Making of Maha Nokor-

The Construction of Angkor Wat

The Complexity of the Angkor Construction Project?

Dr Uday Dokras, Ph D Stockholm SWEDEN

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1. Great structures built to honour the gods 32. Ghost Temple:
2. Hindu Cosmology 33. In 2016 CE, a New York Times
3. Architectural Plan of Angkor Wat article
4. The height of Angkor Wat 34. History
5. The overall profile imitates a lotus bud 35. Architecture and Construction
6. Scale of the ambition determined the structure of 36. classical style of Angkorian
the Angkor. architecture:
7. Several years must have gone into the planning as 37. Built on rising ground and
such. surrounded by an artificial moat,
8. The perspective 38. Sculpture
9. Scholarly vision 39. The massive sandstone bricks
10. Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe 40. Architectural Features
as a cosmic world. 41. Construction techniques
11. The central tower mountain, Its 5 towers 42. Materials;
correspond to peaks of Meru. 43. Bricks
i. Planning 44. Sandstone
ii. The explaination and concurrence 45. Laterite
from the Monarch 46. Central sanctuary
iii. The Model 47. The central prang of Angkor
iv. Schedule Wat temple symbolizes
v. Approvals the mount Meru.
vi. The site 48. legendary home of
vii. The water source the Hindu gods.
viii. The material sources 49. Prang
ix. The manpower 50. Khmer temples
x. Assorted materials 51. Thai temples
xi. Skill and unskilled labour 52. Enclosure
xii. Logistics 53. Gallery
xiii. manpower planning 54. Gopura
xiv. Lodging abd boarding of workers 55. Hall of Dancers
xv. Material Storage and facilitation 56. dancing.
xvi. Training & development of workers 57. House of Fire
12. Urban planning 58. Library
59. Srah and baray
13. 72 major temples 60. Temple mountain
14. How is Angkor Wat characterized on elements of 61. Bas-relief
style? 62. Colonette
15. What was the cultural significance of Angkor 63. Corbelling
Wat? 64. List of Khmer lintel styles
16. What is unique about where Angkor Wat is built? 65. Stairs
17. Site and plan 66. MOTIFS
18. temple mountain and concentric galleries 67. Apsara and devata
19. The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to 68. Dvarapala
the morning sun 69. Gajasimha & Reachisey
20. Rose Bud shape 70. Garuda
21. Ogival 71. THE MANY GODS of
22. The principal temple of the Angkorian ANGKOR
region, Angkor Wat 72. Indra
23. Vaishnavism 73. Kala
24. Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism 74. Krishna
25. Vishnu-Suman 75. linga
26. Mahayana Buddhism 76. Makara
27. Khmer architecture (also known as Angkorian 77. Nāga
architecture 78. Quincunx
28. Many temples had been built before Cambodia:[ 79. Shiva
80. The.Australian archaeologist

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 29. The temple itself consists of two of the primary Damian Evans.
elements 83.Rervelation painting
81. Secret Paintings
30. In Ancient Angkor Michael Freeman; and Claude
Jacques
31. Religious Background

Great structures built to honour the gods, have led to groundbreaking construction techniques,
and pushed the limits of engineering. Complex project means a construction project that includes
one or more of the following significant components: difficult site location, unique equipment,
specialized building systems, multifaceted program, accelerated schedule, historic designation,
or intricate phasing or some other aspect that makes it competitive. Complexity is a key
characteristic of construction projects. It is the degree of complexity that determines the overall
approach to a project, specifically the required resources as well as tools and techniques. What is
complex project management?
Today a complex project is defined as one that demonstrates a number of characteristics to a
degree or level of severity that makes it extremely difficult to predict project outcomes, to
control or manage the project. Complexity refers to projects that include ambiguity or
uncertainty. They are surrounded with unpredictability. Other indicators of a complex project
include: Involvement of many teams & stakeholders being constructed, whereas the term
‘construction site’ can refer to all types of works, such as road construction, sewer
construction, landscaping, and so on.

A construction site: '...includes any place where construction work is being carried out or to
which the workers have access, but does not include a workplace within the site which is set
aside for purposes other than construction work.'Typically, land will become a construction
site when it is handed over to a contractor to begin the construction works. In the first phase of
the works, construction may be restricted to preliminary activities such as; securing the site, site
clearance, setting up site facilities, demolition, groundworks, and so on. It is often apparent that
a site has become a construction site when hoarding is erected to secure its perimeter.

It is relatively common for sites to remain in this 'prepared' condition for some time with little
evidence of further construction works being undertaken. This may be due to complexities in
securing all the land required, obtaining permissions, securing all
the funding required, complex ground works, ongoing design, and so on. This can
leave developers open to accusations of landbanking.Once
above ground works begin, construction sites may appear to progress relatively quickly
as structural frames grow and cladding is installed. They may then appear to slow again as
internal fit outs are undertaken and finishing work is carried out.
Typically, a construction site will revert to being a non-construction site when it is handed back
to the client on certification of practical completion. However, there may be ongoing minor
works required to rectify any defects that become apparent. nToday a site in relation to
a building as: ‘…the area of ground covered or to be covered by the building, including
its foundations.’
No expense was spared in the ancient world, as temples were built over decades or even
centuries. But one stands out from the rest. Hidden deep in the Cambodian jungle lies a temple

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that eclipses all others- Angkor Wat is a 900-year-old complex covering more than 400 acres
across a monsoon-plagued swampland. The largest religious monument in the world by land
area. Its endless hallways and colossal structures exhibit precision stonemasonry. While some of
the great medieval cathedrals took over a century to build, Angkor Wat was completed in just 30
years. A masterpiece of craftsmanship, sculptural decoration and engineering. But how did an
early society with little technology build this vast monument? It is one of the most important
pilgrimage sites for Buddhists in Cambodia and around the world. It has become a symbol of
Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the country's main tourist attraction. Angkor
Wat played a major role in converting Cambodia into a Buddhist nation and the one and only
source of income for Cambodia today.

Angkor Wat Architectural Features

HINDU.COSMOLOGY: According to Stuart-Fox, Martin , and Paul Reeve,“Symbolism in

City Planning in Cambodia from Angkor to Phnom Penh.” (Journal of the Siam Society 99: 105–38.
. 2011) Khmer Kings never decided arbitrarily or at their whim the location of cities, their
orientation and their layout. The plan of the ideal Khmer city was inspired by the model of the
Khmer temples, which were based on Hindu cosmology. It should have a perfect quadrangular
shape, walls with four gates in the middle of each side and an organised internal layout
resembling a mandala, with the city temple in the centre and its main sanctuary inside it, with a
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tower shape which represents the mythological Mount Meru, the sacred axis mundi, separated by
successive concentric walls.

At the same time, this concrete representation of cosmology in city planning was based on the
religious and political idea of the “god-king” (devaraja), which considers monarchs as
incarnations on the Earth (avatars) of Shiva, Vishnu or Buddha.’ ( “Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in
Southeast Asia.” Chihara, Daigoro . 1996. Studies in Asian Art and Archaeology 19. Leiden: Brill.)

Cosmos: At a paper presented at Vaastu Kaushal: International Symposium on Science and

Technology in Ancient Indian Monuments, New Delhi, November 16-17, 2002. Subhash Kak
presenting the paper- Space and Cosmology in the Hindu Temple pointed out that according to
the Sthapatya Veda (the Indian tradition of architecture), the temple and the town should mirror
the cosmos. The temple architecture and the city plan are, therefore, related in their conception.
“ Angkor Wat is the supreme masterpiece of Khmer art. The descriptions of the temple fall far
short of communicating the great size, the perfect proportions, and the astoundingly beautiful
sculpture that everywhere presents itself to the viewer. Its architecture is majestic and its
representation of form and movement from Indian mythology has astonishing grace and power.”
Angkor Wat occupies a rectangular area of about 208 hectares (500 acres) defined by a
laetrile wall. The first evidence of the site is a moat with a long sandstone causeway (length
250 meters, 820 feet; width 12 meters, 39 feet) crossing it and serving as the main access to
the monument. The moat is 200 meters (656 feel) wide with a perimeter of 5.5 kilometers (3.4
miles).

Angkor Wat is influenced by the Hindu temple architecture of southern India, which
combines harmony and symmetry with a high degree of outer adornment. The five beehive-
shaped domes that rise impressively from the center of the temple are adorned with rows of
lotuses and are designed to look like lotus buds. The temple is conceived so that all five domes
are visible when the temple is viewed from certain angles.

The largest dome sits over the main sanctuary. Four slightly smaller domes are organized in a
square plan around the central dome. The five domes represent the five peaks of Mt. Meru,
arranged in the shape of a lotus blossom. What makes the towers and Angkor Wat as a whole
so beautiful are the way the small details harmonize and mix with the massive architecture.
The dome-topped main sanctuary is surrounded by halls, arranged together in a square plan,
with lower walls and ceilings, and smaller temples on their corners that represent the
mountains on the edge of the world. The galleries, corridors and halls are aligned with
directions of the compass.

The wall that surrounds Angkor Wat is 5/8th of a mile long on each side; the central tower is
eight stories (213 feet) high; the square moat around the compound is three miles long; and the
causeway that leads across the moat to the temple is 1,500 feet long. The sandstone blocks at
Angkor Wat were quarried from at least 50 different quarries at the foot of Mt. Kulen 32
kilometers to the northeast. They are believed to have been transported by canals visible today
with satellite imagery.

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 Architectural Plan of Angkor Wat

Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and represents an earthly model of the
cosmic world. The central tower rises from the center of the monument symbolizing the mythical
mountain, Meru, situated at the center of the universe. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of
Meru. The outer wall corresponds to the mountains at the edge of the world, and the surrounding
moat the oceans beyond.

The plan of Angkor Wat is difficult to grasp when walking through the monument because of
the vastness. Its complexity and beauty both attract and distract one's attention. From a
distance Angkor Wat appears to be a colossal mass of stone on one level with a long causeway
leading to the center but close up it is a series of elevated towers, covered galleries, chambers,
porches and courtyards on different levels linked by stairways.

The height of Angkor Wat from the ground to the top of the central tower is greater than it
might appear: 213 meters (699 feet), achieved with three rectangular or square levels (1-3)
Each one is progressively smaller and higher than the one below starting from the outer limits
of the temple.

Covered galleries with columns define the boundaries of the first and second levels. The third
level supports five towers –four in the corners and one in the middle and these is the most
prominent architectural feature of Angkor Wat. This arrangement is sometimes called a
quincunx. Graduated tiers, one rising above the other, give the towers a conical shape and,
near the top, rows of lotuses taper to a point.

The overall profile imitates a lotus bud, Several architectural lines stand out in the profile
of the monument. The eye is drawn left and right to the horizontal aspect of the levels and
upward to the soaring height of the towers. The ingenious plan of Angkor Wat only allows a
view of all five towers from certain angles. They are not visible, for example, from the
entrance. Many of the structures and courtyards are in the shape of a cross. The. Visitor should
study the plan on page 86 and become familiar with this dominant layout. A curved sloping
roof on galleries, chambers and aisles is a hallmark of Angkor Wat. From a distance it looks
like a series of long narrow ridges but close up from identifies itself. It is a roof made of
gracefully arched stone rectangles placed end to end. Each row of tiles is capped with an end
tile at right angles the ridge of the roof.

The scheme culminates in decorated tympanums with elaborate frames. Steps provide access
to the various levels. Helen Churchill Candee, who visited Angkor in the 1920s, thought their
usefulness surpassed their architectural purpose. The steps to Angkor Wat are made to force a
halt at beauteous obstruction that the mind may be prepared for the atmosphere of sanctity, she
wrote In order to become familiar with the composition of Angkor Wat the visitor should learn
to recognize the repetitive elements in the architecture. Galleries with columns, towers, curved
roofs, tympanums, steps and the cross-shaped plan occur again and again.

It was by combining two or more of these aspects that a sense of height was achieved. This
arrangement was used to link one part of the monument to another. Roofs were frequently

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 layered to add height, length or dimension. A smaller replica of the central towers was
repeated at the limits of two prominent areas-the galleries and the entry pavilions. The long
causeway at the entrance reappears on the other side of the entry pavilion.

1. Scale of the ambition determined the structure of the Angkor. Several years must have
gone into the planning as such.
2. The perspective
3. Scholarly vision
4. Angkor Wat is a miniature replica of the universe in stone and represents an earthly
model of the cosmic world.
5. The central tower rises from the center of the monument symbolizing the mythical
mountain, Meru, situated at the center of the universe.
6. Its five towers correspond to the peaks of Meru.
7. Planning
8. The explaination and concurrence from the Monarch
9. The Model
10. Schedule
11. Approvals
12. The site
13. The water source
14. The material sources
15. The manpower
16. Assorted materials
17. Skill and unskilled labour
18. Logistics
19. manpower planning
20. Lodging abd boarding of workers
21. Material Storage and facilitation
22. Training & development of workers

Urban planning

This, perhaps, was the first low-density city – a phenomenon normally associated with the
railway age, the car and the spread of suburbia – a vast-reaching conurbation, its parts linked by
an ambitious network of roads and canals, reservoirs and dams carved from the forest. Khmer
cities were connected to one another, by roads and waterways- so the “built-up” area of Angkor
seems to have been bigger than anyone today, much less barefoot 16th Century Portuguese friars,
has been able to figure. An enormous and intricate irrigation system mapped today lidar and
other tech provided Angkor with food – rice for the main part – and yet the ever-increasing scale
of this engineered and well populated landscape was, it seems, its undoing.

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The top of the central tower, the highest part of the entire temple complex, is a dizzying 700 feet
above the ground. As you get into the temple and start exploring, you would find that the Angkor
Wat layout and plan consists of numerous courtyards, chambers, porches, galleries, and
stairways. According to Maurice Glaize, a mid-20th-century conservator of Angkor, the temple
"attains a classic perfection by the restrained monumentality of its finely balanced elements and
the precise arrangement of its proportions. It is a work of power, unity and style." It was
originally built in the first half of the 12th century as a Hindu temple. Spread across more than
400 acres, Angkor Wat is said to be the largest religious monument in the world. ... Originally
dedicated to the Hindu god Vishnu, Angkor Wat became a Buddhist temple by the end of the
12th century.

How is Angkor characterized based on elements of style?It is a work of power, unity, and style.”
Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented towers
shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting
enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. How
many temples are in Angkor Wat?

Some 72 major temples or other buildings are found within this area, and the remains of several
hundred additional minor temple sites are scattered throughout the landscape beyond.

How is Angkor Wat characterized on elements of style?

It is a work of power, unity, and style.” Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style
include: the ogival, redented towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden
passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures; and the cruciform terraces which appear
along the main axis of the temple.

What was the cultural significance of Angkor Wat?

Although Angkor Wat was no longer a site of political, cultural or commercial significance by
the 13th century, it remained an important monument for the Buddhist religion into the 1800s.
Indeed, unlike many historical sites, Angkor Wat was never truly abandoned. Rather, it fell
gradually into disuse and disrepair.

What is unique about where Angkor Wat is built?

Also unusual for the time of construction, Angkor Wat was dedicated to Vishnu, a Hindu deity,
rather than the current king. The original outer wall at Angkor Wat once enclosed the temple

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proper, city, and royal palace, occupying a space of 203 acres (820,000 square meters). Nothing
remains of the wall today.

This phenomenal city was established in the late 9th century, when it became the home of Khmer
King Yashovarman I. At that stage it was a small, modest settlement. Over the following 500
years a huge amount of power became concentrated in Angkor. It was the heart of the Khmer
Empire, which grew and grew and grew. From this central base at Angkor, the empire’s territory
eventually stretched as far north as China, as far south as what as what is now southern Thailand,
as far west as Myanmar and as far east as Vietnam.

The empire accumulated so much wealth and boasted such a vast workforce that it had the means
to turn Angkor into a jaw-dropping city, a symbol of Khmer supremacy. Not only was its
architecture remarkable, but the concept behind the city’s layout was incredibly complex.
Angkor was intended to represent a universe from Hindu cosmology. Anchoring the city was its
only natural hill, Phnom Bakheng, with each of Angkor’s temples then positioned in “orbit”
around this hill, while the city’s outer walls symbolized the edge of the cosmos and its irrigation
system represented the rivers of this universe.
It was in Sukhothai in the 13th century that Thailand is widely considered to have been born and,
over that century and the next, the Thais began to take control of vast areas of what had been
Khmer territory. Many historians have long claimed this rivalry reached a head in 1431. They
believe Angkor was captured and looted by the Ayutthaya Kingdom, which was essentially the
Thai successor to the Sukhothai Kingdom. It has been widely stated that Angkor was deserted as
a result of this raid. Now a new tale has emerged.

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 Site and plan of Angkor Wat

An aerial view of Angkor Wat ////A detailed plan of the central structure

Angkor Wat is a unique combination of the temple mountain (the standard design for the
empire's state temples) and the later plan of concentric galleries, most of which were derived
from religious beliefs of Hinduism originally. The construction of Angkor Wat also suggests that
there was a celestial significance with certain features of the temple. This is observed in the
temple's east–west orientation, and lines of sight from terraces within the temple that show
specific towers to be at the precise location of the sunrise on a solstice. The temple is a
representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods according to Hindu mythology: the
central quincunx of towers symbolises the five peaks of the mountain, and the walls and moat
symbolize the surrounding mountain ranges and ocean. Access to the upper areas of the temple
was progressively more exclusive, with the laity being admitted only to the lowest level.
The Angkor Wat temple's main tower aligns to the morning sun of the spring
equinox. Unlike most Khmer temples, Angkor Wat is oriented to the west rather than the east.
This has led many (including Maurice Glaize and George Coedès) to conclude that Suryavarman
intended it to serve as his funerary temple. Further evidence for this view is provided by the bas-
reliefs, which proceed in a counter-clockwise direction—prasavya in Hindu terminology—as
this is the reverse of the normal order. Rituals take place in reverse order during Brahminic
funeral services.
Archaeologist Charles Higham also describes a container which may have been a funerary jar
which was recovered from the central tower. It has been nominated by some as the greatest
expenditure of energy on the disposal of a corpse. Freeman and Jacques, however, note that
several other temples of Angkor depart from the typical eastern orientation, and suggest that
Angkor Wat's alignment was due to its dedication to Vishnu, who was associated with the west.
Drawing on the temple's alignment and dimensions, and on the content and arrangement of the
bas-reliefs, researcher Eleanor Mannikka argues that the structure represents a claimed new era
of peace under King Suryavarman II: "as the measurements of solar and lunar time cycles were
built into the sacred space of Angkor Wat, this divine mandate to rule was anchored to
consecrated chambers and corridors meant to perpetuate the king's power and to honour and
placate the deities manifest in the heavens above." Mannikka's suggestions have been received
with a mixture of interest and scepticism in academic circlesShe distances herself from the
speculations of others, such as Graham Hancock, that Angkor Wat is part of a representation of

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the constellation Draco. a constellation in the far northern sky. Its name is Latin for dragon. It
was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer Ptolemy, and remains one
of the 88 modern constellations today. The north pole of the ecliptic is in Draco. Draco
is circumpolar (that is, never setting), and can be seen all year from northern latitudes.
Rose Bud shape: Architecturally, the elements characteristic of the style include: the ogival, redented
towers shaped like lotus buds; half-galleries to broaden passageways; axial galleries connecting enclosures;
and the cruciform terraces which appear along the main axis of the temple. Typical decorative elements
are devatas (or apsaras), bas-reliefs, and on pediments extensive garlands and narrative scenes. The statuary of
Angkor Wat is considered conservative, being more static and less graceful than earlier work. Other elements
of the design have been destroyed by looting and the passage of time, including gilded stucco on the towers,
gilding on some figures on the bas-reliefs, and wooden ceiling panels and doors. One of the defining
characteristics of Gothic architecture is the pointed arch.
the pointed arch may have originated as in Sitamarhi caves in 3rd century BCE. The free-standing temple of
Trivikrama at Ter in Maharashtra India dated to Satavahana period also contains ogive arch but it is
constructed using principles of corbel.
Archaeological excavation conducted by Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) at Kausambi revealed a palace
with its foundations going back to 8th century BCE until 2nd century CE and built in six phases. The last
phase dated to 1st–2nd century CE, featured an extensive structure which features four centered pointed arches
which were used to span narrow passageways and segmental arches for wider areas. [3] Pointed arches as load
bearing function were also employed in Gandhara. Two pointed arch vault system was built inside
the Bhitargaon temple as noted by Alexander Cunningham, which is dated to early Gupta period of 4th–5th
century CE.[4] Pointed arches also appeared in Mahabodhi temple with relieving arches and vaults between 6–
7th century CE.
Ogival: The pointed arch as an architectonic principle in the Middle East, is said by several scholars to have
first been established in Islamic architecture during the Abbasid Caliphate in the middle of the 8th century CE,
and in Gothic architecture in the 11th century CE. Some scholars have refused to accept Indian origin of
pointed arch including Hill (1993), some scholars have argued that pointed arches were used in the Near
East in pre-Islamic architecturebut others have stated that these arches were, in fact, parabolic and not pointed
arches.
In Gothic architecture, ogives are the intersecting transverse ribs of arches which establish the surface of a
Gothic vault. An ogive or ogival arch is a pointed, "Gothic" arch, drawn with compasses as outlined above, or
with arcs of an ellipse as described. A very narrow, steeply pointed ogive arch is sometimes called a "lancet
arch". The most common form is an equilateral arch, where the radius is the same as the width. In the
later Flamboyant Gothic style, an "ogee arch", an arch with a pointed head, like S-shaped curves, became
prevalent.

