language nt + learn to understand and write sanskrit + progress quickly beyond the basics | - explore the language in depthteach yourself sanskrit michael coulson revised by richard gombrich and james benson For over sixty years, more than 50 million people have learnt over 750 subjects the teach yourself results.publisher and the author ‘no responsibility for the websites ‘can make no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content will remain relevant, decent or Ot 458. por: At 1236 rT TaD, Fax: 44 (0) 1235 AOE A |). Lines are open tour message answering sere. Dts For USA order enquiries: please contact sacle tl oven Box 545, Blacklick, OH 43004-0545, USA Telephone: 1-800-722-4726. Fax: 1-614-755-5645. First published in US 1992 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ‘This edition published 2003. ‘The Teach Yourself name is a registered trade mark of Hodder & Stoughton Ltd. storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the ‘or under licence from Licensing Agency Limited. Further. details of ‘such licences (for reprogt reproduction) tay be obtained from the Copyright Licensing Agency Limited, of House, 6~1 Street, London, EC1N 8TS. tere oom pa Ss ema re ri 0 ‘publication reproduced or distributed or stored Ina database or retievel system, ‘tout the por wien permisson of Road, London, NW1 3BH, by Cox & Wyman Ltd, ' Tllr Ws pees i bs toesl sales tee. ieee ms pe made from wood grown in st forests. The loggingabbreviations vill preface ix Introduction xill using this book wall 01 The nagari script. Vowels, anusvara, visarga. Consonants, stops, nasals, semivowels, sibilants, h. Conjunct consonants. Other signs. Numerals. Transliteration. Prosody. List of conjunct consonants. 1 02 Roots and verb classes. Vowel gradation. Classes |, {WV and VI. Present indicative. Prefixes. Sandhi. Use of the sandhi grids. Sandhi of final ¢ and bh. Punctuation of vowel sandhi. ca, Iva, kim and iti. 21 @3 Nouns and pronouns. Nominative, accusative and vocative cases. Substantives and adjectives. Irregularities of external sandhi. Nominal sentences. Word order. Iva. Dvandva compounds. 37 04 Past participle. Instrumental case. saha. Past passive sentences. Omission of pronouns. eva. egah. va. latam, alam and kim. Adverbs of manner. Internal sandhi. Retroflexion of s and n. Absence of extemal sandhi. 47 05 The cases: dative, ablative, genitive, locative. Expressions of time. ayam. Pronominal adjectives. kaé cit and ko >pi. as ‘be’. bhi ‘be’. ‘To have’. ‘To feel’. Absolutive. khalu. Sandhi of finaln andt+§. 59 06 Feminine gender. Determinative compounds, depend- ent and descriptive. Prepositions. Action nouns in a. Ambiguities of external sandhi. n $}U9}U09 [:)10 n 12 13 14 6 Consonant stems. Feminines in ¥. Causatives. Class X verbs. Karmadhdraya prefixes. piirva. Compounds of more than two members and their use. Use of gata. Changeable consonant stems. Exocentric com- Pounds: bahuvrihi. ‘Called’. Stman. svayam. Predicative accusatives. Action nouns in ana. sanwrtta. ‘Palace’, ‘temple’. Stems in I and u. Stems in vant and mant. Atmanepada. vartate. Past active participle. Exocentric compounds: prepositional (including ‘a_, als_ and yath’_)—avyayibhava. Polite forms of address. janah in compounds. distya. Denominative verbs. Vrddhi derivatives. Stems in 7 and ii. Stems in In. in as a verbal suffix. Present participle. mahant. enam. Stem forms in composition. The imperative. Abstract nouns. Exclamations. ‘Containing’. Verbal nouns in ti. Stems in ¢. [Periphrastic future.] The suffix tra. The passive. Locative absolute. Relative pronoun. Analysis of bahuvrthis. Attributively used adverbs. Pronominal table. The suffix tah. Numerals. Concord. Nominative with Iti. métra. Athematic presents (II, V and VIII). Gerundives. kr and compounds of kr/bhi. Relative adverbs: clauses of place, manner and time. The suffix vat. visesah. Reduplication. Presents of classes III, Vil and IX. The infinitive. The future. Relative adverbs: noun-clauses and clauses of reason, result, condition, concession etc. asau. adi ‘etc.’ ajfidpayatl/vijfapayati. The imperfect. The optative. Remote conditions. Comparatives and superlatives. Constructions with ttl. Clauses of command. Interrogative clauses. Word repetition. ‘The perfect. The aorist. The injunctive. The precative. ahan. antaram. Sastrapani etc. Metre (the anustubh; even metres; semi-even metres; the Arya). The Kumira-sambhava. Mallinatha's commentary. P&ninian grammar. Quotations from literary critics. 11 124 139 157 170 188appendix 1: further Sanskrit study appendix 2: grammatical paradigms Nouns: vowel stems; consonant stems. Pronouns. Numerals. Verbs: general view of the verb; present para- digms; perfect; aorist and precative; principal parts of verbs. appendix 3: classical metres Sanskrit-English exercises: transcription Sanskrit-English exercises: key English-Sanskrit exercises: Roman key English-Sanskrit exercises: nagarl key Sanskrit-English vocabulary English-Sanskrit vocabulary English index ‘Sanskrit index 88 #888 374 394 399 vilAbbreviations: abl. = ablative; acc. = accusative; adj. = adjective; caus. = causative; f(em). = feminine; gen. = genitive; indef. = in- ; inf. = infinite; intrans. = intransitive; irreg. = irregular; m(asc). = ‘= masculines n(eut). = neuter; part. = participle; pass. = passive; pl. = plural; poss. = possessive; prep. = preposition; pres. = present; s(in)g. = singular; trans. = transitive. =e Oo = ” yeinssqae aThe plan, scope and length of this book have been determined primarily by the aim of enabling students to cope as rapidly as possible with straightforward Classical Sanskrit texts. The mate- rial has been drawn almost entirely from the Sanskrit (not Prakrit) prose dialogue of the major dramas, extracted onto cards and then graded according to the main morphological and syntactical features that required explanation. From Chapter 6 onwards all the sentences of the exercises and all the more elaborate examples given in the chapters themselves are taken without change from actual Sanskrit works. While the intention is to provide an intro- duction to the Classical language in general, because of the nature of the bulk of the material the book is, in the first place, a guide to Sanskrit dramatic prose; and it is probable that I have some- times incautiously presented as generally valid points of usage that really hold good only of the Classical dramatists. Existing Sanskrit primers tend to be admirably systematic in their presentation of the complicated morphology of Sanskrit ich includes a mass of verb forms little used by most writers) but rather cursory in their treatment of such basic facts of life as the prevalence of nominal constructions and compound forma- tions. The student may get the misleading impression that Classical Sanskrit syntax is very similar to that of Latin and Greek, and emerge well drilled in the varieties of athematic in- flexion and yet quite unprepared, for instance, for such simple discoveries as the fact that someone in a play, speaking from the heart, instead of saying ‘Thank God my children are alive’ can and does say (literally) ‘Thank God I am alive-childed’. In the present book thorough drilling in all the forms of declension and conjugation has been a secondary consideration, and the student will therefore benefit from a certain self-discipline in memoris- ing accurately the paradigms introduced into each chapter. In soejeid Glpart this shift of emphasis (though I think it desirable at any rate) has been dictated by the use of real Sanskrit material: sec- ond-person dual atmanepada forms are not particularly thick on the ground whether in plays or in texts of any other kind. Serious inadequacy in this respect is, however, prevented by the fact that grammatical forms once introduced continue to be il- lustrated and required throughout the book: each exercise con- tains a natural element of revision of all previous exercises. It is particularly students without a teacher who need a fuller ex- planation of Sanskrit syntax and idiom than existing primers give, and so I have been happy to model this book upon the Teach Yourself volumes which I myself in the past have found so helpful and stimulating. At the same time it seemed practical to assume a somewhat greater degree of sophistication in potential students of Sanskrit than in students proposing to teach them- selves a language such as French. Someone who has never previ- ously learnt a foreign language will probably find the early chapters rather heavy going unless he is fairly bright. A significant proportion of readers are likely to have some acquaintance with either Latin or Greek, and so I have cited parallels where these seemed illuminating, but knowledge of either language on the part of all readers is in no way assumed. In passing it is perhaps worth stating plainly that the present work is essentially intended to be an entirely ‘synchronic’ study of Classical Sanskrit: occasional ref- erences to the earlier history of the language, whether at the Vedic or Indo-European stage, have been introduced where it seemed that they might help to emphasise or clarify the point under dis- cussion. Undoul some readers would prefer more of such references, other less. For reasons of both convenience and economy, the use of the nagari script is discontinued in the body of the text after the first five chapters. Ample practice in reading and writing the script continues to be provided in the exercises. Many people have given help and advice during the long and la- borious period of preparation of this book. A particularly deep debt of gratitude is due to the following: to Dr. Richard Gombrich, of Oxford, for detailed comment and unfailing sym- pathy and encouragement over many years; to Mr. C. A. Rylands, formerly of the School of Oriental and African Studies in London, for reading with a quite remarkably sharp eye much of the final draft, and for giving me in many acute observations the fruits of his years of experience as a teacher of Sanskrit; to my colleague at Edinburgh Mr. W. E. Jones, for much patient andcareful discussion of the first two chapters; and to Mrs. Elizabeth Kelsall, without whose competent editorial assistance I should still be struggling to get the book finished. Much error has been eliminated with the help of these friends and of the stu- dents with whom I have used the work in draft form. I am keenly conscious that many imperfections remain. Edinburgh, January 1973 Note: Dr. Coulson died before this book could be published. Dr. Gombrich has seen it through the press; he wishes to thank Miss Elizabeth Christie for her help with the proof-reading.Sanskrit is a member of the Indo-European family of ages to which most of the languages of Europe (including, for in- stance, English, Welsh, Latin and Greek) also belong. These have all evolved from a single language (or, more immediately, a group of closely related dialects), namely ‘Primitive Indo- European’ or just ‘Indo-European’, spoken in about the third millennium Bc, of which no direct record remains. The original Indo-European speakers seem to have been tribes inhabiting the plains of Eastern Europe, particularly the area north of the Black Sea (archaeological remains in the South Russian Steppes are in harmony with this supposition), from where migration subse- quently occurred in many directions. With the discovery of Hittite, Sanskrit has ceased to be the oldest recorded Indo- European language: but for many reasons, including the fact that Hittite separated early from the main Indo-European stock, Sanskrit remains of central importance to the student of the his- tory of the Indo-European languages. Sanskrit belongs, more specifically, to the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. The other most important member of this branch is Persian. The earliest Indo-Iranian speakers are conve- niently known as Aryans, from the name which they gave them- selves (Sanskrit arya, Avestan airya—from the latter the modern- name Iran is derived, while the name Eire, at the other end of the Indo-European spectrum, may also be cognate). Although it is reasonable to assume that the original homeland of the Aryan tribes was to the north of the Caucasus, our earliest record of them comes neither from this region nor from the Indo-Iranian area but from south of the Caucasus, from the Mitanni kingdom of Northern Mesopotamia, where a ruling dynasty bearing Aryan names and worshipping Aryan gods such as Indra’had es- tablished itself in the first half of the second millennium sc. onpowqui & = =n -xiv However, the main movement of Aryan migration was not south but east into Central Asia, and from there by separate penetra- tions into Iran and India. Thereafter the Aryans of Iran and the Aryans of India went their separate ways both culturally and lin- guistically. The oldest stage of Iranian is represented by Avestan, the sacred language of the Zoroastrians, and by Old Persian, the dialect used in the cuneiform inscriptions of the Achaemenian gs. In India, a highly evolved and urbanised civilisation had existed long before the coming of the Aryans. This was the ‘Indus Valley Civilisation’, known to us in particular from excavations at Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, and dating from at least the mid- dle of the third millennium. The culture was stable over a long period, and literate. It came to a sudden end, and it is tempting in the extreme to attribute its destruction to the coming of the Aryans. However, an awkward time gap exists, and has not yet been successfully explained, for the Indus civilisation seems to have perished in about 1700 BC and there is no evidence that the Aryans reached India before the latter half of the second millen- nium. The survival in Baluchistan up to the present day of a Dravidian language, Brahui, so far from what is now the main Dravidian area in Southern India, makes it reasonable to conclude that before the arrival of the Aryans Dravidian was spoken over a much wider area, and the suggestion has naturally been made that the inhabitants of the Indus cities spoke a Dravidian language. At present this remains unproved, unless recent claims of successful decipherment of the Indus script are accepted, and other non- Aryan language families do exist in India, most notably the group of Munda lai ges. Although the language of the Aryans established itself over most of Northern India, it seems that in the long run the Aryans were affected both culturally and linguistically by the peoples they conquered, and Dravidian and Munda influences (particularly the former) can be traced in the development of Sanskrit itself. The speech introduced by the Aryans into India developed and diversified, and the major modern languages of Northern India are descended from it. The generic term for such languages is Indo-Aryan. One may conveniently divide the development of Indo-Aryan into three stages: Old, Middle and Modern. Old Indo-Aryan is equivalent to Sanskrit only in the widest sense of the latter term, and is divided principally between Vedic and the later Classical Sanskrit. Our record of Old Indo-Aryanbegins with the hymns of the Rgveda, which date back to at least 1000 BC and are the product of a considerable literary skill. That they were composed a fair time after the arrival of the Aryans in India is shown both by the absence of any reference to a home- land outside India and by divergences, principally phonetic, in the language itself from what can be reconstructed as the com- mon Indo-Iranian tongue. Intermediate between the language of the Rgveda and that of the Classical period is the language of the Brahmanas, prose works which seek to interpret the mystical significance of the Vedic ritual, the earliest of them written well before the middle of the first millennium Bc, The Upanisads are a part of the Brahmana literature. With the passage of time the language of even the educated priestly class diverged more and more from that of the sacred hymns themselves, and it became increasingly a matter of con- cern that