by forcing him to give up control of public revenue, customs taxes, and
public works. Norodom resisted but with French gunboats anchored outside
the Royal Palace he had no choice but to sign. The French actions caused
widespread anger throughout the country. In 1885, Prince Si Votha, Norodom's half-
brother, led a revolt against the French rule. The French suspected Norodom
secretly supported Si Votha's actions and blamed him for inciting the revolts. The
revolt ended when King Norodom assured the Cambodians that the French had
offered concessions to him. After the restoration of the 1885-1886 revolt, Norodom
was temporarily strong. To prevent another revolt, the French were less inclined to
force the king to the wall once more.

After the 1897 coup d'état against his person, he lost confidence in his closest
collaborators namely Thiounn and Bernard Col de Monteiro who were appointed as
Ministers without his consent.

Following the Sino-French War (1884–1885), French Indochina was formed in

October 1887 from Annam, Tonkin, Cochinchina (who together form
modern Vietnam) and the Kingdom of Cambodia.

Norodom was a puppet of the French for the remainder of his rule. Before he died in
1904, he appointed his son, Prince Norodom Yukanthor, as heir apparent to the
throne. But Yukanthor had a fall-out with the French and did not succeed to the
throne. Norodom died in the palace in Phnom Penh in April 1904; his body was
cremated in the traditional Buddhist fashion in 1906. His half-
brother Sisowath succeeded him.

Throughout Norodom's reign, several administrative and judicial reforms were

improved in the kingdom. The reduction of provinces was imposed to help reduce

99
administrative costs. He also followed King Chulalongkorn and abolished commercial
monopolies, slavery, and civil lists for the royal family. During his reign, certain
agricultural products such as betel, pepper, and sugar costs were reduced.

Coronation
of Norodom, 3 June 1864.Photo of Norodom in his coronation ceremony in Phnom Penh
after Siam return crown and jewels.

The Silver Pagoda was constructed under King Norodom's reign. Funeral procession of King
Norodom in 1906.
King Norodom was remembered for his appreciation and fondness of the arts. It was
under his supervision that the Silver Pagoda was built in 1892, as well as Wat
Oudong consecrated on 6 June 1875. When Norodom assumed the throne in 1860,
classical dance recovered some of its ancient prestige. It soon became a great
honour for court officials, ministers, and senior dignitaries to have their children
admitted to the palace's school of dancing.

In 1872, Norodom went on an official visit to Hong Kong, Manila, and Singapore. In
Manila, the King was greatly impressed by the musical skills of the Filipinos and
decided to take some musicians back to Cambodia to teach modern music.
Norodom's generosity began drawing artists from many nationalities to Cambodia
and they were always given a warm welcome at the royal palace and court. Most of

100
them had a deep interest in the Royal Ballet and thus were given every opportunity
to learn Khmer music and dance.

Under King Norodom, the beginnings of the Royal Khmer Navy were established for
territorial protection.

He was awarded the Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur-1872

(Grand Officier-1869) (Chevalier-1865) (France)

French colonial rule

King Sisowath greeting French officials in 1911

The seat of the Governor-General for the whole of French Indochina was based
in Saigon until the capital moved to Hanoi in 1902. Cambodia, being a constituent
protectorate of French Indochina, was governed by the Résident Supérieur (Resident-
General) for Cambodia, who was directly appointed by the Ministry of Marine and Colonies
in Paris. The Resident-General was in turn assisted by Residents, or local governors, who
were posted in all the provincial centres, such as, Battambang, Pursat, Oudong, and Siem
Reap. Phnom Penh, the capital, was under the direct administration of the Resident-General.

Revolt of 1885–1887
The first decades of French rule in Cambodia included numerous reforms into Cambodian
politics, such as the reduction of the monarch's power and abolition of slavery. In 1884, the
governor of Cochinchina, Charles Antoine François Thomson, attempted to overthrow the
monarch and establish full French control over Cambodia by sending a small force to the
royal palace in Phnom Penh. The movement was only slightly successful as the governor-
general of French Indochina prevented full colonisation due to possible conflicts with
Cambodians and the monarch's power was reduced to that of a figurehead.

In 1885, Si Votha, half brother of Norodom and contender for the throne, led a rebellion to
dispose of the French-backed Norodom after coming back from exile in Siam. Gathering
support from opposers of Norodom and the French, Si Votha led a rebellion that was
primarily concentrated in the jungles of Cambodia and the city of Kampot where Oknha
Kralahom "Kong" led the resistance. French forces later aided Norodom to defeat Si Votha
under agreements that the Cambodian population be disarmed and acknowledge the resident-
general as the highest power in the protectorate. Oknha Kralahom "Kong" was called back to
Phnom Penh to discuss peace with King Norodom and the French officials, but was taken
captive by the French army and subsequently killed, officially putting an end to the rebellion.

Administrative reorganisation
In 1896, France and the British Empire signed an accord recognizing each other's sphere of
influence over Indochina, especially over Siam. Under this accord, Siam had to cede the

101
province of Battambang back to the now French-controlled Cambodia. The accord
acknowledged French control over Vietnam (including the colony of Cochinchina and the
protectorates of Annam and Tonkin), Cambodia, as well as Laos, which was added in 1893
following French victory in the Franco-Siamese crisis and French influence over eastern
Siam. The French government also later placed new administrative posts in the colony and
began to develop it economically while introducing French culture and language to locals as
part of an assimilation program.

In 1897, the ruling Resident-General complained to Paris that the current king of
Cambodia, King Norodom was no longer fit to rule and asked for permission to assume the
king's powers to collect taxes, issue decrees, and even appoint royal officials and choose
crown princes. From that time, Norodom and the future kings of Cambodia were figureheads
and merely were patrons of the Buddhist religion in Cambodia, though they were still viewed
as god-kings by the peasant population. All other power was in the hands of the Resident-
General and the colonial bureaucracy. This bureaucracy was formed mostly of French
officials, and the only Asians freely permitted to participate in government were
ethnic Vietnamese, who were viewed as the dominant Asians in the Indochinese Union.

In 1904, King Norodom died and rather than pass the throne on to Norodom's sons, the
French passed the succession to Norodom's brother Sisowath, whose branch of the royal
family was nationalistic but more cooperative with the French than Norodom's. Likewise,
Norodom was viewed as responsible for the constant Cambodian revolts against French rule.
Another reason was that Norodom's favourite son, whom he wanted to succeed him as
king, Prince Yukanthor, had, on one of his trips to Europe, stirred up public opinion about
French colonial brutalities in occupied Cambodia.

France later tightened its control over Cambodia while expanding the protectorate's territory
in 1902 and 1904 through treaties with Siam, which added Preah Vihear
Province and Champasak Province to Cambodia and gave France full control over the Bassac
River respectively. Prior to Cambodia's historical claim over Stung Treng Province, in 1904
an exchange occurred wherein Cambodia ceded Champasak and obtained Stung Treng from
French Laos. Later territorial disputes between France and Siam over Battambang and Siem
Reap Provinces led to the accidental French annexation of Trat Province in 1904.

Both France and Siam agreed to do a territorial exchange based on the Franco-Siamese treaty
of 1907. From this, the French gained the provinces of Battambang and Siem Reap, originally
Cambodian territory until the latter part of the 18th century. The acquirement of these
provinces would be the last phase of French territorial expansion in Indochina as Siam would
later co-operate with the British in the region, who feared uncontrolled French expansion and
control of Siam would upset the balance of powers in Indochina.

Economy during French colonialism

Originally serving as a buffer territory for France between its more important Vietnamese
colonies and Siam, Cambodia was not initially seen as an economically important area. The
colonial government's budget originally relied largely on tax collections in Cambodia as its
main source of revenue, and Cambodians paid the highest taxes per capita among the French
colonies in Indochina. Poor and sometimes unstable administration in the early years of
French rule in Cambodia meant infrastructure and urbanisation grew at a much lesser rate
than in Vietnam and traditional social structures in villages still remained.

102
However, as French rule consolidated after the Franco-Siamese crisis, development slowly
increased in Cambodia, where rice and pepper crops allowed for the economy to grow. To
foster exports, modern agricultural methods were introduced, particularly by colonial
entrepreneurs who had been granted land concessions in the Battambang province (West).

As the French automobile industry grew, rubber plantations like the ones already in
Cochinchina and Annam were built and run by French investors. Economic diversification
continued throughout the 1920s, when corn and cotton crops were also grown. Despite
economic expansion and investment, Cambodians still continued to pay high taxes and in
1916, protests broke out demanding for tax cuts.

Infrastructure and public works were also developed under French rule, and roads and
railroads were constructed in Cambodian territory. Most notably, a railway connected Phnom
Penh with Battambang on the Thai border.

Industry was later developed but was primarily designed to process raw materials for local
use or for export. As in nearby British Burma and British Malaya, foreigners dominated the
work force of the economy due to French discrimination against the Cambodians from
holding important economic positions. Many Vietnamese were recruited to work on rubber
plantations and later immigrants played key roles in the colonial economy as fisherman and
businessmen. Chinese Cambodians continued to be largely involved in commerce but higher
positions were given to the French.

Emergence of Khmer nationalism

Unlike in Vietnam, Cambodian nationalism remained relatively quiet during much of French
rule mostly due to lesser education influence, which caused literacy rates remain low and
prevented nationalist movements like those taking place in Vietnam. However, among the
French-educated Cambodian elite, the Western ideas of democracy and self-rule as well as
French restoration of monuments such as Angkor Wat created a sense of pride and awareness
of Cambodia's once powerful status in the past. In education, there was also growing
resentment among Cambodian students of the minority Vietnamese holding a more favoured
status. In 1936, Son Ngoc Thanh and Pach Choeun began publishing Nagaravatta (Notre cité)
as a French language anti-colonial and at times, anti-Vietnamese newspaper. Minor
independence movements, especially the Khmer Issarak, began to develop in 1940 among
Cambodians in Thailand, who feared that their actions would have led to punishment if they
had operated in their homeland.[8]

World War II in Cambodia and the Japanese occupation of Cambodia

103
The coronation of Norodom Sihanouk in 1941// The Empire of Japan in 1942

After the Fall of France in 1940, Cambodia and the rest of French Indochina were ruled by
the Axis-puppet Vichy France government and despite an invasion of French
Indochina, Japan allowed French colonial officials to remain in their colonies under Japanese
supervision. In December 1940, the French-Thai War erupted and despite French resistance
against the Japanese backed Thai forces, Japan compelled French authorities to
cede Battambang, Sisophon, Siem Reap (excluding Siem Reap town) and Preah
Vihear provinces to Thailand.

Japanese calls of "Asia for the Asiatics" found a receptive audience among Cambodian
nationalists, although Tokyo's policy in Indochina was to leave the colonial government
nominally in charge. When a prominent, politically active Buddhist monk, Hem Chieu, was
arrested and unceremoniously defrocked by the French authorities in July 1942, the editors
of Nagaravatta led a demonstration demanding his release. They, as well as other
nationalists, apparently overestimated the Japanese willingness to back them, for the Vichy
authorities quickly arrested the demonstrators and gave Pach Choeun, one of
the Nagaravatta editors, a life sentence. The other editor, Son Ngoc Thanh, escaped from
Phnom Penh to Tokyo.

The subject of European colonies in Asia was among those discussed during the war by the
Allied leaders of the Big Three, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill at the three
summit meetings – Cairo Conference, Tehran Conference and Yalta Conference. With regard
to the largest colony of India, Roosevelt pressed very strongly for a declaration of grant of
independence by war's end, a pressure doggedly resisted by Churchill.

In regards to non-British colonies in Asia, Roosevelt and Stalin had decided in Tehran that
the French and the Dutch would not return to Asia after the war. Roosevelt's untimely death
before the war's end, was followed by developments very different from what Roosevelt had
envisaged. The British backed the return of French and Dutch rule in Asia and organised
dispatches of Indian soldiers under British command for this purpose. In an effort to enlist
local support in the final months of the war, the Japanese dissolved the French colonial
administration on 9 March 1945, and urged Cambodia to declare its independence within
the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere. Four days later, King Sihanouk decreed an
independent Kampuchea (the original Khmer pronunciation of Cambodia). Son Ngoc Thanh
returned from Tokyo in May, and was appointed foreign minister.On 15 August 1945, the

104
day Japan surrendered, a new government was established with Son Ngoc Thanh acting as
prime minister. When an Allied force occupied Phnom Penh in October, Thanh was arrested
for collaboration with the Japanese and was sent into exile in France to remain under house
arrest. Some of his supporters went to north-western Cambodia, then still under Thai control,
where they banded together as one faction in the Khmer Issarak movement.

Struggle for Khmer unity

Cambodia's situation at the end of the war was chaotic. The Free French, under
General Charles de Gaulle, were determined to recover Indochina, though they offered
Cambodia and the other Indochinese protectorates a carefully circumscribed measure of self-
government. Convinced that they had a "civilizing mission," they envisioned Indochina's
participation in a French Union of former colonies that shared the common experience of
French culture. Neither the urban professional elites nor the common people, however, were
attracted by this arrangement. For Cambodians of practically all walks of life, the brief period
of independence, from March to October 1945, had been enjoyable. The lassitude of the
Khmer was a thing of the past.

In Phnom Penh, Sihanouk, acting as head of state, was placed in a delicate position of
negotiating with the French for full independence while trying to neutralise party politicians
and supporters of the Khmer Issarak and Viet Minh who considered him a French
collaborator. During the tumultuous period between 1946 and 1953, Sihanouk displayed the
remarkable aptitude for political survival that sustained him before and after his fall from
power in March 1970. The Khmer Issarak was an extremely heterogeneous guerrilla
movement, operating in the border areas.The group included indigenous leftists, Vietnamese
leftists, anti-monarchical nationalists (Khmer Serei) loyal to Son Ngoc Thanh, and plain
bandits taking advantage of the chaos to terrorise villagers. Though their fortunes rose and
fell during the immediate postwar period (a major blow was the overthrow of a left-wing
friendly government in Bangkok in 1947), by 1954 the Khmer Issarak operating with the Viet
Minh by some estimates controlled as much as 50 percent of Cambodia's territory. In 1946,
France allowed the Cambodians to form political parties and to hold elections for a
Consultative Assembly that would advise the monarch on drafting the country's constitution.
The two major parties were both headed by royal princes. The Democratic Party, led by
Prince Sisowath Yuthevong, espoused immediate independence, democratic reforms, and
parliamentary government. Its supporters were teachers, civil servants, politically active
members of the Buddhist clergy, and others whose opinions had been greatly influenced by
the nationalistic appeals of Nagaravatta before it had been closed down by the French in
1942.

Many Democrats sympathised with the violent methods of the Khmer Issarak. The Liberal
Party, led by Prince Norodom Norindeth, represented the interests of the old rural elites,
including large landowners. They preferred continuing some form of the colonial relationship
with France, and advocated gradual democratic reform. In the Consultative Assembly
election held in September 1946, the Democrats won 50 of 67 seats.

With a solid majority in the assembly, the Democrats drafted a constitution modelled on that
of the French Fourth Republic. Power was concentrated in the hands of a popularly elected
National Assembly. The king reluctantly proclaimed the new constitution on 6 May 1947.
While it recognised him as the "spiritual head of the state," it reduced him to the status of a
constitutional monarch, and it left unclear the extent to which he could play an active role in

105
the politics of the nation. Sihanouk would turn this ambiguity to his advantage in later years,
however.

In the December 1947 elections for the National Assembly, the Democrats again won a large
majority. Despite this, dissension within the party was rampant. Its founder, Sisowath
Yuthevong, had died and no clear leader had emerged to succeed him. During the period
1948 to 1949, the Democrats appeared united only in their opposition to legislation sponsored
by the king or his appointees. A major issue was the king's receptivity to independence within
the French Union, proposed in a draft treaty offered by the French in late 1948. Following
dissolution of the National Assembly in September 1949, agreement on the pact was reached
through an exchange of letters between King Sihanouk and the French government. It went
into effect two months later, though National Assembly ratification of the treaty was never
secured.

The treaty granted Cambodia what Sihanouk called "fifty percent independence": by it, the
colonial relationship was formally ended, and the Cambodians were given control of most
administrative functions. Cambodian armed forces were granted freedom of action within a
self-governing autonomous zone comprising Battambang and Siemreab provinces, which had
been recovered from Thailand after World War II, but which the French, hard-pressed
elsewhere, did not have the resources to control. Cambodia was still required to co-ordinate
foreign policy matters with the High Council of the French Union, however, and France
retained a significant measure of control over the judicial system, finances, and customs.

Control of wartime military operations outside the autonomous zone remained in French
hands. France was also permitted to maintain military bases on Cambodian territory. In 1950
Cambodia was accorded diplomatic recognition by the United States and by most non-
communist powers, but in Asia only Thailand and South Korea extended recognition.

The Democrats won a majority in the second National Assembly election in September 1951,
and they continued their policy of opposing the king on practically all fronts. In an effort to
win greater popular approval, Sihanouk asked the French to release nationalist Son Ngoc
Thanh from exile and to allow him to return to his country. He made a triumphant entry into
Phnom Penh on 29 October 1951. It was not long, however, before he began demanding
withdrawal of French troops from Cambodia.

He reiterated this demand in early 1952 in Khmer Krok (Khmer Awake!) a weekly newspaper
that he had founded. The newspaper was forced to cease publication in March, and Son Ngoc
Thanh fled the capital with a few armed followers to join the Khmer Issarak. Branded
alternately a communist and an agent of the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
by Sihanouk, he remained in exile until Lon Nol established the Khmer Republic in 1970.

Campaign for independence

In June 1952, Sihanouk announced the dismissal of his cabinet, suspended the constitution,
and assumed control of the government as prime minister. Then, without clear constitutional
sanction, he dissolved the National Assembly and proclaimed martial law in January 1953.
Sihanouk exercised direct rule for almost three years, from June 1952 until February 1955.
After dissolution of the assembly, he created an Advisory Council to supplant the legislature
and appointed his father, Norodom Suramarit, as regent.

In March 1953, Sihanouk went to France. Ostensibly, he was travelling for his health;
actually, he was mounting an intensive campaign to persuade the French government to grant
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complete independence. The climate of opinion in Cambodia at the time was such that if he
did not achieve full independence quickly, the people were likely to turn to Son Ngoc Thanh
and the Khmer Issarak, who were fully committed to attaining that goal. At meetings with the
French president and with other high officials, Sihanouk was suggested as being unduly
"alarmist" about internal political conditions. The French also made the thinly veiled threat
that, if he continued to be uncooperative, they might replace him. The trip appeared to be a
failure, but on his way home by way of the United States, Canada, and Japan, Sihanouk
publicised Cambodia's plight in the media.

To further dramatise his "royal crusade for independence," Sihanouk declared that he would
not return until the French gave assurances that full independence would be granted. He then
left Phnom Penh in June to go into self-imposed exile in Thailand. Unwelcome in Bangkok,
he moved to his royal villa near the ruins of Angkor in Siemreab Province. Siemreab, part of
the autonomous military zone established in 1949, was commanded by Lieutenant
Colonel Lon Nol, formerly a right-wing politician who was becoming a prominent, and in
time would be an indispensable Sihanouk ally within the military. From his Siemreab base,
the king and Lon Nol contemplated plans for resistance if the French did not meet their terms

Sihanouk was making a high-stakes gamble, for the French could easily have replaced him
with a more pliable monarch; however, the military situation was deteriorating throughout
Indochina, and the French government, on 3 July 1953, declared itself ready to grant full
independence to the three states of Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos. Sihanouk insisted on his
own terms, which included full control of national defence, the police, the courts, and
financial matters.