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the-ogival-redented-tower-shaped-like-lotus-bud-of-angkor-wat-and-the-very-steep-stairways-representing-
the-difficulty-of-ascending-to-the-kingdom RIGHT Cathedral in Rome showing the ogival that also lay a role
of bolstering support to the roof

The principal temple of the Angkorian region, Angkor Wat, was built between 1113 and
1150 by King Suryavarman II. Suryavarman ascended to the throne after prevailing in a battle
with a rival prince. An inscription says that, in the course of combat, Suryavarman leapt onto his
rival's war elephant and killed him, just as the mythical bird-man Garuda slays a serpent.
After consolidating his political position through military campaigns, diplomacy, and a firm
domestic administration, Suryavarman launched into the construction of Angkor Wat as his
personal temple mausoleum. Breaking with the tradition of the Khmer kings, and influenced
perhaps by the concurrent rise of Vaisnavism in India, he dedicated the temple to Vishnu rather
than to Siva. With walls nearly half a mile long on each side, Angkor Wat grandly portrays
the Hindu cosmology, with the central towers representing Mount Meru, home of the gods; the
outer walls, the mountains enclosing the world; and the moat, the oceans beyond.
The traditional theme of identifying the Khmer devaraja with the gods, and his residence with
that of the celestials, is very much in evidence. The measurements themselves of the temple and
its parts in relation to one another have cosmological significance. Suryavarman had the walls of
the temple decorated with bas reliefs depicting not only scenes from mythology, but also from
the life of his own imperial court. In one of the scenes, the king himself is portrayed as larger in
size than his subjects, sitting cross-legged on an elevated throne and holding court, while a bevy
of attendants make him comfortable with the aid of parasols and fans.

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Vaishnavism
In the early days of Angkor, the worship of Vishnu was secondary to that of Shiva. The
relationship seems to have changed with the construction of Angkor Wat by King Suryavarman
II as his personal mausoleum at the beginning of the 12th century. The central religious image of
Angkor Wat was an image of Vishnu, and an inscription identifies Suryavarman as
"Paramavishnuloka," or "he who enters the heavenly world of Vishnu." Religious syncretism,
however, remained thoroughgoing in Khmer society: the state religion of Shaivism was not
necessarily abrogated by Suryavarman's turn to Vishnu, and the temple may well have housed a
royal lingam.
Furthermore, the turn to Vaishnavism did not abrogate the royal personality cult of Angkor.
by which the reigning king was identified with the deity. According to Angkor scholar Georges

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Coedès, "Angkor Wat is, if you like, a vaishnavite sanctuary, but the Vishnu venerated there was
not the ancient Hindu deity nor even one of the deity's traditional incarnations, but the king
Suryavarman II posthumously identified with Vishnu, consubstantial with him, residing in a
mausoleum decorated with the graceful figures of apsaras just like Vishnu in his celestial
palace."[Suryavarman proclaimed his identity with Vishnu, just as his predecessors had claimed
consubstantiation with Shiva.
Vishnu-Suman
Angkorian representations of Vishnu include anthropomorphic representations of the god
himself, as well as representations of his incarnations or Avatars, especially Krishna and Rama.
Depictions of Vishnu are prominent at Angkor Wat, the 12th-century temple that was originally
dedicated to Vishnu. Bas reliefs depict Vishna battling with against asura opponents, or riding on
the shoulders of his vahana or mount, the gigantic bird-man Garuda. Vishnu's attributes include
the discus, the conch shell, the baton, and the orb.

Face towers of the Bayon represent the king as the Bodhisattva Lokesvara.
Mahayana Buddhism
In the last quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman VII departed radically from the tradition
of his predecessors when he adopted Mahayana Buddhism as his personal faith. Jayavarman also
made Buddhism the state religion of his kingdom when he constructed the Buddhist temple
known as the Bayon at the heart of his new capital city of Angkor Thom. In the famous face
towers of the Bayon, the king represented himself as the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara moved by
compassion for his subjects.[63] Thus, Jayavarman was able to perpetuate the royal personality
cult of Angkor, while identifying the divine component of the cult with the bodhisattva rather
than with Shiva
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted
in South Indian, and Indianised architecture
of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater India). In any study of
Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since all the
remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only
temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone.

15
Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as
wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic
structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of
different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these
features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the
presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for dating the remains.
Khmer architecture (also known as Angkorian architecture , is the architecture produced by
the Khmers during the Angkor period of the Khmer Empire from approximately the later half of
the 8th century CE to the first half of the 15th century CE.
The architecture of the Indian rock-cut temples, particularly the sculptures, were widely adopted
in South Indian, and Indianised architecture
of Cambodian (Khmer), Annamese and Javanese temples (of the Greater India). In any study of
Angkorian architecture, the emphasis is necessarily on religious architecture, since all the
remaining Angkorian buildings are religious in nature. During the period of Angkor, only
temples and other religious buildings were constructed of stone.
Non-religious buildings such as dwellings were constructed of perishable materials such as
wood, and so have not survived. The religious architecture of Angkor has characteristic
structures, elements, and motifs, which are identified in the glossary below. Since a number of
different architectural styles succeeded one another during the Angkorean period, not all of these
features were equally in evidence throughout the period. Indeed, scholars have referred to the
presence or absence of such features as one source of evidence for dating the remains.

1. Sambor Prei Kuk

2. Pre Rup
3. Banteay Srei
4. Bayon

Many temples had been built before Cambodia became a powerful Kingdom of Khmer
Empire which dominated most of the Indochina region. At that time, Cambodia was known
as Chenla kingdom, the predecessor state of Khmer empire. There are three pre-Angkorean
architectural styles :[

16
 The temple itself consists of two of the primary elements of Khmer architecture: the pyramid,
and concentric galleries. The pyramid takes the form of three stepped terraces, with each step
bordered on all sides by covered galleries. At each level gateways in the galleries indicate the
pathway to the central shrine, and towers punctuate the corners. The pyramid culminates in five
towers–an indication of the temple's central shrine.
A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple which was then
encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in construction were quarried from a site
known as the Kulen Hills, 18 miles north, and floated to the construction site through a series of
canals. It is unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to some
interpretations, it was never fully completed.

The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so that visitors could
only enter from the west, a direction traditionally associated with the land of the dead but also
with Vishnu, to experience spiritual renewal as they drew closer to the divine energies of the
temple. The design, and imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to read the great
stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in stone across the walls and up the columns of
the great temple. All around the complex, homes and workshops were built, markets and other
businesses were opened, and a network of roads created.
Dimensions and Building elements: Suryavarman II & Construction

In Ancient Angkor Michael Freeman; and Claude Jacques say thet “The entire complex
symbolizes the Hindu beliefs enshrined within. As Freeman and Jacques describe, “It is, above
all else, a microcosm of the Hindu universe. The moat represents the mythical oceans
surrounding the earth and the succession of concentric galleries represent the mountain ranges
that surround Mount Meru, the home of the gods. The towers represent the mountain’s peaks,
and the experience of the ascent to the central shrine is, maybe intentionally, a fairly convincing
imitation of climbing a real mountain.”

The dimensions and building elements at Angkor Wat correspond to “calendrically and
cosmologically significant totals”
Suryavarman II is considered one of the greatest monarchs of the Khmer Empire (802-1431 CE)
for his creation of a strong central government that united the land. Suryavarman II also sent
numerous military expeditions against the kingdom of Dai Viet in modern-day Vietnam and the
neighboring Champa kingdoms, but these were largely unsuccessful. His greatest successes were
in diplomacy, not war, as he successfully opened relations with China which increased trade and
stimulated the economy.

Although he is remembered as a great ruler, Suryavarman II was a usurper, who assassinated his
great uncle Dharanindravarman I (r. 1107-1113 CE) to take the throne. He is said to have
compared the coup to destroying a serpent but what this alludes to, or what his motivation was, is
unclear. He then legitimized his rule through personal accomplishments and immortalized it
through the construction of the grand complex of Angkor Wat, dedicated to his personal
protector-god Vishnu, most likely in gratitude for his victory. He had amassed considerable
wealth through trade and taxes and spared no expense in the creation of his temple. Scholar
Christopher Scarre notes:

17
The Khmer's unique form of kingship produced, instead of an austere civilization like that of the
Indus, a society that carried the cult of wealth, luxury, and divine monarchy to amazing lengths.
This cult reached it apogee in the reign of Suryavarman II who built the temple of Angkor Wat.

The building was purposefully situated, and paths created in the jungle, so that visitors could
only enter from the west, a direction traditionally associated with the land of the dead but also
with Vishnu, to experience spiritual renewal as they drew closer to the divine energies of the
temple. The design, and imposing height, was intended to draw the eye upwards to read the great
stories of the gods, heroes, and ancestors carved in stone across the walls and up the columns of
the great temple. All around the complex, homes and workshops were built, markets and other
businesses were opened, and a network of roads created.

Angkor Wat, Cambodia-Dennis Jarvis (CC BY-SA)

A substance known as laterite was formed to support the emerging temple which was then
encased in sandstone. The sandstone blocks used in construction were quarried from a site
known as the Kulen Hills, 18 miles north, and floated to the construction site through a series of
canals. It is unknown how long construction took to complete and, according to some
interpretations, it was never fully completed.

Religious Background
Angkor Wat can be interpreted in many different ways but Suryavarman II wanted to ensure that,
however one saw the work, he would be part of it. Suryavarman II is depicted in statuary as
Vishnu, consorting with the god, and performing his responsibilities as ruler such as reviewing
his troops and holding court. The appearance of the monarch's likeness in so many different
scenes, in fact, led early excavators to conclude that the site was a funerary temple.

There are compelling reasons to come to this conclusion: unlike the other temples in the area -
which face east - Angkor Wat faces west toward the land of the dead. Further, the bas-reliefs
which adorn the temple are clearly meant to be read counterclockwise and, in funeral services,
18
one conducts traditional religious rituals in reverse. If any evidence had ever been found of
Suryavarman II's burial at the site, there would be no contesting the claim for it as a funerary
temple; but there is no evidence of this.

It is possible that it was begun as a funerary temple but it remained unfinished at Suryavarman
II's death and he was cremated and buried elsewhere. It is more likely, however, that
Suryavarman II had it purposefully built to honor his god, and this claim holds more weight
when one considers the king's religious beliefs.

Suryavarman II-Kris

Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism, which is devotion to the

god Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is generally regarded as a
polytheistic religion by westerners, it is actually henotheistic, meaning there is only one god with
many different aspects. In a henotheistic belief system, a single god is considered too immense to
be grasped by the human mind and so appears in a multiplicity of personalities all of which focus
on a single different aspect of human life.

In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while, in his form as Vishnu
he preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and rewards humans for their toil with death,
which then continues the cycle of rebirth or leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat
reflects the course of life, death, and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing Brahma as the
supreme god and replacing him with Vishnu.

Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the centuries as avatars - like the
popular Hindu god Krishna - to guide and instruct people. The most famous example of this
comes from the religious text Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits
Prince Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra to explain the nature of existence and one's
purpose in life. The temple of Angkor Wat is designed to fulfill this same purpose through its

19
ornamentation which tells the story of the human condition, the immanence of the gods, and how
one is to best live one's life.

SURYAVARMAN II ELEVATED THE POSITION OF THE COMMON PEOPLE, USING

RELIGION, BY DECREEING THE WORSHIP OF VISHNU, A DEITY WHO WAS A
PROTECTOR OF ALL.
The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts between the Khmers
and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c. 1006-1050 CE) extended the frontiers of his
realm into Thailand during his reign and came into conflict with the cities of the Champa. The
Champa's religion was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite) which was
viewed with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to their faith. Vishnu, as a protector-
god, rose in popularity through these conflicts and the backlash against Buddhism.
By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known as Brahmanism, which
favored the elite, was growing more popular in the region and Buddhism had also gained more
adherents. Suryavarman II elevated the position of the common people, using religion, by
decreeing the worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme creator
aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between human beings and the divine who had
also proven himself a benevolent guardian.
One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the interests of human
beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in
which he tricks the demons into surrendering the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods
immortal and preserve eternal order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs found at
Angkor Wat and supports the claim that the building was originally conceived of as a temple of
worship rather than a funerary site.
Stories in Stone

Angkor Wat is designed to represent Mount Meru, the spiritual and physical nexus in Hinduism
which is the center of all reality. The five peaks of Mount Meru are represented by the five spires
of the temple. Brahma and the Devas (demigods) were thought to live on Mount Meru and it is
famously referenced in The Mahabharata when Yudhishthira and his brothers travel to the gates
of heaven. One by one the brothers die until only Yudhishthira and his faithful dog are left.
When they reach the border of heaven, the gatekeeper tells Yudhishthira that he may enter for
the worthy life he lived but that dogs are not allowed in heaven. Yudhishthira rejects any
paradise which does not include dogs and turns away, but the gatekeeper stops him and reveals
himself as Vishnu who was only testing him one last time before allowing him entrance.

Stories such as this are told all over the temple where one finds scenes from the classic works of
Hindu religious literature such as the Ramayana and Bhagavad-Gita. The great Battle of
Kurukshetra from the Gita is depicted clearly as is the Battle of Lanka from the Ramayana. As
most people could not read in the 12th century CE, Angkor Wat served as a gigantic book on
which the important religious and cultural tales could be related visually.

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Churning of the Ocean of Milk-Jason Eppink (CC BY)

The temple was galleried – meaning it progresses upwards through a series of galleries - giving
ample room for the designers to explore the cultural, religious, and temporal history of the
people. The outer gallery of the temple stretches for over 1,960 feet (600 m) covered in these
reliefs. Angkor Wat was designed to represent the world with the four corners of the
outer wall anchored at the four corners of the earth and the moat representing the surrounding
oceans. Scenes from everyday life, mythological tales, religious iconography, and royal
processions all wind themselves around the façade.

At the western entrance, a large statue of eight-armed Vishnu has been placed in the present day
to receive visitors who place offerings at his feet in supplication or in gratitude for prayers
answered. The central sanctuary of the temple is aligned north-south to the axis of the earth, and
the Vishnu statue once stood in the center, making clear that Vishnu was at the heart of all
earthly and divine occurrences. The galleries, according to some scholars, were used for
astronomical observations and were built specifically for that purpose so that astronomers could
clearly view the rotation of the heavens in the night sky. There is no doubt the site was linked to
astronomical observances as it is precisely positioned to mirror the constellation of Draco, the
dragon, which represents eternity because it never sets.
Rededication – Transformation

Angkor Wat was rededicated as a Buddhist temple in the 14th century CE and statues of
the Buddha and Buddha-related stories were added to the already impressive iconography. As the
Buddhists respected the beliefs of the Hindus who still worshipped there, all of the original
statuary and artwork was left in place. The Buddhist craftsmen added to the intricate story of the
temple while taking nothing away.
By the early 16th century CE, use of the temple had waned, even though it was still occupied by
Buddhist monks, and it became the subject of stories and legends. It was said to have been built

21
by the gods in the distant past and a popular story emerged that the god Indra had built it as
a palace for his son and that it rose from nothing in the course of a single night. The temple was
protected from the surrounding jungle by the immense moat and so, unlike other ancient temples
and cities (such as those of the Maya of Mesoamerica) it was never completely lost.

Ghost Temple: very few people know that even though local people still visited the site, it
became increasingly associated with hauntings and dark spirits. The great enthusiasm of
devotees who used to visit the temple, it was said, needed to be continued to infuse the area with
positive energy. Once worship at the site fell off, the dark spirits, attracted by the afterglow of
the high energy, moved in and made the place their home. Dark energy was now thought to
emanate from the empty galleries, porches, and entranceways, and fewer and fewer people went
to visit. With only a few monks to care for it, the buildings began to decay and even though it
was never completely taken by the jungle, natural growth made headway up the walls and
through the cracks between the stones.

In 2016 CE, a New York Times article reported on the ongoing efforts of archaeologists who
continue to make discoveries in the surrounding jungle and have located the sites of the workers
who built the temple and of others who lived around the complex. The temple itself has
undergone major restoration and is one of the most popular archaeological parks in the world.
Those who visit Angkor Wat today are following in the footsteps of literally millions of people
from the past who have emerged from the surrounding jungle to find themselves at the site
Suryavarman II created as the nexus of earth and heaven.

Along with the Hindu and Indian Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho, Central India, and
the Taj Mahal in northern India, the Cambodian Khmer temple complex of Angkor Wat ranks
among the greatest examples of religious architecture in the whole of Asia, comparable to the
finest specimens of Gothic architecture or Baroque architecture in Europe. Situated some 4 miles
(6 km) north of the modern town of Siem Reap in northwestern Cambodia (Kampuchea), the
temple was built about 1115-1145 in Angkor, the capital of the Khmer Empire, by King
Suryavarman II (ruled 1113-1150), to serve as his mausoleum. Angkor Wat operated first as a
Hindu shrine dedicated to Vishnu, then a Theravada Buddhist temple in the late 13th century.
Today Angkor Wat is Cambodia's most famous site of religious art and its silhouette appears on
the Cambodian national flag. The temple is renowned for its high classical style of Khmer
architecture, as well as the staggering quantity of its relief sculpture and architectural carvings.
Artifacts taken from the site and large sections cast from the temple buildings were exhibited in
Paris in 1867, announcing a great and unknown civilization rivalling in sophistication the work
of the greatest architects in the West. In 1992, along with a sister temple Angkor Thom, Angkor
Wat was proclaimed a UN World Heritage Site.
For other examples of Asian art, see: Traditional Chinese Art. Also, please see: India: Painting &
Sculpture.

History
The city of Angkor (ancient name: Yasodharapura) was the royal capital from which Khmer
kings ruled one of the largest and most sophisticated kingdoms in the history of Southeast Asia.
From 890, when King Yasovarman I moved his capital to Angkor, until about 1210, the kings of
Angkor controlled an area that extended from the southern tip of the Indochina peninsula

22
northward to Yunnan and from Vietnam westwards as far as the Bay of Bengal. During this era,
these kings implemented a series of massive construction projects designed to glorify both
themselves and their dynastic capital. After the death of King Jayavarman VII (1181-1215), the
Angkor Empire went into decline, although as late as 1280 Angkor was still a thriving metropolis
and one of the most magnificent cities in Asia. However, the great construction boom was over,
Angkor Wat had been turned into a Buddhist shrine, and Thai armies were watching. In 1431
they sacked the city which was then abandoned.