the hymns should be transmitted without corruption, in order to preserve their religious efficacy. Consequently, a study began to be made of the principles of linguistic, and more particularly of phonetic, analysis. From this developed a gram- matical science which concerned itself not only with the sacred language but also with contemporary educated speech. The grammar of Panini, the Astadhyayl, usually attributed to the urth century BC, is evidently the culmination of a long and so- phisticated grammatical tradition, though the perfection of his own work caused that of his predecessors to vanish. In less than 4000 sittras, or brief aphorisms (supplemented on points of de- tail by the grammarian Katyayana), he analyses the whole phonology and morphology of Sanskrit. He anticipates much of the methodology of modern formal grammar: his grammar is generative and in some respects transformational. It cannot, however, be compared very directly with modern grammars, since its form is geared to the needs of oral transmission, and Panini could not avail himself of the mathematical symbols and typographical conventions of the written page. The work was so brief that it could be recited from beginning to end in a cou- ple of hours. It was so comprehensive and accurate that it quickly became the final authority on all questions of correct usage. By Classical Sanskrit is meant essentially the language codified by Panini. The formal differences between Vedic and Classical Sanskrit are not enormous. Phonologically, the most obvious is a difference of sandhi, whereby for instance a trisyllable such as viriam (or viriyam) becomes a disyllable viryam. Morphologically, the wealth of inflected forms is somewhat reduced, for instance bythe disappearance of the subjunctive. In vocabulary a fair number of ancient Aryan words are lost, but the loss is far outweighed by the acquisition of of enormous numbers of words from non-Aryan sources, Classical Sanskrit is based on a more easterly dialect of Old Indo-Aryan than is the Rgveda, as is shown by the fact that it contributes a number of words which preserve an original Indo- European |, where the Rgvedic dialect (in common with Iranian) changes this sound to r: thus both Vedic raghd ‘swift, light’ and Classical Sanskrit laghu sight, nimble’ are cognate with Greek Sabha Oren Old Indo-Aryan dialects existed; we have no direct record of them, but from them various dialects of Middle Indo- Aryan evolved. The beginnings of Middle Indo-Aryan antedate Panini, for the speech of the ordinary people had been evolving faster than that of the educated classes. The term samskrta means ‘polished, (grammatically) correct’, and is in contrast with prakrta ‘(speech) of the common people’. Just as Sanskrit interpreted in a wide sense may conveniently stand for Old Indo-Aryan, so Prakrit, interpreted cqually widely, may stand for Middle Ince Aryan. More narrowly, three stages of Middle Indo-. be distinguished. The first is represented by Pali, the only indian language in which the earliest Buddhist scriptures have been preserved on a large scale, and by the dialects used in the in- scriptions of the emperor Aéoka (c. 250 BC). The process of mor- phological simplification which distinguishes Classical Sanskrit leoieal Vedic here continues and is accompanied | by drastic phono- simplification, including a reduction in the number of vet and a simplification of consonant groups (thus Sanskrit traividya becomes Pali tevijja). These processes continue (for in- stance, with the loss of many intervocalic consonants) in the sec- ond stage, that of the Prakrits proper, including Mahardstel, Sauraseni and and Magadhi, and the various dialects of the fain scriptures. The third stage is represented by Apabhraméa, a generic term for the further popular evolution of Middle Indo- Aryan up to the end of the first millennium Ab, foreshadowing the final collapse of the old Indo-European inflexional system and the emergence of the Modern Indo-Aryan languages, Bengali, Hindi, Panjabi, Gujarati, Marathi, etc. Hindi in its wider sense denotes a group of dialects spoken from Rajasthan to Bihar: upon one particular dialect are based both the official language of Pakistan, Urdu, and the o! language of India, (modern standard) Hindi. The term Hindustani is sometimes used nowadays to denote the common substratum of these twolanguages, lacking both the extreme Persianisation of Urdu and the extreme Sanskritisation of Hindi. The Sanskrit of Panini’s time had the cachet not simply of being the dialect of the educated classes but also of being much closer than was the popular speech to the language of the sacred scrip- tures themselves. Naturally the prestige of Sanskrit was resisted by by those who questioned the authority of the Vedas, and for this reason the early writings of the Buddhists and the Jains are in va- rieties of Middle Indo-Aryan; the Buddha is reported to have said that his teachings should be given to the people in their own lan- guage. Nevertheless, Sanskrit continued to be cultivated, and not merely by the brahmins. Important evidence of this is provided by the two great Indian epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana. They were recited and handed down by non-brahmins (the Satas), and their audience was a popular one. Although their origins are no doubt more ancient, they evidently belong in some- thing like their present form to about the beginning of the first millennium AD. Their language is Sanskrit, but of a later kind than Panini’s—Classical Sanskrit with an admixture of minor features of Middle Indo-Aryan morphology and syntax. It is Sanskrit composed instinctively rather than according to Panini’s rules by men for whom Sanskrit was not too remote from their own informal speech. The advantage of using Sanskrit, in addi- tion to the dignity which it imparted to the verse, lay in its roe role as a lingua franca uniting the various regions of Aryan India. One may compare the way a Londoner and a Glaswegian often find the English of the BBC easier to understand than each er’s, As Middle Indo-Aryan developed and its various dialects drew further apart, this role as a lingua franca grew increasingly im- portant, and at a time when brahminical influence was increasing. In the early centuries AD, first in the north and later in the south, Sanskrit became the only acceptable language both for adminis- tration and for learned communication. The Buddhist ASvaghosa (second century AD) is a significant figure in the process. While early Buddhist literature had first eschewed Sanskrit completely, then compromised with a hybrid language or at least with a non- Paninian Sanskrit, he himself not merely writes Classical Sanskrit but is a master of Sanskrit literary style, and is as important in the history of Sanskrit literature as in the history of Buddhism. This is the beginning of the great period of Classical Sanskrit, and it lasted for something like a thousand years (possibly a little lessxviil pr halon scanned Sot nite spre i speculative thought). For centuries AD our is sketchy, for much of what was written has perished. Part of the reason for Asvaghosa’s literary importance is that he is very nearly the only significant predecessor of the poet Kalidasa whose work has survived Kalidasa is commonly dated to the early fifth century, and on his poetry one cannot doubt that it represents the culmination of a great tradition; yet he is the earliest of the major classical poets. Perhaps, like Panini, Kalidasa eclipsed his prede- cessors and made their work seem not worth preserving. By now Sanskrit was not a mother tongue but a language to be studied and consciously mastered. This transformation had come about through a gradual Process, t the beginnings of which are no doubt earlier than Panini himself. Something of the true position must be reflected in the drama, where not merely the characters of low social status but also the women and young children speak some variety of Prakrit. Kalidasa learnt his Sanskrit from the rules of a grammarian living some 700 years before his time. Such a situation may well strike the Western reader as paradoxical. Our nearest parallel is in the position of Latin in Medieval Europe. There is, however, an important dif- ference. Few would deny Cicero or Vergil a greater importance in Latin literature than any Medieval author. Conversely, few Sanskritists would deny that the centre of gravity in Sanskrit lit- erature lies somewhere in the first millennium AD, for all that its authors were writing in a so-called ‘dead language’. On this point it may be useful to make a twofold distinction— between a living and a dead language, and between a natural and a learned one. A language is natural when it is acquired and used instinctively; it is living when people choose to converse and formulate ideas in it in preference to any other. To the mod- ern Western scholar Sanskrit is a dead as well as a learned lan- guage. To Kalidasa or Samkara it was a learned language but a living one. (The term ‘learned’ is not entirely satisfactory, but the term ‘artificial’, which is the obvious complementary of ‘natu- ral’, is normally reserved for application to totally constructed such as Esperanto.) The literary medium of any language contains elements of learned speech. Apart from any tendency to conform to conscious grammatical rules, one may observe a limitation or of sentence patterns, and a widening of vocabulary by the itemi- sation of more complex ideas. In the expression of a given idea, provided that in cases it is contained in a single sentence, thesyntax will therefore be simpler in formal than in conversational speech. Compare the subject-verb-object simplicity of ‘an unex- pected arrival will admittedly affect our numbers’ with the rela- tive syntactical complexity of ‘it’s true that how many we’re going to be will depend on whether anyone turns up that we aren’t ex- pecting’. (A particular factor affecting the written style of English is the need to avoid sentences made seriously ambiguous by the lack of an appropriate voice inflection.) Living languages, whether natural or learned, change and de- velop. But when a learned language such as literary English is closely tied to, and constantly revitalised by, a natural idiom, its opportunities for independent growth are limited. Sanskrit provides a fascinating example of a language developing in com- plete freedom from such constraints as an instrument of intel- lectual and artistic expression. To say that Classical Sanskrit was written in conformity with Panini’s rules is true, but in one sense entirely misleading. Panini would have been astounded by the way in which Bana or Bhavabhiti or Abhinavagupta handled the language. It is precisely the fact that Sanskrit writers insisted on using Sanskrit as a living and not as a dead language that has often troubled Western scholars. W. D. Whitney, a great but startlingly arrogant American Sanskritist of the nineteenth cen- tury, says of the Classical language: ‘Of linguistic history there is next to nothing in it all; but only a history of style, and this for the most part showing a gradual depravation, an increase of ar- tificiality and an intensification of certain more undesirable fea- tures of the language—such as the use of passive constructions and of participles instead of verbs, and the substitution of com- pounds for sentences.” Why such a use of passives, participles and compounds should be undesirable, let alone depraved, is left rather vague, and while there have been considerable advances in linguistic science in the past fifty years there seems to have been nothing which helps to clarify or justify these strictures. Indeed, Whitney’s words would not be worth resurrecting if strong echoes of them did not still survive in some quarters. Acceptance of Panini’s rules implied a final stabilisation of the phonology of Sanskrit, and also (at least in the negative sense that no form could be used which was not sanctioned by him) of its morphology. But Panini did not fix syntax. To do so explic- itly and incontrovertibly would be difficult in any language, given several ways of expressing the same idea and various other ways of expressing closely similar ideas. Certain major morpho- logical simplifications typical of Middle Indo-Aryan were pre- vented by Panini’s codification: thus Sanskrit retains a middlevoice and an obligatory dual number. On the other hand, the way Prakrit dealt with all past tenses, replacing them with a past participle and where necessary a passive construction, being a negative procedure could be imitated by Sanskrit (see Chapter 4), and as a result in certain styles of Classical Sanskrit a past fi- nite tense is something of a rarity. Because it did not occur to Panini to prohibit such a construction, or to limit its use to par- ticular circumstances, supposedly ‘Paninian’ Sanskrit could be written in a quite non-Paninian way, eschewing a whole mass of difficult. forms and conforming to the usage of the popular language. But in other and more important respects the syntactical changes wrought in Sanskrit took it further from popular speech. Indeed, one such may be distinguished which actually depends upon the preservation of the full Old Indo-Aryan case system, namely the increasing exploitation of various cases to represent certain ‘abstract’ syntactical relationships: instrumental or ablative to express cause, dative purpose, locative circumstance and hypoth- esis, an abstract accusative with a verb of motion to express change of state, and so on. This development is inseparable from the most striking change of all, the exploitation of nominal com- position. In Vedic, noun compounds are hardly more frequent than in Homeric Greek, but their frequency increases throughout the history of the language. More important still, the compounds which occur in the earlier language are seldom of more than two members, whereas in the later language the occurrence in a sin- gle short sentence of several compounds of four or five members is perfectly normal, and in certain styles compounds of twenty or more members are not thought excessive. Here again, advantage has been taken of a negative freedom. It is, in fact, an important feature of compounds that, co-ordinatives apart, they are binary in structure (i.e. can be analysed through repeated bisection—see particularly Chapter 7). Panini gives rules for the construction of compounds. By applying these rules recursively, compounds of any length may be built up. At one and the same time Panini is obeyed and bypassed. One may indeed wonder to what extent the style of the grammatical stitras themselves encouraged this process; evolved to meet very specific scientific needs and utilis- ing cases and compounds in a way quite foreign to the natural language, it may well have served as a partial model for other types of discourse. The cumulative effect of such changes is certainly startling. The syntax of Classical Sanskrit in many major bears little re- semblance to the syntax of any other Indo-European language(leaving aside similarities in certain kinds of Middle Indo-Aryan writing). Whitney is typical of many Western scholars who manage to convey cont emt for the avoidance of the intricacies of the Old Indo-Aryan verbal system, with a simultaneous contempt for the pedantry of those who flex their grammatical muscles from time to time by using a number of recherché forms and irri- tation at the difficulty of understanding the ordinary language of the learned. The first two points are of little importance. As to the third, it is certainly true that modern scholars often meet with am- biguities and obscurities in reading Classical texts, and that some of the ambiguities arise out of the use of long compounds. But the texts were not written for us, and there is little to suggest that Sanskrit writers qualified to participate in academic discussion found any difficulty in following the language it was couched in: such a situation would indeed have been perverse. (The use of long compounds in