The French yielded: the police and the judiciary were transferred to Cambodian control at the
end of August, and in October the country assumed full command of its military forces. King
Sihanouk, now a hero in the eyes of his people, returned to Phnom Penh in triumph and
independence day was celebrated on 9 November 1953. Control of residual matters affecting
sovereignty, such as financial and budgetary affairs, passed to the new Cambodian state in
1954.

https://www.thecollector.com/was-angkor-lost-myth-french-discovery/

III
Expeditions Unknown
Angkor The Surprising Discovery

107
The largest religious structure on earth has puzzled and enchanted visitors for centuries. How did it come to be? Jonathan
Glanceyinvestigates. By Jonathan Glancey14th March 2017

The first Western visitor to Angkor

One hundred years after the fall of Angkor, in app.1550 or 1951, which when
King Satha Ang Chan went for a hunt he stumbled upon the ruins of the Angkor Wat
temple complex in the jungles. It is a known fact that Sâtha became
fascinated with Angkor having made it his capital (1571-1576)
commanding the partial restoration of the town.

António da Madalena a Portugese frair visited and stayed in Angkor

giving a detailed and faithful description of the town, in particular of
its many fountains and conduits that contributed to make it “…the
finest, the best regulated, and the cleanest of all [cities] in the world.”
Madalena’s narration to his friend Diogo do Couto was lost for some
years drawing a veil over the fascinating city with its temples and palaces
in these words :

“On one of the sides of this town there were incomplete monuments
which seem to have been the palaces of kings, because the workmanship,
sump- tuousness and grandeur immediately look royal in their numerous
cornices, leaf decoration, figures and other or- namentation which delight
the eye and witness to the skill of their sculptors.”

Henri Mouhot's diary

Bernard-Philippe Groslier became the first European to visit Angkor after a long
interregnum. In 1952-1953, he undertook his first excavations at Angkor, at the Palais
Royal of Angkor Thom. This was followed by a second season under the EFEO at the Palais

108
Royal and Rolous (Hariharalaya) in 1958. While the Franciscan friar António da Madelena
praised the beauty of the religious complex "like no other monument in the whole world" he
correctly attributes an Indian origin to the Khmer architecture. In 1604, Dominican friar
Gabriel Quiroga de San Antonio believed it could be a temple of the of the lost tribes of Israel
in these words:

It “is of such extraordinary construction that it is not possible to describe it with a pen,
particularly since it is like no other building in the world. It has towers and decoration and all
the refinements which the human genius can conceive of.”

By the time of Madelena’s visit, the once mighty Khmer Empire that had built Angkor and its
temple dedicated to Vishnu – mistaken by visitors even today for a walled and towered city –
had fallen. Three centuries later, Europeans were baffled by what they found at Angkor.
Henri Mouhout, a young French naturalist and explorer who died here in 1861 and whose
writings, published posthumously, encouraged successive waves of archaeologists to
Cambodia in pursuit of a lost ancient civilization, could make neither head nor tail of what he
saw.
“One of these temples – a rival to that of Solomon and erected by some ancient
Michelangelo might take an honorable place beside our most beautiful buildings,” he wrote.
“It is grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the
state of barbarism in which the nation is now plunged.”

The zenith of their once dynamic empire that, founded in 802, fell in 1431 when the rival
King of Thailand Ayutthaya kingdom sacked Angkor. The seat of the remnant Khmer
kingdom moved to Phnom Penh, Cambodia’s capital today.

Stranded in the jungle

Thanks to the forensic aerial mapping conducted since 2007 by Damian Evans and Jean-
Baptiste Chevance, using ground-sensing radar developed by Nasa we recognize that Angkor
Wat was the epicentre of a sprawling city at least as big as Berlin. At its zenith during the
reign of Jayavarman VII (1181-1218), it was the mighty heart of the largest empire of its
time.

Angkor Wat has a massive moat surrounding the central temple complex – seen from the
air, the entire site is remarkable for its precise 90-degree angles

109
 Mind
boggling Angkor

Helen Churchill Candee's classic 1024 AD tale of Asian adventure

Angkor- The Magnificent - Wonder City Of Ancient Cambodia further
attracted attention to Angkor. "The tale of it is incredible; the wonder
which is Angkor is unmatched in Asia." So begins Helen Churchill Candee's
classic tale of Asian adventure. Today, readers can again experience the
mystery of Cambodia's vast jungle temples through her eyes. Helen
Churchill Candee is best known for surviving the sinking of the RMS
Titanic.
Candee was traveling in Europe in the spring of 1912, completing research for The Tapestry
Book, when she received a telegram from her daughter, Edith, advising that Candee's son,
Harold ("Harry"), had been injured in an accident. From Paris, Candee hurriedly booked
passage home on the new luxury ocean liner, the RMS Titanic. On the voyage, she socialized
with other prominent travelers, such as President Taft's military aide, Major Archibald
Butt, Col. Gracie, and the painter Francis Davis Millet.
Since baggage and personal items were not allowed aboard the lifeboats, Candee gave two
precious items, an ivory cameo miniature of her mother and a small flask of brandy, to a male
friend, New York architect Edward Austin Kent who had pockets. These were later retrieved
from his floating remains and, in 2006, sold at auction for around $80,000 for the locket and
$40,000 for the flask. Candee was able to board lifeboat 6 but fell and fractured her ankle in
the process. Also aboard was first class passenger Margaret Brown (aka "the unsinkable
Molly Brown"); both women manned the oars of the lifeboat.
Candee subsequently gave a short interview about her experiences to the Washington
Herald and wrote a detailed article on the disaster for Collier's Weekly. This cover story was
one of the first in-depth eyewitness accounts of the sinking published in a major magazine.
The article hinted at a romantic involvement with an unidentified male passenger, believed to

110
be an amalgam of two of her escorts en route, New York architect Edward Austin Kent and
London investor Hugh Woolner.
Candee's Titanic injury required her to walk with a cane for almost a year, but by March
1913, she was able to join other feminist equestriennes in the "Votes for Women" parade
down Pennsylvania Avenue (Washington, D.C.), riding her horse at the head of the
procession that culminated at the steps of Capitol Hill.
During World War I, Candee worked as a nurse in Rome and Milan under the auspices of
the Italian Red Cross, which decorated her for her service. One of her patients in Milan
was Ernest Hemingway.
After the war, she traveled to Japan, China, Indonesia, and Cambodia, and her adventures
became the basis for two of her most celebrated books: Angkor the Magnificent (1924)
and New Journeys in Old Asia (1927). Candee was honored by the French government and
the King of Cambodia for these works; she was also commanded to give a reading
of Angkor to King George V and Queen Mary at Buckingham Palace.

Helen Candee, son Harry, their guide, and "Effie" the elephant at Angkor Wat (1922)
Angkor the Magnificent was the first major English-language study of the ruins of the
ancient Khmer temple Angkor Wat and its environs. Called the "Lost City" or the "Wonder
City", Angkor Wat is considered one of the great man-made wonders of the world. Largely
unknown to Westerners until the publication of Candee's book, its subsequent popularity laid
groundwork for the modern tourist market in Cambodia. On Candee's initial southeast Asian
trips in 1922-23 she was accompanied by her son, Harry, with whom she trekked through the
then dangerous jungles with their native guide, riding atop the great elephant she named
"Effie". On later visits, the author was joined by her friend and collaborator,
illustrator Lucille Douglass. Although The Tapestry Book was the most lucrative book
Candee wrote, Angkor the Magnificent was the most acclaimed.

111
The success of Angkor and New Journeys led to a prosperous secondary career for Candee as
a lecturer on the Far East, while her work as a journalist continued apace. She was briefly
Paris editor for Arts & Decoration (1920–21) and remained on that publication's editorial
advisory staff for several years.
In 1925, Candee was among the nine founding members of the Society of Woman
Geographers. As late as 1935-36, when she was almost 80, Candee was still traveling abroad,
writing articles for National Geographic magazine. She walked with kings, presidents, the
wealthy and the powerful. entertaining, educating and influencing them. This independent
woman championed feminine equality and fought tirelessly for woman's rights. And, as a
single woman, she traveled the Far East with a keen eye for detail, an inquisitive mind, and a
sensitivity for local culture. Helen Candee's travelogue remains one of the most evocative
English language accounts of the ancient Khmer capital. This expanded hardcover edition
marks the first reissue of her complete 1924 work with more than 100 antique illustrations, an
index and bibliography. For the first time in print, this edition also features an original
biography of Helen Candee by historian Randy Bryan Bigham, and a reprint of Candee's
original account of the Titanic disaster itself. In 2012, Evans, a faculty member of the
Department of Archaeology at the University of Sydney and founding member and deputy
director of the Greater Angkor Project, and Chevance, an archaeologist with the École
française d’Extrême-Orient, founded in 1900, discovered the ‘lost city’ of Mahendraparvata
on the plateau of Phnom Kulen. Twenty-five miles north of Angkor, this planned city with its
grid of boulevards had been hidden by vegetation for centuries. Founded by the warrior-priest
monarch Jayavarman II in 802, it was the ‘template’ of Angkor and its great temple. Since
2012, Mahendraparvata has proved to be even bigger than Evans and Chevance had first
thought.

This drawing of the temple’s façade was made by Henri Mouhout, a French explorer who
visited the site in the mid 19th Century and could not believe his eyes

The discovery of this city was only possible thanks to Lidar, a form of aerial laser scanning
that, mounted in helicopters, sees through the ground below, identifying streets and buildings
where all the human eye can see is fields and forests. Jayavarman VII was the ruler of the
Khmer Empire from 1181 to 1218 and is widely regarded as its most powerful leader – he
oversaw the completion of the temple.

112
The sheer scale of Angkor is mind-bending. From its moated temple with its lotus-bud
towers, its courtyards and galleries, friezes of warriors, kings, demons, battles and three
thousand heavenly nymphs, all shaped in thirty-seven years by 300,000 workers and 6,000
elephants, or so inscriptions say, from millions of sandstone slabs floated down from Phnom
Kulen, Angkor stretched for miles around.

Urban planning
This, perhaps, was the first low-density a vast-reaching metropolis, flouting an ambitious
network of roads and canals, reservoirs and dams carved from the forest.
What’s more, Khmer cities were connected to one another, so the “built-up” area of Angkor
seems to have been bigger than anyone today, much less barefoot 16th Century Portuguese
friars, has been able to figure. An enormous and intricate irrigation system mapped by Evans
and Chevance provided Angkor with food – rice for the main part – and yet the ever-
increasing scale of this engineered and well populated landscape was, it seems, its undoing.1

“Angkor overreached itself. It was not simply military invasion from what is now Thailand
that hastened the fall of the Khmer Empire, but the imperious ambition of rulers and cities.
What proved to be overpopulation caused unsustainable deforestation, the degradation of
topsoil and the overworking of the irrigation system that would have required a huge
workforce to keep it in a permanent state of good repair.For all the raised roadways with rest
houses sited every 15km (9 miles) and hospitals built by Jayavarman VII, who used
ambitious architecture and grand plans to keep the peace as well as to express the confidence
and culture of the Khmer Empire, the jungle would reclaim these mighty works.”

Angkor today, along with such romantic temples as Jayavarman VII’s Ta Prohm, where
enormous cotton silk trees and their fairy-tale roots appear to hold the architecture in wild
embrace, and known to cinema goers through the film Lara Croft: Tomb Raider (2001), is
threatened anew not by invading armies but by mass tourism. Already, brash new ‘luxury’
air-conditioned tour-group hotels, featuring swimming pools, hot tubs and spas, dominate the
once small French Colonial town of Siem Reap, no longer a walk, but now an air-conditioned
coach ride from Angkor Wat.
Such is the use of water by the millions of tourists heading this way each year that the water
table of the area under sandy soil is threatened. Its decline is damaging the very stones of the
12th-Century temple; meanwhile, visitors take photographs of themselves and shout into
theirΩΩ mobile phones.

As laser-mapping technology becomes more readily available, perhaps archaeologists might

help to divert some of the millions heading to Angkor Wat to elsewhere in Cambodia and
Southeast Asia. Even so, what Angkor has that will keep drawing the crowds is the world’s
biggest temple – and one that remains enigmatically magnificent.2

113
In an article titles-What does the new imaging technology unveil about Angkor?
Lasers reveal ancient Cambodian cities hidden by jungle near
Angkor Wat, Lacy Cooke states that” a thrilling new
discovery, archaeologists used laser imaging technology to
reveal ancient cities hidden by jungle in Cambodia. The LiDAR
data provides information on waterways, iron smelting
locations, and even another temple, Preah Khan. The
discovery reveals that the cities near Angkor Wat were much
larger than previously thought.

Angkor Wat was built during the reign of King Suryavarman II of the Khmer Empire in the
early to middle 1100s, and it was part of one of the biggest ancient cities. Archaeologists
suspected there had to be more to the area, and research has been underway for several years.
The new data appears to confirm these suspicions. Archaeologist Damian Evans said to AFP,
“The LiDAR quite suddenly revealed an entire cityscape there with astonishing complexity.
It turned out we’d been walking and flying right over the top of this stuff for ten years and
not even noticing it because of the vegetation. What we had was basically a scatter of
disconnected points on the map denoting temple sites. Now it’s like having a detailed street
map of the entire city.”

Back in 2012, scans revealed an ancient temple city close to Angkor Wat called
Mahendraparvata, and the new scans will assist archaeologists on the ground as they continue
to explore that area. It had been difficult for archaeologists to determine the extent of this
area because the empire constructed many of the ancient buildings with wood that’s since
rotted. Made of stone, the temples endure. Archaeologists saw evidence of both Hinduism
and Buddhism in the temples; both religions were part of the Khmer Empire during different
time periods.”
________________________________________

114
1.Mahendraparvata: an early Angkor-period capital defined
through airborne laser scanning at Phnom Kulen, Jean-Baptiste
Chevance,Damian Evans,Nina Hofer,Sakada Sakhoeun and
Ratha Chhean,Published online by Cambridge University
Press: 15 October 2019
2. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20170309-the-mystery-of-angkor-wat

oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo

Expeditions

One of the first Western visitors to the temple of Vrah Vishnu Lok built by Suryavarman II
was Antonio de Madalena, a Portuguese friar who visited in 1586. Angkor Wat was then
effectively rediscovered by the French explorer Henri Mouhot in the 1840s. Angkor Wat was
then effectively rediscovered by the French explorer Henri Mouhot in the 1840s. Mouhot
described Angkor Wat as “grander than anything left to us by Greece or Rome” and spread
the word about this incredible monument to the western world.
António da Madalena (sometimes spelled, in English, Antonio da Magdalena, died c. 1589)
was a Portuguese Capuchin friar who was the first Western visitor to Angkor in 1586.He was
born in Coimbra and lived in the Alcobaça Monastery from 1575 to 1579. He travelled
to Goa in 1580, to establish a library for his order. In 1583 he travelled overland to what is
today Cambodia, where in 1586 he was the first Western visitor to Angkor.

He gave an account of his journey to Angkor to historian Diogo do Couto, the main
chronicler and "guarda-mor" (curator) of the Archives of Portuguese exploration-
colonization in Asia. Curiously, Diogo do Couto did not include Madalena's testimony in the
sixth volume of the sum initiated by writer João de Barros, the Décadas da Ásia. He
attempted to aid in a reconstruction effort of Angkor, but the project was unsuccessful. Diogo
do Couto (Lisbon, c. 1542 – Goa, 10 December 1616) was a Portuguese historian who
traveled to Portuguese India in March 1559 (Armada of Pêro Vaz de Sequeira). As a soldier
he took part in the Surat campaign in March 1560, living in Bharuch in 1563. But he was
born in Lisbon in 1542 to Gaspar do Couto and Isabel Serrão Calvos. He
studied Latin and Rhetoric at the College of Saint Anthony the Great (Colégio de Santo
Antão), an important Jesuit-run educational institution in Lisbon. He also studied philosophy
at the Convent of Saint Dominic (Convento de São Domingos de Benfica) in Benfica. From
India he returned to Lisbon with D. António de Noronha in 1569. He was a close friend of the
poet Luís de Camões, and described him in Ilha de Moçambique in 1569, as indebted and
unable to fund his return to Portugal. Couto and other friends took it upon themselves to help
Camões, who was thus enabled to take his most significant work, the Lusiads, to the
capital.The 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th Décadas were published during his lifetime. After Couto
died, his other works were in the hands of his brother-in-law, the priest Deodato da Trindade.

115
António da Madalena on the other hand perished during shipwreck of the Sao
Tomé caravel off Natal (South Africa), probably while he was heading back home after many
years spent in India, Malacca and Ayuthaya in Siam in 1589.

The coat of arms of Coimbra is said to be inspired on Cindazunda, Hermeric's

daughter. The legendary symbolism of the lion is tied to Ataces, ruler of the Alans, and
that of the serpent is tied to Hermeric, ruler of the Suebi. ///Sé Nova de Coimbra
After do Couto's death, his personal papers were kept by his brother-in-law and priest
Deodato da Trindade, and his wife's brother, Luisa de Melo.

In the fifth volume of the Décadas da Ásia (Asian Decades), written during the years 1586-
1587 and published only in 1612, Diogo do Couto alludes to Father da Madalena as one of
his informers on mainland Southeast Asian affairs. Though the description of Angkor was not
included in the Décadas, it circulated quite widely since echoes of its content appeared in
sundry Iberan published works of the first decades of the 17th century, such as Father Gabriel
Quiroga de San Antonio's Breve y verdadera relacion de los sucessos del reyno de
Camboxa in 1604; in Father Joao dos Santos' Ethiopia Oriental et varia historia de cousas
notaveis de Oriente in 1609 and Bartolomé Leonardo de Argensola's Conquista de las Islas
Malucas in 1609.

It was only in 1947 that historian Charles R. Boxer found do Couto's transcription of
Madalena's original relation to his journey in Cambodia and made it known to a broader
public, before it was translated in French by Bernard-Philippe Groslier in 1957:

This revealed a precise description of Angkor Wat and especially Angkor Thom as seen in
1550, which was discovered anew during a royal hunt by King Ang Chan, one hundred years
after the fall of Angkor. While the Franciscan friar praised the beauty of the religious
complex "like no other monument in the whole world", the friar also compares the stupas to
Portuguese coruchea or capirote, usually worn by the Penitents seeking redemption in the
Christian faith. Madalena correctly attributes an Indian origin to the Khmer architecture while
Jesuit Pedro de Ribadeneira and his Spanish sources still believed it could have been the
work of Alexander the Great and even in 1604, Dominican friar Gabriel Quiroga de San
Antonio believed it could be a temple of the lost tribes of Israel.

116
The French, who ruled Cambodia for much of the 20th century, restored the site in the early
1900s for tourism purposes. However, this work was then disrupted by the Cambodian Civil
War and during the rule of the Khmer Rouge. Angkor Wat sustained minimal damage –
however there are still bullet holes on its outer walls due to the battles of the Khmer Rouge
regime.
Cambodia gained independence from France in 1953 and has controlled Angkor Wat ever
since.
In 1992 the temple complex was named a UNESCO World Heritage site, and is now a highly
popular tourist attraction in Cambodia - welcoming 2 million visitors every year. The most
popular time to visit Ankgor Wat is in the early hours of the morning; to witness a beautiful
sunrise over the magical temple.

The city of Angkor, home to Angkor Wat, was the capital of the Khmer Empire and thrived
between the 9th and 15th centuries.
Angkor itself stretched over 400km² and is now home to the magnificent remains of a variety
of temples including Angkor Wat, Angkor Thom, Bayon Temple and Ta Prohm – made
famous by Lara Croft in Tomb Raider! We now know that Angkor Wat was the centre of a
city as large as Berlin – it was the heart of the largest empire of its time.
Today, Angkor Wat lies just 5.5km north of the modern town of Siem Reap. Siem Reap is
full of lively bars, serene hotels and colourful markets – it’s the perfect gateway to exploring
the ancient world of Angkor.