From the early 15th century to the late 19th century, interest in Angkor was limited almost
entirely to the Angkor Wat temple complex which, having been maintained by Buddhist monks,
became one of the most significant pilgrimage sites in Southeast Asia. In time, the complex fell
into disrepair and all that remained were jungle-covered ruins of the ancient temples and the
remnants of the once-magnificent series of waterways, although it was never completely
abandoned and its moat helped to preserve it against total engulfment. After the French took over
Cambodia in 1863, they instigated a thorough program of reconstruction, under which Angkor
Wat's buildings, reservoirs, and canals were restored to something approaching their original
grandeur. The political and military upheavals which took place in Cambodia during the period
1935-1990 put an end to this program, but otherwise caused no great headaches. The site's only
serious problem remained the encroachment of the jungle.

Architecture and Construction

The Angkor Wat temple is made from 6-10 million blocks of sandstone, each of which has an
average weight of 1.5 tons. The city of Angkor required more stone than all the Egyptian
pyramids combined, and originally occupied an area considerably greater than modern-day Paris.
Given the additional complexity of the overall building scheme, it is clear that Angkor was
designed and managed by some of the finest architects in southeast Asia.

The temple was designed and built on the basis of religious and political ideas imported from
India, albeit adapted to local conditions. From the time of King Yasovarman I, for whom the city
(originally called Yasodharapura) was named, Angkor was designed as a symbolic universe
modelled on traditional Indian cosmology, and its temples were built in order to provide a means
whereby Khmer kings could be assured of immortality by becoming closely identified with
Shaiva or one of the other important deities of the realm. Angkor Wat, for instance, was built by
King Suryavarman II as a huge funerary temple and tomb to serve as a home for his earthly
remains and to confirm his immortal and eternal identitification with Vishnu.

Angkor Wat defines what has come to be understood as the classical style of Angkorian
architecture: other temples designed in this idiom include Banteay Samre and Thommanon in
the area of Angkor, and Phimai in modern Thailand. It combines two basic features of Khmer
temple architecture: the temple-mountain and the galleried temple, founded on early Dravidian
architecture, with key features including the "Jagati" - a raised platform or terrace upon which
many buddhist and hindu temples were built. In addition to Angkor Wat, another famous shrine
with a jagati is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, at Khajuraho.

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Built on rising ground and surrounded by an artificial moat, the temple of Angkor Wat is
laid out symmetrically on tiered platforms that ascend to the central tower (one of a quincunx),
which rises to a height of 213 feet (65 metres). Long colonnades connect the towers at each
stepped level in concentric rings of rectangular galleries, whose walls are lined
with sculpture and relief carvings. The temple is approached across the moat, via a stone
causeway lined with stone figures. The ascending towers represent the spiritual world and

24
mountain homes of the gods and were probably built in homage to ancestral deities. The temple's
structures are chiefly built in stone with detailed bas-reliefs carved into the walls; the corbelled
blockwork and pseudo-vaulted towers are covered with highly animated figures chiseled into the
sandstone and volcanic rock.

Sculpture
The Angkor Wat temple is world famous for its stone sculpture which can be seen on almost all
of its surfaces, columns, lintels and roofs. There are literally miles of reliefs, typically in the form
of bas-relief friezes illustrating scenes from Indian mythology, and featuring a bewildering array
of animal and human figures, as well as abstract motifs like lotus rosettes and garlands. They
include: devatas (Hindu gods or spirits), griffins, unicorns, lions, garudas, snakes, winged
dragons, dancing girls and warriors. Khmer sculptors - surely some of the greatest sculptors in
southeast Asia - paid meticulous attention to the headdresses, hair, garments, posture and
jewellery of the deities and human figures. In addition to reliefs, Angkor Wat contains
numerous statues of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

Carved pediments and lintels decorate the entrances to the galleries and to the shrines. While the
inner walls of the outer gallery, for example, are decorated with a series of large-scale scenes
depicting episodes from Hindu sagas like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. On the southern
gallery walls there is a representation of the 37 heavens and 32 hells of Hindu mythology, while
the eastern gallery houses one of the most celebrated friezes, the Churning of the Sea of Milk,
featuring Vishnu showing 88 devas and 92 asuras.

The massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple of Angkor Wat were
brought to the site via a network of hundreds of canals, according to new research.

The findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks, some weighing up to
3,300 pounds (1,500 kilograms), made it to the temple from quarries at the base of a nearby
mountain. The researchers found many quarries of sandstone blocks used for the Angkor
temples and also the transportation route of the sandstone blocks. Archaeologist knew that the
rock came from quarries at the base of a mountain nearby, but wondered how the sandstone
bricks used to build Angkor Wat reached the site. Previously people thought the stones were
ferried to Tonle Sap Lake via canal, and then rowed against the current through another river to
the temples.

25
To see whether this was the case the area was surveyed to find 50 quarries along an embankment
at the base of Mt. Kulen. They also scoured satellite images of the area and found a network of
hundreds of canals and roads linking the quarries to the temple site. The distance between the
quarries and the site along the route Uchida's team found was only 22 miles (37 kilometers),
compared with the 54 miles (90 km) the river route would have taken.
The grid of canals suggests the ancient builders took a shortcut when constructing the temple,
which may explain how the imposing complex was built in just a few decades.

 Sambor Prei Kuk style (610–650): Sambor Prei Kuk, also known as Isanapura, was the
capital of the Chenla Kingdom. Temples of Sambor Prei Kuk were built in rounded, plain
colonettes with capitals that include a bulb.
 Prei Khmeng style (635–700): Structures reveal masterpieces of sculpture but examples are
scarce. Colonettes are larger than those of previous styles. Buildings were more heavily
decorated but had general decline in standards.
 Kompong Preah style (700–800): Temples with more decorative rings on colonettes which
remain cylindrical. Brick constructions were being continued.
Scholars have worked to develop a periodization of Angkorean architectural styles. The
following periods and styles may be distinguished. Each is named for a particular temple
regarded as paradigmatic for the style.

 Kulen style (825–875): Continuation of pre-Angkorean style but it was a period of

innovation and borrowing such as from Cham temples. Tower is mainly square and relatively
high as well as brick with laterite walls and stone door surrounds but square and octagonal
colonettes begin to appear.
 Preah Ko style (877–886): Hariharalaya was the first capital city of the Khmer
empire located in the area of Angkor; its ruins are in the area now called Roluos some fifteen
kilometers southeast of the modern city of Siem Reap. The earliest surviving temple
of Hariharalaya is Preah Ko; the others are Bakong and Lolei. The temples of the Preah Ko
style are known for their small brick towers and for the great beauty and delicacy of their
lintels.
 Bakheng Style (889–923): Bakheng was the first temple mountain constructed in the area of
Angkor proper north of Siem Reap. It was the state temple of King Yasovarman, who built
his capital of Yasodharapura around it. Located on a hill (phnom), it is currently one of the
most endangered of the monuments, having become a favorite perch for tourists eager to
witness a glorious sundown at Angkor.
 Koh Ker Style (921–944): During the reign of King Jayavarman IV, capital of Khmer empire
was removed from Angkor region through the north which is called Koh Ker. The
architectural style of temples in Koh Ker, scale of buildings diminishes toward center. Brick
still main material but sandstone also used.
 Pre Rup Style (944–968): Under King Rajendravarman, the Angkorian Khmer built the
temples of Pre Rup, East Mebon and Phimeanakas. Their common style is named after the
state temple mountain of Pre Rup.
 Banteay Srei Style (967–1000): Banteay Srei is the only major Angkorian temple constructed
not by a monarch, but by a courtier. It is known for its small scale and the extreme
26
 refinement of its decorative carvings, including several famous narrative bas-reliefs dealing
with scenes from Indian mythology.
 Khleang Style (968–1010): The Khleang temples, first use of galleries. Cruciform gopuras.
Octagonal colonettes. Restrained decorative carving. A few temples that were built in this
style are Ta Keo, Phimeanakas.
 Baphuon Style (1050–1080): Baphuon, the massive temple mountain of
King Udayadityavarman II was apparently the temple that most impressed the Chinese
traveller Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor toward the end of the 13th century. Its unique
relief carvings have a naive dynamic quality that contrast with the rigidity of the figures
typical of some other periods. As of 2008, Baphuon is under restoration and cannot currently
be appreciated in its full magnificence.
 Classical or Angkor Wat Style (1080–1175): Angkor Wat, the temple and perhaps the
mausoleum of King Suryavarman II, is the greatest of the Angkorian temples and defines
what has come to be known as the classical style of Angkorian architecture. Other temples in
this style are Banteay Samre and Thommanon in the area of Angkor, and Phimai in
modern Thailand.
 Bayon Style (1181–1243): In the final quarter of the 12th century, King Jayavarman
VII freed the country of Angkor from occupation by an invasionary force from Champa.
Thereafter, he began a massive program of monumental construction, paradigmatic for
which was the state temple called the Bayon. The king's other foundations participated in the
style of the Bayon, and included Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Angkor Thom, and Banteay Chmar.
Though grandiose in plan and elaborately decorated, the temples exhibit a hurriedness of
construction that contrasts with the perfection of Angkor Wat.
 Post Bayon Style (1243–1431): Following the period of frantic construction under
Jayavarman VII, Angkorian architecture entered the period of its decline. The 13th
century Terrace of the Leper King is known for its dynamic relief sculptures of demon kings,
dancers, and nāgas.

Construction techniques

Corridor

27
The monument was made out of five to ten million sandstone blocks with a maximum weight of
1.5 tons each. The entire city of Angkor used far greater amounts of stone than all the Egyptian
pyramids combined, and occupied an area significantly greater than modern-day Paris.
Moreover, unlike the Egyptian pyramids which use limestone quarried barely 0.5 km (1⁄4 mi)
away all the time, the entire city of Angkor was built with sandstone quarried 40 km (25 mi) (or
more) away. This sandstone had to be transported from Mount Kulen, a quarry approximately 40
kilometres (25 mi) northeast.
The route has been suggested to span 35 kilometres (22 mi) along a canal towards Tonlé
Sap lake, another 35 kilometres (22 mi) crossing the lake, and finally 15 kilometres (9 mi)
against the current along Siem Reap River, making a total journey of 90 kilometres (55 mi).
However, Etsuo Uchida and Ichita Shimoda of Waseda University in Tokyo, Japan have
discovered in 2011 a shorter 35-kilometre (22 mi) canal connecting Mount Kulen and Angkor
Wat using satellite imagery. The two believe that the Khmer used this route instead.
Virtually all of its surfaces, columns, lintels, and even roofs are carved. There are kilometres of
reliefs illustrating scenes from Indian literature including unicorns, griffins, winged dragons
pulling chariots as well as warriors following an elephant-mounted leader and celestial dancing
girls with elaborate hairstyles. The gallery wall alone is decorated with almost
1,000 m2 (11,000 sq ft) of bas reliefs. Holes on some of the Angkor walls indicate that they may
have been decorated with bronze sheets. These were highly prized in ancient times and were a
prime target for robbers.
While excavating Khajuraho, Alex Evans, a stonemason and sculptor, recreated a stone sculpture
under 1.2 metres (4 ft), this took about 60 days to carve. Roger Hopkins and Mark Lehner also
conducted experiments to quarry limestone which took 12 quarrymen 22 days to quarry about
400 tons of stone. The labour force to quarry, transport, carve and install so much sandstone
must have run into the thousands including many highly skilled artisans. The skills required to
carve these sculptures were developed hundreds of years earlier, as demonstrated by some
artefacts that have been dated to the seventh century, before the Khmer came to power
Materials; Angkorian builders used brick, sandstone, laterite and wood as their materials. The
ruins that remain are of brick, sandstone and laterite, the wood elements having been lost to
decay and other destructive processes.
Brick
The earliest Angkorian temples were made mainly of brick. Good examples are the temple
towers of Preah Ko, Lolei and Bakong at Hariharalaya. Decorations were usually carved into a
stucco applied to the brick, rather than into the brick itself. This because bricks being softer
material do not lend itself to sculpting as opposed to stones of different kinds such as the
Sandstones or the Granites. However, the tenets of the Sacred Architecture as enunciated in the
Vedas and the Shastras, require no adhesives to be used while building blocks are assembled one
over the other to create the Temples, as such bricks have been used only in relatively smaller
temples such as Lolei and The Preah Ko. Besides, strength of bricks is much lesser as compared
to the stones (mentioned here-in) and the former degrade with age.
Angkor's neighbor state of Champa was also the home to numerous brick temples that are similar
in style to those of Angkor. The most extensive ruins are at Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam. A Cham story
tells of the time that the two countries settled an armed conflict by means of a tower-building

28
contest proposed by the Cham King Po Klaung Garai. While the Khmer built a standard brick
tower, Po Klaung Garai directed his people to build an impressive replica of paper and wood. In
the end, the Cham replica was more impressive than the real brick tower of the Khmer, and the
Cham won the contest
Sandstone
The only stone used by Angkorian builders was sandstone, obtained from the Kulen mountains.
Since its obtainment was considerably more expensive than that of brick, sandstone only
gradually came into use, and at first was used for particular elements such as door frames. The
10th-century temple of Ta Keo is the first Angkorian temple to be constructed more or less
entirely from Sandstone
Laterite
Angkorian builders used laterite, a clay that is soft when taken from the ground but that hardens
when exposed to the sun, for foundations and other hidden parts of buildings. Because the
surface of laterite is uneven, it was not suitable for decorative carvings, unless first dressed with
stucco. Laterite was more commonly used in the Khmer provinces than at Angkor itself.
[10]
Because the water table in this entire region is well high, Laterite has been used in the
underlying layers of Angkor Wat and other temples (especially the larger ones), because it can
absorb water and help towards better stability of the Temple.

1. Preah Ko, completed in 879 CE, was a temple made mainly of brick
2. Ta Keo, a temple built in the 10th century, was constructed more or less entirely from sandstone
3. Prasat Prang Ku in Sisaket, Thailand, was built with laterite STRUCTURES

29
Central sanctuary

The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.

The central sanctuary of an Angkorian temple was home to the temple's primary deity, the one to
whom the site was dedicated: typically Shiva or Vishnu in the case of a Hindu temple, Buddha or
a bodhisattva in the case of a Buddhist temple. The deity was represented by a statue (or in the
case of Shiva, most commonly by a linga). Since the temple was not considered a place of
worship for use by the population at large, but rather a home for the deity, the sanctuary needed
only to be large enough to hold the statue or linga; it was never more than a few metres
across. Its importance was instead conveyed by the height of the tower (prasat) rising above it,
by its location at the centre of the temple, and by the greater decoration on its walls.
Symbolically, the sanctuary represented Mount Meru, the legendary home of the Hindu gods.
Prang
The prang is the tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved, common to much Khmer religious
architecture. A prang (is a tall tower-like spire, usually richly carved. They were a common
shrine element of Hindu and Buddhist architecture in the Khmer Empire. They were later
adapted by Buddhist builders in Thailand, especially during the Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350–
1767) and Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932). In Thailand it appears only with the most
important Buddhist temples.
The term prang is a compound of the Sanskrit terms pra- ('forward, in front') and aṅga (limb of
the body), with the contacting vowels united by sandhi. Prang tower took form of a multi-tiered
structure with receding size as it ascends. The receding size of almost identical roof structures of
the stepped pyramidal tower, creates a perspective illusion as if the tower is taller than it actually
is. The form of the tower is a reminiscent of Indic shikhara of Hindu temple, although slightly
different in design. On each cardinal points, a prang usually has richly
adorned tympanum and lintel above doorways or blind doors. The prang took plan of multi
corners rectangular, which on top of each roof steps are adorned with antefixes, which mostly
took theme of multi-headed Nāgas, Garuda or deities.

30
Khmer temples

The central prang of Angkor Wat temple symbolizes the mount Meru.RIGHT PIC Wat Arun Thornbury Thailand PRANGS

Originally the Khmer prang temples were for the worship of the Hindu gods, such
as Shiva and Vishnu. The space within the prang tower, the cella, was relatively small for two
reasons:

1. The rituals which were held in them were reserved for a small elite (in the capital of the
Khmer only the god king could enter the shrine).
2. The technology of the Khmer could not yet make large airy halls. (Ringis, 1990)
The cella was entered via a small porch, usually aligned to the east, which was called
the Mandapa. Over the cubic cella rose the central tower, the bud-shaped prang, modeled after
the cosmic mountain Meru, crowned by a top stone in form of a lotus bud.
The Khmer prangs resembled north Indian temples' shikhara and rekha (temple towers) elements.
The early 10th century and the late 12th century prangs in Thailand were influenced by the
Khmer architects of the great temple complexes of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom.
Thai temples

Wat Chaiwatthanaram, an example of Thai style prang

31
The first prangs in Thailand were built in Phimai and Khao Phnom Rung and Lopburi between
the early 10th century and the late 12th century, when the Khmer kingdom was dominant.
After the Khmer Empire collapsed, the Thai building masters of the Sukhothai Kingdom adapted
the Prang form. They extended and developed it. The building material was no more separate
small sandstone blocks, instead the Thais built the Prang in brick or laterite covered with stucco.
And the cella could be reached only by stairs. An example for this is the Prang of the Wat
Mahathat in Phitsanulok. Later developments of the Prang suggested the cella only. The entrance
door became a niche, in which was placed the Buddharupa (Buddha statue), which had originally
taken the central position inside. For reasons of symmetry the niche was repeated on all four
sides. On its pinnacle was a Trishul, the "weapon of Indra".
A "more modern" Prang is a slim construction, like an ear of corn, which lets its Khmer origin be
only suspected. The best example is Wat Arun, the landmark of Bangkok. Also Wat Phra
Kaeo has six thin Prangs arranged in a row. Another example is the four Prangs arranged in all
four directions around Wat Pho in Bangkok, and the five Prangs in Wat Pichayart in Thonburi.
Enclosure
Khmer temples were typically enclosed by a concentric series of walls, with the central sanctuary
in the middle; this arrangement represented the mountain ranges surrounding Mount Meru, the
mythical home of the gods. Enclosures are the spaces between these walls, and between the
innermost wall and the temple itself. By modern convention, enclosures are numbered from the
centre outwards. The walls defining the enclosures of Khmer temples are frequently lined by
galleries, while passage through the walls is by way of gopuras located at the cardinal points.

Gallery
A cruciform gallery separates the courtyards at Angkor Wat.
A gallery is a passageway running along the wall of an enclosure or along the axis of a temple,
often open to one or both sides. Historically, the form of the gallery evolved during the 10th
century from the increasingly long hallways which had earlier been used to surround the central
sanctuary of a temple. During the period of Angkor Wat in the first half of the 12th century,
additional half galleries on one side were introduced to buttress the structure of the temple.

32
Gopura

A gopura leads into the 12th-century temple compound at Ta Prohm./Many of the gopuras constructed under Jayavarman
VII toward the end of the 12th century, such as this one at Angkor Thom, are adorned with gigantic stone faces
of Avalokiteshvara.