creative literature (kavyam) is something ofa separate issue: there, easy intelligibility might well be at odds with the desire to achieve some particular effect.) What is perhaps true is that such a style does not take kindly to textual corruption. A great burden of information may be carried by a single vowel or consonant, the alteration of which may give an entirely different twist to the meaning of a whole sentence. To this may be added the inadequacy of existing dictionaries for many kinds of Sanskrit texts, and the fact that modern scholarship has still a long way to go in reconstructing the cultural and intellectual presuppositions, the ‘universe of discourse’ implicit in Sanskrit literature. Another striking feature of Classical Sanskrit is its wealth of synonyms. First (what is, of course, not quite the same thing), it has a huge vocabulary, a composite store of words from many sources, Aryan and non-Aryan. Secondly, there operates upon these words a tendency, no doubt normal to some extent in any learned language, to blur distinctions between words that to start with were close in meaning but not synonymous. One may compare the way writers of English will ring the changes on var- | ious series of words (‘way, manner, fashion, mode’, ‘occupation, employment, pursuit) merely to avoid repeating the same word, not because some other is especially appropriate (the phenome- non of ‘elegant variation’). Particularly significant is the way a hyponym (more specific term_—‘innovation, development, trans- formation’) will alternate with its superordinate (less specific term—‘change’) for the same reason, and not because some par- ticular level of precision is being aimed at. The usage of words that are more distinct ‘emotively’ than ‘cognitively’ (“‘hide’, ‘con- ceal’) may also be assimilated, and this may come about becausexh uononpoguy the literary context (e.g. committee report as opposed to adver- tising copy) neutralises possible differences of emotional effect. Poetry written within such a literary idiom does not necessarily seek to reverse these trends. As the literary tradition develops, poets moving towards a classical style build up a useful stock of uncoloured synonyms (amor, ardor, flamma, venus; amour, fers, feu, flamme, soupirs, veux) which they can draw on at will, con- fident that long use has made the words innocuous. Classical do not need these extra words because they are technically less competent than poets who stick closely to natural speech: they merely prefer to reserve their energies for other ends. The tendency to treat language in this way, perhaps only faintly ob- servable in the Western tradition, is of central importance in the poetry of Classical Sanskrit. The poet has quite enormous reserves of cognitively and emotively synonymous words to draw upon. What most especially swells these reserves is the possibility of a sort of ‘componential’ compounding; thus the word rajan ‘king’ may be replaced by an indefinite number of compounds meaning ‘lord of men’, ‘guardian of the people’, ‘en- joyer of the earth’, etc. (the extent to which any word with the appropriate sense could be used in helping to form such com- pounds was partly a question of style; naturally, creative litera- ture in general went further than academic prose, and thorough exploitation of the device was considered a particular charac- teristic of the Gauda (Eastern) poetic style). Because of these re- sources it was possible to write Sanskrit verse in metres of great complexity and beauty. Furthermore, because of the long history of the language and the varied sources from which it drew its vocabulary, many Sanskrit words have a number of quite distinct meanings; and this fea- ture, too, is much augmented by compounding (e.g. because it literally means ‘twice-born’, the word dvijah can signify ‘brah- min’, ‘bird’ or ‘tooth’). Thus punning is made possible on a scale inconceivable in a natural language—on far too large a scale, in fact, to be effective per se for any humorous purpose. Instead sustained paronomasia is used in certain literary styles for per- fectly serious literary purposes—not (at least in good writers) for empty display or mere playfulness, but to achieve a density of expression that could be attained in no other way: the same words may convey simultaneously the imagery of an idea and the contrasting imagery of a metaphor or simile which com- ments upon that idea. In this as in other res; it is the pecu- liar merits of Sanskrit poetry which make it translatable.Provided that the main features of Sanskrit phonology described in Chapter x are understood, it is not necessary to memorise the whole alphabet before proceeding to Chapter 2. The nagari script is complicated, and is best assimilated gradually; most learners need several weeks, even months, to read it with complete fluency. It would be possible to use this book without learning the nagari script at all (making use only of the transliterated versions of the exercises). This might suit some experienced linguists, anx- ious to gain a rapid impression of the language. But the ordinary student is advised against such a course. Transliteration has a dis- torting effect upon Sanskrit phonology, unless interpreted with a knowledge either of the nagari script or of phonetics. It is essen- tial to have a sure grasp of the fact that letters distinguished from each other only by small diacritic marks represent totally inde- pendent items in the Sanskrit sound system and that dh, for in- stance, is no less a single phoneme than d. Sanskrit is a language with a very different surface structure from that of English. Each chapter deals with a number of its more prominent morphological and syntactical features. The focus of attention should always be firmly upon the Sanskrit structure and not upon the English by which it is represented. Thus in Chapter 4 there should be no danger of an attempt to translate ‘literally’ into Sanskrit a sentence like ‘it was he who made this garden’, since neither the relative pronoun nor a verb ‘to be’ has been introduced at this stage. Such a sentence should be dealt with in the light of what is said in Chapter 4 on the use of the particle eva. Those who do not find committing paradigms to memory an im- possible burden would be well advised to learn the grammar for yooq Siu) Buisn@yooq eng Buen each chapter before tackling the exercises; time spent on this will be saved in doing the exercises themselves. Some may wish to go further, and to learn each special vocabulary by heart. If this is not done, it is at least worth reading slowly through the vocabulary (preferably aloud) before starting the exercises. As the vocabular- ies grow longer, it will become increasingly important to handle Sanskrit alphabetical order: a note on this is given at the begin- ning of the general Sanskrit-English vocabulary; the complica- tions caused by the position of anusvara should not give rise to much difficulty in the (comparatively short) special vocabularies. Iris assumed that the aim of anyone using this book is to acquire the ability to read original Sanskrit texts. The sentences con- tained in Exercise 6 onwards are all taken from Sanskrit authors. They should therefore be treated as interesting objects of study rather than as hurdles to be overcome. The test of your progress is not whether you have always achieved versions identical with those found in the keys (this is hardly possible) but whether you have fully understood how the key corresponds to the exercise. Those students who are in need of extra practice will find sup- plementary English-Sanskrit exercises on the Internet at www.teachyourself.co.uk/tysanskritsupplementary.htm A particular difficulty arises over the Sanskrit-English sentences. Deriving from real utterances, they will sometimes seem quirky or obscure when divorced from their literary context. The special vocabularies are designed to reduce this difficulty as much as possible. There is also the question of the more general context, i.e. the cultural background, of the material. In this con- nection all students of Sanskrit should be aware of the existence of Professor A. 1 Bashs Basham’s scholarly and yet highly readable ac- count of ancient Indian civilisation, The Wonder That Was India (Sidgwick and Jackson, hardback; Fontana, paperback). Those who do not learn languages easily may prefer to work through the book once using both parts of each exercise for translation out of Sanskrit only. Progress could then be con- solidated by working through all the English-Sanskrit sentences a second time in the ni way. Careful attention should be paid to the examples given in the text of each chapter, since these represent the types of sentence to be en- countered in the exercises. Because each example is followed im- mediately by a translation, it has not seemed necessary to exclude an occasional form which anticipates the grammar of a later chapter (as well as grammatical forms dealt with later in the same chapter). These forms are explained in the general vocabulary,where there will also be found any words not listed in the special vocabulary of the exercises. For clearness and convenience a topic is usually treated as a whole in a particular chapter, even if one or two aspects of it are not applicable until later in the book. Observations which may be passed over rapidly and returned to later are enclosed in square brackets. Many Sanskrit words have a number of different meanings. The vocabularies in this book are not intended as a dictionary, and generally speaking therefore only meanings relevant to the ma- terial used in the book are given either in the special or in the general vocabulary. Many Sanskrit words are synonymous with several others, at least in certain of their meanings. Such synonyms have often been differentiated by near-synonyms in English. The object of this is merely to guide towards a correct choice of Sanskrit word in a particular sentence (correct in the sense of corre- sponding to the original). There need be no head-scratching over the difference in meaning between a word translated as ‘employ’ and a word translated as ‘engage’: there is none of any consequence. Conversely, when a Sanskrit word already met with occurs again ina related but slightly different sense, it is not put a second time into the special vocabulary but will be found listed with both meanings in the general vocabulary. Certain typographical devices have been used in English versions of Sanskrit sentences. These should give no trouble if the fol- lowing principle is borne in mind: rounded brackets (parenthe- ses) enclose matter not directly represented in the Sanskrit; square brackets enclose what is not wanted in the English ver- sion. A colon implies that what follows is a freer version of what precedes. Thus a sentence is often interrupted by a literally translated phrase in square brackets and acolon, followed. immediately by a more idiomatic or more aioe rendering of the same phrase. Square brackets are also used in conjunction with an oblique stroke to provide an alternative interpretation of the Sanskrit: e.g. ‘he [/she] is going’. Rounded brackets with an oblique stroke suggest an alternative phrasing: e.g. ‘he said “that is so” (/that this was so)’. Students with linguistic aptitude who are particularly impatient to grapple with a continuous text may like to experiment with something simple on their own at any point after Chapter 8. yoog sun Bujsn009 snp Guyen Advice on dictionaries, etc. is given in Appendix 1. It would be advisable to glance ahead at the main features described in the later chapters, and in particular (if a narrative text is chosen) at the paradigms of the imperfect and perfect tenses.oi, Before the introduction of printing into India in the eighteenth century, the script in which Sanskrit was written and taught var- ied from place to place in India, and was the same, or almost the same, as that used in writing the local vernacular language. Well-travelled pandits might understand many forms of the al- phabet, but the basis of Sanskrit tradition lay in recitation and oral communication. The widespread dissemination of printed Sanskrit texts, however, encouraged the predominance of one form of riting, the nagari (or devanagar!) script of central India, in which the modern languages Hindi and Marathi are also written. Today even the most traditionally minded pandits are familiar with it, and Sanskrit publications of more than local interest are printed in no other script. All the Indian scripts, however much elaborated in their forms, are developments over the course of centuries from a single source. This was the brahmi script, written from left to right, first known to us from the inscriptions of the emperor Asoka (third century BC). Its origin is unknown. Many suppose it to be an adaptation of the Semitic alphabet, but by the time of the ASokan inscriptions the adaptation is already too thorough for positive identification. It re- flects with considerable accuracy the phonetic structure of the Indo-Aryan languages. All later Indian scripts inherit its unusual - graphic system; they differ from it and from each other solely as to the shapes into which the individual letters have evolved. Your best way to learn the sounds of Sanskrit is therefore to learn to write the nagari script. In this chapter the sounds and * It may be wondered why several references are made in this chapter to the Yalues ofthe nagari letters as used for modem Hindi. The point is thar basically the values are the same for both languages: spelling of the Indian vernacularsthe letters are presented side by side. You may think it worth taking the trouble to learn to write Sanskrit well, even if your usual English handwriting is a scrawl: you will never need to cover page after pay in a tearing hurry, and in what you do write you can take pleasure in forming the characters slowly and with control. You should use black ink and a pen with a nib ca- pable of producing thick and thin strokes. The most convenient method is to acquire one of the inexpensive fountain-pens to which a variety of nibs can be fitted. For preliminary practice, an ordinary pencil can be sharpened to a broad, flat point. Because of the way in which an Indian reed pen is cut, the thick and thin strokes lie in the reverse direction to our own Italic script: that is, the thick strokes run from bottom left to top right and the thin strokes from top left to bottom right: \. Left-handed writers are thus at less of a disadvantage than in writing the Italic script; and right-handed writers will need to hold the pen at a di ferent any le from usual in their hand and may find it helpful to use a nib with a moderately oblique cut of the sort normally intended for the left-handed. Right-handed and left-handed writers will make each stroke from opposite ends. (In this and what follows it should be emphasised that what is being taught is not traditional Indian calligraphy—for which see in particular H. M. Lambert’s Introduction to the Devanagari Script (London, 1953)—but its adaptation in one of various possible ways to the modern fountain- pe .) The right handed writer should hold the pen along the line of the aa stroke and pointing to the bottom left; the left-handed should also hold it along the line of the thick stroke but pointing to the top right. In as many of the strokes as ible the pen should be drawn towards you—up towards the right for the right- handed, down towards the left for the left-handed. has never been allowed to ossify in the same way as that of Italian and Greek, and Medieval Hindi kama. These distinctions are reflected in the spelling. Only the latest change, to modern kam with final ‘a mute’, remains unrecorded, and this can be justified both because final a still has a vestigial, ‘latent’ existence, like French ‘e muet’, and because of the extreme inconvenience within the Indian system of writing of marking this particular change. That region which has most altered the traditional sound values of the alphabet, Bengal, shows