117
 Angkor Wat, the heart and soul of Cambodia, translates to “City of Temples” in the Khmer
language.Angkor Wat, protected by a 15-foot high wall and wide moat, covers an area of 200
acres. During its height of popularity, Angkor Wat included a city, temple and the emperor’s
palace. However, it was only the temple and walls that were built out of sandstone, not wood,
and therefore the only structures still remaining today.Angkor Wat is said to represent Mount
Meru, the home of the gods, according to both Hindu and Buddhist faiths. The five towers
represent the five peaks of Mount Meru, whilst the walls signify the surrounding mountain
ranges and the moat represents the sea.

118
 Alexandre Henri Mouhot (15 May 1826 – 10 November 1861)
the French naturalist and explorer of the mid-19th century immortalized his journey to
Angkor in Voyage dans les royaumes de Siam, de Cambodge, de Laos et autres parties
centrales de l'Indochine (published 1863, 1864). English title: Travels in the Central Parts of
Indo-China, Cambodia and Laos During the Years 1858,1859, and 1860.His other works
were:

 Travels in Siam, Cambodia, Laos, and Annam. Henri Mouhot ISBN 974-8434-03-6
 Travels in Siam, Cambodia and Laos, 1858-1860 Henri Mouhot, Michael Smithies
- ISBN 0-19-588614-3
 Travels in the Central Parts of Indo-China (Siam), Cambodia, and Laos During the
Years 1858, 1859, and 1860. Mouhot, Henri—ISBN 974-8495-11-6 (B/W illustrations)

He was born in Montbéliard, Doubs, France, near the Swiss border. He died near Luang-
Prabang, Laos. He is remembered mostly in connection to Angkor. Mouhot's tomb is located
just outside of Ban Phanom, to the east of Luang Prabang. He traveled throughout Europe
with his brother Charles, studying photographic techniques developed by Louis Daguerre. In
1856, he began devoting himself to the study of natural science. Upon reading The Kingdom
and People of Siam by Sir John Bowring in 1857, Mouhot decided to travel to Indochina to
conduct a series of botanical expeditions for the collection of new zoological specimens. His
initial requests for grants and passage were rejected by French companies and the
government of Napoleon III. The Royal Geographical Society and the Zoological Society of
London lent him their support, and he set sail for Bangkok, via Singapore.

119
Mouhot drawing: Angkor WatPavilion of Angkor Wat, by Mouhot
From his base in Bangkok in 1858, Mouhot made four journeys into the interior
of Siam, Cambodia and Laos. Over a period of three years before he died, he endured
extreme hardships and fended off wild animals, to explore some previously uncharted jungle
territory. On his first expedition, he visited Ayutthaya, the former capital of Siam (already
charted territory), and gathered an extensive collection of insects, as well as terrestrial and
river shells, and sent them on to England. In January 1860, at the end of his second and
longest journey, he reached Angkor (already charted territory) — an area spread over more
than 400 km2., consisting of many sites of ancient terraces, pools, moated cities, palaces
and temples, the most famous of which is Angkor Wat. He recorded this visit in his travel
journals, which included three weeks of detailed observations. These journals and
illustrations were later incorporated into Voyage dans les royaumes de Siam, de Cambodge,
de Laos which were published posthumously.

120
Facade of Angkor Wat, by Mouhot
Mouhot is often mistakenly credited with "discovering" Angkor, although Angkor was never
lost — the location and existence of the entire series of Angkor sites was always known to
the Khmers and had been visited by several westerners since the 16th century. Mouhot
mentions in his journals that his contemporary Father Charles Emile Bouillevaux, a French
missionary based in Battambang, had reported that he and other Western explorers and
missionaries had visited Angkor Wat and the other Khmer temples at least five years before
Mouhot. Father Bouillevaux published his accounts in 1857: "Travel in Indochina 1848–
1846, The Annam and Cambodia". Previously, a Portuguese trader Diogo do Couto visited
Angkor and wrote his accounts about it in 1550, and the Portuguese monk Antonio da
Magdalena had also written about his visit to Angkor Wat in 1586. Mouhot did, however,
popularise Angkor in the West.

Père Charles-Émile Bouillevaux (1 Apr. 1823, Montier-en-Der, France — 6 Jan. 1913,

Montier-en-Der) was a French missionary and explorer who visited Angkor in
December 1850 but waited until 1878 to publish an extensive account of his visit, Ma visite
aux ruines cambodgiennes en 1850 (Mémoires de la Société académique indochinoise, T. 1),
long after the popular interest encountered by Henri Mouhot’s description.

Reaching Cochinchina in 1849, he saw Angkor in 1850 and, a few months later, stayed with
the Pnong (Penongs in the French transliteration) people in Northeastern Cambodia, traveled
from Sambor to Ha-Tien in nine days, then stayed in Laos from 1853 to 1855, came back
briefly to Cambodia in 1855 (Battambang). Following a brief return to Europe, he served as
abbot of Choquan from 1867 to 1873. He was with the Société des Missions étrangeres,
a French apostolic organization which had started to send missions to the Far East as early
as 1661 (to Siam) and 1664 (to Cochinchina).

121
Contributing several articles to the periodical Courrier de Saigon, Bouillevaux published
a Map of Cambodia, two relations of his travels in ‘Indochina’ (Voyages dans
l’Indochine, 1848 – 1856 (Paris, Victor Palmé, 1858) and L’Annam et le Cambodge, Voyages
et notices historiques (Paris, Victor Palmé, 1874).

Many historians of Angkor, including B.P. Groslier, have argued that Pere Bouillevaux did
not immediately realize the significance of Angkor, even if he visited the Khmer ruins ten
years before Henri Mouhot or John Thomson. George Coedès, however, granted him the
privilege to be the first Western visitor of Angkor in the 19th century. As for Casimir-Edmee
de Croizier, he wrote quite peremptorily in his 1878 brochure Les explorateurs du
Cambodge: “La priorité pour l’exploration des monuments de l’ancien Cambodge lui
appartient donc d’une façon incontestable, et son nom doit primer celui de tous les autres
voyageurs.” [“The priority in the exploration of the monuments of ancient Cambodia
irrefutably belongs to him, and his name must take precedence over that of all
other travelers.”

C.E. Bouillevaux
This portrait completed Bouillevaux’s paper ‘Ma visite aux ruines cambodgiennes en 1850’
[‘My visit to the Ruins of Cambodia in 1850’] in Mémoires de la Société académique de
l’Indochine, t. I, 1877. The caption in French reads: “Abbot C.E. Bouillevaux, former
missionary in Indochina, abbot of Longueville (Haute-Marne), first explorer of the ruines of
Ancient Cambodia (1850).”
Perhaps none of the previous European visitors wrote as evocatively as Mouhot, who
included interesting and detailed sketches. In his posthumously published Travels in Siam,
Cambodia and Laos, Mouhot compared Angkor to the pyramids, for it was popular in the
West at that time to ascribe the origin of all civilization to the Middle East. For example, he
described the Buddha heads at the gateways to Angkor Thom as "four immense heads in the
Egyptian style" and wrote of Angkor:

"One of these temples—a rival to that of Solomon, and erected by some ancient Michael
Angelo—might take an honourable place beside our most beautiful buildings. It is grander
122
than anything left to us by Greece or Rome, and presents a sad contrast to the state of
barbarism in which the nation is now plunged."
Mouhot also wrote that:

"At Ongcor, there are ...ruins of such grandeur... that, at the first view, one is filled with
profound admiration, and cannot but ask what has become of this powerful race, so civilized,
so enlightened, the authors of these gigantic works?"
Such quotations may have given rise to the popular misconception that Mouhot had found the
abandoned ruins of a lost civilisation. The Royal Geographical Society and The Zoological
Society, both interested in announcing new finds, seemed to have encouraged the rumor that
Mouhot — whom they had sponsored to chart mountains and rivers and catalog new species
— had discovered Angkor. Mouhot himself erroneously asserted that Angkor was the work
of an earlier civilization than the Khmer. For although the very same civilization which built
Angkor was alive and right before his eyes, he considered them in a "state of barbarism" and
could not believe they were civilized or enlightened enough to have built it. He assumed that
the authors of such grandeur were a disappeared race and mistakenly dated Angkor back over
two millennia, to around the same era as Rome. The true history of Angkor Wat was later
pieced together from the book The Customs of Cambodia written by Temür Khan's
envoy Zhou Daguan to Cambodia in 1295–1296[1] and from stylistic and epigraphic evidence
accumulated during the subsequent clearing and restoration work carried out across the whole
Angkor site. It is now known that the dates of Angkor's habitation were from the early ninth
century to the early 15th century.

Itinerary in Southeast Asia

Henri Mouhot's exploration covered 4,955 kilometers in Southeast Asia, in three years, six
months and 13 days. The exact itinerary, as listed in Le Tour du Monde ("Around the World"
journal), is as follows:

Chapter
Locality from Le
Stage Locality (period name) Arrival Departure
(current name) Tour du
Monde

First expedition (256 km)

23 October
5 Ajuthia Ayutthaya VI
1858

13 14
6 Arajiek, Phrabat Phra Phuttabat VII November November
1858 1858

28
Phra
7 Patawi VIII November
Phutthachai
1858

8 Bangkok Bangkok VIII 5 December 23

123
 December
1858
1858

Second expedition (2,399 km)

Chantaboun Gulf, Lion's 3 January

9 Laem Sing IX
Rock 1859

4 January
10 Chantaboun Chanthaburi IX
1859

26 January
11 Ile de Ko-Man Ko Man Nork IX
1859

Ile des Patates et ile de 28 January

12 Ko Khram IX
Ko-Kram 1859

29 January
13 Ile de l'Arec Chanthaburi X
1859

1 March
14 Ven-Ven Pak Nam Welu X
1859

Chute de Kombau, grotte Namtok Phlio

15 X
du Mont Sabab National Park

16 Chantaboun Chanthaburi XI

17 Ko-Khut Ko Kood XI

18 Koh-Khong Koh Kong XI

19 Kampot Kampot XI

20 Kompong-Baïe Kompong Bay XI

21 Udong Oudongk XII

22 Pinhalu Ponhea Leu XIII 2 July 1859

23 Penom Penh Phnom Penh XIV

24 Ile de Ko Sutin Kaoh Soutin XV

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25 Pemptiélan Peam Chilӗang XV

29
16 August
26 Brelum Bro Lam Peh XV November
1859
1859

27 Pemptiélan Peam Chilӗang XVI

21
28 Pinhalu Ponhea Leu XVI December
1859

29 Penom Penh Phnom Penh XVI

Lac du Tonlé
30 Lac du Touli-Sap XVI
Sap

20 January
31 Battambang Battambang XVII
1860

22 January 12 February
32 Ongkor Angkor XVIII
1860 1860

Phnom
33 Mont Ba-Khêng XIX
Bakheng

5 March
34 Battambang Battambang XXI
1860

Mongkol 8 March 9 March

35 Ongkor-Borège XXI
Borey 1860 1860

28 March
36 Muang Kabine Kabinburi XXI
1860

4 April
37 Bangkok Bangkok XXI 8 May 1860
1860

Third expedition (1,250 km)

11 May
38 Petchabury Petchaburi XXII
1860

125
 1
39 Bangkok Bangkok XXIII September
1860

40 Nophabury Lopburi XXIV

19 October
41 Ajuthia Ayutthaya XXIV
1860

20 October
42 Tharua-Tristard Tha Ruea XXIV
1860

22 October
43 Saohaïe Sao Hai XXIV
1860

Wat Tha Khlo

44 Khao Koc XXV
Tai

28 February
45 Tchaïapoune Chaiyaphum XXVI
1861

46 Saraburi Saraburi XXVI

12 April
47 Bangkok Bangkok XXVI
1861

Fourth expédition (1,050 km)

48 Sikiéou Si Khiu XXVI

Nakhon
49 Korat XXVI
Ratchasima

Prasat Phanom
50 Penom-Wat XXVI
Wan

51 Tchaïapoune Chaiyaphum XXVII

52 Nam-Jasiea Non Kok XXVII

53 Poukiéau Phu Khiao XXVII

126
 16 May
54 Leuye Loei XXVII
1861

24 June
55 Paklaïe Pak Lay XXVII
1861

56 Thodua Tha Deua XXVII

25 July
57 Luang Prabang Luang Prabang XXVII
1861

3
15 October
58 Na-Lê Na Le XXVIII September
1861
1861

Some have argued that Mouhot may have been a tool for French expansionism and the
annexation of territories which followed shortly after his death. Mouhot himself, however,
did not seem to be a hardcore colonialist, for he occasionally doubted the beneficial effects of
European colonisation:

"Will the present movement of the nations of Europe towards the East result in good by
introducing into these lands the blessings of our civilization? Or shall we, as blind
instruments of boundless ambition, come hither as a scourge, to add to their present
miseries?"
However, Mouhot appears in his notes as genuinely interested in South East Asia and its
culture, and kept in mind the benefits he thought France could provide to those countries. He
notably wrote in the Tour du Monde:

Page 174: " European domination, the abolition of slavery, protective and wise laws, and
faithful, experienced and scrupulously honest administrators, would alone be capable of
regenerating this State, so close to Cochinchina, where France is seeking to establish itself
and where it will undoubtedly establish itself; then it would certainly become a granary of
abundance, as fertile as lower Cochinchina. "

Page 175: "People are astonished to see insignificant production and no industry in these
regions that are so fertile and so rich, but they are generally unaware that the kings and
mandarins enrich themselves through despoilment and corruption, through all the abuses
that ruin work and halt progress. Let this country be administered with wisdom and
prudence, with loyalty and protection for the people, and everything will change with
marvellous rapidity.”

Mouhot also highlighted he saw France already provided Cambodia, at his time: (page
179) "Had it not been for the war that France has been waging against the Empire of Annam
for the past two years, it is probable that today the last hour would have sounded for the little
kingdom of Cambodia, whose destiny, with little doubt, is to die out and be assimilated into
the neighbouring peoples.”

127
 Mouhot's grave in 2007
Mouhot died of a malarial fever on his fourth expedition, in the jungles of Laos. He had been
visiting Luang Prabang, capital of the Lan Xang kingdom, one of three kingdoms which
eventually merged into what can be known as modern-day Laos, and was under the patronage
of the king. Two of his servants buried him near a French mission in Naphan, by the banks of
the Nam Khan river. Mouhot's favourite servant, Phrai, transported all of Mouhot's journals
and specimens back to Bangkok, from where they were shipped to Europe.

In 1867 the French commander Ernest Doudart de Lagrée of

the Mekong_expedition_of_1866–1868, following an order from the Governor of
Cochinchina, built a small monument near where they believed Mouhot's grave would have
been. De Lagrée gave this eulogy:

"We found everywhere the memory of our compatriot who, by the uprightness of his
character and his natural benevolence, had acquired the regard and the affection of the
natives."
Sixteen years later when the French explorer Dr Paul Neis travelled up the Nam Khan river
he found only "a few bricks scattered on the ground". In 1887 [Auguste_Pavie]] arranged for
a more durable crypt monument to be built, and a sala was built nearby to house and feed
visitors to the white shrine. Some restoration work was done on the tomb in 1951 by
the EFEO (Ecole Française d'Extrème Orient—The French School of the Far East).

During the years of the Second Indochina War Mouhot's tomb was consumed by the jungle
and lost until it was rediscovered in 1989 by French scholar, Jean-Michel Strobino, together
with Mongkhol Sasorith, a Lao historian. Strobino organised restoration of the monument
with the support of the French embassy and the Municipality of Montbeliard, Mouhot's birth
town. A new plaque was fixed to one end of the crypt in 1990 to commemorate this
rediscovery. The location is now known to hotels and tourist operators in Luang Prabang, and
a minivan or "tuk tuk" may be hired to take one the 10 km from town to visit it. This entails a
walk down a steep track to the left of a sharp bend on the road to Luang Prabang Railway
Station. Passing several small restaurants that now operate along the river at this point and
then up a well-cleared track to the tomb, altogether about 250 meters (2025).

The popularity of Angkor generated by Mouhot's writings led to the popular support for a
major French role in its study and preservation. The French carried out the majority of
research work on Angkor until recently. Two species of Asian reptiles are named in his
honor: Cuora mouhotii, a turtle; and Oligodon mouhoti, a snake.

128
ooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
ooo

IV
Restoring SRIVIJAY
 Chinese sources confusion:

Some scholars argue that certain Chinese historical texts may have confused the identities
of Srivijaya and Angkor, leading to debate about the exact nature of their relationship.
The connection between Srivijaya and Angkor lies primarily in trade and political influence,
where Srivijaya, a maritime empire based in Sumatra, is believed to have held significant
sway over the Angkor region (present-day Cambodia) during its peak, particularly impacting
Angkor's early development through trade routes and political power in the Southeast Asian
region; however, scholars debate the exact nature and extent of this relationship, with some
arguing that Chinese historical records may have confused the two entities at times.
Key points about the Srivijaya-Angkor connection:
 Trade dominance:
Srivijaya, situated strategically on the Malay Archipelago, controlled vital
maritime trade routes, which likely allowed them to influence the economy of
Angkor through the exchange of goods.
 Political influence:
Some historical interpretations suggest that Srivijaya may have exerted political
control over parts of the Angkor region during its early development, potentially
impacting the political landscape of the area.
 Religious exchange:

129
 Both Srivijaya and Angkor were heavily influenced by Buddhism, with potential
cultural exchange happening through trade and political interactions.

Srivijaya- was also a kingdom on Sumatra which influenced much of the Maritime
Southeast Asia. From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished as a
result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that were imported with
it.Srivijaya was centred in the coastal trading centre of present-day Palembang. Srivijaya was
not a "state" in the modern sense with defined boundaries and a centralised government to
which the citizens own allegiance. Rather Srivijaya was a confederacy form of society
centred on a royal heartland. It was a thalassocracy and did not extend its influence far
beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast Asia. Trade was the driving force of
Srivijaya just as it is for most societies throughout history. The Srivijayan navy controlled the
trade that made its way through the Strait of Malacca.
By the 7th century, the harbours of various vassal states of Srivijaya lined both coasts of the
Straits of Melaka. Around this time, Srivijaya had established suzerainty over large areas of
Sumatra, western Java, and much of the Malay Peninsula. Dominating the Malacca
and Sunda straits, the empire controlled both the Spice Route traffic and local trade. It
remained a formidable sea power until the 13th century. This spread the ethnic Malay culture
throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. A stronghold of Mahayana
Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia.
The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly during the
reign of Raja RajaChola I but during the reign of RajendraChola I the Chola Empire attacked
Srivijaya cities. A series of Chola raids in the 11th century weakened the Srivijayan
hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms based, like Kediri, on intensive
agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Srivijayan influence waned by the
11th century. The island was in frequent conflict with the Javanese kingdoms,
first Singhasari and then Majapahit. Islam eventually made its way to the Aceh region of
Sumatra, spreading its influence through contacts with Arabs and Indian traders. By the late
13th century, the kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. The last
inscription dates to 1374, where a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned. Srivijaya
ceased to exist by 1414, when Parameswara, the kingdom's last prince, fled to Temasik, then
to Malacca. Later his son converted to Islam and founded the Sultanate of Malacca on the
Malay peninsula.

130
Map of the expansion of the Srivijaya empire, beginning in Palembang in the 7th
century, then extending to most of Sumatra, then expanding to Java, Riau
Islands, Bangka Belitung, Singapore, Malay Peninsula (also known as: Kra
Peninsula), Thailand, Cambodia, South Vietnam, Kalimantan, Sarawak, Brunei, Sabah,
and ended as the Kingdom of Dharmasraya in Jambi in the 13th century.