A gopura is an entrance building. At Angkor, passage through the enclosure walls surrounding a
temple compound is frequently accomplished by means of an impressive gopura, rather than just
an aperture in the wall or a doorway. Enclosures surrounding a temple are often constructed with
a gopura at each of the four cardinal points. In plan, gopuras are usually cross-shaped and
elongated along the axis of the enclosure wall.
If the wall is constructed with an accompanying gallery, the gallery is sometimes connected to
the arms of the gopura. Many Angkorian gopuras have a tower at the centre of the cross.
The lintels and pediments are often decorated, and guardian figures (dvarapalas) are often placed
or carved on either side of the doorways.
Hall of Dancers
A Hall of Dancers is a structure of a type found in certain late 12th-century temples constructed
under King Jayavarman VII: Ta Prohm, Preah Khan, Banteay Kdei and Banteay Chhmar. It is a
rectangular building elongated along the temple's east axis and divided into four courtyards by
galleries. Formerly it had a roof made of perishable materials; now only the stone walls remain.
The pillars of the galleries are decorated with carved designs of dancing apsaras; hence scholars
have suggested that the hall itself may have been used for dancing.
House of Fire
House of Fire, or Dharmasala, is the name given to a type of building found only in temples
constructed during the reign of late 12th-century monarch Jayavarman VII: Preah Khan, Ta
Prohm and Banteay Chhmar. A House of Fire has thick walls, a tower at the west end and south-
facing windows.
Scholars theorize that the House of Fire functioned as a "rest house with fire" for travellers. An
inscription at Preah Khan tells of 121 such rest houses lining the highways into Angkor. The
Chinese traveller Zhou Daguan expressed his admiration for these rest houses when he visited
Angkor in 1296 CE Another theory is that the House of Fire had a religious function as the
repository the sacred flame used in sacred ceremonies.

33
Unusually, the libraries at Angkor Wat open to both the East and the West.
Library
Structures conventionally known as "libraries" are a common feature of Khmer temple
architecture, but their true purpose remains unknown. Most likely they functioned broadly as
religious shrines rather than strictly as repositories of manuscripts. Freestanding buildings, they
were normally placed in pairs on either side of the entrance to an enclosure, opening to the west.
Srah and baray
Srahs and barays were reservoirs, generally created by excavation and embankment,
respectively. It is not clear whether the significance of these reservoirs was religious,
agricultural, or a combination of the two.
The two largest reservoirs at Angkor were the West Baray and the East Baray located on either
side of Angkor Thom. The East Baray is now dry. The West Mebon is an 11th-century temple
standing at the center of the West Baray and the East Mebon is a 10th-century temple standing at
the center of the East Baray.
The baray associated with Preah Khan is the Jayataka, in the middle of which stands the 12th-
century temple of Neak Pean. Scholars have speculated that the Jayataka represents the
Himalayan lake of Anavatapta, known for its miraculous healing powers.
Temple mountain

The Bakong is the earliest surviving Temple Mountain at Angkor.

34
The dominant scheme for the construction of state temples in the Angkorian period was that of
the Temple Mountain, an architectural representation of Mount Meru, the home of the gods
in Hinduism. The style was influenced by South indian temple architecture. Enclosures
represented the mountain chains surrounding Mount Meru, while a moat represented the ocean.
The temple itself took shape as a pyramid of several levels, and the home of the gods was
represented by the elevated sanctuary at the center of the temple.
The first great temple mountain was the Bakong, a five-level pyramid dedicated in 881 by
King Indravarman I. The structure of Bakong took shape of stepped pyramid, popularly
identified as temple mountain of early Khmer temple architecture. The striking similarity of the
Bakong and Borobudur in Java, going into architectural details such as the gateways and stairs to
the upper terraces, strongly suggests that Borobudur might have served as the prototype of
Bakong. There must have been exchanges of travelers, if not mission, between Khmer kingdom
and the Sailendras in Java. Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and
architectural details of Borobudur, including arched gateways in corbelling method.
Other Khmer temple mountains include Baphuon, Pre Rup, Ta Keo, Koh Ker, the Phimeanakas,
and most notably the Phnom Bakheng at Angkor.
According to Charles Higham, "A temple was built for the worship of the ruler, whose essence,
if a Saivite, was embodied in a linga... housed in the central sanctuary which served as a temple-
mausoleum for the ruler after his death...these central temples also contained shrines dedicated to
the royal ancestors and thus became centres of ancestor worship."
Bas-relief
Bas-reliefs are individual figures, groups of figures, or entire scenes cut into stone walls, not as
drawings but as sculpted images projecting from a background. Sculpture in bas-relief is
distinguished from sculpture in haut-relief, in that the latter projects farther from the background,
in some cases almost detaching itself from it. The Angkorian Khmer preferred to work in bas-
relief, while their neighbors the Cham were partial to haut-relief.
Narrative bas-reliefs are bas-reliefs depicting stories from mythology or history. Until about the
11th century, the Angkorian Khmer confined their narrative bas-reliefs to the space on
the tympana above doorways. The most famous early narrative bas-reliefs are those on the
tympana at the 10th-century temple of Banteay Srei, depicting scenes from Hindu mythology as
well as scenes from the great works of Indian literature, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.
By the 12th century, however, the Angkorian artists were covering entire walls with narrative
scenes in bas-relief. At Angkor Wat, the external gallery wall is covered with some 12,000 or
13,000 square meters of such scenes, some of them historical, some mythological. Similarly, the
outer gallery at the Bayon contains extensive bas-reliefs documenting the everyday life of the
medieval Khmer as well as historical events from the reign of King Jayavarman VII.

35
A bas-relief in a tympanum at Banteay Srei shows Indra releasing the rains in an attempt to extinguish the fire created
by Agni./ RIGHT The Battle of Kurukshetra is the subject of this bas-relief at Angkor Wat.

This blind door at Banteay Srei is flanked by colonettes. Above the door is a lintel, above which is a tympanum
with a scene from the Mahabharata.
Blind door and window Angkorean shrines frequently opened in only one direction, typically to the east. The
other three sides featured fake or blind doors to maintain symmetry. Blind windows were often used along
otherwise blank walls. RIGHT PIC This scene from the outer gallery at the Bayon shows Chinese expats
negotiating with Khmer merchants at an Angkorean market.

The following is a listing of the motifs illustrated in some of the more famous Angkorian
narrative bas-reliefs:

 bas-reliefs in the tympana at Banteay Srei (10th century)

o the duel of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva, and the intervention of the human
hero Rama on behalf of the latter
o the duel of Bhima and Duryodhana at the Battle of Kurukshetra
o the Rakshasa king Ravana shaking Mount Kailasa, upon which sit Shiva and his shakti
o Kama firing an arrow at Shiva as the latter sits on Mount Kailasa
o the burning of Khandava Forest by Agni and Indra's attempt to extinguish the flames
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer gallery at Angkor Wat (mid-12th century)
o the Battle of Lanka between the Rakshasas and the vanaras or monkeys
o the court and procession of King Suryavarman II, the builder of Angkor Wat
o the Battle of Kurukshetra between Pandavas and Kauravas

36
 o the judgment of Yama and the tortures of Hell
o the Churning of the Ocean of Milk
o a battle between devas and asuras
o a battle between Vishnu and a force of asuras
o the conflict between Krishna and the asura Bana
o the story of the monkey princes Vali and Sugriva
 bas-reliefs on the walls of the outer and inner galleries at the Bayon (late 12th century)
o battles on land and sea between Khmer and Cham troops
o scenes from the everyday life of Angkor
o civil strife among the Khmer
o the legend of the Leper King
o the worship of Shiva
o groups of dancing apsaras
Colonette
Colonettes were narrow decorative columns that served as supports for the beams
and lintels above doorways or windows. Depending on the period, they were round, rectangular,
or octagonal in shape. Colonettes were often circled with molded rings and decorated with
carved leaves.

Corbelled arch at the south gate of Angkor Thom./Corbelled hallway at Ta Prohm.

Corbelling
Angkorian engineers tended to use the corbel arch in order to construct rooms, passageways and
openings in buildings. A corbel arch is constructed by adding layers of stones to the walls on
either side of an opening, with each successive layer projecting further towards the centre than
the one supporting it from below, until the two sides meet in the middle. The corbel arch is
structurally weaker than the true arch. The use of corbelling prevented the Angkorian engineers
from constructing large openings or spaces in buildings roofed with stone, and made such
buildings particularly prone to collapse once they were no longer maintained. These difficulties
did not, of course, exist for buildings constructed with stone walls surmounted by a light wooden
roof. The problem of preventing the collapse of corbelled structures at Angkor remains a serious
one for modern conservation.

37
Lintel, pediment, and tympanum A lintel is a horizontal beam connecting two vertical columns
between which runs a door or passageway. Because the Angkorean Khmer lacked the ability to
construct a true arch, they constructed their passageways using lintels or corbelling.
A pediment is a roughly triangular structure above a lintel. A tympanum is the decorated surface
of a pediment.

Lintel and pediment at Banteay Srei; the motif on the pediment is Shiva Nataraja.

The styles employed by Angkorean artists in the decoration of lintels evolved over time, as a
result, the study of lintels has proven a useful guide to the dating of temples. Some scholars have
endeavored to develop a periodization of lintel styles. [28] The most beautiful Angkorean lintels
are thought to be those of the Preah Ko style from the late 9th century.
Common motifs in the decoration of lintels include the kala, the nāga and the makara, as well as
various forms of vegetation.[30] Also frequently depicted are the Hindu gods associated with the
four cardinal directions, with the identity of the god depicted on a given lintel or pediment
depending on the direction faced by that element. Indra, the god of the sky, is associated with
East; Yama, the god of judgment and Hell, with South; Varuna, the god of the ocean, with West;
and Kubera, god of wealth, with North.
List of Khmer lintel styles

 Sambor Prei Kuk style : Inward-facing makaras with tapering bodies. Four arches joined by
three medallions, the central once carved with Indra. Small figure on each makara. A
variation is with figures replacing the makaras and a scene with figures below the arch.
 Prei Khmeng style : Continuation of Sambor Prei Kuk but makaras disappear, being replaced
by incurving ends and figures. Arches more rectilinear. Large figures sometimes at each end.
A variation is a central scene below the arch, usually Vishnu Reclining.
 Kompong Preah style : High quality carving. Arches replaced by a garland of vegetation
(like a wreath) more or less segmented. Medallions disappear, central one sometimes
replaced by a knot of leaves. Leafy pendants spray out above and below garland.
 Kulen style : Great diversity, with influences from Champa and Java, including the kala and
outward-facing makaras.
 Preah Ko style : Some of the most beautiful of all Khmer lintels, rich, will-carved and
imaginative. Kala in center, issuing garland on either side. Distinct loops of vegetation curl
down from garland. Outward-facing makaras sometimes appear at the ends. Vishnu
on Garuda common.

38
 Rich-carved decoration of Preah Ko lintel.

 Bakheng style : Continuation of Preah Ko but less fanciful and tiny figures disappear. Loop
of vegetation below the naga form tight circular coils. Garland begins to dip in the center.
 Koh Ker style : Center occupied by a prominent scene, taking up almost the entire height of
the lintel. Usually no lower border. Dress of figures shows a curved line to the sampot tucked
in below waist.
 Pre Rup style : Tendency to copy earlier style, especially Preah Ko and Bakheng. Central
figures. Re-appearance of lower border.
 Banteay Srei style : Increase in complexity and detail. Garland sometimes makes pronounced
loop on either side with kala at top of each loop. Central figure.
 Khleang style : Less ornate than those of Banteay Srei. Central kala with triangular tongue,
its hands holding the garland which is bent at the center. Kala sometimes surmounted by a
divinity. Loops of garland on either side divided by flora stalk and pendant. Vigorous
treatment of vegetation.
 Baphuon style : The central kala surmounted by divinity, usually riding a steed or a Vishnu
scene, typically from the life of Krishna. Loops of garland no longer cut. Another type is a
scene with many figures and little vegetation.
 Angkor Wat style : Centered, framed and linked by garlands. A second type is a narrative
scene filled with figures. When nagas appear, they curls are tight and prominent. Dress
mirrors that of devatas and apsaras in bas-reliefs. No empty spaces.
 Bayon style : Most figures disappear, usually only a kala at the bottom of the lintel
surmounted by small figure. Mainly Buddhist motifs. In the middle of the period the garland
is cut into four parts, while later a series of whorls of foliage replace the four divisions. [32]
Stairs

The stairs leading to the inner enclosure at Ankor Wat are daunting.
Angkorean stairs are notoriously steep. Frequently, the length of the riser exceeds that of
the tread, producing an angle of ascent somewhere between 45 and 70 degrees. The reasons for

39
this peculiarity appear to be both religious and monumental. From the religious perspective, a
steep stairway can be interpreted as a "stairway to heaven," the realm of the gods. "From the
monumental point of view," according to Angkor-scholar Maurice Glaize, "the advantage is clear
– the square of the base not having to spread in surface area, the entire building rises to its zenith
with a particular thrust."
MOTIFS
Apsara and devata

Two apsaras appear on this pillar at the 12th-century Buddhist temple the Bayon.///Apsaras (left)
and a devata (right) grace the walls at Banteay Kdei.

Apsaras, divine nymphs or celestial dancing girls, are characters from Indian mythology. Their
origin is explained in the story of the churning of the Ocean of Milk, or samudra manthan, found
in the Vishnu Purana. Other stories in the Mahabharata detail the exploits of individual apsaras,
who were often used by the gods as agents to persuade or seduce mythological demons, heroes
and ascetics. The widespread use of apsaras as a motif for decorating the walls and pillars of
temples and other religious buildings, however, was a Khmer innovation. In modern descriptions
of Angkorian temples, the term "apsara" is sometimes used to refer not only to dancers but also
to other minor female deities, though minor female deities who are depicted standing rather than
dancing are more commonly called "devatas".
Apsaras and devatas are ubiquitous at Angkor, but are most common in the foundations of the
12th century. Depictions of true (dancing) apsaras are found, for example, in the Hall of
Dancers at Preah Khan, in the pillars that line the passageways through the outer gallery of
the Bayon, and in the famous bas-relief of Angkor Wat depicting the churning of the Ocean of
Milk. The largest population of devatas (around 2,000) is at Angkor Wat, where they appear
individually and in groups.

40
 This dvarapala stands guard at Banteay Kdei.

Dvarapala
Dvarapalas are human or demonic temple guardians, generally armed with lances and clubs.
They are presented either as a stone statues or as relief carvings in the walls of temples and other
buildings, generally close to entrances or passageways. Their function is to protect the temples.
Dvarapalas may be seen, for example, at Preah Ko, Lolei, Banteay Srei, Preah Khan and Banteay
Kdei
Gajasimha and Reachisey
The gajasimha is a mythical animal with the body of a lion and the head of an elephant. At
Angkor, it is portrayed as a guardian of temples and as a mount for some warriors. The
gajasimha may be found at Banteay Srei and at the temples belonging to the Roluos group.
The reachisey is another mythical animal, similar to the gajasimha, with the head of a lion, a
short elephantine trunk, and the scaly body of a dragon. It occurs at Angkor Wat in the epic bas
reliefs of the outer gallery.
Garuda

In this 9th century lintel now on display at the Musée Guimet, Garuda bears Vishnu on his shoulders.

Garuda is a divine being that is part man and part bird. He is the lord of birds, the mythological
enemy of nāgas, and the battle steed of Vishnu. Depictions of Garuda at Angkor number in the

41
thousands, and though Indian in inspiration exhibit a style that is uniquely Khmer. [37] They may
be classified as follows:

 As part of a narrative bas relief, Garuda is shown as the battle steed of Vishnu or Krishna,
bearing the god on his shoulders, and simultaneously fighting against the god's enemies.
Numerous such images of Garuda may be observed in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat.
 Garuda serves as an atlas supporting a superstructure, as in the bas relief at Angkor Wat that
depicts heaven and hell. Garudas and stylized mythological lions are the most common atlas
figures at Angkor.
 Garuda is depicted in the pose of a victor, often dominating a nāga, as in the gigantic relief
sculptures on the outer wall of Preah Khan. In this context, Garuda symbolizes the military
power of the Khmer kings and their victories over their enemies. Not coincidentally, the city
of Preah Khan was built on the site of King Jayavarman VII's victory over invaders
from Champa.
 In free-standing nāga sculptures, such as in nāga bridges and balustrades, Garuda is often
depicted in relief against the fan of nāga heads. The relationship between Garuda and the
nāga heads is ambiguous in these sculptures: it may be one of cooperation, or it may again be
one of domination of the nāga by Garuda.[

THE MANY GODS of ANGKOR

Indra
In the ancient religion of the Vedas, Indra the sky-god reigned supreme. In the
medieval Hinduism of Angkor, however, he had no religious status, and served only as a
decorative motif in architecture. Indra is associated with the East; since Angkorian temples
typically open to the East, his image is sometimes encountered on lintels and pediments facing
that direction. Typically, he is mounted on the three-headed elephant Airavata and holds his
trusty weapon, the thunderbolt or vajra. The numerous adventures of Indra documented in Hindu
epic Mahabharata are not depicted at Angkor.

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Kala

A kala serves as the base for a deity at the 10th-century Hindu temple Banteay Srei.

The kala is a ferocious monster symbolic of time in its all-devouring aspect and associated with
the destructive side of the god Siva. In Khmer temple architecture, the kala serves as a common
decorative element on lintels, tympana and walls, where it is depicted as a monstrous head with a
large upper jaw lined by large carnivorous teeth, but with no lower jaw. Some kalas are shown
disgorging vine-like plants, and some serve as the base for other figures.
Scholars have speculated that the origin of the kala as a decorative element in Khmer temple
architecture may be found in an earlier period when the skulls of human victims were
incorporated into buildings as a kind of protective magic or apotropaism. Such skulls tended to
lose their lower jaws when the ligaments holding them together dried out. Thus, the kalas of
Angkor may represent the Khmer civilization's adoption into its decorative iconography of
elements derived from long forgotten primitive antecedents.
Krishna
Scenes from the life of Krishna, a hero and Avatar of the god Vishnu, are common in the relief
carvings decorating Angkorian temples, and unknown in Angkorian sculpture in the round. The
literary sources for these scenes are the Mahabharata, the Harivamsa, and the Bhagavata Purana.
The following are some of the most important Angkorian depictions of the life of Krishna:

 A series of bas reliefs at the 11th-century temple pyramid called Baphuon depicts scenes of
the birth and childhood of Krishna.
 Numerous bas reliefs in various temples show Krishna subduing the nāga Kaliya. In
Angkorian depictions, Krishna is shown effortlessly stepping on and pushing down his
opponent's multiple heads.
 Also common is the depiction of Krishna as he lifts Mount Govardhana with one hand in
order to provide the cowherds with shelter from the deluge caused by Indra.
43
 Krishna is frequently depicted killing or subduing various demons, including his evil
uncle Kamsa. An extensive bas relief in the outer gallery of Angkor Wat depicts Krishna's
battle with the asura Bana. In battle, Krishna is shown riding on the shoulders of Garuda, the
traditional mount of Vishnu.
 In some scenes, Krishna is depicted in his role as charioteer, advisor and protector of Arjuna,
the hero of the Mahabharata. A well-known bas relief from the 10th-century temple
of Banteay Srei depicts the Krishna and Arjuna helping Agni to burn down Khandava forest.
As described in the Bhagavata Purana, the youthful
Krishna miraculously raises Mount Govardhan, near
Mathura in northern India, to protect the villagers
and cowherds from a great rainstorm sent by Indra.
The sculptor of this image, active in the Phnom Da
workshops, clearly understood the essence of his
subject. It is evident that this sculpture evolved from
a long-standing local tradition, which, by the
seventh century, had surpassed any Indian
prototypes that were remembered.

A twelfth-century Phnom Da inscription credits a

group of seven cult images to the patronage of an
early Funan ruler and lists a Krishna Govardhana in
the group. This sculpture is likely one of those
works.METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART

Linga

The corner of a lintel on one of the brick towers at Bakong shows a man riding on the back of a makara that in turn disgorges another
monster./// This segmented linga from 10th century Angkor has a square base, an octagonal middle, and a round tip.

44
The linga is a phallic post or cylinder symbolic of the god Shiva and of creative power. As a
religious symbol, the function of the linga is primarily that of worship and ritual, and only
secondarily that of decoration. In the Khmer empire, certain lingas were erected as symbols of
the king himself, and were housed in royal temples in order to express the king's
consubstantiality with Siva. The lingas that survive from the Angkorean period are generally
made of polished stone.
The lingas of the Angkorian period are of several different types.