an exactly parallel deviation in the way its pandits (of the older school) actually pronounce Sanskrit itself Another reason for mentioning certain features of modern pro- nuance may ote pu the ear when eas Sea spoken by an Indian.In addition to their distinctive element, most letters in the nagari script contain a vertical and a horizontal stroke. The right-handed writer will draw the vertical stroke upwards and the horizontal stroke to the right. The left-handed will draw the vertical stroke downwards and the horizontal stroke to the left In each letter the distinctive element should be written t. This is how a right-handed writer might form the sign ¥ ta: ¢e dt 4 1 Distinctive 2 Vertical © 3 Horizontal element stroke stroke This is how a left-handed writer might form the same sign: ¢ a @ This sign is an illustration of the basic principle of the script, which is halfway in character between an alphabet and a very syllabary. The signs for the consonants such as t do not stand for themselves alone but possess an inherent short a (which is by far the commonest of all Sanskrit vowel sounds). If you wish to represent the consonant t without a following a, you must add a special cancellation stroke (called a virama) below the letter: 1t. Thus the word tat meaning ‘it’ or ‘that’ is written a Vowels To represent vowel sounds other than a various marks are added above, below or on either side of the basic consonant sign. There are thirteen vowels in Sanskrit, of which one (1) oc- curs only in one verb and another (f) is not very frequent. They are given below as written after the consonant t. As additional guides to pronunciation, an appropriate IPA symbol is given in square brackets and the nearest equivalent sounds in French and English are added. The French sounds are seldom more in- accurate than the English, and often very much nearer the marl 3 { .Simple vowels (long and short) 4 T ta fp] but _ = ‘@ ta [a:] father tard fed fi] fit ici heat fy fee pire Tw [u) put tout Ta fu) boo court = Syllabic liquids te fF American ‘purdy’ (but nowadays pronounced as in English ‘pretty’) { tf [r) — —(the preceding sound lengthened)— T4600 table table Diphthongs Mtefie.t) — fe) made (esp. Welsh) &é (but longer) tei lai) bite travail Wo (ie. td) — [o:) rope (esp. Welsh) fausse than [au] found caoutchouc Notes on the vowel sounds* To the British in India, the short a sounded like the English vowel sound in the received pronunciation of ‘but’ and ‘duck’—hence spellings such as ‘pundit’, ‘suttee’, ‘Punjab’ (pandit, satf, Paiijab). This English sound may be taken as a reasonable guide to the pronunciation, although the Indian sound is somewhat less open. ‘The corresponding long vowel 4 is completely open, and thus these two vowels are distinguished not merely in length but also + The sounds of Sanskrit are known to us with considerable accuracy. But diffi- culties in mastering the less familiar sounds need cause no great distress. Many ‘Western Sanskritists treat Sanskrit entirely as a written language, and when forced to pronounce a few words of it do so without distinguishing, for exam- ple, between retroflex and dental, or between aspirates and non-aspirates. How much trouble to take is thus a matter of personal choice, although the tendency nowadays is to pay more attention to such matters.in quality (for standard Western Hindi a is half-open, central, unrounded; 4 is open, forward of central, unrounded). This dis- tinction of quality held good over 2000 years ago and was known to Panini.’ On the other hand, the long vowels 1, @ and? differ from the corresponding short vowels only in being held longer. This distinction of pure length has been almost lost in modern Hindi, and uneducated. le regularly confuse i with i and u with & in their spelling. All three syllabic liquids, r, # and I, vanished long ago orem Popa speech, and the memory of how to pronounce them co: has faded. Syllabic | occurs only in some forms of the verb kip and may be ignored. Pandits nowa- days tend to pronounce r as if it were ri and f even more im- probably as ri. (Hence the anglicised spelling Rigveda for rgveda.) For convenience you may do the same. But it is by no means impossible to make [r] a syllable in its own right: American speakers do so in some pronunciations of ‘pretty’ (‘prdy’), and upper- and middle-class Englishmen in some pro- nunciations of ‘interesting’ (‘intrsting’).* Of the four diphthongs, e and o are known as ‘short’ diph- thongs, and ai and au as corresponding ‘long’ diphthongs. Historically this is justified: while e and 0 are descended from normal Indo-European diphthongs, ai and au correspond to diphthongs of which the prior element was long (as in Greek éi,6i,éu, etc.). But in Sanskrit at an early stage the long di- phthongs shortened to ordinary diphthongs, and the ordinary diphthongs narrowed into simple vowel sounds. It is extremely important to remember, however, not only that e and o despite their pronunciation remain classified as diphthongs (for reasons that will be apparent when you learn the rules of sandhi) but also that phonetically and metrically e and o are not short but long vowels. The only reason they are not usually transliterated as @ and 6 is that since short é and 6 do not occur at all in Sanskrit (because Indo-European e, o and a all converge into Sanskrit a) the distinction does not have to be marked. The * The final aphorism of his whole geammar is the shortest grammatical rule in the world: simply aaa aie ‘tal was The sound d that {ior onrenienst of grammatical statement) we have treated as differing fal in length is, in fact, to be realised as (9). * This example is particularly close, in that ancient phoneticians analysed syllabic ¢ as consisting of the consonant r with a vocalic ‘trace element’ before snd afte, it—like the two vestigial ‘e’s’ in ‘int’r’sting’. Phonemically, homeyer ¢ is a short vowel like any other: a word such as kr-ta ‘done’ is composed of equally short (or ‘light’) syllables, e.g. for purposes of verse scansion.process of diphthong narrowing has continued, and modern Indian speakers pronounce ai and au as very pinched, closer sounds (cf. the ultca-genteel pronunciation of English ‘nice’), some even as monophthongs, so that it is often rather difficult to distinguish ai from e and au from o. Notes on the vowel signs Perhaps the most striking is the sign for short i—f—which is written before the consonant sign, although the vowel sound it- self follows the consonant. Originally, in fact, the sign consisted only of the curl at the top, but to distinguish it more clearly from other signs the tail was lengthened into a vertical line. If you are like most Sanskritists, you will often find at first that you have written a consonant sign without noticing that the next vowel is an i, for which a space should have been left. Note that the four diphthong signs are constructed on a regular principle. The sign for e is doubled to make “ ai; from these 0 and au respectively are distinguished by the addition of the verti- cal bar 1, which on its own is used to make 4. Usually the signs are placed above the bar, but very occasionally you may find them above the consonant sign itself, thus: @W to and # tau. This does have the advantage of distinguishing @ to more clearly from ‘@t 1. Even so, it should normally be quite possible to tell them apart: you may occasionally come across bad printing in which it is difficult. In your own writing you should form the two differ- ently: the I is a single stroke, the vertical line being once again a prolonged tail. On the other hand, o is made up of two strokes, which should be written separately. First draw the vertical bar T (upwards if right-handed, downwards if left-handed); then draw the hook (to the right if right-handed, to the left if left-handed). Initial vowel signs Whenever a vowel is preceded by a consonant, the vowel sign is attached to the consonant, as described above. This applies not only within a single word but also when one word begins with a vowel and the preceding word ends in a consonant. For this reason, in printing Sanskrit in nagari (or in any other Indian script), it is not always possible to make a space between one word and the next, and it needs practice to spot where one word ends and the next begins. Even so, a vowel obviously cannot be combined with a consonant (a) when it begins a sentence, (b) when it is itself preceded by another vowel—in Sanskrit this iscomparatively rare—and (c) when a word beginning with a vowel is written on its own, as in a dictionary entry. For use in these circumstances there is a second set of vowel igns—initial (or more accurately ‘free-standing’) signs. They are: Mor Wa, M or Ma; Fi, $1; Tu, HA; We, Rt, Th Te; ¥ ai; St or BW o; St or Bt au Examples for practice ft eti ‘he goes’; a8 atita ‘past’; fires titaii ‘sieve’. There are two signs in Sanskrit that have no ‘free-standing’ form because they represent modifications of vowel sounds, one by nasalisation, the other by adding aspiration. Anusvara This is written as a dot at the top right of the syllable (repre- sented in transliteration by m). It signifies that the vowel sound is nasalised, probably rather in the way that some French vowel sounds are nasalised—although the ancient descriptions are not absolutely clear. Thus @ tom and # tam are to be pronounced very roughly as the French ton and teint respectively. Examples for practice @ tam ‘him’; @ tam ‘her’; fd titaiim ‘sieve (accusative case); 44 amta less correct spelling of anta Visarga This is written as two dots after the syllable (represented in transliteration by h). Its pronunciation presents more difficulty to a European than that of anusvara. In theory it is a pure voice- less aspiration like an English ‘h’, but added after the vowel sound, whereas of course the English aspirate always precedes a vowel. To achieve this you might start by pronouncing it as the ch in German ich, or even Scottish loch, and then refine away the ‘rasping’ element until only a pure breathing is left. Alternatively, you may, like many pandits, introduce a fainter * When these less correct (or at any rate less precise) spellings are encountered, they should not affect pronunciation: tf8# pamdita is still to be pronounced ‘uffeet pandita. For a discussion of the ancient value of the anusvara, see 'W. S. Allen’s Phonetics in Ancient India, pp. 40-6.echo of the preceding vowel sound: e.g. @: tah as ‘tah, #: th as ‘tth’ (which is like English ‘tee-hee’ only if you put all the stress on the first syllable of the latter). Examples for practice Wi: tatah ‘thereupon’; @: tah ‘those women’; *: taih ‘by them’; 81: ah ‘ah!’ Consonants All the vowel sounds of Sanskrit have now been mentioned. Their number is less than the number of vowel sounds in English. Of consonants, on the other hand, Sanskrit has a far greater number than English. This is principally due to the proliferation of plosive consonants (or ‘stops’). These the grammarians grouped into five series according to their place of articulation, each series com- prising four stops together with the related nasal consonant: Stops and nasals Voiceless Voiced Unaspirated Aspirate Unaspirated Aspirate Nasal Velar Bka ukha = %ga Ugha fha Palatal &ca Bcha Hija @ijha aia Retroflex tta Stha Bda dha Wana Dental ata tha ada adha 4na Labial Upa Wpha aba wbha Wma Unaspirated voiceless stops k, c, t, t, p These really are unaspirated, unlike their English equivalents. It is often not realised that one of the ways in which, for instance, the English word ‘key’ differs from the French qui is that the English & is followed by an aspirate, or ‘h-sound’ (which, how- ever, disappears when the k is preceded by an s, as in ‘skill’). Unless you speak a language such as French in which the voice- less stops are never aspirated, you may have difficulty in elimi- nating this aspiration from your pronunciation. @k ask in ‘kill’—better, as c in French coup @c as ch in ‘chill’ —better, as c in Italian voce Wp asp in ‘pill’—better, as p in French piqueRetroflex’ and dental Sanskrit distinguishes two types of 2, d, ete. The dental series is e type found in European languages other than English. French ¢ or d is made by striking the edge of the teeth with the tip of the tongue. (In other words, the place of articulation is the same as for the English th in ‘thin’.) An English t or d is made with the tongue drawn a little further back, so that the tip strikes against the front of the palate or the teethridge, instead of against the teeth. This English t seems to Indians to be their retroflex t, rather than a dental t—and when transcribing English words i into the nagari script they employ retroflex con- sonants instead of dentals: e.g. the English word ‘tip’ would be written feq tip. However, the true Indian retroflex consonant is made rather by curling the tongue up and striking the palate (perhaps at a point further back) with the very tip or even the underside of the tongue. &t as ¢ in English ‘try’ ‘Lt as the first ¢ in French ‘tout’ Examples for practice We: tatah ‘bank’; Wt pita ‘drunk’; waft pacati ‘he cooks’; #4: kapah ‘a well’. Voiceless aspirates kh, ch, th, th, ph These are much more strongly aspirated than the English voice- less stops k, t, etc., which fall between two stools. However, it is easier to add aspiration than to take it away: pronounce ‘up- heaval’ first in two distinct parts and then more rapidly, trying to run the p on to the following syllable. It should be plainly un- derstood that all these sounds are merely aspirated forms of those in the preceding column: ph is NOT as in ‘physic’, th NOT as in ‘thin’, kh NoT as ch in Scottish ‘loch’. Examples for practice We atha ‘hereupon’; tté ‘pitham ‘stool’; wa Phata ° ‘serpent’s hood’; Trt khata ‘dug up’; Bet chotita ‘torn o! «ih frequent synonym of ‘retroflex’ is ‘cerebral’. This is an unfortunate transla- tion of the Sanskrit term mirdhanya ‘made in the head’, itself unusually impre- cise. The word ‘cerebral’ is still in common use among Sanskritists, but since retroflexion as a phonetic phenomenon is by no means confined to Sanskrit, I have thought it wiser to adopt the more accurate term preferred by phoneticians as being more likely to prevail in the end.10 Unaspirated voiced stops g, j, d, d, b This is the simy implest series. The corresponding English letters will serve as a guide The only problem is in preserving the distinc- tion described above between retroflex d and dental d. Examples for practice 4: gajah ‘elephant’; ; WE jada ‘numb’; ‘st bijam ‘seed’; watfit dadati ‘he gives’. Voiced aspirates gh, jh, dh, dh, bh These are all equally troublesome. They are, of course, aspirated forms of the preceding series. The difficulty is that, since the letters are voiced, the aspiration must be a voiced aspiration. The last let- ter of the Sanskrit alphabet is § ha, the Sanskrit h, which is also voiced, (The only voiceless 4 in Sanskrit is the rather special vis- arga, described above.) The key to the pronunciation of all these letters is learning to pronounce a voiced h instead of the voiceless English 4" (it is true that some English speakers make voiced b a rather infrequent allophone of —e.g. in the word ‘inerent’). Voiced sounds are those made with a vibration of the vocal cords. Some consonants are voiced, others voiceless. All vowels are voiced, unless you whisper them. An extremely easy way to tell whether a sound is voiced or not is to put your hands firmly over your ears: start by making a prolos sss sound, which is voice- less; then make a zzz sound, which is voiced, and you will hear the vibration of the vocal cords plainly as a droning in your ears. Lengthen the ordinary English into a prolonged breathing and it will be quite obviously voiceless. The task now is to modify this breathing until you can hear that it is accompanied by the dron- ing. The sound you are aiming at is similar to the sound children sometimes use when they want to make someone jump. The voiced h, once produced, can easily be combined with g, j etc., and practice will soon smooth the sound