Early 20th-century historians who studied the inscriptions of Sumatra and the neighboring
islands thought that the term "Srivijaya" referred to a king's name. In 1913, H. Kern was the
first epigraphist that identified the name "Srivijaya" written in a 7th-century Kota
Kapurinscription (discovered in 1892). However, at that time he believed that it referred to a
king named "Vijaya", with "Sri" as an honorific title for a king or ruler.
The Sundanese manuscript of CaritaParahyangan, composed around the late 16th century
in West Java, vaguely mentioned about the name "Sang Sri Wijaya". The manuscript
describes princely hero that rose to be a king named Sanjaya that — after he secured his rule
in Java — was involved in battle with the Malayu and Keling against their king Sang Sri
Wijaya.
Subsequently, after studying local stone inscriptions, manuscripts and Chinese historical
accounts, historians concluded that the term "Srivijaya" was actually referred to
a polity or kingdom. The main concern is to define Srivijaya's amorphous statehood as
a thalassocracy, which dominated a confederation of semi-autonomous harbour cities in
Maritime Southeast Asia.

131
 TalangTuwo inscription, discovered in Bukit
Seguntang area, tells the establishment of the sacred Śrīksetra park.
Little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains.[17] There had been no continuous knowledge of
the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia and Maritime Southeast Asia; its forgotten past has
been resurrected by foreign scholars. Contemporary Indonesians, even those from the area
of Palembang (around where the kingdom was based), had not heard of Srivijaya until the
1920s. The Srivijayan historiography was acquired, composed and established from two
main sources: the Chinese historical accounts and the Southeast Asian stone inscriptions that
have been discovered and deciphered in the region. The Buddhist pilgrim Yijing's account is
especially important in describing Srivijaya, when he visited the kingdom in 671 for six
months. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions discovered in Palembang and Bangka
Island are also vital primary historical sources. Also, regional accounts that some might be
preserved and retold as tales and legends, such as the Legend of the Maharaja of Zabaj and
the Khmer King also provide a glimpse of the kingdom. Some Indian and Arabic accounts
also vaguely describe the riches and fabulous fortune of the king of Zabag. It's likely that the
Zabag-Khmer story was based on Javanese overlordship over Cambodia.
Srivijaya, and by extension Sumatra, had been known by different names to different peoples.
The Chinese called it Sanfotsi, Sanfoqi or Che-li-fo-che (Shilifoshi), and there was an even
older kingdom of Kantoli, which could be considered the predecessor of
Srivijaya. The Arabs called it Zabag or Sribuza and the Khmers called it Melayu. While
the Javanese called them Suvarnabhumi, Suvarnadvipa, Melayu, or Malayu. This is another
reason why the discovery of Srivijaya was so difficult.While some of these names are
strongly reminiscent of the name of Java, there is a distinct possibility that they may have
referred to Sumatra instead.
Strong historical evidence found in Chinese sources, speaking of city-like settlements as early
as 700 AD, and later Arab travelers, who visited the region during the 10th and 11th
centuries, held written proof, naming the kingdom of Srivijaya in their context. Lack of
evidence of southern settlements in the archaeological record comes from the disinterest in
the archeologistand the unclear physical visibility of the settlement themselves. Archeology
of the 1920s and 1930s focused more on art and epigraphy found in the regions. Some
northern urban settlements were sited due to some overlap in fitting the sinocentric model of
city-state urban centers. An approach to differentiate between urban settlements in the
southern regions from the northern ones of Southeast Asia was initiated by a proposition for
an alternative model. Excavations showed failed signs of a complex urban center under the
lens of a sinocentric model, leading to parameters of a new proposed model. Parameters for
such a model of a city-like settlement included isolation in relevance to its hinterland. No
hinterland creates for low archaeological visibility. The settlement must also have access to
both easy transportation and major interregional trade routes, crucial in a region with few
resources. Access to the former and later played a major role in the creation of an extreme
economic surplus in the absence of an exploited hinterland. The urban center must be able to

132
organize politically without the need for ceremonial foci such as temples, monuments and
inscriptions. Lastly, habitations must be impermanent, being highly probable in the region
Palembang and of southern Southeast Asia. Such a model was proposed to challenge city
concepts of ancient urban centers in Southeast Asia and basic postulates themselves such as
regions found in the South, like Palembang, based their achievements in correlation with
urbanization.
Due to the contradicting pattern found in southern regions, like Palembang, in 1977 Bennet
Bronson developed a speculative model for a better understanding of coastal-oriented states
in Insular Southeast Asia, such as insular and peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, and
western Indonesia. Its main focus was the relationship of political, economic and
geographical systems. The general political and economic pattern of the region seems
irrelevant to other parts of the world of their time, but in correlation with their maritime trade
network, it produced high levels of socio-economic complexity. He concluded, from his
earlier publications in 1974 that state development in this region developed much differently
than the rest of early Southeast Asia. Bronson's model was based on the dendritic patterns of
a drainage basin where its opening leads out to sea. Being that historical evidence places the
capital in Palembang, and in junction of three rivers, the Musi River, the Komering River,
and the Ogan River, such model can be applied. For the system to function appropriately,
several constraints are required. The inability for terrestrial transportation results in
movements of all goods through water routes, lining up economical patterns with the
dendritic patterns formed by the streams. The second being the overseas center is
economically superior to the ports found at the mouth of the rivers, having a higher
population and a more productive and technologically advanced economy. Lastly, constraints
on the land work against and do not developments of urban settlements.
An aerial photograph taken in 1984 near Palembang (in what is now Srivijaya Archaeological
Park) revealed the remnants of ancient man-made canals, moats, ponds, and artificial islands,
suggesting the location of Srivijaya's urban centre. Several artefacts such as fragments of
inscriptions, Buddhist statues, beads, pottery and Chinese ceramics were found, confirming
that the area had, at one time, dense human habitation. By 1993, Pierre-Yves Manguin had
shown that the centre of Srivijaya was along the Musi River between Bukit Seguntang and
Sabokingking (situated in what is now Palembang, South Sumatra, Indonesia). Palembang is
called 'Giant Harbour', this is probably a testament of its history as once a great port.
The recent discoveries from Musi river seems to confirms that Palembang was indeed the
commercial centre of Srivijaya kingdom. In 2021 numbers of treasures were surfaced from
shallows and riverbed by local fishermen that turns to be treasure divers. The troves includes
coins of certain periods, gold jewelries, Buddhist statues, gems, colourful beads, and Chinese
ceramic fragments. However, these troves are immediately lost for the historical knowledge,
since local treasure hunters immediately has sold them to international antiquities dealers
before archaeologists can properly study them. These discoveries has led to the treasure rush
in Musiriver in 2021, where locals has formed groups of treasure divers operating in some
parts of Musi river in and around Palembang.
Srivijaya archaeological park (Indonesian: Taman Purbakala Kerajaan Srivijaya), formerly
known as Karanganyar archaeological site, is the ancient remnants of a garden and
habitation area near the northern bank of Musi river within Palembang vicinity, South
Sumatra, Indonesia. Remnants of ancient man-made canals, moats, ponds and artificial
islands discovered in this area suggests the site was related with a 9th-century settlement
related to the Srivijaya empire.[2] Several artifacts, such as Buddhist statues, beads, pottery

133
and Chinese ceramics were found in this area, confirming the area was once a dense human
habitation.

Srivijaya Archaeological Park located Southwest from Palembang city center (green).
The site forming an axis connecting Bukit Seguntang and Musi River.
The archaeological park is located in JalanSyakhyakirti, KelurahanKaranganyar,
KecamatanGandus, Palembang, on an alluvial plain of the Musi River near its junction with
the Ogan and Kramasan rivers Before the archeological excavation it was thought to be a
potential site for a Srivijayan political power center. The Karanganyar site had indeed been
occupied in Srivijayan times, mainly in the 9th-century, however the only traces left of this
period are a scatter of surface finds of contemporary artifacts e.g. Chinese ceramics, a few
layers of ancient brick wall, and possibly one ancient canal. So far, archaeologists has found
nothing in the site that can legitimately assign the Karanganyar site to the Srivijayan dynasty
instead of to the Palembang Sultanate. Other archaeological sites to Karanganyar that is
related with the 7th - 15th centuries Srivijayan dynasty are the KambangUnglen, Padang
Kapas, LadangSirap and Bukit Seguntang, and still for a variety of reasons, identification of
confirmed archaeological sites of the Srivijayan period remains ambiguous.

The main pavilion in Palembang Limasan traditional architecture in the middle of

Nangkaisland. The pavilion hosts a replica of Kedukan Bukit Inscription./The Srivijaya

134
Museum in Srivijaya Archaeological Park// Cempaka island, an artificial island in the
middle of a pond.

Aerial photographs taken in 1984 revealed the canal network span in the Karanganyar site,
confirming some ancient landscape modifications and man-made water structures. The canals
compound is located not far from the location where the Kedukan Bukit Inscription was
discovered. Moreover, the Karanganyar site is located not far from Bukit Seguntang, the
highest point of Palembang, which is also an important archaeological site containing some
archaeological fragments; inscriptions, ancient tombs, as well as an Amaravati-style statue of
Buddha.

Formation and growth

Siddhayatra
Around the year 500, the roots of the Srivijayanempire began to develop around present-
day Palembang, Sumatra. The Kedukan Bukit inscription (683)—considered as the oldest
inscription related to the kingdom of Srivijaya, discovered on the banks of the Tatang River
near the Karanganyar site, states about the "glorious Srivijaya", a kadatuan (kingdom or
polity) which was founded by DapuntaHyang Sri Jayanasa and his retinue. He had embarked
on a sacred siddhayatra journey and led 20,000 troops and 312 people in boats with 1,312
foot soldiers from MinangaTamwan to Jambi and Palembang. Many of this armed forces
gathered under the Srivijayan rule would have been the sea people, referred to generally as
the orang laut. In establishing its power, Srivijaya had first to consolidate its position in
Southeast Sumatra, which at that time consists of numbers of quasi-independent polities ruled
by local Datus (chieftain).
From the Old Malay inscriptions, it is notable that DapuntaHyang Sri Jayanasa launched a
maritime conquest in 684 with 20,000 men in the siddhayatra journey to acquire wealth,
power, and 'magical powers'. Under the leadership of DapuntaHyang Sri Jayanasa,
the Melayu Kingdom became the first kingdom to be integrated into Srivijaya. This possibly
occurred in the 680s. Melayu, also known as Jambi, was rich in gold and held in high esteem
at the time. Srivijaya recognised that the submission of Melayu would increase its own
prestige.
The empire was organised in three main zones: the estuarine capital region centred
on Palembang, the Musi River basin which served as a hinterland, and competitor estuarine
areas capable of forming competitor power centres. The areas upstream of the Musi
River were rich in various commodities valuable to Chinese traders. The capital was
administered directly by the ruler, while the hinterland remained under local datus or tribal
chiefs, who were organised into a network of alliances with the Srivijaya maharaja or king.
Force was the dominant element in the empire's relations with competitor river systems such
as the BatangHari River, centred in Jambi.
The TelagaBatu inscription, discovered in Sabokingking, eastern Palembang, is also
a siddhayatra inscription, from the 7th century. This inscription was very likely used in a
ceremonial sumpah (allegiance ritual). The top of the stone is adorned with seven nāga heads,
and on the lower portion there is a type of water spout to channel liquid that was likely
poured over the stone during a ritual. The ritual included a curse upon those who commit
treason against KadatuanSrivijaya.
The TalangTuwo inscription is also a siddhayatra inscription. Discovered in Seguntang Hill,
western Palembang, tells about the establishment of the bountiful Śrīksetra garden endowed

135
 by King Jayanasa of Srivijaya for the well-being of all creatures. It is likely that
the Seguntang Hill site was the location of the Śrīksetra garden.

Sanjaya or Sanjay Srivijayais a Sanskrit-derived Sailendra, Syailendra or Sel

(Sanskrit: सञ्जय, name: श्रीविजय, Śrīvijaya. endra) was the name of a
meaning "victory") or Śrī means "fortunate", notable Indianised dynasty
SanjayaGavalgana is an "prosperous", or "happy" and that emerged in 8th-
advisor from the ancient Vijaya means "victorious" or century Java, whose reign
Indian Hindu war epic "excellence".The Srivijaya signified a cultural
Mahābhārata. In Empire controlled modern-day renaissance in the
Mahabharata—An ancient Indonesia and much of the Malay regionTheShailendras were
story of a war between the Archipelago from the seventh to active promoters
Pandavas and the twelfth centuries. The empire of Mahayana Buddhism and
Kauravas—the blind king traded extensively with India and covered the Kedu
Dhritarashtra is the father China, incorporating Buddhist and Plain of Central Java with
of the principals of the Chinese political practices into Buddhist monuments, one of
Kaurava side. It means their traditions. Srivijaya was also a which is the
means “conquering,” religious centre in the region. It colossal stupa of Borobudur,
“triumphant,” or “victory.” adhered to Mahayana now a UNESCO World
Sanjay name meaning Buddhism and soon became the Heritage Site.
is Victory; Lord Shiva; stopping point for Chinese
Dhritarashtra's Buddhist pilgrims on their way to
Charioteer; Triumphant; India. The kings of Srivijaya even
Caring. The dynasty founded monasteries at Negapattam
promoted Hinduism on the (now Nagappattinam) in
island. southeastern India.

III
How did the Srivijay Empire come to be?
 The empire was founded around 600 AD by Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa.
 Starting as a Hindu Polity, it was later a center of Buddhist learning and a stopping point for
Chinese Buddhist pilgrims.
 It dominated much of western Maritime Southeast Asia, controlling the Strait of Malacca
with trade relations with China, India, and the Malay Archipelago.
 How did the empire decline? Its decline began in the 11th century when the Chola Empire
of South India launched naval attacks.
 The rise of other regional powers and the shifting of trade routes also undermined the
empire's influence.

The last epigraphic evidence that mentions the word "Sriwijaya" or "Srivijay" comes from the
Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030 or 1031( ancient India). Srivijay which is
much of today’s Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names
of Svarṇadvīpa ('Island of Gold') and Svarṇabhūmi ('Land of Gold'), because of the gold
deposits in the island's highlands. The earliest known mention of the current form "Sumatra"
was in 1017, when the local king Haji Sumatrabhumi ("king of the land of Sumatra") sent an
envoy to China. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri (Lamuri, Lambri or Ramni)

136
in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, in reference to a kingdom near modern-day Banda
Aceh which was the first landfall for traders. Therefore, to credit Coedes with discovering
Srivijay is slightly inappropriate. One can say that “ignorance is bliss”.

The island has also been known by other names, including Andalas or Percha Island.
Scholars suggest that mention of Suwarnadwipa in the Hindu Epic the Ramayana may be a
reference to Sumatra. According to experts on The Ramayana, the epic is one of the first
sources to document the relationship between India and the Indonesian archipelago.

In the late 13th century, Marco Polo referred to the kingdom as Samara, while his
contemporary fellow Italian traveller Odoric of Pordenone used the form Sumoltra. Later in
the 14th century the local form "Sumatra" became popular abroad due to the rising power of
the kingdom of Samudera Pasai and the subsequent Sultanate of Aceh. From then on,
subsequent European writers mostly used Sumatra or similar forms of the name for the entire
island, hence epigraphically the term Srivijay got hidden due to nomenclature overlaps.

Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds, built by the Melayu Kingdom, is one of the largest
and best-preserved ancient temple complexes in South East Asia. By the year 692,
the Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijay.

Interactions among different peoples along trade routes led to syncretism, or blending, of
religious and political ideas. The Srivijay Empire, which controlled much of the Malay
Archipelago in the Indian Ocean (a group of islands between Indochina and Australia and
includes modern-day Indonesia, East Malaysia, and the Philippines) from the seventh to
twelfth centuries, is a perfect example of this cultural blending.

What might this empire have looked like? Unfortunately, historians have only recovered
Srivijay writings from a small window of time—the seventh century—written in Old Malay
and ignored the mentions in Sanskrit from Indian vedic architecture. However, artifacts of
the empire include Buddhist sculptures and the remains of stupas, or Buddhist shrines, giving
us a window into the role religion played in the region. We also have access to texts written
about the empire by Chinese and Indian traders, so we have a view of what this empire was
like through the lens of people interacting with the empire.

The evidentiary basis for what we know about Srivijay is very incomplete to many Euro
researchers. But ancient inscriptions in the realm that was the hegemony of the Chola Dynasty
of south India of those days, mentions contacts between the two countries. Discussed lateron.

European researchers have analysed Srivijay from the prism of the accounts from travellers
through the region. There is precious little evidence of Srivijay that comes from the territories

137
where it was located. Also, the effort to discover and analyze Srivijay is intimately tied with
colonial-era scholarship. 2 arguments on this arena:

I.A blog post by Liam Kelley, a historian of Vietnam, and an American Vietnamologist /
professor of Southeast Asian history/lecturer at the Universiti Brunei Darussalam, who
formerly taught at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.1 introduces a striking argument that has
sparked a serious debate about the status of the Srivijayn Empire. The author’s claim is that the
sources that scholars have used to describe Srivijay as a great empire are talking about
something else–Angkor. The argument is not that there was no such thing as Srivijay, as there
are inscriptions that use the word Srivijay that have been found in southeastern Sumatra and
Southern India. Rather, the point is that this Srivijay is not the same thing as the polities
described in the important pre-colonial sources that have served as our main evidence for the
Srivijayn Empire.

An counter argument is made by Coedes by analyzing the primarily Chinese accounts that serve
as the evidentiary basis for describing Srivijay as an important pre-colonial polity, such as
accounts of Chinese traders spending months in Srivijay learning Sanskrit before later traveling
to what is today India. We do not have local evidence of this, we have only the accounts of
others, as well as the names of the places that they used, written in the Chinese of the time.
Kelley argues that those words (such as Shi-Li-Fo-Shi) do not describe Srivijay.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Kelley operates a blog under his Vietnamese pseudonym, "Lê Minh Khải. His blog is
subtitled "Always Rethinking the Southeast Asian Past."

Remember the important distinction between Srivijay and the empires of the mainland. Whereas
many of those formed around great riverine systems (Mekong, Irrawaddy, Red River, etc.) that
allowed the empires to amass large population bases through the intensive cultivation of rice,
Srivijay was a maritime-facing polity. It has been described recently as a thalassocracy: an
empire with a maritime focus. Majapahit on Java was a thalassocracy. But Majapahit also left
reams of evidence in Java itself of its own existence, and of its own greatness. The same is not
true of Srivijay. There are some important points to take away from this emergent debate, even
if it turns out that Kelley is not entirely wrong. It is said that the first concrete proposal of the
existence of a Srivijayn Empire came from George Coedes–a French archeologist–in 1918. This
came from an domain of intellectual contemplation dominated by European Christian scholars
whose exposue to the reality of the necessary scholarship was limited- not in the least
circumscribed by their vision. That is, for us, not that long ago!

Though Coedes has been described as having “discovered” Srivijay, a lot of scholarship about
Srivijay rests on his interpretations of words in Old Malay found in contemporary Thailand, and
those interpretations are much more contested than we realize.