 Some lingas are implanted in a flat square base called a yoni, symbolic of the womb.
 On the surface of some lingas is engraved the face of Siva. Such lingas are
called mukhalingas.
 Some lingas are segmented into three parts: a square base symbolic of Brahma, an octagonal
middle section symbolic of Vishnu, and a round tip symbolic of Shiva.
Makara
A makara is a mythical sea monster with the body of a serpent, the trunk of an elephant, and a
head that can have features reminiscent of a lion, a crocodile, or a dragon. In Khmer temple
architecture, the motif of the makara is generally part of a decorative carving on a lintel,
tympanum, or wall. Often the makara is depicted with some other creature, such as a lion or
serpent, emerging from its gaping maw. The makara is a central motif in the design of the
famously beautiful lintels of the Roluos group of temples: Preah Ko, Bakong, and Lolei.
At Banteay Srei, carvings of makaras disgorging other monsters may be observed on many of the
corners of the buildings.
Nāga

Mucalinda, the nāga king who shielded Buddha as he sat in meditation, was a favorite motif for Cambodian Buddhist
sculptors from the 11th century. This statue is dated between 1150 and 1175 CE/ RIGHT This multi-headed nāga is part
of a decorative lintel from the end of the 9th century.

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Mythical serpents, or nāgas, represent an important motif in Khmer architecture as well as in
free-standing sculpture. They are frequently depicted as having multiple heads, always uneven in
number, arranged in a fan. Each head has a flared hood, in the manner of a cobra.

Nāgas are frequently depicted in Angkorian lintels. The composition of such lintels
characteristically consists in a dominant image at the center of a rectangle, from which issue
swirling elements that reach to the far ends of the rectangle. These swirling elements may take
shape as either vinelike vegetation or as the bodies of nāgas. Some such nāgas are depicted
wearing crowns, and others are depicted serving as mounts for human riders.
To the Angkorian Khmer, nāgas were symbols of water and figured in the myths of origin for the
Khmer people, who were said to be descended from the union of an Indian Brahman and a
serpent princess from Cambodia. Nāgas were also characters in other well-known legends and
stories depicted in Khmer art, such as the churning of the Ocean of Milk, the legend of the Leper
King as depicted in the bas-reliefs of the Bayon, and the story of Mucalinda, the serpent king
who protected the Buddha from the elements.
Nāga Bridge

Stone Asuras hold the nāga Vasuki on a bridge leading into the 12th century city of Angkor Thom.

Nāga bridges are causeways or true bridges lined by stone balustrades shaped as nāgas.
In some Angkorian nāga-bridges, as for example those located at the entrances to 12th century
city of Angkor Thom, the nāga-shaped balustrades are supported not by simple posts but by
stone statues of gigantic warriors. These giants are the devas and asuras who used the nāga
king Vasuki in order to the churn the Ocean of Milk in quest of the amrita or elixir of
immortality. The story of the Churning of the Ocean of Milk or samudra manthan has its source
in Indian mythology.

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Quincunx

A linga in the form of a quincunx, set inside a yoni, is carved into the riverbed at Kbal Spean.
A quincunx is a spatial arrangement of five elements, with four elements placed as the corners of
a square and the fifth placed in the center. The five peaks of Mount Meru were taken to exhibit
this arrangement, and Khmer temples were arranged accordingly in order to convey a symbolic
identification with the sacred mountain. The five brick towers of the 10th-century temple known
as East Mebon, for example, are arranged in the shape of a quincunx. The quincunx also appears
elsewhere in designs of the Angkorian period, as in the riverbed carvings of Kbal Spean.
Shiva
Most temples at Angkor are dedicated to Shiva. In general, the Angkorian Khmer represented
and worshipped Shiva in the form of a lingam, though they also fashioned anthropomorphic
statues of the god. Anthropomorphic representations are also found in Angkorian bas reliefs. A
famous tympanum from Banteay Srei depicts Shiva sitting on Mount Kailasa with his consort,
while the demon king Ravana shakes the mountain from below. At Angkor Wat and Bayon,
Shiva is depicted as a bearded ascetic. His attributes include the mystical eye in the middle of his
forehead, the trident, and the rosary. His vahana or mount is the bull Nandi.

The Australian archaeologist Damian Evans has discovered undocumented ancient cities
between 900 and 1,400 years ago buried in the Cambodian jungle surrounding Angkor Wat, the
largest religious monument in the world. Some cities can reach the size of Cambodia's capital,
Phnom Penh (about 678.5 square kilometers). The new finding may rewrite the history of
Southeast Asia.

47
Angkor Wat, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Cambodia

The existence of Mahendraparvata (the 1,200-year-old lost medieval city in Cambodia) was
confirmed in 2012. In 2015, Damian Evans and his colleagues utilized the advanced light-
scanning equipment lidar to scan more than 735 square miles of the Angkor region. Recently, the
entire ancient cities beneath the jungle have been found by analyzing data captured in 2015.
These cities seemed to have constituted the Khmer Empire, the largest empire on earth in the
12th century.

The new discovery can deepen our understanding of Khmer culture and cast into doubt the
traditional assumptions about the empire. In addition, the survey detected elaborate water
systems were constructed hundreds of years earlier than historians previously believed. It
appears that these ancient cities will become the new secrets attracting tourists to visit and
explore soon.

Although it remains unknown when the newly discovered ancient cities will be opened to
visitors, the Angkor Wat has already been extremely popular with world travelers. The
magnificent temple was built by King Suryavarman II and considered among the most
significant attractions in Southeast Asia widely. It consists of three rectangular galleries
surrounding a central tower, each level higher than the last. Small apsara images are used as
decorative motifs on pillars and walls and larger devata images are employed in the entry
pavilion of the temple to the tops of the high towers.

48
 Devatas, characteristic
of the Angkor Wat style

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New, digitally enhanced images reveal detailed murals at Angkor Wat showing elephants,
deities, boats, orchestral ensembles and people riding horses — all invisible to the naked eye.
Many of the faded markings could be graffiti left behind by pilgrims after Angkor Wat was
abandoned in the 15th century. But the more elaborate paintings may be relics of the earliest
attempts to restore the temple.

Painting discovery: Subtle traces of paint caught the eye of Noel Hidalgo Tan, a rock-art
researcher at Australian National University in Canberra, while he was working on an excavation
at Angkor Wat in 2010. While spotting traces of red pigment all over the walls when one
rfesearcher was taking a stroll through the temple on his lunch break one day.he took a few
pictures and planned to digitally enhance them later. The digitally enhanced pictures revealed
paintings of elephants, lions, the Hindu monkey god Hanuman, boats and buildings — perhaps
even images of Angkor Wat itself. Tan went back to the site to conduct a more methodical
survey in 2012 with his Cambodian colleagues from APSARA (which stands for the Authority
for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siem Reap).

Invisible images- Some of the most detailed paintings, the ones located at the top of the temple,
are passed by literally thousands of visitors every day, but the most elaborate scenes are
effectively invisible to the naked eye. To make these paintings visible, a technique called
decorrelation stretch analysis, was used, which exaggerates subtle color differences. This method
has become a valuable tool in rock-art research, as it can help distinguish faint images from the
underlying rock. It has even been used to enhance images taken of the Martian surface
by NASA's Opportunity rover.

49
One chamber in the highest tier of Angkor Wat's central tower, known as the Bakan, contains an
elaborate scene of a traditional Khmer musical ensemble known as the pinpeat, which is made up
of different gongs, xylophones, wind instruments and other percussion instruments. In the same
chamber, there's an intricate scene featuring people riding horses between two structures, which
might be temples
Secret Paintings

Digitally enhanced images revealed hidden paintings on the walls of Cambodia's Angkor Wat,
one of the largest religious monuments in the world, built between A.D. 1113 and 1150. The
paintings, once invisible to the naked eye, show elephants, deities, boats, orchestral ensembles
and people riding horses, according to a new research article detailed online in May 2014 in the
journal Antiquity.
Angkor Wat-Aerial view of Angkor Wat, showing the moat and causeway and the central tower
surrounded by four smaller towers

50
Project: The Construction of Angkor Wat-Scholarly account by Author: Lem Chuck Moth

INTRODUCTION

The resuscitation of ancient feuds between the two Naga clans completely reverse setting the
geographical politic of Southeast Asia. The exodus of the Sri Vijaya from Mahidhara to take
control of the Angkorean throne actually brought the Ocean Naga' s legacy in land. Inscriptions
started to witness the settlement of the family members of Suryavarman I (1006-1050) on the
Khorat Plateau, whic was the traditional ream of Culodhara. At the same time, Indian history
witnesses the occupation of the Malay Archipelago by the South Indian Cholan Empire. Under
Rajendra Chola II, the Chola conquered and occupied the Mahidhara ream of the Sri Vijaya. His
successor, Rajadhiraja (1044-1054) who took control of the Cholan Empire at 1044 was actually
a contemporary of Suryavarman I. As a Cakravatin Monarch of Angkor, Suryavarman I must to
have the same title as Rajadhiraja. Considering that the clash between the Chola and the Sri
Vijaya continued on during the next reigns of both Chola and Angkor, the bearing of the same
title of a cakaravatin monarch indicated rivalry between the two houses (Notes: The legacy of
Angkor). In a hostile environment, we have the reason to believe that the Cholan King
Rajadhiraja was not in a friendly term to the new Angkorean court. He was more likely a direct
descendant of the last Angkorean king Jayavarman V who joined the Cholan consortium after the
dynastic crisis. His title conveys that he was challenging Suryavarman I as a true cakravatin
monarch through the assertion that he was actually the rightful heir for the Angkorean throne.
Indian history seams to mark his reign as uneventful, being mostly preoccupying himself to
stabilize the vast empire left by his predecessors. Evidences show however that his exploit was
more focusing on the eastern front of India, and to the most extend on Southeast Asia. After
strengthening the Cholan legacy at Java, he carried on the Cholan supremacy into the Mon
country and beyond (Ramanadesa: The Mon Countries: The Mons of Tathon and the "Talaing"
identity). After the reign of Rajadhiraja I, the Cholan Empire went into decline. At the same
time, we see a new political adjustment at Angkor to accommodate the inclusion of Cholan
members back into its cakravatin establishment.

A Shared Legacy

In modern history of Angkor, the account of the Sri Vijaya and the Javanese Empire had been
written separately as of different entities. Compiled by different groups of specialized historians,
each account was tied to its specific political region. Cambodia, Malaysia, and Java were
portrayed as different countries, developed independently since the start of their existence.
Overlooking past connection, scholars virtually see no existing links between these powerhouses
other than their apparent drive for supremacy. Nevertheless, scholars agreed that they were
connected under the same cultural development known to them as the Indianization. Happening
way back in the past, we had argued that their common legacy started after the formation of
Nokor Khmer at Prey-Nokor.

51
 Trigged by internal feud, the three factions of the royal descendants from Kaundinya (including
the Chenla house itself) were becoming the next generation of kings for both Southeast Asia and
India. Carrying on the legacy of the Gupta Empire, Jayavarman II established Angkor to become
the next Cakravatin of the Empire.

 During its early foundation, Angkor succeeded in accomplishing its task as a Middle
Kingdom, by reuniting family members who were direct descendants of the late
Kaundinya and the Naga princess. Along the way, other factions soon joined in and their
contribution constituted the expansion of the Khmer Chakaravatin Empire. The Dynastic
crisis however induced a serious setback as the Cholan and Srivijayan houses went head
on contending for supremacy. It is important to note that despite family's connection, the
two clans were of totally different cultural backgrounds and affinities. The Srivijaya was
Buddhist but had been initiated to the Sivaite cult of Devaraja through the remaining
legacy of the last Angkorean court. On the other hand, evidences show that the Chola
became devout Vishnuite after Krishna III invaded Takkolam in 949 AD (The Chola
Dynasty: The Cholan Connection: The Origin of the Cholas). The love-hate relationship
between Sivaism and Vishnuism would create the dynamic of the next development that
affected the whole welfare of Southeast Asia. At Ramanadesa, Pagan emerged under the
leadership of Anuruddha as another powerhouse to challenge both the Sri Vijayan and the
Cholan Empires. Under these adverse circumstances, fight erupted as each contender was
preoccupying about their own hidden agenda. Underneath the conflicts, Buddhism had
played its role sub-consciously to bring them back to rationality. Even though rivalry was
still imminent, serious attempts for reunification had also been initiated.

THE RETURN OF THE CHOLAN DYNASTY

To many scholars, the disappearance of the Chola from India was still a mystery. The last
time that we heard about its existence was when Chinese sources mention that it became
vassal of the Sri Vijaya. While many scholars are still skeptical about this sudden fall,
evidences show that the Chola did really move to join with the Angkorean court.
Unfortunately, the return of the chola was problematic. Instead of strengthening the
situation of Angkor, they came with a new set of pricipal and agenda of their own.
Through contact with the west, the new Cholan court lost most of their zeal for Buddhism
and became devotee of Vishnuism. To make the matter worst, they came back with the
Sharia Law to establish Champapura as a duplication of South India.

The Return of the Nandas

The circumstance that forced the Chola in becoming subordinate of the Mahidhara court
of Angkor was due to the invasion of the Muslim front-line that shook-up the Hindu
world under the leadership of the Chola itself. Before his death in 1030, the Musulman
invader Mahmud led the Muslim force against Jayapala of Shahis whom we had
identified as no other than a descendant of Jayavarman V (The Chola Dynasty: The
Cholan Consortium: The Cholan Empire of Tanjore). The conquest had reached Delhi
and further more infiltrated deeper into the Cholan territory. The Muslim's infiltration in
India also lent support to the rising of two of the Chola's ancient rivals, the Pandya and
the Hoysala of South India (Notes: The decline of the Chola). At the other front, the

52
Buddhist consortium also rose up to fight off the Cholan supremacy. With the support
from Anuruddha of Ramandesa, Ceylon drove the last of the Cholan yolk from Sri
Langka. Facing with enemies of many fronts, the Chola's glory day was over. Since the
reign of Rajadhiraja I, the Cholan presence in the Indian history started to fade and finally
disappeared altogether after the next few remaining reigns. Before merging with Angkor,
the Chola conducted the last raid against the Malay Peninsular to free its maritime
venture from the control of Ramanadesa. According to Chinese sources, the Chola then
handed the conquered territory back to its previous owner, which was the Sri Vijaya. As
we shall see, the latter took no time to resuscitate back their old business and the same
time left Angkor into the hand of less competent family members. Moving his court to
Mahidhapura, Jayavarman VI left the Angkorean throne to his brother
Dharanindravarman I. At the sane time, the Chola was allowed to move to Prey Nokor
and gradually infiltrated itself into the Angkorean court through Champapura. On the
other front, evidences also show that the Cholan campaign against Anurudha was not
only concerning the lost of the Malay Peninsular but of Ramandesa itself. The
Triphuvanaditya's legacy of the last Mon's King Makutavamsa was seen returning in the
court of Tathon and Pagan, during the reign of Anuruddha's successor, Kyanzittha. It is
important to note that during his reign, the Chinese council of rites recommended to give
him the same honor as the ruler of Ta-the (a reference to Angkor). At Angkor, the Chola's
return might start as early as the high priest Divakara performing the coronation of
Dharanindravarman I while Jayavarman VI brought his court to Mahidhara where he
reestablished the Sri Vijayan Empire. At the same time, an inscription found at the shore
of the Mekong River near Wat Phu bring enigma to this region long time connected to the
Cholan legacy. Known as the inscription of Wat Luong-Kau (Pagoda of the king Kau), it
commemorates a king named Devanika with the title of Maharajadhiraja (NDORK: La
Steles de Vat Luong-Kau). Unlike other Angkorean inscriptions of the time, it uses Gupta
characters of the ancient Kaundinya court. The immediate reaction among scholars is to
date the inscription around the fifth century and to relate the king Devanika to a member
of the Kaundinya family, notably of the Funan King Gunavarman. To recall back,
Gunavarman was a heir apparent of Kaundinya Jayavarman and the nagi princess
Praphavati who left many inscriptions in Gupta style characters during his reign at Prey
Nokor. Connecting the King Devanika with the Kaundynia immediate lineage however
created more problems to fit an ancient legacy of Vishnuite folklore into the Brahmanic
Buddhist family tradition of Kaundinya (Notes: The King Devanika). His title
Mahadhiraja indicates that he claimed himself as a cakravatin monarch which none of the
immediate descendants of Kaundinya could claim as such. At the time of its early
foundation, Nokor Khmer was still a small kingdom and the Kaundinya kings at the time
were not crowned as Cakravatin monarchs. Another clue that denies the antiquity of the
inscription to the Kaundinya's early time at Prey Nokor is that it was dedicated to the
memory of Kuruksetra, a northern Indian locality that has never been mentioned in
Khmer inscriptions before but was mentioned in the recent inscriptions of Phnom Sandak
and Prah Vihear. Consistent with the rise of the Cholan empire in South India, the arrival
of King Devanika coincide with the emergence of the Botomsurya lineage in the
Angkorean court. As we had seen, it was Suryavarman I who awarded a land to an abroad
scholar named Sukarman and was named Kuruksetra, in the memory of his Indian origin
(Notes: The original Kuruksettra). All these indication led us to believe that king

53
Devanika was actually a close member of the Cholan King Rajdhiraja I if it was not him.
The late use of the Gupta script is not a surprise, considering that the Cholan court was so
conservative to let go of any past Gupta legacies that were still present at the Pallava
court.

The Cholan Expansion

In onnecction to the Cholan King Rajdhiraja I (1044-1053), we shall identify Devanika as
a member of the Nanda who through affiliation with the South Indian Cholan house
claimed himself as a Maharajadhiraja. His Vishnuite devotion indicates that he was a
great king of the Cholan Empire whose settlement at the Khorat plateau was obviously
according to the new agreement with the Sri Vijaya. It was when Chinese source
mentioned about the Chola house of India was becoming vassal of Ta-Tche. In the
attempt to further investigate on the issue, we have to trace back the Chola' s history after
its foundation at Tanjore. The inscription of Wat Luang Kau mentions next about
religious artifacts that had been brought from abroad (duradesa) to be installed at Wat
Phu (Lingaparvata). Among them was the linga Bhadrasvara deifying the first Kaundinya
king of Prey-Nokor. As we recall back, the prince Kaundinya was exiled by his father
from the Gupta court and came to Prey-Nokor to build the Khmer Kingdom. A faction of
his immediate family later formed the Chenla house that, as we had argued, along with
time joined the Cholan consortium. After the fall of Chenla, fugitive kings of Both Cham
and Chenla Court were forming the Javanese court with the support of South Indian
Chola house. close by the Sri Vijaya and Sri Langka, the Javanese Court was too much of
a risk if there was no such support from the emerging Chola consortium of Southern
India. The invasion of Krishna III and later of the Chalukya set the Chola at Tanjore to
experience a new low set-point of their history. As we shall see, the Man legacy of the
premordial king Samata was to be soon subverted by Manu Vaisvata 's new generation of
human race of the Cham world. Nevertheless, evidences show still of the Nanda's legacy
as their core origin and many of them still claim of their devine origin. It was the eastern
Chalukya that was the first to stand against the Sri Vijaya , but later on the consortium
grew stronger enough to position itself in control of the Southern Sea route and started to
incurse itself on the p[olitic of Angkor. From the reign of Jayavarman IV, inscriptions
moreover started to mention the presence of Rajakola ministers and the influx of Indian
Brahmins settling at the Angkorean site. From the reign of Jayavarman IV, inscriptions
moreover started to mention the presence of Rajakola ministers and the influx of Indian
Brahmins settling at the Angkorean site. Most importantly we see the return of the God
King Tribhuvanesvara to take the protecting role of the new Angkorean Empire. We also
see the Cholan legacy emerging in the Javanese court and later at Tathon in the court of
King Manuha. It indicated that while the Sailendra was absorbing the Javanese court, it
was itself absorbed by the Chola in a consortium that stood exactly like the brotherhood
between Rama and Lakhsmana in the Ramayana epic. At the same time, fight erupted
with the Buddhist Sri Vijayan court when the Sailendra brought the Cholan school into
the internal politic of Angkor. In 993, the Chola king Rajaraja was playing the Rama role
of the epic of the Javanese Ramayana during the conquest of Ceylon. During the raid,
Rama dragged along his brother Laksmana against the Buddhist consortium of Sri Vijaya
and Ceylon. The last episode concerns about the regional development after the fall of Sri
Langka that allowed Rama to be reunited at last with Sita concluded the epic of

54
Ramayana epic. Nevertheless, the Rama's saga and his family's crisis was far to be over.
Then follows the episode of the fan (with Ravana picture on it) which Sita unwittingly
handles. This leads to the estrangement between Rama and Sita. The couple is however
reconciled at the hermitage of Kala (Janaga). Towards the end we have the marriage of
the daughter of Indrajit with But-Lawa (Lawa). Dinjayapura is mentioned as the capital
of Lawa. (HI: The Ramayan in Java)
In the continuing saga, Rama then turned against the Sri Vijaya. In the attack, the Sri
Vijayan court did not suffer the same fate as its Buddhist Sri langka Ravana King. In a
desperate attempt to save itself, the Sri Vijaya attacked Angkor (The Sri Vijaya
Connection: The Ligor's royal house: The Viravamsa early Geneology). At the mean
time, the Chola continued on its conquest over the north of the Indian Uttarapradesa.
From the hermitage of the Kala Janaga, the Kalacuris took the advantage of the weakness
of the Pala, advanced as far as Mithilda before 1019. King Rajendra Chola and a
Chalukya king invaded the Pala dominions. The next kings of Pala continued the
Cholan's legacy as witnessed by the birth of Rama. VigrahaPala III had three sons,
Mahipala II, Surapala II, and Ramapala. It was Ramapala who conquered Kamarupa and
forced the Varman rulers of East Bengal to submit into his authority (AInd: Northern
India, 11th-12th Cent AD: Kaivarta revolt: p.319).