down until you do not seem to be trying to give your listeners a series of heart attacks. Examples for practice rant: aghatah ‘blow’; @fefa jhatiti ‘at once’; até badham ‘certainly’; 1] dhatu ‘element’; bodhati ‘he awakes’; WT: bhagah ‘ Sotion' ; fre bibheda “he split’. believe this to be so, from having taught mysef inthis way before Thad ever heard a voiced aspirate pronounced correctly. On the other hand, in zg itself is no longer a voiced sound, and consequently an Englishman I met there, who had lived in the country for several yeare had difficulty when asked in pro” ducing a plain voiced / sound, even though he could pronounce the voiced as- Pirate stops perfectly.Nasals A, fi, n, n,m Velar ia and palatal i are used almost entirely with stops of their own class, e.g. 3f@at angam ‘limb’; We pafica ‘five’. aga sounds rather like English ‘anger’—or ‘hi without the }; paiica is rather like ‘puncher’. Between n and na distinction of retroflex and dental is regularly made by pandits, although in Hindi this distinction—unlike that between retroflex and dental stops—has been lost, except as a (learned) spelling pronunciation. Examples for practice Yt tam ‘grass’; 3: janah ‘people’; Aft mati ‘thought’. Anote on handwriting In practising the nagari letters, the most important general principle for the acquisition of good handwriting is to give the letters ‘body’ by keeping the distinctive portion of each full and uncramped. Too often, beginners produce a few tiny curls and loops in an acreage of white. The secret is to divide the vertical bar not into two parts but into three, so that the distinctive portion of letters such as @ and @ occupy at least the lower two-thirds, and letters such as ¥, 4% and @ at least the upper two-thirds: SF Semivowels Four sounds are classified as semivowels. They and the vowels associated with them are given places in four of the five series: palatal @ya corresponding to the vowels ii retroflex Tra » rf dental @la » 1 labial ava » ua y is often pronounced, nowadays at least, more lightly and un- obtrusively than the English y in ‘yes’. r is usually a tapped sound similar to an Italian r. It was described as being alveolar (against the arch of the gums) rather than fully retroflex. (However, for convenience of grammatical statement, all mem- bers of the ‘retroflex’ group are treated as truly retroflex.)12 Speakers of Southern or BBC English should be careful always to give r its full value, and should guard against letting it colour their pronunciation of a preceding vowel: distinguish karma ‘deed’, which approximately rhymes with an American’s pro- nunciation of ‘firmer’, from kama ‘desire’, which approximately rhymes with an Englishman’s ‘farmer’. | is dental, and so even more like a French than an English | 1. It does not have the ‘dark’ quality which in varying | degrees an English | may have. In ori- gin, v was a true labial, i.e. a bilabial like the English w, and it would be just as appropriate to transliterate it by w as by v. In most of India it is pronounced now as a labio-dental, that is to say with the upper teeth and the lower lips, and this seems to have been so from an early period. The best method is to try to pro- duce a ‘w sound’ but using the upper teeth instead of the upper lip. If you employ a full-bi Jabio-dental fricative like the English v, it will sound odd when v is combined with another consonant, e.g. in the word svastika. In combination with (1, the signs for u and @ are written in a rather different form, beside instead of below the consonant: Bru ¥ ra: e.g, 84 rapam ‘form’ The (rare) combination of consonant Tr with vocalic % ris made with the aid of the conjunct form of Cr described below: ‘af rr: e.g. Frafor nir-rna ‘debtless’ Examples for practice VM chaya ‘shade’; @f& riti ‘style’; Wa: layah ‘dissolution’; 4%: virah ‘hero’. Sibilants Three of the five series include voiceless sibilants: palatal W ga retroflex sa dental a sa Dental s is like an English s. The other two sibilants are con- founded in modern popular pronunciation: they are similar to an English sh as in ‘ship’. You may like to make your own dis- tinction between the two on the basis that one is palatal and the other retroflex. Note carefully that there is no voiced sibilant, i.e. no z of any kind, in Sanskrit: s is always to be pronounced as the ss in ‘hiss’ (so, for instance, in tasya ‘of him’), never as the s int ‘his’.Examples for practice ign asa ‘hope’; @: dosah ‘fault’; T@ rasah ‘flavour’. Voiced h tha As mentioned above, h was in classical times a voiced aspirate sound. Nowadays, however, it has lost its voicing and corre- sponds to an English #, although the other voiced aspirates (the five stops) are a fully preserved feature of most modern Indo- Aryan languages. The reason for the loss of voicing in this one case is no doubt connected with the fact that this sound, unlike the other five, is not in phonemic contrast with voiceless and other counterparts (dh has to be distinguished from th and also from d, and so on). The voiceless visarga appears only at the end of a syllable, exactly where h does not, and at any rate visarga disappeared completely from Middle Indo-Aryan onwards. The vowels r and f are usually written within rather than below this consonant: € hr, & hi. Examples for practice ®t hata ‘killed’; $@ iha ‘here’; @1g bahu ‘forearm’; € hrta ‘taken’. Conjunct consonants In the foregoing description of the alphabet, words in which one consonant immediately follows another have been avoided as far as possible. The only two printed in nagarl were staat angam and ‘WE paiica. The use of the virama stroke to cancel the inherent a of $ na and @ iia is, however, a device contrary to the princi- ples of the script, to be used only in the direst emergencies.’ The proper way to represent clusters of two or more consonants (even when the cluster is divided between two words) is to com- bine them into a single sign whose constituent elements are more " In the representation of the early Middle Indo-Aryan dialects for which the brahmi script is often thought originally to have been designed, the problem of consonant clusters was not particularly acute. The phonology of the dialects limited these to doublings and combinations with class nasals, both of which might be dealt with by special means. The writing of Hindi, however, which has borrowed many words direct from Sanskrit as well as from foreign sources, demands an equally wide range of conjuncts~and this poses a considerable problem in the construction of Hindi typewriters, soluble only with some sac- tifice of typographical elegance.14 or less easily discernible. In this way angam and pajica should have been represented by at and ¥8. The general principles for combining consonants are given below. Those consonants from which a vertical bar can easily be sepa- rated lose this bar as the initial consonant of the group, and con- join horizontally: WA = WE gghas He = FE ghyas TAT = TA tsya; TW = A oma Where (a) the vertical bar does not exist or cannot easily be de- tached, or (b) the distinctive portion of the following consonant does not provide a convenient point of anchorage, the letters are conjoined vertically, the initial consonant being on top. In this case the letters are reduced in size to preserve symmetry: (2) Si = Fiaga; = F dga; 2 = ¥ ttha; Et = & hla; qa = Fkla (b) Ae = Biica; AA = Ft ghna; TH = a tna; TW = pta; WW=Bsta Minor modifications A straight line is substituted for the distinctive portion of @ ta and the loop of & ka in some frequent combinations: ‘WW = F tta; Ad = GH kta (for tra and kra see below) For convenience, * may be substituted for 9 $a in forming vari- ous combinations: WE = F Sca; Ft = $A sla; M+ T= Yor J su The letter @ ya, although frequently the second member of a con- junct, is never written below another. Instead, an open form & or 3) is : Ra = BT kya; WH = CW tya; WI = FU dya (There is a similar open form for ma: e.g. ima; W dma.) Combinations with T ra The forms & ru and ® ra have been noted above. The isolate form Tra is never used in consonant combinations. As the initial member of a cluster, a semi-circle * is substituted and placed at the extreme top right of the syllable: We tra; T= F ya; TH = UH rhhimAt the middle or end of a cluster, a short diagonal / is substi- tuted: W= 0 pra; TK =F tra; QC = H or W kra; WT = A érya The combinations ksa and jfia ‘Two signs representing conjunct consonants cannot be resolved into constituent parts. @ or @ ksa is the equivalent of the roman x—eg. elt Laksmi, the goddess of prosperity, occasionally transliterated as ‘Laxmi’ - In some parts of India @ ksa is pronounced as kkha or ‘W jiia: the pronunciation of this varies widely. In some places, for instance, it is like gya, in others dnya. The palatal series is de- rived from original velar sounds (cf. jan ‘to be born’ with Greek génos). The point about jit is that it is a palatalisation so to speak en bloc of an original gv. Thus ji ‘to know’ is connected with Latin co-gno-scere and English ‘know’. Perhaps the most appropriate of the modern pronunciations to adopt is therefore gnya, which (by adding y to gr) does crudely represent a palata- lisation. A list of conjunct consonants is given at the end of this chapter. Doubling of consonants Where the same consonant is written twice, it should be held longer in pronunciation. This happens in English, but usually only between words (or at least morphemes)—cf. the s+s sound in ‘less soap’, the t+t in ‘hat-trick’ or the n+n in ‘greenness’. Doubled aspirates are not written as such: rather, the first ap- pears in unaspirated form. Thus, while %g doubles to "Ugg, 4, gh doubles to ™{ ggh. Miscellaneous Other signs Manuscripts were written continuously, and neither paragraphs nor chapters needed to begin on a fresh line. The only marks of sentence punctuation are a single bar | (called a danda) and a double bar tt. Their primary function is to mark respectively the halfway point and the end of a stanza of verse. In prose passages the single bar is used to mark off sentences and the double bar usually to mark off paragraphs. 1516 A small circle above the line indicates an abbreviation. Thus arart: °w “At aghatah-tam-tena should be read as aghatah aghatam aghatena. Similarly, yg stands, in context, for the name tala. The avagraha (‘separation’) $ is nowadays restricted to marking the disappearance of an initial short a. Thus @ SAU: so »vagra- hah ‘that separation’. Numerals The numerical signs are very simple, since we owe our modern zero-based system to India (by way of the Arabs). The shapes of the numerals vary with the shapes of the letter. For the nagari script they are: e 2? & ¥ & §€ © 6 @ oO I 2 3 4 § 6 7 8 9 © Rew 1984 ohh 1066 The figure 2 after a word (sometimes found in books printed in India) implies that the word is to be repeated: 3782 aho aho ‘oh, oh!’ Names of the letters Letters are designated either by their own sound alone or, more explicitly, with the addition of the suffix kara (‘making’). The in- herent short a is added to the consonants: $ or FN I or ikara ‘long 7; 7 or WSN ga or gakara ‘the letter g. nee letter { 1, however, has a special name: %® repha ‘tear- ing’). Transliteration The letters and diacritic marks chosen to represent Sanskrit sounds in the roman alphabet are, of course, purely a matter of convention, but a convention by now so firmly established that it has not been deviated from here even to choose the one sig- nificant (but less common) variant, namely ¢ for 6, even though this would be less confusing than having three kinds of s and more immediately recognisable as a palatal letter.This and the representation of anusvara by th instead of m are probably the only two deviations still to be met with in special- ist works. However, there are certain nineteenth-century devices still on occasion retained for the benefit of the general reader. They are: ti, ri for % r, % f; ch for 4c, and chh for & ch; sh for {s (or en for 8) A further practice, now thoroughly discredited, whereby palatal letters are represented by italicised velars and retroflex by itali- cised dentals (e.g. ka for & ca, dha for & dha), has unfortunately also to be mentioned, since it was followed in the Sacred Books of the East series and by Macdonell in his dictionary (though not | amb in his grammar). Prosody Sanskrit verse is quantitative: it is based, that is to say (as in Latin and Greek), on a regular arrangement of long and short syllables and not, as in English, of stressed and unstressed sylla- bles. To distinguish long and short syllables more clearly from long and short vowels the former may be referred to as ‘heavy’ ed ‘light’ (corresponding to the Sanskrit terms J guru and AY wu). > baerdeyo A syllable is heavy if its vowel is long, or if its vowel, though short, is followed (even in another word) by two or more consonants. Thus Waftt ati pasyami gramau ‘I see two villages’ contains five heavy syllables (- - - - -) ). A syllable is light if its vowel is short and not followed by more than one consonant. 2@ Taf atha pacati ‘next he cooks’ contains five light syllables (- - ~ - ). (th is, of course, only a single consonant.) Anusvara and visarga are never followed by a vowel, and a syllable containing either of them is always heavy. Wa: HT tatah kupam gacchati ‘then he goes to the - well’ scans »-~-- ~~. In ancient times Sanskrit was characterised by a tonic, or pitch, accent: one syllable in a word was pronounced with a higher musical pitch than the others. This is an Indo-European feature preserved also in ancient Greek, in which language parallel words usually have a corresponding accent (cf. 4W4 Srutas ‘heard’ with kiutds). In Greek the accent, although retained, changed from one of musical pitch to one of stress. In Sanskrit the pitch accent, which was kept alive for some centuries after18 Panini, finally disappeared and was replaced (as in Latin) by a rly positioned stress accent bearing no relation at all to the original Indo-European accent. There are various graphical systems for representing the ancient accent in Vedic works, and it is only in certain methods of reciting the Vedas that any at- tempt is made nowadays to reproduce the pitch accent in pro- nunciation. The position of the modern stress accent is much as in Latin, the principal difference being that it may go one syllable further back. Thus the stress falls on the penultimate syllable if that is heavy, failing which it falls on the antepenultimate if the latter is heavy. If both penultimate and antepenultimate are light, it falls on the fourth eyllable from the end. ‘Thus aera: agh4tah, sree Aghaténa, Warten Sakintala, @eTat kAmayate, Watt gamayati. However, there is a tendency for all heavy syllables to receive a heavier stress than any of the light syllables. The key to reciting Sanskrit is to dwell exaggeratedly on every heavy syllable (and, in particular, to draw out long vowels to a great length) while passing lightly and rapidly over all light syllables. List of conjunct consonants (For reference only: most of the combinations listed are easily recognisable.) & k-ka, @a k-kha, Ft k-ca, ®t k-na, & k-ta, WI k-t-ya, Fktra, Wkerya, w k-t-va, ® k-na, Ft k-n-ya, @ k-ma, wa kya, ® or % kera, WI or WW k-rya, F k-la, W k-va, wa k-v-ya, & or@ k-sa, @ k-s-ma, @ k-s-ya, @ k-s-va.— kh-ya, @W kh-ra.—"# g-ya, T g-ra, W g-r-ya.—A gh-na, @ gh-n-ya, & gh-ma, WW gh-ya, W gh-ra. —¥ irka—@ irk-ta, HA a-k-t-ya, ga a-k-ya, & a-k-sa, & i-k-s-va, | i-kha, Ey i-kh-ya, ¥ i-ga, FUA-g-ya, F A-gha, FU h-gh-ya, F h-gh-ra, ¥ trha, F A-na, Ya-ma, ® h-ya. @ c-ca, @W c-cha, % c-ch-ra, Hc-fia, BT coma, CF c-ya.— ‘wa ch-ya, ch-ra.—W j-ja, WH j-jha, Wor W j-ia, HF j-f-ya, ‘WH j-ma, FF j-ya, F j-ra, 34 j-va.—B fi-ca, BT n-c-ma, 7 fi-c-ya, @ fi-cha, B fi-ja, 588 n-j-ya. F t-ta, CT t-ya.—eM th-ya, % th-ra. a d-ga, Fa d-g-ya, % dgha, | d-gh-ra, ¥ d-dha,Wyd-ma, Fa d-ya.—ea dh-ya, ; dh-ra. —VE n-ta, TS 1-1 -tha, ww n-da, ea n-d-ya, we n-d-ra, Waa n-d-r-ya, We n-dha, W or WH n-na, TH n-ma, Ta n-ya, Wa n-va.