2.The concept of the Srivijayn Empire is important to the concept of Indonesia itself, much
like Majapahit is, as a pre-colonial antecedent to the post-colonial state. Much of the post-
colonial scholarship on Southeast Asia sought to uncover what John Smail called in 1961 an
“autonomous history of Southeast Asia.” Smail was an American historian specializing in
Southeast Asia, and in particular, Indonesia. Adrian Vickers ("Southeast Asian Studies after
Said". Openjournals.library.usyd.edu.au.) has described his (Smails) view as "viewing
Southeast Asia in its own terms. He pioneered the notion that Southeast Asia should possess
an autonomous history- that is a history of Southeast Asia that sees the region in its own local

138
terms, rather than merely as a reflection of Indic, Chinese, Arab, and European influences as
they spread culturally, economically, religiously, and politically throughout the region. The
University of Wisconsin specifically, and the USA in general, owed much to his efforts in
bringing forth innovative programs and the setting up of a center focusing on Southeast Asian
studies.
oooooooo

Srivijay and Coedes

Dr Uday Dokras
“Until the lion learns how to write, every story will glorify the hunter”-
Chinua Achebe, the Nigerian novelist wrote this in his novel Things Fall Apart in 1958
lamenting on the ignorance and mis-reporting about Africa. History fundamentally relies on
sources because these sources provide the evidence needed to reconstruct and understand past
events. Here are a few key points explaining why sources are essential for historical study:

1. Evidence of Events: Sources—such as documents, artifacts, oral histories, and

more—serve as the primary evidence of what happened in the past. Without them,
historians cannot verify events or claims about history.
2. Interpretation and Context: Sources allow historians to interpret events within
their specific contexts, understanding the social, political, economic, and cultural
factors that influenced those events. Without sources, interpretations would be
purely speculative.
3. Multiple Perspectives: Different sources can provide various viewpoints on the
same event, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of history. This diversity
of perspectives is crucial for a balanced historical narrative.
4. Chronology and Continuity: Sources help establish timelines and connections
between events, allowing historians to track developments over time and
understand cause-and-effect relationships.
5. Critical Analysis: The study of sources encourages critical thinking, as historians
must assess the reliability, bias, and context of each source. This analysis is
essential for constructing accurate historical narratives.

139
When you look back at history nothing is a simple as it might seem.

Always remember to ask why and look for clues in written, visual, oral and physical
evidence. When we are studying history, we are trying to build an accurate picture of the
past. Without sources, history would lack the foundational evidence needed to understand
and interpret past events, making it impossible to construct a reliable narrative of human
experience. There surely are good reasons for the history of knowledge not to take this rather
daunting route of emancipation.

In her 2019 paper titled "How Much Knowledge Is Worth Knowing?," Suzanne Marchand,
an intellectual historian, examines the field of "Wissensgeschichte" (history of knowledge)
and raises questions about its limitations, particularly regarding the inconsistent definition of
"knowledge" and the need to pay more attention to historical forms of "ignorance" when
studying the evolution of knowledge across different societies and time periods.

Key points about Marchand's paper:

 Critique of "Wissensgeschichte":

Marchand argues that while the field of history of knowledge has potential, its
terminology can be vague and overly reliant on Foucauldian theory, which can lead
to simplistic interpretations of knowledge production.
 Focus on "ignorance":
She emphasizes the importance of studying not just what was considered "known"
in a particular historical context, but also what was actively ignored, unknown, or
considered unknowable, as this can reveal important aspects of power dynamics
and societal priorities.
 Historical context matters:
Marchand highlights that what is considered "worth knowing" varies greatly
depending on time, place, and social group, making a nuanced approach to
studying knowledge necessary.

You - Mr. Arpan Rachman, asked me 5 questions. Please read the accompanying 35 pages
about Srivijaya and I shall answer these the way you want it only after.

1.Where is George Coedès’ knowledge supposed to be placed on the map of Southeast Asian
history?

2. How is Coedès’ discovery of Srivijay valuable to modern Southeast Asian nations today?

He is wrongly credited with “discovering” Srivijay. In fact Srivijay had ancient amicable
and later antagonistic relations with the Chola kings of south India that lasted for centuries.

3. Does Coedès’ history look like Srivijay? It has been forgotten from the memory of
Southeast Asian nations for a while now.

4. How should the people and governments of Southeast Asian nations, especially Indonesia,
appreciate George Coedès’s contributions to them?

140
 5. What is your message to my readers about George Coedès?

How did the Srivijay Empire come to be?

 The empire was founded around 600 AD by Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa.
 Starting as a Hindu Polity, it was later a center of Buddhist learning and a stopping point for
Chinese Buddhist pilgrims.
 It dominated much of western Maritime Southeast Asia, controlling the Strait of Malacca
with trade relations with China, India, and the Malay Archipelago.
 How did the empire decline? Its decline began in the 11th century when the Chola Empire
of South India launched naval attacks.
 The rise of other regional powers and the shifting of trade routes also undermined the
empire's influence.

Srivijaya, a supposed thalassocracy based on the island of Sumatra, is believed byscholars to

have played a central role in the trade and politics of Southeast Asia fromroughly the seventh
to fourteenth centuries. Much of the evidence for Srivijaya’s historycomes from Chinese
sources, and in this two-part article we demonstrate that someof the Chinese sources that
have been employed for writing the history of “Srivijaya”are about Cambodia, that is,
Angkor. More specifically, scholars have argued that akingdom referred to in Chinese
sources as “Sanfoqi” was “Srivijaya,” and in this paperwe examine the information about
Sanfoqi in the fourteenth century in the Ming shiluagainst information in the Cambodian and
Siamese chronicles to demonstrate thatSanfoqi was Angkor. In the process, we develop an
entirely new history of the final days
(PDF) Rescuing History from Srivijaya: The Fall of Angkor in the Ming Shilu (Part 1).
Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362343204_Rescuing_History_from_Srivijaya_The
_Fall_of_Angkor_in_the_Ming_Shilu_Part_1 [accessed Mar 10 2025].Liam C. Kelly
The last epigraphic evidence that mentions the word "Sriwijaya" or "Srivijay" comes from the
Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom in 1030 or 1031( ancient India). Srivijay which is
much of today’s Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names
of Svarṇadvīpa ('Island of Gold') and Svarṇabhūmi ('Land of Gold'), because of the gold
deposits in the island's highlands. The earliest known mention of the current form "Sumatra"
was in 1017, when the local king Haji Sumatrabhumi ("king of the land of Sumatra") sent an
envoy to China. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri (Lamuri, Lambri or Ramni)
in the tenth through thirteenth centuries, in reference to a kingdom near modern-day Banda
Aceh which was the first landfall for traders. Therefore, to credit Coedes with discovering
Srivijay is slightly inappropriate. One can say that “ignorance is bliss”.

The island has also been known by other names, including Andalas or Percha Island.
Scholars suggest that mention of Suwarnadwipa in the Hindu Epic the Ramayana may be a
reference to Sumatra. According to experts on The Ramayana, the epic is one of the first
sources to document the relationship between India and the Indonesian archipelago.

In the late 13th century, Marco Polo referred to the kingdom as Samara, while his
contemporary fellow Italian traveller Odoric of Pordenone used the form Sumoltra. Later in
the 14th century the local form "Sumatra" became popular abroad due to the rising power of

141
the kingdom of Samudera Pasai and the subsequent Sultanate of Aceh. From then on,
subsequent European writers mostly used Sumatra or similar forms of the name for the entire
island, hence epigraphically the term Srivijay got hidden due to nomenclature overlaps.

Muaro Jambi Temple Compounds, built by the Melayu Kingdom, is one of the largest
and best-preserved ancient temple complexes in South East Asia. By the year 692,
the Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijay.

Interactions among different peoples along trade routes led to syncretism, or blending, of
religious and political ideas. The Srivijay Empire, which controlled much of the Malay
Archipelago in the Indian Ocean (a group of islands between Indochina and Australia and
includes modern-day Indonesia, East Malaysia, and the Philippines) from the seventh to
twelfth centuries, is a perfect example of this cultural blending.

What might this empire have looked like? Unfortunately, historians have only recovered
Srivijay writings from a small window of time—the seventh century—written in Old Malay
and ignored the mentions in Sanskrit from Indian vedic architecture. However, artifacts of
the empire include Buddhist sculptures and the remains of stupas, or Buddhist shrines, giving
us a window into the role religion played in the region. We also have access to texts written
about the empire by Chinese and Indian traders, so we have a view of what this empire was
like through the lens of people interacting with the empire.

The evidentiary basis for what we know about Srivijay is very incomplete to many Euro
researchers. But ancient inscriptions in the realm that was the hegemony of the Chola Dynasty
of south India of those days, mentions contacts between the two countries. Discussed lateron.

European researchers have analysed Srivijay from the prism of the accounts from travellers
through the region. There is precious little evidence of Srivijay that comes from the territories
where it was located. Also, the effort to discover and analyze Srivijay is intimately tied with
colonial-era scholarship. 2 arguments on this arena:

I.A blog post by Liam Kelley, a historian of Vietnam, and an American Vietnamologist /
professor of Southeast Asian history/lecturer at the Universiti Brunei Darussalam, who
formerly taught at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.1 introduces a striking argument that has
sparked a serious debate about the status of the Srivijayn Empire. The author’s claim is that the
sources that scholars have used to describe Srivijay as a great empire are talking about
something else–Angkor. The argument is not that there was no such thing as Srivijay, as there
are inscriptions that use the word Srivijay that have been found in southeastern Sumatra and
Southern India. Rather, the point is that this Srivijay is not the same thing as the polities

142
described in the important pre-colonial sources that have served as our main evidence for the
Srivijayn Empire.

An counter argument is made by Coedes by analyzing the primarily Chinese accounts that serve
as the evidentiary basis for describing Srivijay as an important pre-colonial polity, such as
accounts of Chinese traders spending months in Srivijay learning Sanskrit before later traveling
to what is today India. We do not have local evidence of this, we have only the accounts of
others, as well as the names of the places that they used, written in the Chinese of the time.
Kelley argues that those words (such as Shi-Li-Fo-Shi) do not describe Srivijay.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Kelley operates a blog under his Vietnamese pseudonym, "Lê Minh Khải. His blog is
subtitled "Always Rethinking the Southeast Asian Past."

Remember the important distinction between Srivijay and the empires of the mainland. Whereas
many of those formed around great riverine systems (Mekong, Irrawaddy, Red River, etc.) that
allowed the empires to amass large population bases through the intensive cultivation of rice,
Srivijay was a maritime-facing polity. It has been described recently as a thalassocracy: an
empire with a maritime focus. Majapahit on Java was a thalassocracy. But Majapahit also left
reams of evidence in Java itself of its own existence, and of its own greatness. The same is not
true of Srivijay. There are some important points to take away from this emergent debate, even
if it turns out that Kelley is not entirely wrong. It is said that the first concrete proposal of the
existence of a Srivijayn Empire came from George Coedes–a French archeologist–in 1918. This
came from an domain of intellectual contemplation dominated by European Christian scholars
whose exposue to the reality of the necessary scholarship was limited- not in the least
circumscribed by their vision. That is, for us, not that long ago!

Though Coedes has been described as having “discovered” Srivijay, a lot of scholarship about
Srivijay rests on his interpretations of words in Old Malay found in contemporary Thailand, and
those interpretations are much more contested than we realize.

2.The concept of the Srivijayn Empire is important to the concept of Indonesia itself, much
like Majapahit is, as a pre-colonial antecedent to the post-colonial state. Much of the post-
colonial scholarship on Southeast Asia sought to uncover what John Smail called in 1961 an
“autonomous history of Southeast Asia.” Smail was an American historian specializing in
Southeast Asia, and in particular, Indonesia. Adrian Vickers ("Southeast Asian Studies after
Said". Openjournals.library.usyd.edu.au.) has described his (Smails) view as "viewing
Southeast Asia in its own terms. He pioneered the notion that Southeast Asia should possess
an autonomous history- that is a history of Southeast Asia that sees the region in its own local
terms, rather than merely as a reflection of Indic, Chinese, Arab, and European influences as
they spread culturally, economically, religiously, and politically throughout the region. The
University of Wisconsin specifically, and the USA in general, owed much to his efforts in
bringing forth innovative programs and the setting up of a center focusing on Southeast Asian
studies.

Now about George Coedes

George Coedes (10 August 1886 – 2 October 1969) was a French scholar of southeast
Asian archaeology and history. He was still a high-school student, aged 18, at Lycée Carnot,
Paris when he learnt Sanskrit and Khmer. He published 1904, one year after the

143
baccalaureate, his very first article in the Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient -
EFEO : “Inscription de Bhavavarman II roi du Cambodge (561 saka).” He was later to head
this institution (EFEO) he idolized so early on. All this is incredible by itself, but not an end
to our understanding of the mind of Coedes.

A frequent visitor to Musée Guimet library, he completed his studies in German language and
literature while focusing on Sanskrit and “Oriental” studies under Albert Foucher, Louis
Finot, and Sylvain Lévi. He moved to Hanoi in January 1912 and to Phnom Penh in March
that same year, joining EFEO in 1913 and becoming a leading epigraphist of Cambodian
inscriptions, a philologisit and art-historian in Thai, Cambodian, Laotian, Malay, Javanese
and Annamese cultures.

He was made director of the National Library of Thailand in 1918. The National Library of
Thailand is the legal depositary and copyright library for Thailand. It was officially
established on 12 October 1905, after the merger of the three existing royal libraries, and is
one of the oldest national libraries in Asia. It operates under the jurisdiction of the Fine Arts
Department of the Ministry of Culture in Bangkok, Thailand. He was also an editor of
the Journal of the Siam Society during the 1920s. and in 1929 became director of L'École
française d'Extrême-Orient, where he remained until 1946. Thereafter he lived in Paris until
he died in 1969.

Coedes had a penchant for moving around with high-ups. In fact, he married a young
Cambodian woman, Neang Yap, introduced to him by the then-Minister of War, Education
and Public Works, Mr. Pich Ponn. In Cambodia in 1914, he created the School of Pali in
Phnom Penh. He then moved to Bangkok with his wife, and the couple had five daughters
born there (Jeanne in 1917, Yvonne in 1918, Lucie in 1919, Suzanne in 1921 and Simone
in 1922)– Prince Damrong, whom he accompanied in his first visit to Angkor in 1919, noted
in his travelogue that “Prof. Coedès’ young wife, took her children” with them for the trip.

The French School of the Far East (French: École Française d'Extrême-Orient, also
translated as The French School of Asian Studies), abbreviated EFEO, is an associated
college of Université PSL (Paris Sciences & Lettres) dedicated to the study of Asian
societies. It was founded on 20 January 1900 with headquarters in Hanoi in what was
then Tonkin protectorate of French Indochina. After the independence of Vietnam, its
headquarters were transferred to Phnom Penh in 1957, and subsequently to Paris in 1975. Its
main fields of research are archaeology, philology and the study of modern Asian societies.
Since 1907, the EFEO has been in charge of conservation work at the archeological site
of Angkor.

Office of École française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO) in Paris, France/Original

headquarters in Hanoi, now National Museum of Vietnamese History

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Being in Tonkin which was a component of French Indochina had its advantages. It was a de
facto French colony despite being a protectorate on paper. Formally the four protectorates of
French Indochina were ruled by their respective monarchs, but in fact the protectorates were
all under the close control of the French senior residents. As the governor-general of French
Indochina Pierre Pasquier stated:"The King reigns but the Resident superior rules." The
effective power in the protectorate was in the hands of the resident-superior with both the
monarch and the local high officials playing a subordinate role to his office.

April 1926 he was appointed secretary of the Institute of Literature, Archaeology and Fine
Arts founded by Prince Damrong. Representing the Institute during a visit to Batavia in 1928,
Coedès learnt about the ‘anastylosis’ restoration technique from Dutch archaeologist Pieter
Van Stein Callenfels, and invited Henri Marchal to apply it to Khmer monuments two years
later, when he headed EFEO. It is therefore not surprising that whatever he did he thought he
was right.

A specialist in the history of Indo-Chinese ´Indianized kingdoms´, he wrote The Indianized

States of Southeast Asia (1968, 1975, first published in 1948 in French as Les états
hindouisés d’Indochine et d’Indonésie) and The Making of South East Asia (1966). He was
also a leading researcher in Sanskrit and Old Khmer inscriptions from Cambodia.

The Making of South East Asia (1966), as well as innumerable articles, are those in which he
developed the concept of the Indianized kingdoms. Perhaps his greatest lasting scholarly
accomplishment was his work on Sanskrit and Old Khmer inscriptions from Cambodia-
where he failed to discover much about Srivijay and what he did-its implications he chose to
ignore2

In addition to scores of articles (especially in the Bulletin of the École française d'Extrême-
Orient), his 8-volume work Inscriptions du Cambodge (1937-1966) contains editions and
translations of over a thousand inscriptions from pre-Angkorian and Angkor-era monuments,
and stands as Coedes' magnum opus. The transliteration system that he devised for Thai (and
Khmer) is used by specialists of Thai and other writing systems derived from that of Khmer.
One stele, the recently rediscovered K-127, contains an inscription of what has been dubbed
the "Khmer Zero", the first known use of zero in the modern number system.

In his book Early Indonesian Commerce:A Study of the Origins of Srivijay O W Wolters the
author, deals with the world-economy system between the 4th and 7th centuries. It shows the
development of trade routes and ties between China, Southeast Asia, India, and the Western
World. The origins of the well-known polity of Srivijay were connected with the
transformation and fluctuations of world trade system. Many Srivijayn sites were discovered
near Palembang and Jambi. The island of Bangka also gave some data on early history of
Indonesia. Many other discoveries from all early Southeast Asia give possibility to re-study a
history of world-trading system.

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------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2. See below about the Talang Tuo inscription Page 18
George Coedes is credited with translation the Talang Tuo inscription a 7th-
century Srivijay inscription discovered by Louis Constant Westenenk on 17 November 1920,
on the foot of Bukit Seguntang near Palembang. This inscription tells about the establishment
of the bountiful Śrīksetra park awarded by Sri Jayanasa the king of Srivijay, for the well
being of all creatures.The inscription was discovered in good condition with clearly inscribed
scripts. Its size is 50 cm × 80 cm. It is a stone block and it is dated from 606 Saka
(corresponds to 23 March 684), written Pallava script in Old Malay. The inscription consists
of 14 lines. Van Ronkel and Bosch are the first scholars who translated the inscription. But
Coedes added his own-read below. Since 1920, the inscription has been stored in National
Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta, under inventory number D.145.

The writings on the Talang Tuo inscription:

Original Script
swasti śrī śakawarṣātīta 606 ding dwitīya śuklapakṣa wulan caitra sana tatkalaña parlak
1
śrī ksetra ini niparwuat
parwānda punta hiyang śrī jayanāga. ini pranidhānānda punta hiyang sawañakña yang
2
nitanang di sini niyur pinang hanāu ru(-)
mwiya dnan samiśrāña yang kāyu nimākan wūahna, tathāpi. hāur wuluh pattum
3
ityevamadi, punarapi yang parlak wukan
dṅan tawad talāga sawaña yang wuatña sucarita parāwis prayojanākan punyāña
4
sarwwa satwa sacā(?) rācara, waropā yaña tmu
sukha di āsannakāla di antara mārgga lai. tmu muaḥ ya āhāra dṅan āir niminumña
5
sawañakña wuatña huma parlak mañcak mu(-)
ah ya manghidupi paśuprakāra. marhulun tuwi wṛddhi muaḥ ya jāṅan ya niknāi
6
sawañakña yang upasargga. pīdanna swapnawighna. warang wua(-)
tāña kathamapi. anukūla yang graha nakṣatra parāwis di ya. nirwyadhi ajara
7
kawuatanāna. tathāpi sawañakña yang bhṛtyāna.
satyārjjawa dṛdhabhakti muaḥ ya dya. yang mitrāña tuwi jāna ya kapata yang winiña
8
mulang anukūla bharyyā muaḥ ya waram sthā.
nāña lāgi jānan cūri ucca wadhāña paradāra di sāna. punarapi tmu ya kalyānamitra
9
marwwanun wodhicitta dṅan mattri

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 udhāni di dang hyang ratnatraya jānan marsārak dṅan dang hyang ratnatraya. tathāpi
10
nityakāla tyāga marśila ksānti marwwanun wīryya rājin.
tāhu di samiśrāna śilpakāla parāwis. samāhita cinta. tmu ya prajñā. smṛti medhāwi.
11
punarapi dhairyyamāṇī mahāsattwa.
wajraśarīra. anupamaśakti. jaya. tathāpi jatismara. awikalendriya. mañcak rūpa.
12
subhaga hāsin halap. āde
yawakya. wrahmaswara. jadi laki swayambhu puna [ra] pi tmu ya cintāmani nidhāna.
13
tmu janmawaśitā. karmmawaśitā. kleśawaśitā.
14 awasāna tmu ya anuttarābhisamyakṣamwodhi.