The Return of the Sailendra

After the attempt to recover the sea-route failed, evidences show that the Sri Vijaya was
looking for an alternate way to open a land route through Yunnan to make connection
with the west (The Sri Vijaya Connection: The Angkorean Empire under the Mahidhara
Court: The Reign of Udayadityavarman II). After making accord with Haripangjay,
Udayadityavarman lauched a norhern campaign deep in the Shan Country to force his
way to the west. Apparently his campaign faile and we know from the Indian source that
it was stopped by the counter-attacks of Ramapala. Among the Varman rulers of East
Bengal who were submitted by Ramapala, we know from the Indian source that some
claimed themselves to belong to the Yadava dynasty of Simhapura or Ligor. It is
consistent with the fact that they were actually members of the Mahidhara court of the Sri
Vijaya who in fighting against the brotherhood Cholan house of South India'and the
Sailendra house of Kedah had to move out from their Sri Vijayan stroghold. By this time,
they already took hold of the Angkorean court and was in the process of extending its
control over Vanga. Ramapala who was likely a member of the Sailendra house of
Bengal, in a consortium with the Vishnuite Cholan Empire would make sure that the
Mahidhara court was not able to open the trade route with the west. Amid the fighting,
evidences of a reconciliation' s attempt by the two rivals was already seen under way. As
had been done in the past, the diplomatic connection between two of the Southeast Asian
powerhouses was carried on by a joint religious project. One side built a religious temple
and the other provided all material and financial supports to the temple. In 1005, the
Sailendra king Chulamanivarman built a Buddhist temple at Nagipattana and the Cholan
king Rajaraja offered the revenue of a large village to sustain the temple. Apparently, the
building of the Hindu temples at Wat Phu was a continuation of the alliance
strenghtening between the two rivals. In the reverse role, the Cholan king Devanika built
the temple of Wat Luang Kau perhaps to facilitate the stay of religious figures from the
Chola court with the expense paid by the Ankorean court of Sri Vijaya. During the last

55
development that forced the Chola to escape the Indian continent, Wat Phu might serve
as the refugee camp for the Chola at the last moment of its fall. The inscription of Wat
Luang Kau also mentions about religious artifacts that had been brought from abroad
(duradesa) to be installed at Wat Phu (Lingaparvata). Among them was the linga
Bhadrasvara deifying the first Kaundinya king of Prey-Nokor. Inscriptions of Prah Vihear
later confirms that the God King Bhadrasvara was now residing at Lingaparvata site of
Wat Phu. Divakara who was perhaps one among the Cholan refugees at Wat Phu, as we
had seen, would start his career at the Angkorean court under the reign of
Udayadityavarman II. On the same development, evidences show that Prey-Nokor was
already delegated to the Cholan refugee court by the same accord. In parallel to the Chola
settlement at Wat Phu, evidence show that Prey-Nokor was also delegated to a Chola
ruler under the name of Tribhuvanaditya. Two inscriptions on silver plates,
commemorating the god king Tribhuvansvara, were found in a cave of Prey-Nokor
(BEFEO IV: Notes d'epigraphy: Les Plateaux de Nui Cam, M. L. Finot). The first one
mentioned about Sri Kalapavvaka, a daksina kamraten jakat, performing the ritual
samvakapuna for the god king Tribhuvansvara at 1166. The second inscription mentioned
about Tribhuvanadityavarman, a ruler (kamraten jakat) at Lingapavarta, performing the
ceremony of kotihoma. As the god king Tribhuvansvara was a legacy of the Sailendra
royal house, its mentioning in the silver plates indicates that it was brought to
Champapura during the settlement of Maharaja Devanika at Vat Phu. It is also suggesting
that Tribhuvanadityavarman who was a ruler of Vat Phu (Lingaparvata), was himself no
other than Maharaja Devanika himself. His title of Maharajadhiraja was clearly a show of
insubordination to the Angkorean court suzerainty that was still under the Mahodara
court. It reveals his true identity neither as a member of the Sri Vijayan nor of Champa
and that he received the title because he was actually reigning over the Angkorean throne
(Notes: The Title of Maharajadhiraja). The finding led us to believe that Maharaja
Devanika was actually the same personage of the "Bharata Rashu Samvuddhi",
mentioned in the inscription of Banteay Chmar to revolt against the next Angkorean
monarch, Yasovarman II and suceeded to usurp the Angkorean throne from him. As we
shall see, The usurpation gave him the control of the Angkorean throne until he was
dragged down and killed by the new Champa king with the name of Jaya Indravarman IV
(Nokor Thom: The Shake-up of the Angkorean Court: The Reign of the Cham King Jaya
Indravarman I).

THE BOTOM SURYA DYNASTY

In Khmer tradition, this dynasty that started with Suryavarman I, stayed to represent the
last of the Angkorean dynasty until the fall of the Angkorean Empire. A new dynasty by
the name of Bottomsurya Vamsa was introduced by the Khmer Tradition to become the
last generation of the Angkorean Monarch. In contrast to the Sivaite tradition of
Angkorean monarchs, the new dynastion was formed from the Vishnuite heritage of
Zoroatrianist background. Evidences further show that this western development incursed
itself into the Angkorean court through the Cholan interference when the Sri Vijayan
legacy was seen leaving the Angkorean court. Under the initiative of Divakara,
Suryavarman II became next the cakravatin monarch to bring Angkor into a new glory
days.

56
The Early Career Path of Divakara
Through many centuries of development, South India became subjected of more and
more Teartaic incursion. On its own transformation, the Chola lost more and more of
their ancient Identity and became Tartaric. Unlike the Aditya legacy that was native of
Southeast Asia, the Surya iconography shows Iranian origin (The Western Civilization:
The Impact of the Kalayuga: The Abrahamic Schools of Religious Practice). Forced to
surrender to the Sri Vijaya, the Cholas returned to take control of Angkor with a new
identity and background. The inscription of Phnom Sandak (BEFEO XLII, The Steles of
Phnom Sandak: K.194, by G. Coedes) is the only inscription so far found that provides us
with information of Divakarapandita during his early career stage at Angkor.
The venerable lord Guru Cri Divakarapandita from the region of Vnur Dnan, in the
district of Sadya of the sect of Karamantara, third category, trained in reveal knowledge
(from his) youth never ceased to learn and to teach all the sacred texts (agama) and to
practice asceticism.
Unfortunately, the passage does provide only a sketchy background about his origin.
However we know that The locality of Vnur Dnan was located at Phnom Sandak where
Divakara apparently settled in, by another inscription that was found at the region. His
presence in the Angkorean court is mentioned next during the reign of Udayadityavarman
II.
In the reign of SM Cri Udayadityavarmadeva, who ascended the throne in 972 caka
(1050 AD) when the king erected the KA Suvarnalinga. For the purpose of worshipping,
the venerable lord Guru Cri Divakarapandita was invited to officiate.
It is important to note that Udayadityavarman II was crowned by his guru
Jayendrapandita whose family from Stok Koh Thom had sole ownership of the Devaraja
ritual. On the other hand, Divakara who was at the time very young might just hold a
minor position at first. Nevertheless, the inscription conveys next that his career would
pick-up fast as he was soon promoted to the rank of president of rites for the Angkorean
King.
In the reign of SM Cri Udayadityavarmadeva, the venerable lord Guru Cri
Divakarapandita was invited to (takes over the duties of) president (pradhana), with the
rank of precedence in the fourth category.
The inscription is quiet about his ascending career during the reign of Harshanavarman
III (1066-1080). Only during the reign of Jayavarman VI (1080-1107) that he was
mentioned to be promoted to the rank of Lord Guru, a position traditionally held by the
family of Jayendrapandita from Stok Koh Thom. The history of the Sung recorded the
arrival of one of the highest dignitaries of San-fo-shish named Ti-hua-chieh-lo at the
court of China in 1067. Ten years later, in 1077, it also recorded the arrival of another
dignitary of the same name, Ti-hua-chia-lo, but this time from the Cholan court of king
Rajendradevakulottanga. His name as the exact transcription of the Chinese word "Ti-
hua-chia-lo" leads us to believe that Divakara was the same person in the Chinese Texts
who played a key role in the development of post dynastic crisis. It shows that during the
reign of Harshavarman III, Divakara was more active at Sri Dharmaraja and was working
on the conciliation between the Sri Vijaya and the Chola. About the same time, many
inscriptions found at the temple of Prah Vihear (JSS: Sanskrit Inscriptions of Campa and
Cambodia, by Abel Bergaine) attest the apparition of the chief priest Divakara at Angkor
during the next reigns. It signals another political shift that allowed the Chola clan to join

57
in the Cakravatin establishment. Divakara's presence in both the Sri Vijaya and the
Angkorean court is not a surprise since they belonged now to the same Mahidhara or
Mahavamsa family. The fact that he represented the court of Rajendradevakulottanga at
the court of China suggests that he had close connection with the last Cholan king of
Angkor (Notes: Rajendradevakulottanga). To recall back, Jayavarman V had recruited
many Indian Brahmans to be part of his personal entourage (The Chola Dynasty: The
Dynasty of Koh Ker: The reign of Jayavarman V). Apparently, Divakara was among the
Sakabrahmans' family who were recruited to join the Angkorean court before the
Dynastic crisis. During the dynastic crise, Jayavarman V took along Divakarabhatta with
him When he was ousted from Angkor. During the late reign of King Udayadityavarman
II, his family members were allowed to move back to Angkor when the Chola were
allowed to join the Angkorean consortium after making deal with Sri Vijaya. Because of
his unique background and ability, Divakara managed to bring the two contending houses
in consort. As we shall see, he would be advancing fast through the rest of his carrea path
in the turbulent politic of the Angkorean court. His audacity would play important role
during the next reigns of Angkorean monarchs to bring up the Cholan supremacy back
again onto the Angkorean throne.

The Leadership of Divakara

The joining of the Chola in the Cakravatin establishment marked the ascending of
Divakara's career in the Angkorean court. Taking the opportunity of internal conflict, he
promoted himself through the Angkorean channel that was previously reserved to the
priestly family of Sdok Koh Thom. From the inscription of Phnom Sandak, we know that
he was assigned to the job of Lord Guru. The first king to be crowned by him was
Jayavarman VI.
In the reign of SM Cri Jayavarmadeva, when, on the occasion of his ascension to the
holy royalty, he sought for a priest fit in all respects to carry out the function of Prah
Guru to celebrate the royal coronation. - .It was the venerable lord Guru Cri
Divakarapandita who was invited to fulfill the venerable lord Guru.
The passage appears to indicate that Divakara brought himself up to become Lord Guru
to perform the coronation of the king Jayavarman VI. Once again, we see the
aggressively of the Chief priest in the politic of the Angkorean court. Conforming to the
Vishnuite sect of Hinduim, Divakara was just exercising his priesthood's right as a
member of the top cast of the kingdom. Needless to say, his aggressiveness had led to
more unrest during the next reigns at Angkor. After his coronation, there are not many
records or legacies of Jayavarman VI left at Angkor's site. The next passage indicates that
he was more active at Champapura.
When SM Cri Jayavarmadeva went on a pilgrimage to the temples and holy places ..
went to K.J Cri Campasvara, the venerable lord Guru Cri Divakarapandita was invited
to go and make (concessions?) in all the temples.
It is important to note that Champapura became the homeland of the Sailendra since the
formation of the cakravatin Empire. During the dynastic crisis, we saw the Sri Vijaya
moving into Prey-Nokor and the Sri Vijayan community at the south of Pandaranga
might had been formed at the same time. After a new consortium was formed, we shall
see the return of the Sailendra back to Champapura. The presence of Jayavarman VI at
Prey Nokor signals that the reestablishment of the Sri Vijaya court was not constrained

58
only to Sri Dharmaraja. The next prince who was residing at Champapura before he
returned to take the Angkorean throne under the name of Jayavarman VII, might have
been taking part of the mission. After Jayavarman VI left for Mahidhara, Divakara was
again performing the duty of Lord Guru for the coronation of king Dharnindravarman.
In the reign of SM Cri Dharnindravarma, brother of Cri Jayavarmadeva, the venerable
lord Guru Cri Divakarapandita accomplished the duties of Vrah Guru to celebrate the
royal coronation and perform the oblations at all sacrifices.
The crowning of both Jayavarman VI and Dharnindravarman reveals the high
achievement of Divakara's career in the Angkorean court. However, he was a real guru
for neither one of the two kings as they were already grown up and thus already been
trained. His real achievement as the traditional Lord Guru was for the next king,
Suryavarman II whom he was entrusted to take care of the prince's education since he
was young. As we shall see Divakara would train the young Suryavarman II to become a
powerful Cakravatin monarch who left a long lasting legacy of the Angkorean Empire. It
is also important to note that this high achievement was amid a political development of
intense rivalry at Angkor. He had to manage through difficult situations of consolidating
two antagonist dynasties with many centuries of old feuds to join in the workable
alliance. His effort appeared to pay off but was with a heavy cost. His aggression had
jeopardized the stability of the Angkorean internal politic preserved through many
generation of the Param-Guru in performing the cult of Devaraja. Their in-cooperation
apparently let to the crack down on Xiang-Mai during the reign of Suryavarman II. Their
Vishnuite devotion had undermined the long-standing Sivaite-Buddhist heritage of
Angkor. Condemned by the Angkorean king, evidences show that Xiang-Mai sought
protection of the Song Dynasty. On the other hand, the Chola itself would not fit under
the cakravatin Empire of Angkor even though it was ran by the same Cholan leadership.
Looking for its own supremacy, we shall see that the Chola own uprising had led to the
secession of Champapura from the Angkorean establishment. As we shall see, the break-
off of the two key cardinal states would undermine the Cakravatin security of Angkor for
the long run.

The Contest over the Angkorean Throne

The inscription found at a foundation of the temple of Ban That, described the historical
facts about Jayavarman VI, his elder brother Dharninvarman I, and their young successor
Suryavarman II (Le Cambodge: Le Monument and le stele de Ban That, p.165:
Aymonier). Their genealogy, though showing family connection, portrays different
affinities of political and cultural background. Jayavarman VI was the son of
Hiranyavarman from Kshitindragrama, and of Hiranyalaksmi. An otherwise unknown
locality, Kshitindragrama (Kshita + indra + grama) was meant to be the land of the Indra
ksatra which was the legacy of the Sailendra Sri Ksetra which we had identified as
Ayudhya Puran (Dvaravati: Notes: Sri Ksetra). It was part of Mahidharapura that was the
original stronghold of the Sri Vijaya where Suryavarman I also originated. It is certain
that Jayavarman VI did not reign at Angkor for long, for he was mentioned only in an
unfinished inscription. According to the inscription of Ta Prohm, Jayavarman VI appears
to spend the rest of his life ruling at Mahidhara of the Sri Vijaya.
Having obtained the supreme royalty of the sacred city of Yacodharapura, the king
Jayavarmadeva, winner of all enemies, planted in every direction until the seashore his

59
pillars of glory, fixed the residency of his family at Mahidharapura.
The inscription of Mount Prah Vihea, erected by the Bhraman Divakara, mentions his
name in the construction of Sivaite temples at Phnom Sandak, Prah Vihea, and Vat Phu
along with the construction of the Buddhist temple at Phimai. These construction works
at northern part of Angkor reflected the attempts to take control of the Siam country
during the unrest induced by the Cholan presence in Laos. At his death he received the
posthumous name Paramakaivalapada. The next king was a brother of his who was also
crowned by Divakara and received the crown name of Dharanindravarman I. The
inscription of Ban That explicitly describes his ascension to the Angkorean throne as by
circumstance.
Without having desired royalty, when his younger brother the king had returned to
heavens, through simple compassion and yielding to the prayers of the human multitude
without a protector, he governed the land with prudence.
Apparently Dharanindravarman I did not succeed directly Jayavarman IV, but his
younger brother who died soon after his coronation. A king named Naripatindravarman,
mentioned in inscriptions to reign at Angkor until 1113 might have been him. The title
Naripatindravarman indicates that he was then a ruler of Lavo, a function traditionally
assigned to the army general of the Angkorean Empire. Dharanindravarman I continued
the building and endowment program of the preceding reign and pursued traditionalism
to the point of taking as his wife the Queen Vijayendralaksmi, widow of the heir apparent
prince who died before reigning. He had reigned for five years. He received the
posthumous name of Paramanishkalapada. As much as Jayavarman VI and
Dharninvarman I were retaining the Sri Vijayan legacy of the late Suryavarman I, the
next king Suryavarman II, on the other hand, emerged as the new leader of the Chola
clan. As the Inscription of Ban-That put it, he would bring the Vishnuite legacy of South
India to be implanted first time at Angkor. Worst yet, he had done it through violence.
Releasing the ocean of his armies on the fields of combat, he (Suryavarman II) gave
terrible battle; leaping on the head of the elephant of the enemy king, he slew him, just as
Garuda swooping down from the top of a mountain kills a serpent.
Garuda is an epic creature of the Vishnuite mythology originated from the Annanuki
symbol of the late Sumerian folklore. As portrayed, it was the ennemy of the serpent or
naga. Young and energetic, Suryavarman II wrested the Angkorean throne from the
contemporary Angkorean king, in a battle that ended the latter' s life. The serpent or naga
of the passage was referring to the late king Dharanindravarman I who was a member of
the Sri Vijayan clan. As we shall see, his aggressiveness undermined the Meru's legacy of
Angkor that was formed through the Buddhist peaceful discipline of a cakravatin empire.
By further splitting of the Khmer Cakravatin Empire's basic alliance with the Sri Vijaya,
Suryavaman II set himself as the sole ruler of the universe.

THE MAKING OF MAHA NOKOR

The ascension of King Dharnindravarman at Angkor marked a downturn of the Sri
Vijayan influence in Angkor. Not only that he was reluctant to take on the responsibility
as the Angkorean monarch, his reign was also plagued by the incidence that led to the
usurpation of his throne. Under the leadership of Divakara, the Cholan Clan took the
opportunity to rise up and to wrest the power from the weak king and handed it to the still
very young Suryavarman II. By quieting down the rivalry of the Sri Vijaya powerhouse,

60
he took sole control of Angkor. Crowned by his guru Divakara, Suryavarman II's
audacity brought Angkor to the next status of a Cakravatin Empire. Angkor retained then
the title of Maha Nokor, recognized by the Chinese council of rites as Ta-Tche to be
treated in honor by the Chinese court.