&& t-ka, @ t-k-ra, W t-ta, Wl t-t-ya, W t-t-ra, TH t-t-va, @ ttha, @ t-na, @ t-n-ya, W t-pa, WM t-p-ra, W t-ma, WI t-m-ya, M t-ya, @ or FT t-ra, A t-r-ya, & t-va, WT t-sa, WT t-s- na, Ta t-s-n-ya. —& th-ya.—¥ d-ga, % d-g-ra, % d-gha, | d-gh-ra, «d-da, & d-d-ya, J d-dha, a d-dh-ya, % d-na, % d-ba, d-bha, @ d-bh-ya, @ d-ma, @ d-ya, % d-ra, FW d-r-ya, % d-va, ga d-v-ya.—@ dh-na, #4 dh-n-ya, & dh-ma, ef dh-ya, @ dh-ra, @ dh-r-ya, & dh-va.—7 n-ta, WT n-t-ya, W n-t-ra, % n-da, % n-d-ra, @W n-dha, W n-dh-ra, @ n-na, A n-pa, W n-p-ra, A n- ma, 4 n-ya, 7 n-ra, “WT n-sa. ‘TW p-ta, W p-t-ya, W p-na, MW p-pa, W p-ma, @ p-ya, W p-ra, J p-la, @ p-va, Hl p-sa, UA p-s-va, AT , oa b-ja, & b-da, ‘@ b-dha, @ b-na, @ bb-ba, @1 bha, #4 b-bh-ya, & b-ya, @ b-ra, @ b-va.—¥ bh-na, *@ bh-ya, W bh-ra, *& bh-va.—¥ m-na, ™ m-pa, M m-p-ra, ™ m-ba, SM m-bha, W m-ma, = m-ya, W m-ra, TH m-la, | m-va. @ y-ya, @ y-va,.—®& |-ka, @ |-pa, @ |-ma, @ l-ya, ¥ Ila, ‘a l-va, & I-ha.—2 v-na, @ v-ya, G v-ra, J v-va. a ‘Sa, 3 S-c-ya, WM é-na, A s-ya, WM s-ra, Ml ér-ya, F S-la, B s-va, WA $-v-ya, VW §-Sa.—E ¢-ta, BU §-t-ya, | g-t-ra, FA §-t-r-ya, ¥s-t-va, S s-tha, OM s-na, Wis $-n-ya, W s-pa, a $-p-ra, W s-ma, Bl s-ya, & s-va.— Hh ‘ska, wa s-kha, ‘W s-ta, WA s-t-ya, @ s-t-ra, Wa st-va, TW stha, A sna, FI s-n- ya, I s-pa, @H s-pha, ‘BH s-ma, V4 s-m-ya, 4 s-ya, G s-ra, TA s-va, FH s-sa. & h-na, Zh-na, @ h-ma, @ h-ya, 8 h-ra, & h-la, ¥ h-va. Exercise 1a (Answers will be found at the beginning of the key in nagari to the English-Sanskrit exercises.) Transcribe into the nagari script the following words, some of which may be familiar to you already: maharaja, Sita, Ravana, maithuna, devanagari, himalaya, Siva, Kalidasa, guru, Asoka, sams4ra, upanisad, Sakuntala, caitya, pinda, manusmrti, Visnu, Kautilya, samsk&ra, anusvara, Sakti, Aévaghosa, Vatsyayana, vedanta, brahman, cakra, Candragupta, kamasitra, mantra, visargah, nirvana, dharmaéastra, Bharatavarsa, vyaksa, vijiaa vijiianavadin Transcribe the following sentences, remembering that in the nagarl script a word ending in a consonant (h and m apart) will be joined with the next word: 1 ko niyogo -nusthiyatim 2 evam nv etat 3 anantarakarani- 1920 yam idanim ajiapayatv aryah 4 atha kataram punar rtum sama- Sritya gasy4mi ‘5 nanu prathamam evacyen4jiaptam abhijaa- nagakutalam namaptrvam natakam abhiniyatam iti 6 ita itah priyasakhyau 7 sakhi Sakuntale tvatto »pi tatakanvasyaéra- mavrksakah Bird iti tarkayami yena navamalikakusuma- tvam etesv alavalapfranesu niyukta Exercise 1b (Answers will be found at the beginning of the key in Roman to the English-Sanskrit exercises.) Beare APT TAT TTT geo nee sie afin | aT, tapveft 1 aseiret 1 fergre sitter 1 aftr 1 arery after 1 efire Ser ye i eorerer areas yer aah TATE AGT L eET TET 1 oedarndt afer 1 orate 1 atfireer 1 aang 1 Fe 1 wT az rege | TT 8 SATA 3 drat area Pratt sent weaTaE Wg 12 1 ser aftr Ut HernrergryTefes seq: 121 eriniterrggrarantt gaara: 13 1 abefrratta acaee friar qe tifeafer 1s 1 afeafirera mazar Gt ara ararrenRrembrararert dermrerguren & 1 wearay araftarerrangenty: Raft Saget mt era: Won LORoots and verb classes Descriptions of Sanskrit verbs are based upon the verbal root (Sanskrit aq dhatu ‘element’). Just as in English we might analyse the forms ‘bear, bearing, borne, burden’ as having a common element ‘b-r’, so the Indian grammarians described the forms ‘eft bharati, #0 babhara, bhriyate, ya bhrta as being derived from the verbal root Y bhr. The verbal roots are not words in their own right but convenient grammatical ictions, Roots are divided into ten classes according to the way in which their present tense is formed. These ten classes are analo- gous to the four conjugations of Latin or French, but it is es- sential to grasp that this classification refers solely to the method of fening the present tense and its derivatives: it has no relevance in forming, for example, the aorist or the past participle. Verbs of classes I, IV, VI and X differ from each other only in the relationship that their present stem bears to the root; in all these classes the present stem, once formed, is thereupon con- jugated according to the ‘thematic paradigm’ (see grammatical section, Appendix 2). The remaining classes are called ‘athe- matic’ because the personal endings are added without a con- necting or ‘thematic’ vowel. Thus J bhr, which is exceptional in that it may be conjugated either in class I or in class Il (redu- plicated class), in the latter instance adds the third person sin- lar ending f@ ti directly to the reduplicated stem fay bibhar: Frat bibhar-ti ‘he bears’; but to the class I present stem 4¢ bhar thematic a is added before the personal ending: tft bhar-a-ti ‘he bears’.22 Vowel gradation: guna and vrddhi The present stem ¥ bhar is derived from the root % bhr by a regular process of ‘vowel gradation’. The three forms ¥ bhr, 4% bhar and "I bhar, found in Ya bhrta {past participle) ‘borne’, stifr bharati (present) ‘he bears’ and @¥1% babhara (perfect) ‘he bore’, exemplify a characteristic pattern of vowel alternation in Sanskeit words. Indian grammarians described this phenomenon by saying that 3% ar and amt ar were two i grades of the vowel % r. To the first of these, 3% ar, they gave the name Yt guna; to the second, Tar, the name 4X viddhi. The Sanskrit vowels are arranged in this analysis as follows: basic grade 2,4 if uo gf | guna a e ° ars all veddhi a ai au ar sall From the point of view of the comparative _piilolosise, the middle grade, guna, is the normal grade and the others result from weakening and strengthening. Failure to appreciate this landed Indian grammarians in some complications, since the regular pattern of strengthening from the basic to the guna grade presented above did not occur in all roots. If we compare the verbs afe sravati ‘flows’, Wref ghosati ‘proclaims’ and aft svapati (or Tafuft svapiti) ‘sleeps’ with their past partic- iples Qf sruta, Y¥ ghusta and YM supta, we may detect the gen- eral principle that the formation of ie past parvicipie involves imination of element a-srav/sru, ghos/ghus, svap/sup (his- torically e and o may be taken to represent ay and av, and y, 1,1, v to represent consonantal alternants of the vowels i, r, 1, u). If, however, we take the reduced form as shown in the past partici- ple as our starting-point (which in principle is what the Indian grammarians did), we shall on the analogy of @aftt sravati and ghosati predict *sopati instead of the correct Tf svapati. For this reason the root of verbs such as the last is formed according to the mi gr (thus root svap ‘sleep’ as against @ sru and Y& ghus), and the copeartace of reduced forms such as Y{sup is accounted for by a special process called ware samprasarana (‘vocalisation [of the .semi-vowel]’). Other verbs such as %{ gam ‘go’ and %{ man ‘think’ are also quoted in what is essentially their middle grade: this is because the Indo-European vowels mm and 7 (the sonant nasals) were re- placed in Sanskeit by a short a (the past participles are 4 gata, “*gmta, and a mata, from *mnta), so that a reduced form of the root might be insufficiently distinctive.The foregoing will help to explain why a, which is essentially a guna vowel, appears in the table also as a basic-grade vowel whose guna equivalent is identical. Classes 1, IV and VI The present stems of these classes are formed according to the following basic principles: Class I The root is strengthened to the guna grade and is followed by the thematic vowel a: *J® suc, ¥itefit Socati ‘he grieves’. Roots containing a therefore remain unchanged: @vad, @@ft va- dati ‘he says’. Fei Dane ec Bat welt oraal he wae appear as ay, av and Ay respectively : £3 ji, Wafa jayati ‘he wins’ Roots containing a long vowel followed by a consonant, or a short vowel followed by two consonants, remain unchanged: jiv, Wafer jivati ‘he lives’. (Note: This is a general limitation upon the operation of guna, and it applies in other formations as well.) Important icregular form formations are 74, gam, Teste gacchati ‘he goes’ and tat stha, farafer tisthati ‘he stands’. Class IV The suffix ya is added to the root, which usually remains un- strengthened: J nrt, raft nrtyati ‘he dances’ Class VI The root remains unstrengthened and is followed by the the- matic vowel a. (Historically, it remains unstrengthened because the tonic accent fell not on the root, as in class I, but on the the- matic a.) fora likh, ferafe likhati ‘he writes’; 9@ prach, eat prechati (by samprasarana) ‘he asks’. Conjugation of the present indicative The Sanskrit verb distinguishes, without the aid of pronouns, not only first, second and third persons but also three numbers: singular, dual and plural. Dual terminations are also found in Greek, but rarely, and applied only to things naturally paired to- gether. In Sanskrit the use of the dual is obligatory, both in24 nouns and in verbs, wherever two peop ple or things are in ques tion. The plural is restricted in application to three or more. The present indicative of the verb *f nf ‘lead’ is: Singular Dual Plural Ist person ‘wa oayami FE: nayavah ‘FANT: nayimah Ilead we two lead we lead and person Wate nayasi ‘WAT: nayathah FAT nayatha you (sg.) lead you two lead you (pl.) lead 3rd person raft nayati FAN: nayatah ‘Fae nayanti he leads the two of them they lead lead The order in which you learn this paradigm is a matter of taste. Traditionally in Sanskrit the third person (which is called the first) is taken as representative of the tense, and the order of recitation would be nayati, nayatah, mayanti, nayasi, etc. However, Westerners usually adopt the European order (as in Latin) nayami, nayasi, nayati, nayavah, etc. The English distinction between simple present and continuous present does not exist in Sanskrit. Taft nayati means both ‘he fads and ‘he is leading’. In addition, the present indicative may oxpreae an an immediate i ian or proposal: Jest prechimi ‘Tl 3 ‘let’s go’. Prefixes Verbs may undergo the addition of various prefixes, which may modify, sometimes considerably and sometimes not at all, the basic meaning: fasift visati he enters wag pravigati_ she enters sufewft upavisati —_—ihe sits down traf gacchati he goes amresft = agacchati_ ~—_—she comes emerresf avagacchati he understands| Nepoton ia expressed by the word 7 na: aaeft navadati he does not say, he is not saying Sandhi In English a word that we spell only in one way may be pro- nounced differently according to its position in a sentence. Thus the definite article ‘the’ is pronounced with a neutral vowel (5a) before consonants, ‘the man, the hill’, and with a short i vowel (8%) before vowels, ‘the owl, the end’. Moreover, in separating this word out in order to talk about it, we may use another, a lengthened vowel, and say ‘the definite article 31’. We have examples like the English non-standard ‘doam be stupid’. Here the word ‘don’t’, having lost its final t, changes its 2 to m, which is more like the following b (put more technically, the alveolar nasal is replaced by the bilabial nasal m before the bilabial stop b). A different sort of example involves not a separate word but a ‘morpheme’, for example ‘plural s’: so, the plural of ‘cat’ is ‘cats’, but the plural of ‘dog’ is ‘dogz’, although in standard spelling of the latter the same letter, s, is used—the general rule is that voiceless s is added to voiceless consonants (‘cats’, ‘pups’) and voiced z to voiced consonants and vowels (‘dogs’, ‘toes’), except that if the word itself ends in a sibilant the suffix takes the form ‘-iz’ (‘bases’, ‘phrases’). Similar sound changes occurred in Latin words, as the spelling of their English derivatives will indicate—compare for instance ‘induce’ and ‘conduce’ with ‘im- press’ and ‘compress’. The reason underlying such variations is one of euphony or ease of utterance, the fact that what is a convenient sound in one en- vironment may not be at all convenient in another. The phe- nomenon is referred to (very often even in talking about languages other than Sanskrit) by the term sandhi, a Sanskrit word meaning ‘juncture’. What we are concerned with at pres- ent, as in the two examples above, is external sandhi, i.e. the ‘aot in the appearance of complete words when they come t er, or make a juncture, in a sentence. In Sanskrit these changes were particularly widespread and striking, which is why the word sandhi has become generally current among phoneti- cians. They were fully analysed by the ancient grammarians and are extensively reflected in the orthography. This is not neces- sarily a good thing. Writing ‘the’ and ‘thi’ or ‘cats’ and ‘dogz’ in English would obscure the fact that a single word or mor- pheme is in question—though it would be marginally helpful to So rmforeigners in learning to Pronounce t the language. Beginners in Sanskrit, being more concerned with reading and writing than with pronunciation, will find the operation of the rules of san- dhia vonsiderable obstacle in the earliest stages of learning the tar uage, but one that is fairly quickly surmounted because met at every turn. Use of the sandhi grids The approach to the problem adopted in this book is primarily a practical one. Instead of attempting to master in one go all the phonetic principles involved in euphonic combination, you are encouraged to make use of Table 2.1, where all the relevant combinations of final and initial sounds are set out in tabular form. In addition, certain preliminary remarks to aid you in using the tables are here offered. When sandhi is made between two words, the first may end ina vowel or a consonant and the second may begin with a vowel or a consonant. Four main classes of sandhi are thus distinguished. 1 Vowel + vowel ‘When two vowels come together they coalesce, often into a single vowel. The body of the vowel grid represents the combination of the two vowels. Thus % tatra followed by %@ iva is written as ‘Wa tatreva ‘as if there’. Most of the features of vowel sandhi will make sense if you remember that historically the Sanskrit diphthongs e, o represent ay, av (or ai, au) and the diphthongs ai, au represent ay, av (or ai, au). Hiatus is not permitted, in the sense that when the original vowels come together the appropri- ate rule of sandhi must be applied; but secondary hiatus is per- mitted, in that the resultant sandhi may contain two distinct vowels. So 4% vane + $4 iva results in 4% ¥@ vana iva ‘as if in the forest’ (by way of vanayiva, with elision of the y), and this remains and does not further combine into *vaneva. 2 Vowel + consonant The simplest of all possibilities. The words remain with one very minor exception: if the vowel is short and the following consonant is & ch, this ch changes to ®.cch: so 7 feaaft na cchinatti ‘he does not cut’. If the vowel is long, the change is o ional (except after the words 3 4 and Tf ma, when it is again obligatory): Wt fate sa chinatti or A fesafet s4 cchinatti ‘she cuts’.“$+ W Jo aseo atp UT 3d20xa ‘payou u92q sey suOU ang ‘o{qIsstuLad ore sIypUeS PaNEUIaIE sNOIIeA :270N CO e Ad bd ie ° ° ° o o ie ° se ° ie ° se 2 iv re A 9 oe Be ow Ait on ws 37% (ie ite 12023) "so se + Ge req adeoxg , “woYs st amoa Bumpaoesd ays wayaa smo50 Zuyqnop IU, ¢ “easeqqe] fe) manfue = vAseyqe] + UB “S'2 , WYE 03 sua~pSuay sep ‘sapaoasd “nye jt pue ‘srvaddesip 330 j , | BeRecacacesaada z 8 BOO A. 1.0 0 O.0 F200 oo: a [ae toe tote woe oo 00 to to vot sD tae % alaa ge (ren Bexmoyol © hq voyes aio} 248 sompua sso perrypeig) swreU0sUED spu6 yypues 1z e1qeL? sjemoa pouty ~ --- - --~- ---- -------~-------- (-3dt408 sanSpu 2q3 us anz20 pynom sands » yans aiaqm stsousata omg usemiag 42 st 2200S Y) 5]>MO\, spu6 jypueg 12 Ode R cheter2 023 Consonant + consonant Here, the body of the consonant grid represents the form that the last letter of the first word assumes before the following con- sonant. In Sanskrit a word may end only in a vowel or in k, t, t, P, i, n, m, ror h (on these last two, see below), which is why the grid is not even more complicated than it is. In the body of the grid a bracketed sound indicates a change in the form of the fol- lowing initial: thus 4 tat + #8 sariram becomes TERA tac chariram. 