Translation

The translation according to George Coedes.

On 23 March 684, on that day the park named Śrīksetra was created under the order of Sri
Baginda Śrī Jayanāśa. his majesty intention is: May all (plants) planted
here, coconut tree, Areca catechu, Arenga pinnata, sagoo, and all kinds of trees, the fruits
are edible, as well as haur bamboo, waluh, and pattum, et cetera; and may all other plants
with the dams and ponds, and all of good deed that I've gave (contributed) can be enjoyed for
the benefit of all creatures; the one that can moved around and ones that can not, and may
this would be the best path to achieve happiness. If they were hungry, or need a rest during
their journey, may they find foods and drinks. May all the orchard that they have opened be
abundance (the harvest). May all kinds of animals that they have kept were fertile, and also
their slaves. May the misfortunes would not befell upon them, not being tortured because can
not sleep. What ever they done, may all the planets and stars favour their fortunes, and may
they be spared from sickness and old age during their efforts. And may all their subjects are
loyal and devoted, also may all their friend would not betrayed them, and may their wive are
faithful. Moreover, may wherever they were, there will be no thieves, or people that using
violence, killers and adulterers. Next to all those (good wishes), may they have a (faithful)
friends; may from themselves born the thought of Boddhi and friendship (...) from
three Ratnas. And may they always (acted) generous, following the rules, and be patience;
may from themselves grew strength, diligence, knowledge of all kinds of arts; may their
attention be focused, have knowledge, good memory and intelligence. May they have
tenacious thought, with diamond body just like the Mahāsattvas with incomparable power,
glorious, and remembering their previous lives, with complete senses, fully (beautiful)
formed, happy, smiling, calm, have pleasant voice, the voice of Brahmā. May they be (born
as) man, with very existence were (a blessing) because of themselves; may they become the
vessel of cintamani sacred stone, have power of (cycle of) births, power upon karma, power
upon stains, and may they finally achieved the perfect and grand (spiritual) enlightenment.

Old Malay vocabulary

The inscription is among the earliest evidence of written archaic Old Malay language. Many
words are still recognizable and intelligible with Modern
Malay (including Indonesian and Malaysian variants). The most significant differences are
found in verbal affixes. While modern Malay and Indonesian use the prefix di- to mark
passive, in Old Malay we find ni-. The same holds for the active prefix men- corresponding
to Old Malay mar- or ma- The modern possessive and object suffix -nya corresponds to the

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 Old Malay -na. Old Malay words and their modern Malay and Indonesian counterparts are
listed below, followed by their English gloss.

 vulan = bulan =  dngan = dengan =  punyana = punyan  prakara = perkara = issue, problem
month with ya = belong to  varang = barang = item
 tatkalana = tatkala  nimakan = dimaka  margga = marga =  vuatana = buatannya = made
nya = while, n = being eaten clan  curi = curi (pencuri) = steal (thieve)
during  vuahna = buahnya  sukha = suka =  marvvangun = membangun = built
 ini = ini = this = fruits happiness, like  hyang = hyang = spirit or gods
 tmu = temu, berte  tathapi = tetapi =  air = air = water  tathapi = tetapi = but
mu = meet but  niminumna = dimi  mancak = rancak (preserved in Minang
 niparvuat = diperb  rajin = rajin = numnya = being  rupa = rupa = look, form
uat = performed diligent drink  laki = laki-laki = man/men
 savanakna = seban  tahu = tahu = to  savanakna = seban
yaknya = amount know (knowledge) yaknya, sebanyak-
of  haur = aur = aur (a banyaknya
 nitanam = ditanam type of bamboo)  = as many as
= planted  vuluh = buluh = possible
 di sini = di sini = vines, may also  vuatna = buatnya
here means bamboo = for them
 niyur = nyiur =  pattung = betung  huma = huma =
palm tree (a type of bamboo) dry rice field or
 hanau = enau =  tlaga = telaga = orchard
Arenga plant pond, small lake  manghidupi = men
 rumvia = rumbia = ghidupi = to bring
Arenga fibers life

Bukit Seguntang or Bukit Siguntang (English: Seguntang Hill or Siguntang Hill) where
the inscription was discovered and then lodged in the Museum from where Coedes undertook
the translation is a 29–30 metres high small hill located at the northern bank of Musi
River and within the vicinity of Palembang, capital city of South Sumatra, Indonesia. It is
located around 3 kilometres north from Musi River northern bank and around four kilometres
southwest from Palembang city center. The place is considered sacred by the locals and home
of many archeological relics believed to be related to Srivijay.Today the hill holds the title of
an archaeological park.
In 1920s, a Buddha statue was discovered in this hill. It was discovered in pieces, the head
part was discovered first, several months later the body parts were discovered, however the
leg part is still missing.

The 277cm-tall statue is made from granite stone, commonly thought to be from the
neighboring island of Bangka. However, the existence of an unfinished statue in granite of a
seated Buddha (currently in the Palembang Museum) proves that such statues could have
been made locally. The statue likely belongs to the Pala period, dating from the late 7th to the
early 8th centuries CE. The style was adopted during the Srivijay era. Today, the statue is
displayed in Sultan Mahmud Badaruddin II Museum, near Kuto Besak fort.

In Seguntang Hill area also found fragments of Boddhisattva statue, a ruin of stupa made of
sandstone and brick, fragment of inscription, stone statue of Boddhisattva, statue of Kuwera,

148
and a statue of Buddha Vairocana in seated position complete with prabha (halo aura)
and chattra (umbrella). The fragment of inscription is called Bukit Siguntang Inscription,
mentioned about a great battle that shed a lot of blood upon Bhumi Srivijay which means
the Srivijayn Land. The inscription also mentioned about a curse for those who had done evil
deed. In the southern side of the hill lays Karanganyar site, where sherds from Tang and
early Song dynasties were found. Two stone inscriptions dated back to seventh century AD
were found in its vicinity in 1920s.

Tomb complex

A statue of Buddha, discovered in Bukit Siguntang archaeological site, Palembang.

Talang Tuwo inscription. Discovered in Bukit Siguntang area/The tombs complex of
local revered figures, on the center is the tomb of Panglima Tuan Junjungan.
Bukit Seguntang is the highest point in Palembang city. The complex is a hill with garden
and large trees. On higher grounds within the complex there are some tombs linked by locals
to the figures of Malay-Srivijayn royalties and heroes. There are seven Srivijayn figures
entombed here:

 Raja Sigentar Alam

 Pangeran Raja Batu Api
 Putri Kembang Dadar
 Putri Rambut Selako
 Panglima Tuan Junjungan
 Panglima Bagus Kuning
 Panglima Bagus Karang
According to Malay Annals manuscript, Bukit Seguntang is believed to be the place where a
demi-god hero being named Sang Sapurba descended to earth. He later become the ancestor
of Malay kings that ruled kingdoms in Sumatra, Western Borneo, and Malay Peninsula. Bukit
Seguntang was revered as the part of Mahameru sacred mountain in Hindu-Buddhist
mythology. It is considered sacred because it was believed as the homeland of Malay people.
The kings that ruled Malacca Sultanate was said to be the descendants of Sang Sapurba.

Riverine and Coastal Srivijay

149
 Did Coedes not know that the great kingdoms of pre-colonial Southeast Asia, were amongst
others Dai Viet, Khmer Empire, Pagan and Majapahit? Or that 0ne kingdom that one cannot
overlook is the Srivijayn Empire, a maritime state whose territory spanned Sumatra and the
Malay peninsula. George Coedes is credited with rediscovering the former kingdom
of Srivijay, centred on the modern-day Indonesian city of Palembang, but with influence
extending from Sumatra through to the Malay Peninsula and Java. There is no point disputing
that because as they say-"What is one's opinion is someone else's problem."
The South East Asian states have been classified as coastal, maritime, inland and agrarian.The
east Sumatran Negeri (State) defined by extensive river systems providing providing inter-
catchment portage and servicing exchange between resource rich hinterlands and strategic
locations in the Malacca Straights . The early Malay Kingdoms of Srivijay, Melaka, Brunei and
Johor controlled multiple river systems and later riverine states of Sumatra. The greatest of
Malay empires, Srivijay, had its beginning at Palembang which lying at the south of Sumatra
dominated the Straits of Sunda. With its capital at Bukit Seguntang. the Buddhist pilgrim I-
Tsing in 671 A.D. described it as an important centre of Buddhist learning, with more than a
thousand monks devoting their days to study and good works.

Let us not forget that while not directly ruling the entire territory of modern-day Indonesia,
the Malay people, through various empires like Srivijaya and Majapahit, held significant
power over large parts of the Indonesian archipelago, particularly in the Sumatra and Java
regions, which are considered part of the "Malay world" due to historical and linguistic
connections; essentially, Malay influence was prevalent across much of what is now
Indonesia throughout history. Old Malay was the language of business and trade in the
Srivijay Empire. To successfully navigate the ports and marketplaces throughout the Malay
Archipelago, a person had to be able to speak Old Malay. Establishing a standard means of
communication made business transactions more efficient.

Old Malay is an Indonesian language from the Austronesian family. Written inscriptions
show that Old Malay contains loanwords from Sanskrit, an Indo-Aryan language used
throughout South Asia. Persian and Arabic influences found in Old Malay suggest that the
language adapted due to the influence of people the Srivijayns traded with.

The Malay kingdom of Srivijay-Palembang

Overview
 As diverse peoples exchange goods, they also exchange political and cultural practices and
beliefs.
 A perfect example of this exchange is the Srivijay Empire, which controlled modern-day
Indonesia and much of the Malay Archipelago from the seventh to twelfth centuries.
 The Srivijay Empire traded extensively with India and China, incorporating Buddhist and
Chinese political practices into their traditions.
 When the Chola Empire from South India raided and took indirect control of the Strait of
Malacca in the thirteenth century, the Srivijay Empire lost influence.

Key points to remember:

 Srivijaya Empire:
Considered the most prominent Malay empire, based in Sumatra, with significant
influence over maritime trade in the region.
 Majapahit Empire:

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 Another powerful Malay dynasty, based in Java, that further expanded influence
across the archipelago.

 "Malay Archipelago":
This term refers to the whole island chain encompassing modern-day Indonesia,
Malaysia, and Brunei, which reflects the historical reach of Malay people

Four inscriptions in old Malay throw light on this Buddhist Srivijay. The oldest from the foot
of Bukit Seguntang records that on I 3 April 683 a king went by sea to acquire magic power
and on May 8th left the estuary with 20,000 men, as a result of which he conferred on
Srivijay victory, power and riches. That king was probably Jayanasa who, in the following
year, founded a public garden at Talang Tua some four miles from Bukit Seguntang and had
an inscription carved expressing the hope that this and other good works would help him on
the road to illumination. Inscriptions elsewhere invoked curses upon their inhabitants if they
contemplate rebellion against the king or his officials.

Inscriptions also indicated an expedition in 686 against Java and a Sanskrit inscription in
Ligor shows that by 775 Sri Vijaya had a footing in northern Malaya, having conquered
Kedah and a large part of the west coast. It mentions a king entitled Sri Maharaja, a
descendant of the Sailendra family and described as the "destroyer of his enemies". The
Sailendras, or Kings of the Mountain, were originally rulers of the Cambodian Funan Empire,
who became kings of Middle Java and become famous as the builders of Borobudur. Their
descendants were to rule not only Palembang but Kedah (known variously as Kataha,
and Kadaram).

151
In the world of commerce, Srivijay, now called Sanfo-ts'i by the Chinese
and Zabag or Sribuza by the Arabs, rapidly rose to be a far-flung empire controlling the two
passages between India and China, namely the Sunda Straits from Palembang and the
Malacca Straits from Kedah. Arab accounts state that the empire of the Maharaja was so large
that in two years the swiftest vessel could not travel round all its islands, which produced
camphor, aloes, cloves, sandal-wood, nutmegs, cardamom and cubebs, ivory, gold and tin,
making the Maharaja as rich as any king in the Indies. In 990 A.D. Java appears to have
attacked Srivijay, which asked for China's protection. In 1006 Srivijay seems to have burnt
the capital of its Javanese enemy and slain the king and many of his chiefs. It is very
important to note that a year before that, Chulamanivarmadeva, described in inscriptions as
"the king of Kataha (Kedah) and Srivishaya", built a Buddhist temple at Negapatam, which
the Chola King Rajaraja I supported with the revenue of a large village. Sri Cudamani
Warmadewa or Sri Cudamani Varmadeva or written as Shi-li-zhu-luo-wu-ni-fo-ma-tiao-
hua (Chinese transcription), was an emperor of Srivijay which belongs to
the Sailendra dynasty, who reigned in Kedah in the late 10th century CE (circa 988 to 1004).
He was known as an able and astute ruler, a clever tactician with shrewd diplomatic skills.
His reign was quite renowned since during his period, the kingdom faced a dire crisis; the
naval invasion of Javanese Mataram Kingdom. He was the nemesis of
King Dharmawangsa of Java.

In 990 CE, King Dharmawangsa of Java launched a naval invasion against Srivijay and
attempted to capture the capital Kedah. The news of Javanese invasion of Srivijay was
recorded in Chinese sources from Song period. In 988, a Srivijayn envoy was sent to Chinese
court in Guangzhou. After sojourned for about two years in China, the envoy learned that his
country has been attacked by She-po (Java) thus made him unable to return home. In 992 the
envoy from She-po (Java) arrived in Chinese court and explaining that their country has
involved in continuous war with San-fo-qi (Srivijay). In 999 the Srivijayn envoy sailed from
China to Champa in an attempt to return home, however he received no news about the
condition of his country. The Srivijayn envoy then sailed back to China and appealed Chinese
Emperor for the protection of China against Javanese invaders.

“India Connect “

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Srivijayn relics have been found in various parts of Kedah and Perak. Chinese maps put
Srivijay right in the middle of the Malay Peninsula. Even Portuguese histories of I5I2 tells
how Kedah in the middle of the fifteenth century still claimed tribute from Perak, Manjong,
Bemam, Selangor and Malacca, obviously as heir to "Kataha."

For six hundred years or more Kedah became an important port of call for Chola-mandala
(Coromandel). But in A.D. I0I7 Coromandel's famous ruler, Rajendra Chola I, made war on
Srivijay and, in 1025, conquered and made it as her colonies in the Malay Peninsula. Sri
Vijaya seems to have recovered from this setback, only to be attacked in 1068 by another
Chola king, Vira Rajendra. Vira Rajendra conquered Kedah, apparently at the request of its
ruler who wanted to win independence from Sri Vijaya.

However, the Empire was already falling to pieces. Wars became frequent, primarily due to
trade rivalries, and this degenrated to piracy. The capital of the great empire sank to be a den
of pirates. By the end of eleventh century, Jambi (or Melayu), Langkasuka, Ligor, Acheh and
other countries that were part of Srivijay were now independent - with Jambi playing the role
of dominant power. Jambi did not have aspirations for a maritime, far-flung empire overseas
but turned its attention to Sumatra's highlands and found what was to become the kingdom of
Minangkabau.

On the peninsula, Ligor took over the mantle from Srivijay. Its king Candrabhanu attacked
Sri Lanka first in 1247 and again in 1270. Inscriptions indicate that Candrabhanu also ruled
Kedah, from which he launched his expeditions across the Indian Ocean. The Thais were to
later subjugate this kingdom, leading to Thais domination of much of the northern peninsula
in the years to come.

In 1275 the famous Kartanagara, ruler of east Java, sent his Javanese forces against Sumatra
and conquered Jambi and much of Pahang. Some time between 1338 and 1365, his
successors - the Majaphit Empire - conquered all of Sumatra, bringing to an end the days of
the first and perhaps greatest of all Malay Empires.As it turns out, the same is not true of the
Srivijayn Empire.

153
Map of Srivijay Empire.

Trade
The Srivijay Empire controlled two major passageways between India and China: the Sunda
Straits from the city of Palembang and the Strait of Malacca—see the Sunda Strait, in the
south, and the Strait of Malacca, to the north, on the map above. This control strengthened
trade routes to China, India, and even Arabia. Some of the goods the people in the empire
traded included ivory, tin, nutmeg, sandalwood, and strong-smelling camphor and aloes that
were used for medicinal purposes. The empire had access to the trade network of spices from
India and goods like silk and porcelain from China.

Even though we don’t have much political evidence about the scope of the Srivijay Empire,
records of trade between the Srivijayns and the Chinese make it clear that Srivijay was a key
economic actor. Chinese records show evidence of Srivijayn trade expeditions to the Song
dynasty as well as China’s acceptance of the Srivijay Empire as a vassal. Vassal states are
subordinate to another nation. As a vassal to China, Srivijay acted as a mediator between
China and other smaller states on the Malay Archipelago. China considered it a great honor to
bestow vassal status on another empire, so we know that the economic relationship between
the two regions was strong.
Buddhism in the Srivijay Empire and beyond
Palembang, a major city of the Srivijay Empire, became a well-known stop for Chinese
Buddhist pilgrims on their way to India, the birthplace of Buddhism. More than one thousand

154
Buddhist monks lived in the city, and Buddhist travelers were welcomed there to study
Buddhist texts.
A particularly popular form of Buddhism in the Srivijay Empire was Vajrayana Buddhism, a
mystical form of the religion that involved the cultivation of magical or supernatural powers
through yantras, or special symbols. The Srivijay Empire became a center for this form of
Buddhism. One reason the version of Vajrayana Buddhism that developed in the Srivijay
Empire was so successful was that Srivijayn leaders combined Buddhist thought with
indigenous beliefs about magic—another example of cultural syncretism. Vajrayana
Buddhism originated in India but became popular in the Srivijayempire during the same time
period, indicating that trade connections between the two regions in the seventh century may
have influenced each other’s religions.

The influence of Buddhism also affected political structures in the Srivijay Empire. Srivijayn
rulers incorporated Buddhist philosophy into their public image. For example, an inscription
detailing a speech from a park dedication in 684 CE depicts a Srivijayn king, Sri Jayanasa, as
a bodhisattva, or someone who has already achieved buddhahood. By praying aloud during
his speech that the park would provide a benefit to all living things, Sri Jayanasa showed that
he was attempting to position himself as a religious authority as well as a political one. This
dedication is the first time on record that a Srivijayn ruler also claimed the role of a religious
figure. The fact that the king felt associating himself with Buddhism would help his image
indicated the importance of Buddhism in the Srivijay Empire during the seventh century.

Srivijayn bronze torso statue of BoddhisattvaPadmapani (Avalokiteshvara), eighth

century CE (Chaiya, SuratThani, Southern Thailand). The statue demonstrates the
Central Java art influence. In 1905 Prince DamrongRajanubhab removed the statue
from WatWiang, Chaiya, SuratThani to Bangkok National Museum, Thailand. Image
Credit: Wikimedia

Decline of Srivijay and new cultural interactions

Srijivayan power began to decrease after the Chola, a southern Indian dynasty, attacked the
Srivijay Empire in 1025 CE, gaining dominance in the waters around Southeast Asia.
Already weakened, Srivijay lost most of its remaining power in 1288 when the Singosari
Empire from East Java incorporated them into their empire.