The Reign of Suryavaman II (1113-1145/1150)

Suryavarman II was a grandnephew in the female line of Dharanindravarman I. His
obscure background prevents us from further elaborating on his origin. However his
Crown title appears to link him to Suryavarman I of whom the Khmer tradition associated
to a specific lineage of Bottomsurya. This title of orthodox Vishnuite cult was unknown
to the Angkorean tradition of Sivaite and moderate Vishnuite background, but was quite
common to the Cham tradition. As we had argued, the Bottomsurya lineage was linked to
the Solomon tradition of Middle Eastern origin and could be due to the late western
interference on the Indian Cholan Dynasty (The Chola Dynasty: The Divergence: The
economic Factor). On the other hand, the background of his guru Divakara could be
traced to the early ousted court of Jayavarman V (The Chola Dynasty: The Dynasty of
Koh ker: The reign of Jayavarman V). Suryavarman II himself could have been born in
Angkor from parents that were closely tied to the Jayavarman V's family circle. It was
likely that they came back to Angkor when the Chola had made a deal with the Sri
Vijaya. Having less legitimacy as compared to his uncle Dharanindravarman I in the
Angkorean court that was now under strong Sri Vijayan influence, Suryavarman II 's
right to the Angkorean throne was not secured. Even though the Cholan presence in
Angkor was strong after the arrangement with the Sri Vijaya, there was indication that
the Savaite legacy was still dominant in the Angkorean court. That would change over
time as inscriptions started to mention that he received more and more esteem and
support from family members. As much as we know more about the lineage of
Suryavarman I, we know little about Suryavarman II's ancestry. Unlike Suryavaramn I,
Suryavarman II was an insider of the Angkorean court and took hold of the Angkorean
throne not by invasion but rather by usurpation. From the fact that he had not enough
legitimacy to the Angkorean throne, he needed to work harder to earn his credential. The
building of Angkor Wat was one among many of his achievements that had never been
done before in the history of Angkor. We know then that he had a brilliant career after he
took control of Angkor that was very much up to the expectation of his personal guru
Divakarapandita. Evidences however show that even though he had bent himself to the
Cakravatin rule of Angkor, there was still unrest during the early stage of his reign. As
we shall see, the condemnation of the Param-Guru later signals the harsh resolution of
Suryavarman II to curb down resistance from the Angkorean's Sivaite side of the court.
At the same time, evidences also show that the control of Lavo was not trouble free.
Lohac (as the Chinese called the court of Lavo) sent a mission to China on its own in
1115, two years after the ascension of Suryavarman II who was then very young. At a
time that the young king had not yet fully established his authority over the outlying
dependencies of his kingdom, Lavo under Jaya-Simhavarman took the leadership role.
The finding suggests that in some circumstances, a cardinal state of a Cakravatin Empire
might take the control if needed, especially when there are internal crises. Again in 1155,
following the death of Suryavarman II, Lavo sent another embassy to the Chinese court.
This time, evidences show that Lavo had detached itself from the control of Angkor and

61
took the side with the Sri Vijaya of Sri Dharmaraja. An inscription of 1167 found in the
region of Nagara Svarga (Nakhon Sawan) of a king named Dharmasoka who might had
been another ruler on the Lavo throne. As Dharmasokaraja was a traditional title of Sri
Dharmaraja (Sri Dharmaraja) Nagara Svarga was undoubtedly meant to be a city of Sri
Dharmaraja. Perhaps due to restless state of Angkor, there were not many inscriptions
that were directly dedicated to him. Due to the lack of information, we know little about
the rest of his life and career in the Angkorean court. The end of his reign was obscure
and the date of his death is still unknown. The last inscription in his name is dated in
1145, but there is every reason to believe that he was the instigator of the campaign of
1150 against Tongkin and, therefore his reign lasted at least until that date. An Annamite
chronicle mentioned about a raid to Nghe-An in 1150 by Cambodian troops and suffered
a lost due to hot and wet weather (BEFEO IV, Deux ittinaries de Chine en Inde: Paul
Pelliot, p210). Contrary to the common belief that the building of Angkor Wat was done
during his reign, we shall see that he died before the whole temple was actually
completed. Some parts that were left unfinished were completed later during the next
reigns. The fact that he was referred by his posthumous name proved that the last
depiction on the hallway about the military processing was done after his death. We
know from the depiction that his posthumous name was Paramavishnuloka.

Angkor Wat's Architecture

Despite all troubles of his reign, Suryavarman II left a much longer lasting legacy of him.
The construction of Angkor wat became the iconic success story of the Khmer Empire. It
was in this temple that he was deified in the form of Visnu incarnation and received the
posthumous name of Paramavishnuloka. The new introduction of Visnuite legacy, as we
shall see, marked the high point of the next Khmer architecture. Conforming to the
Khmer legend of the building of Angkor Wat, an inscription found at the temple at Ban
that located near Kuruksetra where the scholar Sukarman resided, makes a reference to an
architectural marvel. Under the Cholan influence, Suryavarman II 's leaning toward
Vishnuism was obvious. However, we had argued that true to its legacy from the Cholan
legacy of the Sangum era, the Cholan clan of South India had very strong Sivaite legacy
of the Nanda. For instance, the naga king that was the representation of the Soma Culture
was still considered as progenitor of the Vishnuite Cult. On the other hand, other aspects
of the Meru legacy had been revised and included in the new Angkorean architecture. On
its face B, the inscription described an edifice of three towers, a representation of the
three tops of mount Meru, the celestial mountain. This could be the reference to the
temple of Ban-That where the inscription was found, but it was also a prelude to an
architectural design used in a larger scale for the building of the celestial temple of
Angkor Wat as representing the mount Meru.
Three high edifices (Saudhhatrayam) represent the three tops of mount Meru, the
celestial mountain where dwelled religious sages and celestial nymphs. Just as the Indra'
s palace, with banner floating in the air, under the sound of music high into the sky,
groups of women dance and sing with mellow voices accompanying string musical
instruments.
The use of tower (prang in Khmer) is typical of Khmer architecture that could not be
found anywhere else in India. Contrary to stone temples in Champapura of Po-Nokor
where Indian architecture was well noticeable, Angkor Wat and its contemporary temples

62
are undeniably free of Indian influence. It is reflecting that Suryavarman II was
conforming to the Khmer custom of the Angkorean Empire. As a matter of fact, we shall
see that many more khmer legacies were founded in Angkor Wat than in other temples of
prior date. And for those who wonder what Angkor Wat was built for, the next passage of
the inscription provides the best answer of all. One could imagine that it was used the
same way as Buddhist temples are used in Cambodia today. Besides sheltering monks
and religious members, it was the place where all sort of religious activities and
ceremonies took place. At Ban-That and perhaps the same at Angkor Wat, two such
ceremonies were mentioned in the inscription.
During the Sraddha and the Dirghasatra, people listen to the recital of the pass history.
There we can see, in anytime, the universe brought close on the magnificent tables
displayed on the wall.
The Sraddha, known as the ceremony of ancestral observance, consist of bathing
procession of the ancestral royal linga. On the other hand, the Dighasatra was referring to
a sacrifice ceremony of some sort, for the god Soma. During these two ceremonies,
people might entertain themselves and learn the pass history from the recital of scholars.
The two ceremonies were undeniably not Vishnuite. It confirms the fact that under
Suryavarman II, Angkor was retaining no less of its Sivaite legacy. On its architecture,
Angkor's temples undoubtedly adopted new feature that reflected the greatness of the
Angkor Empire of the time. The earlier mountain temples embedded the legacy of Nokor
Phnom that consisted of using the pyramid bases to support a tower of lotus shape. Later
temples, including the temple of Angkor Wat, were the aggrandizement of the previous
architecture consisting of a central mountain temple surrounded by smaller towers at the
cardinal points. With multiple enclosures and different level of terraces, the five towers
represented the Cakravatin Empire consisting of its Middle Kingdom and its four cardinal
states. One significant feature of the new architecture, more noticeable at Angkor Wat
than any other temples, was the presence of the Naga sculptures. Under the Buddhist and
Vishnuite influence, these Khmer nagas grew many heads out of the mouth of a Makara.
Each head represented a Naga clan formed by the Meru Culture and classified by the
Hindu culture: the Simha (lion), the Kala (Sura), the Guchasa (elephant) etc... Looking
closely one might notice the Buddhist wheel of Dharma right at the beginning of
spanning fan of the Naga heads. It was an integrated symbol of Naga races under the
influence of mixed cosmology of the Hindu Trinity. The Simha or Lion sculptures were
also noticeable, at the site of Angkor Wat, reflecting the importance of the Simha past
legacy of the Khmer Empire.

Lavo as the Angkorean Military Command Post

Another feature of Angkor Wat is the depiction on the hallway of each enclosure of bas-
reliefs depicting various themes of either related Hindu cosmology or specific events of
the Khmer Kingdoms. What standout from the rest of the depiction is a bas-relief that
actually portrays the Angkorean court under Suryavarman II himself. Its presentation was
of particular historical values that scholars attribute that division of the hallway as the
historical gallery of the temple (JA Tome II, VIII serie: Aymonier, Les Inscriptions en
vieux Khmer). The depiction is divided into many distinct partitions showing off the
military parades to the public. Under the watchful eyes of Suryavarman and his entire
court, different contingents displayed their military strength along with their

63
commanders. The first or lower partition depicted the corteges of the queens and
princesses with elaborate hair dresses of diadem with triple points. Five queens who were
placed in the front, laid themselves on palanquins with magnificent dais. We know that
one of them was the principal queen while the other fours were, according to the
Cakravatin tradition, the daughters of the four cardinal states. At the background,
princesses hit themselves in cabins covered by drape. They were observing the Khmer
tradition known as "entering in shade" which required young girls at the age of puberty to
be hidden in the shade out of public sight. At the higher partitions, lancers and archers
stood guard the royal audience. Brahmans with long hair knotted in Chignon sit
respectfully according to their ranks. Next came the depiction of the king himself. A
small inscription tells us that he was Suryavarman II assembling his troops on the mount
Civapada or mount Isvara.
Samtac Prah Pada Kamraten an Parama Viushnuloka na stac nau the vnam Civapada pi
pancuh vala.
The fact that the inscription was referring to Suryavarman II by his posthomus name, we
believe that the depiction was done after his death. As some parts were left unfinished,
we also believe that the building of Angkor Wat was then not completed during his reign.
Wearing the makuta or the diadem, he sat in a royal pose surrounded by fourteen
umbrellas. The inscription tells us that he is inspecting his troop. The depiction also
shows the army of Suryavarman II in different contingents marching in a parade with
each contingent has its own commander identified by a small inscription. A number of
umbrellas surrounded each one of them indicating their ranking. Most soldiers were
depicted with bare foot and bare torso. If they don't wear headdresses, the depiction
shows them with crew-cut style hair cut. Their armaments were spears, knives and
shields. On the other hand some contingents were depicted with specific discipline
showing that the Khmer army is a coalition of forces composed of recruits from different
cardinal and vassal states of the country. A small inscription of one of the contingents
tells us that it was about the conduction of Lavo army under the command of Sri Jaya-
Simhavarman.
Vrah kamraten An Sri Jaya Simhavarman Kamlun prey nam vala Lvo.
The army under Sri Jaya-Simhavarman was portrayed as having the same discipline and
uniform, exactly as the Angkorean army of Suryavarman II. What is interesting is the
portraying of Jaya-Simhavarman with seventeen umbrellas while other personalities of
the Angkorean court had at most twelve and Suryavarman II himself had only fourteen. It
is expected that Jaya-Simhavarman, as an obraja of the Angkorean Empire, had more
status than other dignitaries of the Angkorean court. However, the depiction of more
umbrellas suggests that his ranking was even above the younger Suryavarman II. It
indicates that in a cakravatin establishment, the ruler of the Middle Kingdom was not
always the supreme leader of the Empire. As we have seen, Dvaravati had been a cultural
inspiration and the political support of the Soma line for the previous Angkorean kings
and Lavo had been one of the strong cardinal states of the Angkorean Empire. This
arrangement explains the influence of Lavo over the Angkorean court and also the shake
off between the two when Suryavarman II decided to exert his full authority as a
Cakravatin monarch.

THE DEPENDENCY OF RAJAPATI

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The depiction on the wall of Angkor Wat reveals the solidarity of the Southern alliance
that reflects no serious skirmishes with the southern powerhouses. By now, evidences
show that Sri Dharmaraja, along with the hard core of the Sri Vijaya had been succumbed
and absorbed in Suryavarman II's internal circle either by force or by persuasion. The last
part of the bas-relief provides us with important information about the control of the
Angkorean court over Dvaravati of the Menam Valley. Complementing the rare
information from the Chinese texts, it shed light to the political aspects of the Angkorean
supremacy over northern Siam states during the reign of Suryavrman II.

The Siam Kut and the Siam Kuk

What could not be missed is the last depiction on the wall of Angkor was the section
under the label of "Syam Kut", apparently depicting non-Khmer troupes under their own
commander. The depiction shows contrast between a contingent of Siamese troupes with
the Khmer army of Angkor. Another small inscription identifies their commander as
"Anak rajyakaryya bhaga paman jen jhala ta nam Syam Kuk", a royal officer bearing the
title of the "bhaga paman Jen jhala" named "Siam Kuk". It is important to note the
difference between the two words "Siam kut" and "Siam Kuk" as the former was
referring to the whole Siamese contingent and the latter as part of the title of the Siamese
commander. We shall identify that the Siam Kuk (Gog), as referred to the Siamese
commander, was in general a reference to the Tai leadership of Western Kambojan stock
(The Meru Culture: The impact of Cinicization: The Identity crisis). On the other hand,
we had also identified that Siam Kut was a Khmer reference to a southern community of
the Menam Valley (Nokor Khmer: The Syam country: The Syam Kuti and Lawaratha).
Located around Ayudhya, Siam Kut was part of Sri Dhammaraja. The depiction portrays
the soldiers in the Syam Kut's contingent to be more primitive than the rest of the
Angkorean troupes and clearly less organized. Looking closely, they fit the description of
the Guchanaga warriors in various Chinese texts. Of their attire in consistency with the
Naga traditional vogue, we could identify them as Ligor' s warriors of Sri Dharmaraja.
When they came to the country for trading, Chinese merchants often had to interface with
Sri Vijayan soldiers and noticed their particular appearance in their memoirs of the
Southern Sea's empire. From their description, we are confident enough to identify the
depicted Siamese troupes of Angkor Wat to be the Sri Vijayan warriors, in joining Lavo
troops as part of the Angkorean army. Setting them apart from the Angkorean troops,
peacock and other exotic bird's feathers were used for decoration on both their spears and
headdresses. On the other hand, their skirts appear to be the same as the traditional Mon
or Malay "sarong" called "longyi" that was still in use until modern days. They were
recruited from southern indigenous naga tribesmen whose lifestyle was preserved until
modern days. Despite their primitive appearance, they were often mentioned in Chinese
Texts as of incomparable bravery. Chinese merchants were then advised not to mess
around with these Sri Vijayan Law enforcement officers. On the other token, evidences
show that the Siamese or Lao people of the northern countries were already adopting the
Khmer culture. Through Lavo, Xiang-Mai received the Khmer Culture long before the
creation of Haripangjaya. It could be checked out that their traditional dress consisting of
a larger piece of cloth wore with the front end passed between the legs and tied to the
back. Called in Khmer as "Kbin", the same apparel was good for both sex and was
common to all citizen of Angkor (Nokor Khmer: The Siam country: The customs). Had

65
they been recruited into the Khmer army they would blend in completely with the
depicted Lavo contingents. In the depicted military parade, it is expected that they wore
exactly the same uniform as the depicted Khmer and Lavo Soldiers were wearing. At the
time, we shall see that Suryavarman II had already subdued Xiang-Mai and was in the
process of reorganizing the whole northern region. As Lavo was now under his tight
control, evidences show still that the northern Siam countries were in disarray. It was due
in part to the fact that Haripangjaya emerged as a serious contender against Angkor since
the reign of Suryavarman I and sided itself with Ramandesa. As an inscription put it,
Suryavarman II himself went into the countries of his enemies to eclipse the glory of the
victorious Rashu who was the ancestor of Rama. It was referring to Ramanadesa that was
then under the last Triphuvanaditya's lineage of Kyansetha. There was no indication that
Suryavarman II succeeded in consolidating back Haripangjaya and other northern Siam
countries into the Khmer Cakravatin Empire during his reign. For concrete evidences
showing these northern Siam troops joining in the Khmer coalition army, we would have
to wait until later under the reign of Jayavarman VII when evidences show that
Ramandesa along with other northern Shan countries were absorbed under Angkorean
control. At the mean time, Suryavarman II still had more unrest to quiet down. As we
shall see, the challenge came from Champapura that was all along a cardinal state of
Angkor. The crisis stayed until the reign of Jayavarman VII, when many inscriptions
witness the coalition force of Pukam, Shan and Khmer troops fighting against Angkor' s
enemy, Annam.

The Conflict With Xiang-Mai

As the capital of Dvaravati, Lavo was always been the strategic center of the Angkorean
Empire. In connection with Siam internal affairs, evidences show that Lavo had very
much credential to exert its own control over the Siam Country. Chao-ju-Kua confirms in
his Chu-fou-chi when it was compiled in 1178 Chao-ju-Kua, that Lavo was the capital of
Chen-La (CJK: Kambuja (Chon-La): P.52). It explains why Lavo was often mentioned in
northern Siam tradition as a cakravati, instead of Angkor. Under the Mahidhara
leadership, the role of Lavo was still retained as the military command post of the new
Angkorean Empire. The depiction on the wall of Angkorwat confirms Lavo' s
dependency to Angkor during the reign of Suryavarman II. It was undoubtedly Jaya-
Simhavarman who wrested it from the control of Sri Vijaya. After the south had been
subdued and stabilized, evidences show that the priority of Suryavaramn II and his Guru
was shifted to the northern Siam Countries. The settlement of Divakara at Phnom Sandak
and the resuscitation of Phnom Prah Vihea as a new political center, reflect the new
policy of Angkor concerning its northern dependency. It was in conjunction with the
effort of Divakara as the governor of Rajapati to regroup the Cholan legacy back, during
the rest of his career in the Angkorean court. It also agrees with the Shan tradition of
commemorating the two celestial brothers, making their ways to make an extensive
conquest to the west (Notes: The Pong Chronicle). Working under the suzerainty of his
brother, Sam Long Pha extended the Shan dominion to cover up the ancient legacy of
Varadhana. This extensive campaign, in the effort to consolidate the Cholan territory
under Angkor however, created more impact on the last legacy of the Sri Vijaya that was
already settled over the northern Siam country (Notes: The Tai race). Retaliation from the
orthodox members of the Sri Vijayan clan, especially of Xiang-Mai was to be expected.