4 Consonant + vowel The possibilities of this are represented by the penultimate hor- izontal column in the consonant grid. 5 Zero There is one further possibility. One word instead of being fol- lowed by another may occur at the end of a phrase or sentence, ie. ‘before zero’. In this position the basic form of the word re- mains without change. To put the matter the other way round, the form that a word assumes by itself or at the end of a sentence has been selected as the basic form: so Tauftt aay ramaniyam vanam ‘the forest is pleasant’. There is, unfortu- nately, one exception to this rule: Sandhi of final r or h (If the following account seems discouragingly complicated, re- member that it is only provided as background explanation; what is important at this stage is simply knowing how to use the sandhi grid.) Visarga (bh) is the last letter of many Sanskrit words as they appear at the end of a sentence. It may represent one of two original (Indo-European) sounds, s and r. Thus, from s, 30% aévah (cf. ) ‘horse’; Tem: asthah (cf. éstés) ‘you stood’; aft: (cf. basis) ‘going’. But, from original r, AT: matah (cf. mater) ‘O mother’; $f: dvah (cf. the English cognate) ‘door’; Bq: catuh (cf. quattuor) ‘four’. The sandhi of these words is complicated by two factors: first, by whether the visarga originates from s or from r; secondly, by the vowel that precedes the visarga. We can eliminate the first factor, and so reduce the confusion, by taking r as the basic let- ter in the comparatively few cases where h derives from r and re- serving h for the cases where it represents original s (so aévah, asthah, gatih; but méAtar, dvar, catur). (In practice, however, final rmay r be reserved for instances of ar or ar alone, since its sandhi (4(4!) q when preceded by any other vowel is identical with the sandhi of final b, and theref re a distinction in these cases could be ma de only after an etymological inquiry, and not always even en.) After vowels other than a or 4, h and r have the same sandhi (see grid). Broadly, r appears before a word beginning with a voiced sound, s or some other unvoiced sound before a word beginning with an unvoiced sound. Furthermore, this is the sandhi of final r even after a and 4 (matar, dvar). But after 4, final h is lost before voiced sounds, and words ending in ah change ah to o before voiced conso- nants. Before all vowels « except short a, ah becomes a: thus 3t4: + ¥@ agvah + iva becomes 31% $@ aéva iva ‘like a horse’. In com- bination with an initial a, ah becomes o: thus 3t@: + 2ifet agvah + asti becomes safe aévosti ‘there is a horse’. In modern print- ing this last sandhi is generally represented as atat Sf aivo Ssti, with the avagraha (S) representing the disappearance of an ini- tial short a. Here are some further examples of the operation of sandhi rules: aft api+ aramesfa avagacchasi = atererresfa apy avagac- chasi_ do you understand? YZ nanu+safew: upavisamah = TRfayNA: nandpavisa- mah well, we are sitting down vit ubhau + amest: agacchatah = WrarTesa: ubhavagac- chatah both are coming katham + Orff smarati= at Brft katham smarati it, he remembers? ‘Wi tat + Wale jayati = AAA taj jayati he is winning that fee, dvit + Taft hasati= fgyaft dvid dhasati the enemy laughs Witan+Ytu=Te tamstu them however Wi: narah + Taft raksati= 7H Taft naro raksati the man protects ‘FR punar + Taft raksati = GAT waft puna raksati again he protects WH gayan+smresft = agacchati = wrewrresft gayann agacchati singing he comesIt will be observed in the above examples that frequently the ndgatl script cannot show where the first word ends and the see: Spellings such as ary atamesft apy calet d,cpotatin ont cx cwo texts intended i Eogonens “in transcription, on the other hand, the words can usually be sepa- rated out. But they still cannot be so where two vowels coalesce into a single vowel, and in such a case, furthermore, there may be considerable ambiguity as to the original vowels: 4, for instance, might represent a+ a, a+4,4+a or 4+4. In the system of tran- scription used in this book, these difficulties are overcome by the use of the signs » and », which for convenience may be thought of as marks of elision. The former stands in the place of an original short vowel and the latter of an original long vowel. They always in place of the first of the two original vowels, except that > the avagraha in the nagari script after ¢ and o and also Beer. A canes pact the coatint voudl ieicate tht his ot the same as the original second vowel (see Table 2.2). Table 2.2 >0 cai oat oad > au »dS val »ai »ai »au Instead of a circumflex, a macron is used over e and o to dis- tinguish instances where the second original vowel was long. So Tna+ icchati = Teeft m écchati ‘he does not want’, but Tna + FT iksate = WY m eksate ‘he does not see’. Note that > always represents a and » 4 except in the union of two like simple vowels (namely, f+ hi+8, i+, the last being very rare). In the early lessons, where Sanskrit is given both in nagari and in transliteration, the sandhis of the nagar text are usually resolved completely in the transliterated version. When this is done, the transliteration is put within brackets to show that it is an analysis and not an equivalent: e.g. Taesfe tat na icchati for tan m écchati ‘he doesn’t want that’. No account is taken, how- ever, of a mere change of final m to anusvara. 31 So RN0 Notes on certain words 1 Wca. This is the Sanskrit for ‘and’. It is the same word as Latin -que and Greek te, and like them it is enclitic, i.e. cannot stand as the first word in its sentence or clause. In fact, it always fol- lows the word it connects: instead of ‘eggs and bacon’ one says ‘eggs bacon ca’. yiverfet wrefit @ © socati mAdyatica he grieves and rejoices When it connects a whole phrase it may (unlike -que) be placed at the very end of the phrase rather than after the first word: Watt gi waft @ jivati putram paéyati ca alternatively: traf qi a ugafr jivati putram ca pagyati_ he is living and sees (his) son When a whole series of items is listed ca, like ‘and’, may be used with the final item alone (‘eggs, bacon, sausage tomato ca’). On the other hand, ca may be attached to the first item as well as to the subsequent i item or items (‘eggs ca bacon ca’). This is like the ‘both . .. and’, but the usage is commoner in Vedic than in Classical Sanskrit. 2 ¥ iva. This enclitic word introduces comparisons. When used with a verb it may be translated literally as ‘as it were’, and expresses the notion of ‘to seem’: aaft vadati he is speaking aeita (redat ra) [he is speaking as it were:] he seems to te d [he is speaking as it were:] fein intros ne Used as a pronoun, kim means ‘what?’: fis aaft kim vadati? what is he saying? It may also mean ‘why?’: fé yiveft kim gocasi? why do you grieve? Finally, both kim and tft api may be used at the beginning of a sentence to mark a question expecting a yes or zo answer (note that, used in this sense, the word api is not enclitic): fe wr mesfit kim tatra gacchati? is he going there? (or why is he going there?) aft waft api jayati? is he winning?Of the two particles api is the stronger and usually marks a def- inite request for information. As in English, questions may also lack any interrogative particle, context or tone of voice (kaku) indicating that the sentence is not a plain statement. , 4 @ iti, Originally this word meant ‘thus’, But in Classical Sanskrit it is almost wholly confined to the special function of marking off a preceding word or phrase (or even paragraph) as being a quotation of some sort. It is the Sanskrit equivalent of inverted commas: arrest eft aafet —agacchamah iti vadanti ‘we are coming’, they say There is no system of indirect speech in Sanskrit, and so the above might equally well be translated: ‘they say that they are coming’. The phrase isolated by iti need by no means consist of words actually spoken; it frequently expresses an attitude of mind, the grounds upon which something is done, and so in the right context may represent ‘because’, ‘in order that’, etc. Most frequently this ‘iti clause’ stands at the beginning of its sentence: ‘yrdecifir first punar vadati iti tigthanti they stop to hear him speak further—lit, ‘he is speaking again’, so thinking they halt The uses of iti are discussed at greater length in Chapter 14. Vocabulary Verbs of class I RAM ava + gam (steTeBA avagacchati) understand SPM, a+ gam (set Agacchati) come amit a+ nf (arraftanayati) bring 3H gam (Weft gacchati) go 4 gai (raft gayati) sing fa ji (Srafit jayati) win, conquer ta, jtv (attafit jivati) live, be alive BU des (Wraft pasgyati)* see, look (at) ni (Taft nayati) lead, take (with one) Wt bhram (waft bhramati) wander, be confused * This form is suppletive, i.e. originally taken from another root, in the same way that in English ‘went’ is suppletive of the verb ‘go’.ag vad (aeftt vadati) say, speak Wa vas (Wale vasati) _ live (i.e. dwell) STH Suc (Fitaft Socati) grieve et stha (firafit tisthati) stand, halt osm (aft smarati) remember WS prach (Jesse prechati) ask rat pra + vis (aferpift pravisati) enter, go in(to), come in(to) likh (ferafit likhati) write Adverbs and particles atra here; to here adya today adhuna now api also, too, even (placed after word qualified) itah from here; in this direction, this way evam thus, so katham how?; (also, introducing an exclamatory sentence) ‘what... 2?” ® kva where? @ = tatra there; to there a ona not punar again; (as an enclitic) however, but punar api yet again, again, once more (For & ca, farm kim, ¥@ iva, ft iti, see chapter text.) qasaqas Exercise 2a With the help of the sandhi grid, arrange the fol- lowing sequences of separate words into continuous utterances.Two keys are provided: one in transliteration with punctuation of vowel sandhi, the other as the sentences would appear in a normal nagari text. For those who like to know what they are writing, the words mean, in the order of sentence 1, ‘stealthily; in the darkness; the master’s; two horses; the villains; with knives; at last; release; from the reins; in fact’. 1 svairam; tamasi; ifvarasya; aévau; durjanah; Sastraih; cirat; muiicanti; h; eva. 2 aévau; isvarasya; eva; svairam; Sastraih; raémibhyah; muficanti; cirat; durjanah; tamasi. 3 svairam; eva; isvarasya; muficanti; aévau; Sastraih; durjanah; cirat; tamasi; raimibhyah. 4 muficanti; eva; tamasi; aévau; seeails iévarasya; cirat; raémibhyah; durjanah; svairam. 3 tamasi; éasteaih; muiicanti; cirat; eva; svairam; tara aévau durjanah. 6 éastraih; tamasis rasmibhyah; a; iSvarasya; cirat; a$vau; muiicanti; eva. 7 tamasi; durjandh; rasmibhyah; cirat; iévarasya; aSvau; svairam; muiicanti; h; eva. 8 muiicanti; durjanah; eva; rasmib- hyah; asvau; iévarasya; cixat; svairam; Sastraih; tamasi. Exercise 2b Translate into English the following sentences. Comparison with the transliterated version in the key will some- times help to solve difficulties. wreartiry gi ata t after: 121 Grete fereafirea | anpT a aT yt waftresfr ito gafersha it wafer siresfit not arr fierce: 16.1 agent ferent @ igi serdte igo 1 yore mre 19 1 aT Se vireo er ng 2 1 are wferyrrer aftr ae: 19 3 1 area aaet TATERAT 1g 1 wranhifr arenfir 1g 1 a sitet gitar: ne dit Exercise 2c Translate the following sentences into Sanskrit. Model word order on the Sanskrit-English sentences (adverbs are normally placed before verbs). 1 You are wandering. 2 Now we understand. 3 There too she dances. 4 The two of you live here? 5 What, are they win- ning? 6 Let us two sit down. 7 The two of them do not say so. 8 Are you asking yet again? 9 What shall I write here? 10 Do you not see? 11x You (pl.) seem to be singing. 12 They come and go. 13 Now she both lives and grieves. 14 He sees20 and seems to speak. 15 “What do you (p/.) want?’ they ask. 16 We go because they are coming. 17 However we do not re- joice. 18 So also do the two of us remember— What do you re- member?—That he is not coming today.Some nominal and pronominal paradigms Table 3.1 [Singular] Dual [Plural Nom. Voc. Acc. Nom/ | Nom/ Acc. Voc! | Voc. Acc. = * Though some do have productive stem forms (cf. Chapter 10), personal and demonstrative pronouns are referred to in this book by means of the nominative singular masculine: aham, tvam, sah, etc.£0 (Vocative forms of the pronouns do not occur.) The nominative and accusative cases are used to express the sub- ject and object respectively of finite verbs. arerd: fret ugaft acdryah sisyam paéyati teacher sees pupil arraré fret: ayaft acdryam éisyah pasyati pupil sees teacher There is no definite or indefinite article in Sanskrit: in one con- text acaryah is to be translated ‘the teacher’, in another ‘a teacher’. (Where the difference of meaning is crucial, ‘the’ is sometimes by sah ‘that’: frre citram etat ‘this is a picture’, tat etat citram ‘this is the picture’.) The accusative is also used to express the goal with verbs of mo- tion: Trt TEBRT nagaram gacchati ‘he goes to the city’. Verbs such as ni ‘lead’ ma: peak this this accusative in addition to that of the di- rect object: rt wat Fart nagaram tvam nayami ‘Pll take you to the city’. The verb vad ‘say, speak’ may optionally take an accusative of the person addressed as well as an accusative of that which is As was seen in Chapter 2, the finite verb forms in themselves dis- tinguish person and number. The use of the nominative of the personal pronouns is therefore optional with finite verbs and is normally dispensed with unless at least a slight degree of em- phasis is called for: sfagnft pravisami ‘Pll go in’ as opposed to arent ufrenfit aham api pravisimi ‘I too will go in’. The vocative is the case of address. It is most frequently placed at the beginning of the sentence, and regularly precedes even connecting particles,aret ff aafa bala kim vadasi what do you say, child? waren afi girafa vayasya, tat kim Socasi? then why, friend, do you grieve? In a phrase such as ‘the large cat’ we often call ‘large’ an adjec- tive and ‘cat’ a noun. More formally, both might be called nouns: ‘large’ a noun adjective and ‘cat’ a noun substantive. To preserve this wider sense of the word ‘noun’ in talking about Sanskrit is not mere pedantry, for many nouns may be used both adjectivally and substantivally, and the classification of nouns by inflexional type is independent of whether they are substantives or adjectives. In this book the terms ‘noun’ and ‘nominal’ are to be interpreted in their wider sense. Adjectives ending in a inflect in the masculine like aévah, in the neuter like phalam. An adjective accords in number, gender and case with the substantive it qualifies: tauren erat ginet wet & Uvanfiy ramaniyani vanani obhanam jalam ca pasyami_I see pleas- ant forests and shining water Pronouns no less than nouns may be used both adjectivally and substantivally. Thus the pronoun sah means both ‘that’ and ‘he/it’ (i.e. ‘that one’). Similarly, the interrogative pronoun may be used alone or qualifying a substantive: ‘@ feveafiresft tam éisyam icchanti they want that pupil aduyafiz na tam pasyami I don’t see him afeesft tat icchasi? do you want it/that? wt wrt weaft kah nagaram gacchati? who is going to the city? w: fever wt aaft kab Sisyah evam vadati? which pupil says so? Irregularities of external sandhi The vowels 1, @ and e when at the end of a dual inflexion (whether nominal, pronominal or verbal) are not subject to the operation of sandhi but remain unchanged before vowels: wa yeeM: te phale icchamah we want those two fruits The nominative singular masculine of the pronoun tat has really two forms, sa and sah (cf. Greek ho with the hés in 39 i eo oo(é d’hés). sa is used before all consonants. sah is used in all other circumstances, namely at the end of a sentence and before vow- els, but by the normal operation of sandhi it thereby becomes sa before all vowels except short a: THT free: |W amend: | Tt sat ate: G1 sa gajah / sa Sigyah / sa acaryah / so »ivah / aévah sah Nominal sentences There is an important type of sentence in Sanskrit which con- tains no verb. Such sentences, consisting of a juxtaposition of subject and non-verbal predicate, are a feature of many Indo- European languages. In English the is almost lost, and when used it has a literary flavour, as in ‘happy the man who...’