Despite the Srivijay Empire’s decline, the trade routes Srivijayns helped establish continued
to be widely used. For example, from 1405 to 1433, a Chinese Muslim diplomat under the
Ming Dynasty named Zheng He undertook several voyages to the Malay Archipelago and on
to East Africa and Arabia. Zheng He’s ability to travel these distances indicates that the

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Srivijay trade routes through the Malay Archipelago remained crucial to travel and exchange
after the Srivijayn Empire ceased to exist.

Map of trade routes and extent

The kingdom of Srivijay is first mentioned in the writings of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I-
ching, who visited it in 671 after a voyage of less than 20 days from Canton. He was on the
first stage of his journey to the great teaching centre of Nalanda in northeastern India. The
ruler of Srivijay assisted I-ching on his journey.

Archaeological surveys undertaken since the late 20th century immediately to the west of
Palembang city have revealed such a quantity of materials as to make it practically certain
that this was Srivijay’s heartland in the 7th and subsequent three centuries. Surface remains
of more than a thousand shards of Chinese ceramics, many of which are datable from the 8th
to the 10th century, have been recovered from several sites. Shards from the 11th to the 14th
century found elsewhere in the area may represent shifts of political and commercial activity
in the Palembang region. Shards found on nearby Seguntang Hill (Bukit Seguntang), on the
other hand, span all these centuries. A piece of Romano-Indian rouletted ware, attributable to
the early centuries CE, has been discovered in Palembang near the river; the same ware has
been found in Java near Jakarta. Moreover, the sheer bulk of Buddhist, Hindu, and other
statuary that has been recovered from the Musi River region has suggested that
the basin contained the site of a polity near the sea that enjoyed considerable international
contacts. Finally, stupa remains have been unearthed at the foot of Seguntang Hill. These
discoveries reinforce the textual evidence that Palembang was indeed the centre of the
Srivijay empire.( Go back to page 7 foot note 2 )

Chola invasion of Srivijay

In 1025 CE, the Chola Emperor Rajendra I launched naval raids on Srivijay in maritime
Southeast Asia, Rajendra's overseas expedition against Srivijay was a unique event in India's
history and its otherwise peaceful relations with the states of Southeast Asia. Several places
in present-day Indonesia and Malay Peninsula were invaded by Rajendra I of the Chola
dynasty. The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as
the Manigramam, Ayyavole and Ainnurruvar into Southeast Asia. The Cholan invasion led to

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the fall of the Sailendra Dynasty of Srivijay and the Chola invasion also coincides with return
voyage of the great Buddhist scholar Atiśa from Sumatra to India and Tibet in 1025 CE.
Throughout most of their shared history, ancient India and Indonesia enjoyed friendly and
peaceful relations, thus making this Indian invasion a unique event in Asian history. In the
9th and 10th centuries, Srivijay maintained close relations with the Pala Empire in Bengal,
and an 860 CE Nalanda inscription records that Maharaja Balaputra of Srivijay dedicated a
monastery at the Nalanda Mahavihara ( Nalanda Universiity ) in Pala territory.
The relation between Srivijay and the Chola dynasty of southern India was friendly during
the reign of Raja RajaChola I. In 1006 CE a Srivijayn Maharaja from Sailendra dynasty -
king Maravijayattungavarman - constructed the ChudamaniVihara in the port town
of Nagapattinam. However, during the reign of RajendraChola I the relations deteriorated as
the Cholas attacked Srivijayn cities.
The Cholas are known to have benefitted from both piracy and foreign trade. Sometimes
Chola seafaring led to outright plunder and conquest as far as Southeast Asia. Srivijay
controlled two major naval choke points (Malacca and the Sunda Strait) and was at that time
a major trading empire that did possess formidable naval forces. The Malacca Strait's
northwest opening was controlled from Kedah on the Malay Peninsula side and
from Pannai on the Sumatran side, while Malayu (Jambi) and Palembang controlled its
southeast opening and also Sunda Strait. They practiced naval trade monopoly that forced any
trade vessels that passed through their waters to call on their ports or otherwise be plundered.

The reasons of this naval expedition are unclear, the historian Nilakanta Sastri in his book
History of Sri Vijaya. (1949) suggested that the attack was probably caused by Srivijayn
attempts to throw obstacles in the way of the Chola trade with the East (especially China), or
more probably, a simple desire on the part of Rajendra to extend his digvijaya to the countries
across the sea so well known to his subject at home, and therefore add luster to his crown.

Another theory suggests that the reasons for the invasion was probably motivated by
geopolitics and diplomatic relations. King Suryavarman I of the Khmer Empire requested aid
from RajendraChola I of the Chola dynasty against Tambralinga kingdom. Conversely after
learning of Suryavarman's alliance with RajendraChola, the Tambralinga kingdom requested
aid from the Srivijay king SangramaVijayatungavarman.
The Chola invasion against Srivijay was a swift campaign that left Srivijay unprepared.
Moreover, during this time in the 11th century, the Chola navy had developed strongly, while
Srivijay sea power was relatively weak. To sail from India to the Indonesian archipelago,
vessels from India sailed eastward across the Bay of Bengal and called at the ports of Lamuri
in Aceh or Kedah in Malay peninsula before entering Strait of Malacca. But the Chola
armada sailed directly to the Sumatran west coast. The port of Barus in the west coast
of North Sumatra at that time belonged to Tamil trade guilds and served as a port to replenish
after crossing the Indian Ocean. The Chola armada, then continued to sail along Sumatra's
west coast southward and sailed into Strait of Sunda. The Srivijay navy guarded Kedah and
the surrounding areas on the northwest opening of the Malacca Strait and so were completely
unaware that the Chola invasion was coming from the Sunda Strait in the south. The first
Srivijayn city that was raided was Palembang, the capital of Srivijayempire. The unexpected
attack led to the Cholas sacking the city and plundering the Kadatuan royal palace and
monasteries. The Thanjavur inscription states that Rajendra captured
King SangramaVijayottunggavarman of Srivijay and took a large heap of treasures including
the VidhyadaraTorana, the jeweled 'war gate' of Srivijay, adorned with great splendor.

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The Chola invasion did not result in Chola administration over the defeated cities, as the
armies moved fast and plundered the Srivijayn cities. The Chola armada seems to have taken
advantage of the Southeast Asian monsoon for moving from one port to another swiftly. The
tactic of a fast-moving unexpected attack was probably the secret of Cholan success, since it
did not allow the Srivijayn mandala to prepare their defenses, reorganize themselves, provide
assistance or to retaliate. The war ended with a victory for the Cholas and major losses for the
Srivijay Empire, thus ending their maritime monopoly in the region.

Charter issued by Rajendra I that declared the collection of revenue to build a Buddhist
Vihara in Srivijay.
With the Maharaja SangramaVijayottunggavarman imprisoned and most of its cities
destroyed, the leaderless Srivijay mandala entered a period of chaos and confusion. The
invasion marked the end of the Sailendra dynasty. According to the 15th-century Malay
Annals, RajendraChola I after the successful naval raid in 1025 CE married OnangKiu, the
daughter of SangramaVijayottunggavarman. This invasion forced Srivijay to make peace
with Javanese kingdom of Kahuripan. The peace deal was brokered by the exiled daughter of
SangramaVijayottunggavarman, a Srivijayn princess who managed to escape the destruction
of Palembang and came to the court of King Airlangga in East Java. She also became the
queen consort of Airlangga named Dharmaprasadottungadevi and in 1035 CE, Airlangga
constructed a Buddhist monastery named Srivijaysrama dedicated to his queen consort.
This invasion gravely weakened the Srivijayn hegemony and enabled the formation of
regional kingdoms like Kahuripan and its successor, Kediri in Java based on agriculture
rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king and the
trading activities resumed. He sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028 CE.
[18]
Sanfoqi sent a mission to China in 1028, but this would refer to Malayu-Jambi, not
Srivijay-Palembang. No Srivijayn envoys came to China between 1028–1077. This indicates
that the mandala of Srivijay has faded. It is very possible that Srivijay collapsed in 1025. In
the following centuries, Chinese chronicles still refer to "Sanfoqi", but this term probably
refers to the Malayu-Jambi kingdom, evidenced by Chinese record
of SanfoqiZhanbeiguo (Jambi country of Sanfoqi). The last epigraphic evidence that mentions

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the word "Sriwijaya" or "Srivijay" comes from the Tanjore inscription of the Chola kingdom
in 1030 or 1031.
The Chola control over Srivijay lasted for several decades. Chinese chronicles
mentioned Sanfoqi Zhu-nianguo which means "Chola country of Sanfoqi", likely refer to
Kedah. Sanfoqi Zhu-nianguo sent missions to China in 1077, 1079, 1082, 1088, and 1090
CE. It is possible that the Cholas installed a crown prince in the Tamil-dominated area of the
Malacca Straits.
Tamil colonization of the Malacca Straits seems to have lasted for a century. The Cholas left
several inscriptions in northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula. Tamil influence can be
found in works of art (sculpture and temple architecture), it indicated government activity
rather than commerce. Chola's grip on the northern Sumatra and the Malay peninsula receded
in the 12th century — the Tamil poem Kalingatupparani of ca. 1120 CE
mentioned Kulottungga's destruction of Kadaram (Kedah). After that, Kedah disappeared
from Indian sources.

Start of Srivijay
It started in Palembang and grew to include most of Sumatra, Java, and other parts of
Southeast Asia. The island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia) influenced much of
Southeast Asia. Srivijay was an important centre for the expansion of Buddhism from the 7th
to 11th century AD.Sumatra is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia.
Before it was known as Sumatra, the region was referred to as Melayu (also known as Malay
in English), named after the ancient Melayu Kingdom based in Jambi. The name Melayu
appeared in early historical records, including inscriptions and Chinese chronicles, before
being replaced by Sumatra in the 14th century. The island of Sumatra was home to the
Srivijay Empire, based in Palembang, which is now in South Sumatra province.

Srivijay Empire of Sumatra

To recapitulate and underline- the name Srivijay is derived from the Sanskrit words “sri” and
“vijaya”. “Sri” is a superlative that generally signifies “fortunate” or “glorious” and is another
name for the Hindu goddess Lakshmi. It is also often used as a name for people or places,
such as Sri Lanka. The word “vijaya” means “victory”. Its history begins in the 7 th century in
Sumatra, Indonesia. Its prosperity sprang from its monopoly over the Malacca and Sunda
Straits, which made it a hub for trade and culture. The empire had close relations with China
and promoted the spread of Buddhism, attracting academics from all around Asia. The
Srivijay Empire evolved into a major centre of Mahayana Buddhist learning. Nalanda
University, an esteemed Hindu and Buddhist educational centre in India’s Bihar has close ties
to Srivijay forming a lesser-known “knowledge route” as compared to the Silk Route and
other historical trails. With its capital being Palembang, the Srivijay Empire thrived as a
major centre of art, culture and literature. Although Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language,
researchers say that it was taught in Srivijay while a Sanskrit-influence Old Malay was the
official language. The Borobudur temple dedicated to Buddha in Java is one of the legacies
symbolising its religious and cultural grandeur.

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The famous Kedukan Bukit inscription, which is considered to be the oldest inscription
related to Srivijay, describes the “glorious Srivijay” and states that it was founded by
Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa. This inscription in the Pallav script records Sri Jayanasa’s
“Siddhayatra”, a military expedition which resulted in the establishment of the Srivjiaya
Empire.

Kedukan Bukit inscription

Similarly, an Old Malay inscription from Talang Tuwo, west of Palembang, records the
foundation by order of King Sri Jayanasa in A.D. 684 of a park named Srikgetra, dedicated to
Bu ddhist principles. /Talang Tuwo inscription (Source: Suarasumsel)

In his 1983 book The Politics of Expansion: The Chola Conquest of Sri Lanka and Sri
Vijaya, George W Spencer mentioned about certain “Indianised” states of the Malay
peninsula.Source: The Politics of Expansion: The Chola Conquest of Sri Lanka and Sri
Vijaya

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 The Chola invasion of Srivijay Empire
The Shailendra dynasty ruled Srivijay during Rajaraja and Rajendra Chola’s reign. Rajaraja I
(985–1014 CE) and Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE) were Chola emperors who ruled over a
prosperous empire in South India. The Cholas were known for their military prowess,
architecture, and economic success.

King Rajaraja I (chola)

 Ruled over the present-day south India
 Conquered the kingdoms of Pandyas and Cheras
 Built the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur
 Led naval expeditions to Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and the West Coast
 Protected Vengi (the Godavari districts)
 Conquered Kerala (the Chera country) and northern Sri Lanka
Historical accounts suggest that the ties between the Cholas and the Shailendra monarchs
were not always strained; in 1006, during Rajaraja Chola’s reign, King
Maravijayattungavarman of Srivijay built the Chudamani Vihara in Nagapattinam. The
famous Tanjore Inscription of 1030 or 1031 mentions the Srivijay empire, alongside other
locations raided by a fleet sent by King Rajendra Chola I, the successor of Rajaraja Chola.
Srivijay ruler Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman was an emperor
of Srivijaya of Sailendra dynasty, who reigned in the early 11th century in Kadaram and
succeeded Mara Vijayottunggavarman. He is best known for being captured by the Chola
Navy following the Cholan invasion of Srivijaya.

The name of the emperor was inscribed on an inscription dated 1030 CE in Rajarajeshwaram
Temple, Tanjore. The inscription was made during the reign of Rajendra Chola I, to
commemorate his military campaign against Srivijaya that was launched in 1025. The
inscription states that the Cholas successfully sacked Kadaram and took a large amount of
treasures, including the Vidhyadara-torana, the jewelled 'war gate' of Srivijaya adorned with
great splendour. During the raid of Kadaram, Vijayatunggavarman was captured.The other
places mentioned in the inscription are: Pannai, Malaiyur, Mayirudingan, Ilangasokam,
Mapappalam, Mevilimbangam, Valaippanduru, Talaittakkolam, Madamalingam,
Ilamuridesam, and Manakkavaram. Coede in The Indianized States of Southeast Asia.
University of Hawaii Press. On pp. 142-143does mention this capture but fails to connect the
dots.

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Translation of Tanjore Inscription in Sri Vijaya as mentioned in The Politics of
Expansion: The Chola Conquest of Sri Lanka and Sri Vijaya by George W Spencer////
The probable outer limit of the Srivijay Empire (Source: The Politics of Expansion: The
Chola Conquest of Sri Lanka and Sri Vijaya by George W Spencer)

By the 11th century, Srivijay’s authority was under threat as in 1025, the mighty Chola
Empire led by Raja Raja Chola I and later his son Rajendra Chola I, embarked on an
extensive naval campaign. Srivijay's influence waned in the 11th century, specifically in the
year 1025, after suffering defeat at the hands of the Chola Empire in southern India, which is
often referred to as the Imperial Cholas, and was a medieval thalassocratic empire based
in southern India ruled by the Chola dynasty, having political powers in South, Southeast,
and East Asia at its peak as is evident in their expeditions to the Ganges, naval raids on cities
of the Srivijay Empire on the island of Sumatra, and their repeated embassies to China.

By the end of the 12th century, Srivijay had been reduced to a kingdom, and its dominant role
in South Sumatra ended with the last king, Ratu Sekekhummong, who founded the milestone
of Kepaksian Sekala Brak in the 13th century AD with the Dalom building. At the same
time, the spread of Islam in Indonesia occurred gradually and indirectly, starting from the
western regions such as the Sumatra area which became the first place for the spread of Islam
in the archipelago, then Java, then to the eastern regions of Indonesia, Sulawesi and Maluku.

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Map of the connection between Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Srivijay

Raj
endra Chola/ The Andaman Islands in the Bay of Bengal were said to be inhabited
by wolf-headed people, who were depicted in a "book of wonders" produced in Paris in
the early 15th century.

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164
Andaman Island as a base of Chola Navy

According to historical records, the Andaman Islands served as a strategic

naval base for the Chola dynasty, particularly during the reign of Rajendra
Chola I, allowing them to launch expeditions into Southeast Asia, primarily
against the Srivijaya Empire; the Cholas referred to the islands as "Ma-
Nakkavaram" in ancient inscriptions, which may have influenced the later
name "Nicobar." ‘Srivijay’ is 1400 years older than Port Blair the Capital of
the Andaman Islands which are made up of 200 islands, in the
northeastern Indian Ocean about 130 km (81 mi) southwest off the
coasts of Myanmar's Ayeyarwady Region. Together with the Nicobar
Islands to their south, the Andamans serve as a maritime
boundary between the Bay of Bengal to the west and the Andaman
Sea to the east. Most of the islands are part of the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands, a Union Territory of India, while the Coco
Islands and Preparis Island are part of the Yangon
Region of Myanmar. Sri Vijaya Puram is the capital of the Union Territory
of Andaman & Nicobar Islands. It is located on the east coast of the South
Andaman Island. Sri Vijaya Puram is the gateway to the pristine islands.
In the 13th century, the name of Andaman appears in Late Middle Chinese as yàntuómán in
modern Mandarin Chinese in the book Zhu Fan Zhi by Zhao Rukuo. Chapter 38 of the
book, Countries in the Sea, Zhao Rukuo specifies that going from Lambri (Sumatra) to
Ceylan, an unfavourable wind makes ships drift towards the Andaman Islands. In the 15th
century, Andaman was recorded as "Andeman Mountain" pronounced āndémán shān in
modern Mandarin Chinese) during the voyages of Zheng He in the Mao Kun map of the Wu
Bei Zhi.

Chola empire in Andaman

Rajendra I took over the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. He used the Andaman and Nicobar
Islands as a strategic naval base to launch an expedition against the Srivijaya Empire.
The Cholas called the island Ma-Nakkavaram ("great open/naked land"), found in
the Thanjavur inscription of 1050 CE. European traveller Marco Polo (12th–13th century)
also referred to this island as 'Necuverann' and a corrupted form of the Tamil name
Nakkavaram would have led to the modern name Nicobar during the British colonial period.
In 1789, the Bengal Presidency established a naval base and penal colony on Chatham
Island in the southeast bay of Great Andaman.

Srivijay Puram—the new name of Port Blair has an interesting history. Discontinuing the
British colonial legacy and reconnecting the capital city of Andaman and Nicobar Islands to
India’s ancient maritime roots, the Modi government announced last week the renaming of
this city. Years before this, the Modi government had renamed three islands of the Andaman
and Nicobar archipelago as a tribute to Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose.

While the nation welcomed the decision, the usual suspects including the brown sepoys
denounced the renaming of Port Blair as some sort of “cartographic majoritarianism” and
suggested that the new name does not resonate with the local people, some even argued that

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the naming of the archipelago after Lieutenant Archibald Blair, a British naval officer from
the 18th century was correct. However, they have forgotten that long before the British even
became an empire, back when the British Isles were struggling in the dark ages, the Chola
empire in India was not only ruling over majestic cities in the Indian mainland, it operated a
naval base in the very same archipelago, and ran a formidable maritime trade network
through the Indian Ocean Region.The Chola empire influenced, and even controlled the trade
routes and to some extent, the geopolitics of the entire Southeast Asia. They used Andaman
and Nicobar Islands as a vital naval base to launch attacks against the Srivijay Empire [now
in Indonesia] in the 11th century. In the words of Union Home Minister of India-Amit Shah,
“The island territory that once served as the naval base of the Chola Empire is today poised to
be the critical base for our strategic and development aspirations.”

Before immersing into the history of the erstwhile Srivijay Empire, it would be interesting to
discuss how Port Blair got its name. Port Blair was named after Archibald Blair, a British
naval surveyor who arrived in the late 18th century. In 1789, he created a penal colony in the
area under the authority of the British East India Company. The settlement was formerly
known as Port Cornwallis before being renamed Port Blair in honour of Archibald Blair, who
played a key role in its founding. The city gained historical significance as the site of the
notorious Cellular Jail, which was used by the British to hold Indian freedom fighter.