66
With no information, we only could speculate what was going to happen next during the
late reign of King Suryavarman II. While Jaya Simhavarman succeeded to stabilize most
of the southern provinces, Xiang-Mai started to rebel and induce treats to the new king
and his Cholan court. To recall back, Xiang-Mai was part of Aninditapura and was the
seat of the Parama-kings who were important players in the early formation of Angkor. In
close connection with the Sri Vijayan establishment of the Menam Valley,
Lawasangharatha was the progenator of Angkor's most powerful cardinal state. The
locality of Prey Sla (Betel Forest), in particular, was connected to both royal and the Lord
Guru 's family members of the previous Angkorean court. Following the cult of Devaraja
that became the crowning procedure of Angkor, it was a direct family member of Lord
Guru Silvakaivalia who took care the coronation of the Angkorean monarch. During the
attack of Angkor by King Suryavarman I, the family of Lord Guru was also targeted but
had survived the assault. They were reinstated back and continued to perform their works
until at least the reign of Udayadityavarman II. The inscription of Stock Kak Thom
indicates that Jayendrapandita still hold high position in the court of the latter. However,
the merging with the Chola and the appointment of Divakara as the royal guru of
Suryavarman II, would hint the end of Jayendrapandita 's legacy in the court of Angkor.
Our speculation is that they were following Jayavarman VI to Sri Dhammaraja and then
came back to reinstate his eldest brother Dharnindravarman I to the throne of Angkor.
This maneuver obviously clashed with the youthful Suryavarman II who, under the
tutelage of his Guru Divakarapandita, was also contending for the Angkorean throne. To
no avails, the strong leadership of Suryavarman II would not let the insubordination
happened. An inscription of Prah Vihear reveals a measure that concerned specific re-
enforcement of order, conducted by Suryavarman II and his Guru Divakarapandita on
Xiang-Mai.
Concerning the villages and family estates of the lord Parama-guru who had committed
faults, such as the village of Prey Sla, family of lord ... deva, and the village of Kantin,
which the kings had given to gods, the venerable lord Guru Sri Divakarapandita made
appeal to the royal favor. His Majesty redeemed them all and all the guilty ones... again
as henceforward.
The lord Parama-guru of the passage was undoubtedly a member of the last Angkorean
elite and a family's member of the late guru lord Jayendrapandita. Under the
condemnation, the people of Xiang-Mai, along with family's members of the Param-
Guru, were put under strict control of Angkor and received harsh treatment. It was a
punishment known of the Khmer tradition against any members of its Cakravatin Empire,
found guilty of insubordination. In normal circumstances, both the rulers and the people
were treated as war-slave until the condemnation was lifted. In their own history, the
Xiang-Mai chronicle recorded no events during the reign of King Lao Chun and Lao
Meng of Xiang-Mai. Considering that Suryavarman II was carrying a strict measure on
them, it is understandable that Xiang-Mai was not in a position to challenge the
Angkorean punishment. The emergence of Lao Meng's son, king Mangrai who rose-up
later along with Rama-Kamheang and king Ngam-Muang to form a pact against the
Angkorean Empire during the Mongol's incursion, however suggests a retaliation against
the condemnation by the late Angkorean court.

The Reestablishment of Muang Nan

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The Nan Chronicle is by far the only chronicle that dedicates Nan as a country of its own
right (Notes: The Nan Chronicle). The chronicle started from the formation of Muang
Chandapura (Vieng-chan) and Muang Varanagara (later became Muang Pua) to satisfy
the need of two princely brothers by the ruler of the Phukha Dynasty. The mentioning of
the two brothers, hatched from two eggs in the story line reflects the obscure background
of the next rulers of Nan and Vieng-Chan. Found by a hunter, the two eggs were handed
over to Phraya Phukha.
While resting under the tree, he (the hunter) saw two large eggs the size of Coconuts. He
picked them up and brought them to Phraya Phukha.
As usual, the compiler of the chronicle used myth to hideout the obscurity when dealing
with unclear historical facts. The formation of Vieng-Chan, as we had seen dated back
since the Han when it was built around the same time that the Han took hold oy Yunnan
(Sakadvipa: The Cham Countries: Yueh-tiao and the kingdom of the Chan). On the other
hand, Varanagara appears to be a legacy of Varadhana (Hiong-Wang in Chinese source)
that dated back since the antiquity. Nevertheless, the Nan Chronicle makes a reference to
Muang Phukha (Puga) or Muang Yang to be the progenator of both city-states. The
chronicle also referred to Phraya Phukha as an authority figure of Muang Yang, but left
his real identity very much in the dark. His obscure background leads us to believe that
Phraya Phukha's origin was not local to the Shan country. Two neighboring powerhouses
that might be his home country were Pagan and Angkor. However the Glass Palace
Chronicle had made it clear that Muang Maw was a threat to Anuruddha when he was
ruling over Ramandesa (Ramandesa: The Angkorean Connection: The frontier cities). It
is implying that Phrya Phukha could not be from the court of Pagan, but was from the
court of Angkor instead. We shall identify him as no other than Rajapativarman of the
Khmer inscriptions of Prah Vihea who was then the governor of Muang Yang.
Chronologically, the event was in conjunction with the formation of Rajapati as an
Angkorean control-post of northern Siam Countries. After stabilizing Xiang-Mai,
Suryavarman II was in the mission to take back the Shan country. The reestablishment of
Muang Nan and Vieng-Chan, as we shall see, was a strategic move to secure the northern
part of the Angkorean Empire. Of the court of Nan, descended Vidyanandana who spent
most of his youth at Angkor and would be instrumental in the reorganization of the
Angkorean Empire during the reign of Jayavarman VII (Nokor Thom: The restoration of
Angkor: Vidyanandana-Suryavarmadeva). Another Shan source that might provide us
with additional information about Muang Yang or Muang Mao is the Pong chronicle. The
chronicle was found at Manipura and was likely compiled by the displaced court from
Srasvati. The fact that it is known as the Pong chronicle refers that the Shan states were
part of Vanga or the Pong's Kingdom. It supports our assumption that Vanga was initially
the same as Nokor Phnom (known in Chinese as the Shan country). Under the occupation
of the Han, we had argued that the original Cholan rulers were driven down to Prey
Nokor while the rest was retracted to Manipura. The Pong chronicle places the epicenter
of the Shan Country not at Manipura, but at Muang Yang (Notes: The court of Vanga).
Identified as Rajapati in Khmer inscriptions, Muang Yang reappeared in the history of
Angkor starting from Suryavarman I' s reign. The formation of Muang Yang was actually
a part of the Angkorean Empire, in the resuscitation of the ancient Shan legacy (of Nokor
Phnom) back under the Khmer control (Nokor Thom: The new development of the Shan
Country: The dependency of the Shan Mao country). Mimicking the Tai and Northern

68
Lao tradition of Khun Borom and Khun Lo, the Pong Chronicle introduces two celestial
brothers Khun Lung and Khun Lai to become the next kingship of the Shan country
(SSBA: Appendix II: The story of Mung-Mau: P. IX). As we had identified Khun Borom
and his brother Khun Lo as the Angkorean God King Paramesvara and Triphuvanesvara
of the Sailendra royal house, we shall do the same for Khun Lung and Khun Lai of the
Shan chronicle. Their legacies were carried on through their descendants, Khun Kam-Pha
of Kambojan stock and Khun Sam-Lung-Pha of the Cham stock of whch the Shan legacy
was just confirming the Sri Vijayan and the Cholan ancestry of its two ruling classes.
That might have been started before the dynastic crisis since through their recent works
on Rajapati, we know that both Suryavarman I and II had implanted their own family
members in northern Shan countries to strengthen the Angkorean control up north.
Another important event that links to the next return of the Cholan court was also hinted
in the Shan chronicle. While the two celestial brothers were at first indecisive in their role
of ruling the earth, the chronicle comments on the third prospector who through better
preparation became ruler of Mithilda (China).

THE SPLIT WITH CHAMPAPURA

The success of Suryavarman II's aggressive expansion had unfortunately its dark effect.
Done mainly through military conquest, the expansion created its own dilemma. During
the progression, internal skirmishes intensified. During the early phase of his reign, he
had to face the resistance from the Sri Vijayan court. Nevertheless, we shall see that the
real challenge came from his own Cholan side of the family. Being a Cakravatin
monarch, Suryavarman II had to adhere to the interest of the Middle Kingdom and the
independence of Champapura would not fit into his ambitious agenda. He spent the rest
of his life trying unsuccessfully to bring Champapura back to the Angkorean control.

The Split with Champapura

While the depiction on the wall of Angkor shows cooperation of Sri Dhammaraja with
his court, Champapura was on the other hand not in the same picture. As soon as it was
delegated to the Cholan court, Champapura became increasingly restless while looking
for its own independence. The concentration of the Cholan clan in Champapura, this time
with Vishnuite orthodoxy, allowed the Cham legacy to revive itself and to seek its
political secession from the Angkorean Empire. The situation worsened by the emergence
of Annam as a free agent during the down turn of China's central authority. As we
recalled back, Annam was formed by the Han Dynasty as a southern commanding post of
China. Following the fall of the Tang Dynasty, China was broken into different factions
allowing local rulers to exercise direct authority on their own terms. According to Chao-
Ju-Kua, Annam was kept still as a command Post of China until the policy was last
reviewed by the Song Dynasty.
The various dynasties (of China) kept troops continually stationed (in Kiau-chi) although
the revenue (derived from it) were extremely small, while the military occupation was at
the contrary was extremely expensive. (CJK: Kiar-Chi: P.45)
The cost had proved to be too much for the Song dynasty to justify keeping Tongkin as a
military command post.
In view of these facts the government of our present dynasty, out of the affection for the
army and for the veal of the poor humanity, deemed it advisable that our troops should

69
 no longer be kept in this pestilential climate for the purpose of guarding such an
unprofitable territory, and in consequence the territory was held merely for the collection
of tribute. (CJK: Kiar-Chi: P.45)
The change from a costly command post to a tribute-paying vassal of China explains the
next activities of Annam in regard to its new southern neighbor. Under the Sung Dynasty,
Annam needed revenue to pay tribute to China in addition of sustaining its own cost.
Their military strength was what becoming the main source of their survival mean of
income and Champapura became their first target. Inducing Champapura into the political
conflict with the Angkorean court was the first step that Annam could do to break
Champapura from the protection of Angkor. Suryavarman II obviously saw the
intervention of the free-agent Annam as a serious treat to both Champapura and Angkor.
In 1128, he led 20,000 men to invade Nghe-An but was driven out by Ly-Cong-Binh
soon after. Suryavarman renewed his attack by sending out a fleet of more than 700
vessels to pillage the coasts of Tan-hoa. In the campaign, he dragged along the Champa
King Harivarman to joint the fight with Tonkin. Again, the Annamete garrisons of Nhe-
An and Thanh-hoa united under the command of Duong Anh-nhe drove them out. After
the fight, Champa was apparently making a pact with Annam and when Suryavarman II
launched the next campaign in 1138, the Champa King Harivarman refused to take any
more part in the fight. At the contrary, he sent tribute to the Emperor Ly-Than-tong in the
beginning of 1131 to settle their alliance. Realizing that the ruler of Champa had betrayed
him, Suryavarman II decided to launch a campaign against him in 1145. The Angkorean
army captured Champapura, seized Vijaya and apparently ended the control of
Harivarman. Unfortunately, he failed to establish control over the rebellious Cham court
and with more intervention from Tongkin, Champa was drifting away from the
Angkorean control. When another Champa king named Jaya Harivarman I established
himself in the south at Pandaranga in 1147, Suryavarman II sent another army to attack
him in 1148. He commissioned Senapati Sankara to lead an army, composing of both
Cham and Khmer troops to unsezt the Cham King, but was defeated on the plain of
Rajapura. Another campaign with more troops apparently did not produce better result.
As soon as Suryavarman II installed his brother in law, prince Harideva to be the ruler of
Vijaya, the Cham king Jaya Harivarman marched on Vijaya and threw the Khmer ruler
off from power. The defeat ended once for all Suryavarman's attempts to bring
Champapura back into the Angkorean control. In cooperation with Annam, Champapura
succeeded to outmaneuver military campaigns carried by Suryavarman II to take back the
control of the region. Angkor's last fight against Annam also took a worst turn. Without
support for ground troops and a relay station for fresh supplies from Champapura, the
Angkorean troops arrived at Nhe-An so weak that they had to withdraw without fighting.
After the obscure end of Suryavarman II's reign, the Angkorean court was virtually
broken down. As internal fighting intensified, the attempts to unify back the Cakravatin
Empire faced with a serious setback. The next Angkorean monarchs spent most of their
time curbing uprisings and succumbed in the process.

Reference:

1. ISSA: The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, by G. Coedes

70
2. AInd: Ancient India, by R.C. Majumdar
3. SSBA:The Shan State and the British Annexation, by Sao Saimong Mangrai
4. IPV:Inscriptions Of Cambodia VI: Inscriptions of Prah Vihar, by G. Coedes
5. SICC:JSS: Sanskrit Inscriptions of Campa and Cambodia: Phnom Prah Vihear, by M.
Abel Bergaigne
6. IPS:BEFEO XLII: The Steles of Phnom Sandak (K.194) and of Prah Vihar (K. 383), by
G. Coedes
7. NDORK:BEFEO XXVIII: Novelles Donnees sur les Origines du Royaume Khmer: pp.
219-220, by G. Coedes

Notes:

1. Chronology
330-1204 1261-1453: Constantinople as the capital of the Roman Bizantine; 1006-1050:
The reign of Suryavarman I; 1044-1053: The reign of Rajadhiraja I (Chola); 1050: The
reign of Udayadityavarman; 1080-1107: The reign of Jayavarman VI; 1103: Probable
reign of Kyanzittha; 1107-1113: The reign of Dharanindravarman; 1070-1122: The reign
of Rajendra III (Chola); 1113-1145/1150: The reign of Suryavarman II; 1166-1178: The
reign of Rajadhiraja II (Chola);
2. The Legacy of Angkor
Since the formation of Angkor, the title of Rajadhiraja (the king of kings) was an
Angkorean tradition referring to a Cakravatin Monarch. On the other hand, the titles
Rajaraja or Rajendra was typical of Cholan tradition. The emergence of Rajadhiraj on the
throne of Cola suggests that he was from Angkor. More study might reveal his true
identity. He could be Suryavarman I himself who during the last part of his reign, ruled
also the Cholan Empire. He also could be a successor of the last Angkorean king
Jayavarman V who was ousted in 1002 from the Angkorean court. Considering that the
two antagonist houses merged later proved of their common origin. The remaining
question is how and when the reconciliation was taking place.
3. Rajendradevakulottanga
Kulottanga I, the son of the Eastern Chalukya king, Rajaraja, had a great deal of Cholan
ancestry in him. His father's mother was the daughter of Rajaraja the Great, his own
mother was the daughter of the great Rajendra Chola Gangaikonda, and he had married
the daughter of Rajendra, the victor of Koppan (AInd: Chapter XIII, South India: The
Cholas: Rajadhiraja).
4. The Pong Chronicle
Among Southeast Asian kingdoms, we had argued that the Shan country was one of the
ancient countries of the Mainland Indochina since the Great Flood (The Man Race: The
Himalayan Culture: The Shan people). Its modern history however was made obscure by
the interference of the Mongbol's incursion and the transplant of Tai identity in the
Mainland Indochina. The Pong Chronicle was so far the only one chronicle that would
connect back the Shan country to its origin that was at the footstep of mount Himalaya
where they once shared the Flood Myth with Manipura (SSBA: Appendix II: Some
Earlier Shans: P.27).
The most famous so far, of such chronicles is not that of any of our own Shan States, but
of the Kingdom of Pong.

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 We shall identify that the Kingdom of Pong was no other than Vanga centered at
Manipura where the Pong Chronicle was discovered from.
The Pong Chronicle was discovered by Captain R.D. Pemberton of the Indian Army who
was sent to Manipur on intelligence work in the early 1830's.
5. The Tai vs the Cham
Dated around the Christian era, the incursion of western Kambojan leadership into
Southeast Asia brought the Tai culture to spread over the Lawa tribesmen of northern
Siam countries. The Angkorean Empire was formed by consolidating the Tai legacy of
the Sri Vijaya and the Cham legacy of the Chola under the Khmer Culture. Until the
Dynastic crisis, Angkor became the Middle Kingdom controlling the Tai world of Soma
Culture in the west and the Cham (Chola) world of Vishnuite Culture in the east. As we
had argued, this arrangement that constituted the backbone of the Sumerian cosmogony
allowed the Khmer Empire to thrive during the krita (or satya) time frame but suffered
during the Kala period.
6. The Court of Vanga
Inheriting the legacy of Kiao-tche, Vanga had its political center settlement according to
political dynamic of Surrounding. Under the Angkorean control, Rajapati or Muang Yang
was conveniently chosen because of its proximity to Angkor. During the Mongol
incursion, we shall see that Vanga moved its court back to Manipura of Bengal.
(Sokhodaya: The Mongol's affair: The fall of Pagan).
7. The Nan Chronicle
Compiled in 1894 by Senluang Ratchasomphan, an official at the court of Nan in 1894,
the chronicle includes in part I, the history of the Yonok Chiang-saen Dynasty from
which the Nan rulers claimed to be descended from.
8. The next Development of Moung Mau
The Chronicle appears to support the Nan Chronicle ablout the next development of
Moung mau.
But however this may have been during Anuratha's lifetime, certainly the succeeding
kings of Mau were entirely independent, and they appear to have reigned in peace and
unbroken succession until the death Pam-Yau-Pung in AD 1210, when a third influx of
Khun Lung's posterity occurred in the person of Chau-Ai-Mo-Kam-Neng of the race of
Kun-su of the race of Maing-Kaing Maing-Nyaung.(SSBA: Appendix II: The story of
Mung-Mau: P. IX)
We shall refer Chau-Ai-Mo-Kam-Neng to no other that Jayavarman VII ().
9. The Decline of the Chola
The decline of the Chola might have been started after the death of Rajadhiraja (1044-
1053) in the battle with the Chalukya. It continued on during the reign of Rajendra III
(1246-1279) who ruled as the feudally of the Pandya. The last legacy of the Chola
Empire was ended, after the invasion of Malik Naib Kafu in 1310.
10. The title of Maharajadhiraja
Etymologically the title Maharajadhiraja (Maharaja-rajadhiraja) is the concatenation of
Maharaja and Rajadhiraja. Traditionally, Rajadhiraja is the crown title of the Choladhara
king while Maharaja is on the other hand the title of Mahodhara king. In short, the title
refers to the suzerainty of both Choladhara and Mahadhara.
11. The King Devanika
Coedes wrote:

72
 All those characteristics that belong to the Pallava scripture of the 5th century, were
found in the most ancient inscription of Funan, that of Gunavarman, that appears to be
dated at the 2nd half of that century. In all the finding, the inscription of Vat Luong-Kau
could not be posterior to the 2nd half of that century. (NDORK: p. 211)
Nevertheless, Coedes himself could not answer the following question:
The question is now to place in which lineage the king Devanika whose name is found in
the puranic tradition among the ancestors of Rama. (NDORK: p. 212)
The Rama's connection places the king Devanika in Vishnuite clan of the Cholan Empire.
Even though Gunavarman was Visnuite, we know that the rest of immediate family
members of Kaundinya were Sivaite-Buddhist.
12. The original Kuruksettra
Etymologically, KurKsettra (Kuru-Ksettra) menas the country of the Kuru kings.
Originally it was Yunnan that was formed as part of Varadhana. During the spread of the
Sun culture, Kuruksettra had been seen implanting itself around the world. The last of
Kuruksettra implantation was at Gangetic India when the Chola took refuge during the
dynastic crisis.
13. Jayavarman V as leader of the Cholan Consortium
Our conjecture about Jayavarman V is that after taking refuge at Haripangjaya, he joined
the Chola consortium and became known as Rajaraja. His immediate family on the hand
stayed in the court of Haripangjaya and Lampang to be merged later with the family
members of the Cucumber king Nyang Sarahan (The Break down of the Cakravatin
Empire: The Legacy of Ramandesa: The Lineage of the Sweet Cucumber King)
14. The Title of Maharajadhiraja
The inscriptions of Mi-Son witness the transition of power occurring at Champapura
along with two other strategic regions of Prey-Nokor, Virapura and Sri Vijaya (MI-SON:
Inscription found in front of the big temple: Face D: P.939-940). From these inscriptions,
scholars were able to compile a new list of kings during the transition at the Angkorean
court from Mahidhara to the Chola legacy. Among the rulers of Champapura, let alone of
Wat Phu (Champasaka), none claimed themselves as the king of king, unless he
established himself on the Angkor throne as a cakravatin monarch.

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