Rajendra Chola’s naval invasion of Srivijay empire

With an unforeseen strategy to catch the Srivijayn forces off guard, the Chola Navy started
the war in 1025 CE by sailing eastward. Ships coming from India to Srivijay usually
docked in the Malay Peninsula ports of Lamuri or Keday before crossing the Strait of
Malacca. However, the Srivijayn defences were designed with this type of attack in view.
The Chola navy rapidly arrived on Sumatra’s west coast and docked at Barus, a port owned
by Tamil traders at the time shocked the Srivijayans. The Chola Navy refreshed its supplies
in friendly territory before sailing south along Sumatra’s west coast into the Sunda Strait.
Rajendra Chola’s decision to attack from the south threw the Srivijayn troops, who had been
positioned near the Strait of Malacca and expected an invasion from the northwest,
completely off guard.

The Chola forces first laid siege to the Srivijay Empire’s capital Palembang. The Cholas took
over the city and looted the Kadatuan royal palace. Alongside capturing King Sangrama
Vijayatungavarman during the attack, Rajendra Chola gained possession of a vast bounty of
treasure, including the bejeweled war-gate Vidhyadara Torana. Without giving any chance to
the Srivijayn forces to hit back, the Chola forces raided port after port. After Palembang’s
fall, the Cholas conquered Pannai, Malaiyur, Mayirudingan, Ilangasokam, Mapappalam,
Mevilimbangam, Valaippanduru, Talaittakkolam, Madamalingam, Ilamuridesam, and
Manakkavaram.

Securing a decisive triumph, over modern-day Malaysia, the Andaman and Nicobar Isles and
southern Thailand, Rajendra Chola became one of the greatest conquerors in
history.vRajendra Chola’s armies attacked Srivijay’s domains, acquiring its wealth, capturing
its king, and greatly undermining its power. The Cholas, however, had no desire to rule the
region directly, they just wanted control and influence over the trade routes. Despite

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surviving the invasion, Srivijay’s prestige and its power dwindled.vIn the course of time,
the Srivijay Empire’s influence over trade routes deteriorated, and by the 14th century, it had
been eclipsed by the emergence of the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit Empire and Islamic
sultanates like Demak in the region. Srivijay Empire subsequently vanished from history,
leaving a cultural legacy that included the expansion of Mahayana Buddhism and the
establishment of Southeast Asian trade networks.

The causes of the Chola invasion of the Srivijay Empire

Interestingly, in 1017 CE, King Rajendra had sent a fleet to Malacca Strait during his Sri
Lanka campaign, however, the fleet was repulsed by the Srivijayn navy. Srivijay’s authority
stemmed chiefly from its control over sea passages and port cities, which allowed it to charge
taxes on passing traders. In 1019 CE, Srivijay placed hefty tariffs on traders when the rival
Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Medang [also known as Mataram] collapsed in Sumatra,
crippling Tamil and foreign traders. Examining the causes behind Chola king Rajendra’s
invasion of Srivijay, noted historian Nilakanta Sastri in his book Colas writes that there is
ample material to believe that initially not only Rajaraja Chola but his son Rajendra also had
friendly ties with Srivijay. However, either an attempt by Srivijay to obstruct the Chola trade
with the East or King Rajendra’s ambition to conquer countries across the sea may have
inspired his naval campaign even if the Cholas did not attempt to rule these places as
provinces of their empire.

Excerpt from ‘Colas’ by Nilkanta Sastri

“We have to assume either some attempt on the part of Sn Vijaya to throw obstacles in the
way of the Cola trade with the East, or more probably, a simple desire on the part of
Rajendra to extend his digvijaya to the countries across the sea so well-known to his subjects
at home, and thereby add lustre to his crown,” Sastri writes.
Similarly, RC Majumdar also opined that establishing commercial supremacy might have
inspired the Chola invasion of Srivijay.

“The geographical position of the Satiendra empire enabled it to control almost the whole
volume of maritime trade between western and eastern Asia, and the dazzling prospect which
its conquest offered to the future commercial supremacy of the Colas seems to be the
principal reason of the oversea expedition undertaken by Rfijeudra Cola. But it is the
conquest of the eastern coastal regions of India that alone brought such a scheme within the
range of practical politics,” Majumdar writes in his book Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far
East vol.2.

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 standi
ng deity

Excerpt from Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East vol.2. by RC Majumdar
In his book Nagapattinam to Suvarnadwipa, Tansen Sen suggests the gaining prominence of
Chinese markets in the international trading system as traders from every region of Asia
gathered there to procure Chinese porcelain, silk and sell foreign goods including horses and
spices etc. It is also said that the Khmer [modern-day Cambodia] king Suryavarman I sought
Rajendra Chola’s assistance in his dispute with the Tambralinga kingdom [modern-day
Thailand]. Consequently, the Tambralingas sought the backing of Srivijayn ruler Sangrama
Vijayatungavarman, sparking a confrontation between the Cholas and Srivijay.

In a nutshell, the Cholas invaded Srivijay largely for economic and geopolitical purposes.
Srivijay controlled key maritime trade routes in Southeast Asia, particularly the Malacca
Strait, which was critical for Indian traders doing business with China and Southeast Asia.
The Chola Empire led by Rajendra Chola, keen to expand its power along these trade routes,
saw Srivijay as both a barrier and an advantageous target. Rajendra Chola I attacked Srivijay
in 1025, hoping to undercut its control over regional commerce and establish Chola’s
dominance in Southeast Asian trade networks. This campaign also demonstrated the Chola
Empire’s naval capabilities.

Buddhism in Palembang

Srivijay-Palembang’s importance both as a trade nexus and as a Southeast Asian centre for
the practice of Buddhism has been established by Arab and Chinese historical sources
spanning a long period of time. Its own records, in the form of inscriptions in
Old Malay (Malay language written in an Indian-based script), are limited almost entirely to

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the second half of the 7th century. The inscriptions reveal that the ruler was served by
a hierarchy of officials and that he possessed wealth. The period when the inscriptions were
written was an agitated one. Battles are mentioned, and the ruler had to reckon with
disaffection and intrigue at his capital. Indeed, the main theme of the inscriptions is a curse
on those who broke a loyalty oath administered by drinking holy water. The penalty for
disloyalty was death, but those who obeyed the ruler were promised eternal bliss.

I-ching recommended Palembang, with more than a thousand monks, as an excellent centre at
which to begin studying Buddhist texts. The 7th-century inscriptions, however, are concerned
with less-scholarly features of Buddhism. Showing influences of Vajrayana, or Tantric
Buddhism, they deal largely with yantras, symbols to aid magical power that were distributed
by the ruler as favours to faithful servants. (Some of the ruler’s adversaries also dispensed
yantras, however.) The TalangTuwo inscription of 684, which records the king’s prayer that a
park he has endowed may give merit to all living beings, is especially indicative of the
presence of Buddhism within the context of royal power. The language and style of this
inscription, incorporating Indian Tantric conceptions, make it clear that the ruler was
presenting himself as a bodhisattva—one who was to become a buddha himself—teaching
the several stages toward supreme enlightenment. This is the first instance in the
archipelago’s history of a ruler’s assumption of the role of religious leader.

The inscriptions show that the teachings of the Tantric school of Mahayana Buddhism, with
its magical procedures for achieving supernatural ends, had reached Palembang before the
end of the 7th century. Tantric Buddhism came into prominence in India only in the 7th
century, and the synchronism of its appearance in Palembang reflects not only the regularity
of shipping contacts between Sumatra and India but, more important, the Malays’ quick
perception of Tantrism as a source of personal spiritual power. The word for “curse” in the
inscriptions is Malay, and it is reasonable to suppose that the Malays grafted Tantric
techniques onto indigenous magical procedures. The prestige that was accorded the sacred
Seguntang Hill, a site visited by those in search of spiritual power, probably also reflects the
vitality of Malay religion; it is unlikely that the site would have become such a spiritual
centre merely as a result of traffic in Tantric conceptions during the 7th century. The agitation
and adversity revealed in the inscriptions, then, are less likely to have been the growing pains
of a rising kingdom than the efforts of an already important kingdom to achieve, or perhaps
recover, hegemony in southern Sumatra.

The maritime influence

In the centuries before they undertook long voyages overseas, the Chinese relied on foreign
shipping for their imports, and foreign merchants from afar required a safe base in Indonesia
before sailing on to China. This seaborne trade, regarded in China as “tributary” trade with
the “emperors’ barbarian vassals,” had developed during the 5th and 6th centuries but
languished in the second half of the 6th century as a result of the civil war in China that
preceded the rise of the Sui and T’ang dynasties. Chinese records for the first half of the 7th
century mention several small harbour kingdoms in the region, especially in northeastern
Sumatra, that were pretending to be Chinese vassals. As illustrated by the militancy of the
ruler in the Old Malay inscriptions, however, the rulers of Palembang, hoping for a revival of
trade under the new T’ang dynasty, were eager to monopolize the China trade and eliminate
their rivals. They indeed succeeded in their aim; before I-ching left Southeast Asia in 695,
Srivijay had gained control of the Strait of Malacca.

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The subsequent power of the higher-ranking rulers—the maharajas—of Srivijay depended on
their alliance with those who possessed warships. The fact that Arab accounts make no
mention of piracy in the islands at the southern end of the Strait of Malacca suggests that the
seafaring inhabitants of these islands identified with the interests of the maharajas; the
islanders therefore refrained from molesting merchant ships, and they cooperated in
controlling Srivijay’s potential competitors in northern Sumatra. The maharajas offered their
loyal subjects wealth, posts of honour, and—according to the inscriptions—supernatural
rewards. But the grouping of maritime Malays in this geographically fragmented region
survived only as long as the Palembang entrepôt was prosperous and its ruler offered enough
largesse to hold the elements together. His bounty, however, depended on the survival of the
Chinese tributary trading system, which needed a great entrepôt in western Indonesia. Early
Malay history is then, to an important extent, the history of a Sino-Malay alliance. The
maharajas benefited from the China trade, while the emperors could permit themselves the
conceit that the maharajas were reliable imperial agents.

The Palembang rulers’ exact span of territorial influence is unknown. The Bangka Strait and
the offshore islands at the southern entrance of the Strait of Malacca would have been
essential to their maritime power. According to 7th-century inscriptions, the rulers also had
influence in southern Sumatra on the Sunda Strait. Elsewhere in the hinterland, including the
Batanghari River basin, which came to be known as Malayu (along with other regions of
Sumatra’s interior), their authority would have been exercised by alliances with local chiefs
or by force, with decreasing effect the farther these areas were from Palembang.

Malay unity under the leadership of the maharajas was inevitably undermined when, as early
as the 10th century, Chinese private ships began to sail to centres of production in the
archipelago, with the result that the Chinese market no longer depended on a single
Indonesian entrepôt. Toward the end of the 11th century, Srivijay-Palembang ceased to be the
chief estuary kingdom in Sumatra. Hegemony had passed, for unknown reasons, to the
neighbouring estuary town of Jambi, on the Batanghari River, which was probably controlled
by the Minangkabau people of the island’s west-central interior. With the decline of the
tributary trade with China, a number of harbours in the region became centres of international
trade. Malayu-Jambi never had the opportunity to build up naval resources as Srivijay-
Palembang had done, and in the 13th century a Javanese prince took advantage of the power
vacuum.

Central Java from c. 700 to c. 1000

Eastern Javanese inscriptions throw little light on happenings before the 10th century, but the
evidence from south-central Java, especially from the Kedu Plain in the 8th and 9th centuries,
is more abundant. This period in central Java is associated with the Shailendra dynasty and its
rivals. An Old Malay inscription from north-central Java, attributed to the 7th century,
establishes that the Shailendras were of Indonesian origin and not, as was once suspected,
from mainland Southeast Asia. In the middle of the 9th century, the ruler of Srivijay-
Palembang was a Shailendra who boasted of his Javanese ancestors; the name Shailendra also
appears on the undated face of an inscription on the isthmus of the Malay Peninsula; the other
face of the inscription—dated 775—is in honour of the ruler of Srivijay.

In spite of ambiguous references to Shailendra connections overseas, there is no solid

evidence that the territories of the central Javanese rulers at this time extended far beyond
central Java, including its north coast. Yet the agricultural wealth of this small kingdom

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sustained vast religious undertakings; the monuments of the Kedu Plain are the most famous
in Indonesia. The Borobudur temple complex, in honour of Mahayana Buddhism, contains
2,000,000 cubic feet (56,600 cubic metres) of stone and includes 27,000 square feet (2,500
square metres) of stone bas-relief. Its construction extended from the late 8th century to the
fourth or fifth decade of the 9th. Shiva’s great temple at Prambanan, though not associated
with the Shailendra family, is less than 50 miles (80 km) away, and an inscription dating to
856 marks what may be its foundation stone. The two monuments, which have much in
common, help to explain the religious impulses in earlier Javanese history.

Borobudur is a terraced temple surmounted by stupas, or stone towers; the terraces resemble
Indonesian burial foundations, indicating that Borobudur was regarded as the symbol of the
final resting place of its founder, a Shailendra, who was united after his death with the
Buddha. A Mahayana inscription of this period shows that a ruler was said to have the
purifying powers of a bodhisattva, the status assumed by the ruler of Srivijay in the 7th
century; a 9th-century Shaivite inscription from the Kedu Plain describes a ruler as being “a
portion of Shiva.”

1.Where is George Coedès’ knowledge supposed to be placed on the map of Southeast

Asian history?

George Coedès vastly scholarly life was dedicated to studying ancient Southeast Asia. His
work helped define the field of study and is considered the foundation for much of the
research that has followed. His contributions:
 Inscriptions du Cambodge
Coedès's eight-volume work (1937–66) contains editions and translations of over a
thousand inscriptions from Cambodia.
 The Indianized States of Southeast Asia
This work surveys the first 15 centuries of Southeast Asia's recorded history. It was
translated into English and published in 1968.
 The Making of South East Asia
This work was translated from the French and published in 1966.
 Rediscovery of Srivijaya
Coedès discovered the existence of the ancient state of Srivijaya in southern
Sumatra.
 Transliteration system for Thai and Khmer
Coedès devised a transliteration system that is still used by specialists of these
writing systems.
Significance
Coedès's work is considered the foundation for much of the research that has
followed. His work is still considered the basic text for those who seek to understand
Southeast Asia.
2. How is Coedès’ discovery of Srivijay valuable to modern Southeast Asian nations today?
George Coedès' discovery of the Srivijaya empire is valuable to modern Southeast Asian
nations today because it provides a crucial piece of their shared history, highlighting the
region's early maritime trade networks, cultural exchange, and political power dynamics,
which helps nations understand their collective past and fosters a sense of regional identity
across countries like Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, where Srivijaya once held
influence; essentially, it allows them to trace their historical roots and connections to a
significant pre-colonial power in the region.

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 Key points about the importance of Coedès' discovery:
 Understanding regional trade:
Srivijaya's dominance over the Strait of Malacca was critical to maritime trade between
India and China, providing insights into the economic development and cultural exchange
that occurred in Southeast Asia for centuries.
 Shared cultural heritage:
By identifying Srivijaya as a major Buddhist center, Coedès' work highlights the spread of
Buddhism throughout the region, connecting modern Southeast Asian nations through a
shared religious heritage.
 National identity building:
The discovery of Srivijaya allows modern nations to trace their historical lineage to a
powerful maritime empire, contributing to a sense of national pride and identity.
 Academic foundation for further research:
Coedès' initial research on Srivijaya provided a foundation for further scholarly exploration
and analysis of Southeast Asian history, enabling a deeper understanding of the region's
complex past. Regardless of whether his being credited with “discovering” Srivijay is right
or wrong the fact remains that Srivijay had ancient amicable and later antagonistic relations
with the Chola kings of south India that lasted for centuries.

3. Does Coedès’ history look like Srivijay? It has been forgotten from the memory of
Southeast Asian nations for a while now.

Because little physical evidence of Srivijaya remains, there had been no continuous
knowledge of the history of Srivijaya even in Indonesia and Maritime Southeast Asia; its
forgotten past has been resurrected by foreign scholars such as Coedes much to his credit.
Contemporary Indonesians, even those from the area of Palembang (around where the
kingdom was based), had not heard of Srivijaya until the 1920s when
the French scholar, George Cœdès, published his discoveries and interpretations
in Dutch and Indonesian language newspapers. Cœdès noted that the Chinese references
to Sanfoqi, previously read as Sribhoja or Sribogha, and the inscriptions in Old Malay refer to
the same empire.

The Srivijayan historiography is based on two main sources: the Chinese historical accounts
and the Southeast Asian stone inscriptions that have been discovered and deciphered in the
region. The Buddhist monk Yijing's account is especially important in describing Srivijaya,
when he visited the kingdom in 671 for six months. The 7th-century siddhayatra inscriptions
discovered in Palembang and Bangka Island are also vital primary historical sources. Also,
regional accounts that some might be preserved and retold as tales and legends, such as
the Legend of the Maharaja of Zabaj and the Khmer King also provide a glimpse of the
kingdom. Some Indian and Arabic accounts also vaguely describe the riches of the king
of Zabag. It's likely that the Zabag-Khmer story was based on Javanese overlordship over
Cambodia.

The historical records of Srivijaya were reconstructed from a number of stone inscriptions,
most of them written in Old Malay using Pallava script, such as the Kedukan Bukit, Talang
Tuwo, Telaga Batu and Kota Kapur inscriptions. Srivijaya became a symbol of early
Sumatran importance as a great empire to balance Java's Majapahit in the east. In the 20th
century, both empires were referred to by nationalistic intellectuals to argue for
an Indonesian identity within a united Indonesian state that had existed prior to the colonial
state of the Dutch East Indies.

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4. How should the people and governments of Southeast Asian nations, especially
Indonesia, appreciate George Coedès’s contributions to them?

President Fidel V. Ramos of Phillipines who was serving with the Philippine Civic Action
Group in embattled Vietnam said during the formation of the ASEAN-“The fragmented
economies of Southeast Asia, (with) each country pursuing its own limited objectives and
dissipating its meager resources in the overlapping or even conflicting endeavors of sister
states carry the seeds of weakness in their incapacity for growth and their self-perpetuating
dependence on the advanced, industrial nations. ASEAN, therefore, could marshal the still
untapped potentials of this rich region through more substantial united action.” That
ASEAN was established at all in spite of these difficulties, he said, meant that its
foundations had been solidly laid. And he impressed it on the audience of diplomats,
officials and media people who had witnessed the signing ceremony that a great sense of
urgency had prompted the Ministers to go through all that trouble. Coede’s contributions
fall in the same line.

5. What is your message to my readers about George Coedès?

The impact of Indian culture was profound, especially in parts of Burma (Myanmar),
Thailand, Cambodia, and the Indonesian archipelago. Local rulers adopted concepts of state
and kingship as well as urban development and hydraulic engingeering. They also embraced
a script and literature in the Sanskrit language. Professor George Cœdès is, among various
scholarship spanning Cambodian and Indonesian past, also credited with rediscovering the
former kingdom of Srivijaya today’s Palembang, which was influent from Sumatra to the
Malay Peninsula and Java. The matter remains controversed until today. The influence he
yielded over the research and Historiographical arena in Cambodia (and consequently to a
lesser extent Indonesia) is borne by George’s two sons,(over and above his 5 daughters)-
Pierre and Louis, were to come back to Cambodia in the 1950s, Pierre Coedès as Director of
the Cambodian Merchant Navy — at the suggestion of King Norodom Suramarit himself,
Louis to launch a private bank in Phnom Penh.

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