. In Greek there are sentences like sophds ho philésopbos ‘the philosopher is wise’; in a song of Edith Piaf occurs ‘balayées les amours’ ‘loves are swept away’. Regularly in such an English sentence the subject is ot placed first. A twentieth-century poet, T.S. Eliot, can write ‘dark the Sun and Moon, and the Almanach de Gotha’, but ‘the Sun and Moon dark’ would hardly have been possible. This fact distinguishes such a sen- tence from one simply involving an ellipse of the verb ‘to be’: we may say ‘John is intelligent, Peter stupid’. In Sanskrit adjectives uséd predicatively agree in number, gender and case with their substantive, just 46 when used at tributively. As a phrase, yitaradt éighrau aévau means ‘the two swift horses’; as a complete statement, it means ‘the two horses are swift’. Taoitt are: ramaniyah balah the child is pleasant The predicate may, however, be another substantive, and then agreement of number or gender is not necessary: ‘art YG wa: svalpam sukham krodhah anger is a small pleasure If the subject is a pronoun andthe predicate a substantive, the pronoun usually reflects the number and gender of the predicate: @ai:a: stryah sah that is the sun The predicate may also be adverbial. Thus it may consist of an adverb, or of a substantive in some other case such as the locative.wa waar ganft evam sarvada sukhAni joys are ever thus kaa: kva Devadattah? where is Devadatta? Bart zaet: udyane Devadattah Devadatta is in the garden Word order Many of the relationships that English normally expresses by means of word order (subject-verb, verb-object, etc.) are ex- pressed in Sanskrit by means of inflexions—e.g. witta: durlabham (object) abhilasati (verb) manorathah (subject) ‘desire hankers-after the inaccessible’; to put these three words in some other order would make no rence to what is hankering after what. As a result, word order plays a less crucial role in Sanskrit than in English grammar, and more frequently than in English two or more different arrangements of the same words are possible without any strongly felt differ- ence of effect. But this is not to say that if one were to shake up a sentence of even the most unpretentious Sanskrit prose and spill out the words in some random new order, that order would always have been equally acceptable to the writer. Word order is important to the rhythm and emphasis of a Sanskrit sentence. One might suggest that its role is sometimes analo- gous to that of stress and intonation in spoken English, but a detailed investigation of this would depend upon more ade- quate accounts both of Sanskrit word order and of the role of stress/intonation patterns in English than at present exist. The following generalisations (which anticipate some grammatical forms to be explained in later chapters) should be measured against sentences actually encountered, and particularly against the original sentences occurring in Chapter 6 onwards. Further remarks will be made later, for example in connection with im- peratives and relative clauses. Words that form a natural group are normally placed together. In particular, adjectives and dependent genitives are placed with (most often before) their substantives. Small unemphatic words should not be placed last (unless they are actual enclitics forming one unit with what immediately pre- cedes). Sentences usually end with a verb or a substantive. The initial position is the position of greatest emphasis: Taft wamrard: pasyati tvam 4caryah ‘the teacher sees (/can see) you’; 41 £042 £0 werwete ater: pralapati ega(h) vaidheyah ‘this fool is (just) bab- Ss In lively discourse, and especially in nominal sentences or those whose predicate is an intransitive verb, the subject unless emphasised is encltis it does not oceug the initial position. It need not actually stand last. Especially if it is a pronoun, it may be inserted into the middle of a predicate of two or more words: fertitrq, citram etat this is a picture weafeerny tat etat citram this is the picture fara qe eayaret vinayah esa(h) Candraguptasya this is Candragupta’s good breeding dvitiyam idam agvasajananam this is a further ground-for-optimism aparawedt ufcret balavat atrabhavati paritrasta the lady is extremely frightened Examples of emphatic subjects coming first are: ganft fir: dvayam api priyam nah both things alike are welcome to us dient waft sauhardam evam paéyati (it is) friendship (which) sees (things) so There is another rhythm, found more particularly in longer sen- tences, which is more like the prevailing rhythm of English sen- tences, where a subject is first announced and then talked about. Where this happens, the subject is frequently marked either by the ‘anaphoric’ Pronoun sah or by the addition of some particle: Ramah tavat ‘as for Rama, he...’, TW sft Ramah api ‘and Rama for his part’. lva The enclitic particle of comparison iva is employed much more commonly with nouns than (as in the previous chapter) with verbs. Where two substantives are compared, they will be in the same case. The word may be translated by English ‘like’, ‘as if’, etc.: anand ga firet at yesfit acaryah iva éisyah mam prcchati the pupil is questioning me like a teacher areriiva ni fire: yesft aciryam iva mam fisyah prcchati the pupil is questioning me as if I were a teacherWhen an adjective appears as the standard of comparison, the 43 word ‘as’ may appear twice in English: sev aham iva sinyam aranyam the forest is (as) desolate as I An adjective may also be introduced with iva attached to it: faferr gauyaft vismitah iva pasyati he gazes as if astonished Where iva is used with the predicate of a nominal sentence, either ‘is like’ or ‘seems’ may be appropriate: faftea ya afta: vismitah iva panditah the scholar seems astonished wefta gam jalam iva sukham happiness is like water ‘ufvea gaa fier: panditah iva sa sisyah that pupil seems a scholar (/is like a scholar) Co-ordinative compounds (dvandva) Sanskrit inherited from Indo-European a considerable facility in the formation of compound nouns, and subsequently extended the facility even further. English also forms compounds of two members fairly freely, but principally of the determinative type, particularly the dependent determinative (‘hand-made’, ‘wife- beater’, etc). In this chapter attention is confined to one class of compounds, co-ordinatives, which from the point of view of English are the most peculiar (we may find a faint echo of them in a word such as ‘bitter-sweet’ or the compound numerals such as ‘sixty-seven’). In English we may wonder whether a phrase such as ‘magazine stand’ should be classified as a compound at all. In Sanskrit there is a simple criterion which is almost universally valid. All members of a compound except the last appear in their stem form. The stem form of a noun is the form lacking any case ter- mination. aéva, phala and ramantya are stem forms. Nouns are usually quoted in their stem forms in dictionaries: when quoted in this book, however, substantives in a usually have visarga or anusvara added to them as an aid to remembering whether they are masculine or neuter. To form a co-ordinative compound (called in Sanskrit ¥% dvandva ‘couple’) two or more stems are put together with a relationship between them such as would be expressed by the English word ‘and’: SeTaeT Acaryasisya ‘teacher and pupil’. The gender of oo£0 the compound is that of its final member, and the number is that of the sum of the elements; an appropriate inflexion is added: arerdfireararresa: acaryasisyau agacchatah teacher and pupil are coming The same notion may, of course, be expressed without the use of a compound, by means of the particle ca: avandia freremrest: | Acaryah ca disyah ca agacchatah Stem forms are ambiguous as between singular, dual and plural, Acaryasisya may therefore also mean ‘teachers and pupils’, ‘teacher and pupils’ or ‘teachers and pupil’. In alll these instances the inflexions are inevitably plural (signifying three or more). Any number of stems may be put together in a dvandva. Again, if more than two stems are involved, the final inflexion must necessarily be plural: PETMAN FAFA aéva;gaja;bala;narah nrtyanti horses, elephants, children and men are dancing Because of the importance of correct analysis of compounds for the understanding of Sanskrit, a system of punctuating translit- erated Sanskrit so as to make plain their grammatical structure is used throughout this book. In this system of punctuation, semicolons (as in the above example) indicate dvandva relation- ship between members. Vocabulary Substantives—masculine ag: aévah horse uftet: panditah scholar, award: acaryah teacher dit wrt: =krodhah anger : parvatah mountain Ta: gajah elephant ‘ava: balah child, boy ‘Fs: candrah moon qe: = brahmanah WA: janah person, brahmin people fever: Sigyah pupil 7: narah man wa: siryah sun ah different type of dvandva (of restricted application) in which the termina- tion is neuter singular has deliberately not been introduced here.Substantives—neuter' @i ksetram field %:@ duhkham pain, wet jalam water unhappiness, sorrow we phalam fruit, wt vanam forest reward, advantage Ga sukham pleasure, sitet bhojanam food happiness wert vacanam word, speech Adjectives zaoita ramaniya pleasant fw ighra swift, fast fafért vismita astonished ya sobhana shining, bright, beautiful waeq_ssvalpa_ small, scant (Note: 38 atra, as well as meaning ‘here’, may be translated by ‘in this (matter), on this (point)’.) Exercise 3a Translate into English: serena ferear aerraha ie 1 sTorenPreshe 12 1 ag Bers eae 13 Te Br resht rs 1 eret sey 14 1 Terre taht 11 areafete at geoT: to & Uae afta wear ic 1 art att teehee at oferert: 1¢ 1 sitet ‘wert HATES: 1% | see Ter Fa AM: 1N SYA: ERAT Nz fi fren gery 1931 Wet Trae: Ufa 1g ei THU amet faftoran safer ig 41 aenenft are: 19 &t gsarate wemarraht 12101 ‘aren ar fa ged ayer Rrerrareret aefir ge 11 Exercise 3b Translate into Sanskrit (using dvandva com- pounds where possible): 1 We want water and food. 2 The two of them see a swift horse. 3 Scholars, what do you want? 4 Anger conquers you as if (you were) a child. 5 Which two teachers do you see? 6 The moon is as bright as the sun today. 7 Is he pleasant? 8 Teacher, what brahmin is coming this way? 9 What is the * Note: The anusvara added to neuter a stems simply indicates gender: the basic form of the nominative/accusative singular ending should be thought of as m, which remains before vowels or zero and converts to anusvara only before con-advantage in this? 10 Children, where is that teacher? 11 Do you (pl.) not remember even pleasant words? 12 We see scant advantage. 13 Are the teachers astonished? 14 The two boys see fields, mountains and forests. 15 Why do you (pl.) say that he does not want happiness? 16 They are taking the elephant to the field. 17 But where the food (is), you do not tell me. (Use iti.] 18 That man is speaking to the astonished people like a brahmin.The past participle The past participle is the most important of the nominal for- mations from the verbal root (nominal forms of the verb being those which function not as finite verbs but as substantives or adjectives). Its sense corresponds to that of the English past participle in the latter’s more adjectival use; it thus in general signifies completed action and, except in the case of necessarily intransitive verbs, passive voice. So likhita ‘written’, S]t smrta ‘remembered’, 7 gata ‘gone’, 7H magna ‘sunk’, ‘sunken’. The past participle is formed by adding to the root one of three suffixes: (a) -ta, (b) -ita, (c) -na. Very few roots form their past participle in more than one of these three ways. In all cases the root remains unstrengthened (without guna or vrddhi). {a) -ta. Before this suffix, the root usually appears in its very weakest form (cf. the remarks on samprasarana in Chapter 2) Thus S@ upta (from 4 vap) ‘sown’ and $f hata (@{ han) ‘killed’. The past participle of roots ending in 4 or ai may end in ita or ita (and might therefore be mentioned under (b) below): tt gita (¥ gai) ‘sung’ feert sthita (tat stha) ‘standing’ (in the sense of ‘remaining standing’). Important irregular forms are fg@ hita (@t dha) ‘put’ and @W datta (at da) ‘given’. The operation of internal sandhi often produces a considerable change of appearance: 4 desta (3 dré) ‘seen’ YB prsta (WE prach, with samprasarana) ‘asked’, @@t labdha (*#% labh) ‘taken’, 3 ddha (4& vah, with samprasdrana and lengthening of the resulting u) ‘carried’. (b) -ita. Here the same suffix -ta is added to the root with inser- tion of the connecting vowel i. The root is not strengthened, nei- ther in general is it reduced by samprasarana or other processes;v0 ‘uftrt patita (Wt pat) ‘fallen ional reduced for see shee adie (ead) poke a and’ wach long 1 at gehia O grah) ‘seized’. an ene Ae a echeyads le aise substitute -ita for this suffix: aeraft kathita ‘told’. Otherwise -ita is substituted tattarat the finals of a derivative stem: @0gaft kandtyati ‘scratches’; sugfat kandbyita ‘scratched’. (c) -na. This suffix is taken by many roots ending in a/ai, 4,0, f, d and j. *dn becomes nn and *jn becomes gn. “fn gener- ally becomes irn, but after a labial consonant Gm. alai becomes soipetimes & and sometimes 1 So fit# bhinna (f¥@ bhid) ‘split’ aol ciena (J t) ‘crossed’, et parma (¥) ‘ill’, TAT glana (% glai) ‘tired’, €7 hina (@t ha) ‘left No rule can predict the form that the past participle of a par- ticular verb will take. To ascertain it you should therefore in fu- ture consult the list of verbs in Appendix 2. But the following is a list in order of the past participles of verbs quoted in the vo- cabularies of Chapters 2 and 4: {eT avagata, SMM agata, site anlta, Te, gata, wt gita, fra jita, sifera jivita, IE desta, “te nita, bhranta, sft udita, sft usita, (past participle of éuc not in) ea, Eo ae ae ee upavista, YE prsta, WB pravista, tyakta, feye vismrta. The verb @ kr ‘do’ forms a present stem of class VIII, which inflects quite differently from the stems so far learnt (thus #Uft karoti ‘he does’, Haft kurvanti ‘they do’). Do not feel free therefore to use the present stem of any verb unless it is stated to belong to class I, IV, VI or X (the ‘thematic’ classes). Use of the past participle Past participles may be used in all the ways in which other ad- jectives are used (in fact, in the previous exercise faféna vismita ‘astonished’, like its English counterpart, is actually a participle). ewe TUHft istam phalam na pagyami I do not see the desired reward fart Tara: 1 jito Raksasah Raksasa is beaten : YeBftt sisyan upavistah prcchati seated, he questions the pupilsIn particular, the use of the enclitic particle #ftt api ‘even’ with iciples is noteworthy. It has a concessive force and may be translated by ‘though’ (with or without a finite verb): er aft ufremt arrest 1 istah api panditah na {even desired:] though wanted, the pandits do not come: though we want the pandits, they do not come yori ufoearw uyart: | istin api panditan na pasyamah the pandits, though wanted, we do not see: though we want the pandits, we do not see them Instrumental case In addition to nominative, vocative and accusative, Sanskrit nouns distinguish instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and locative cases. From now on, the paradigms in the grammatical section of the book should be consulted. However, the following are the instrumental forms of the words quoted in Chapter 3: 34 aévena, sna aévabhyam, aa: asvaih; ‘Gar phalena, wana, phalabhyam, wet: phalaih; Wat ‘may3, STATA, avabhyam, oan: asmabhih; Ma tvaya Yana yuvabhyam, genfit: yusmabhih; #4 tena, aarq tabhyam, @: taih (m. and 7s 34 kena, BTA kabhyam, &: kaih (m. and n.). The instrumental case has both an instrumental and a comitative sense: it expresses both main senses of the English ‘with’. It also denotes the agent in a passive construction. Among possible translations of its significance are therefore ‘with’, ‘by means of’, ‘because of’, ‘through’, ‘together with’, ‘by’. wermnfwaft 1 jalena aévan sificati_he sprinkles the horses with water ‘Fe atta west | sukham yogena gacchati he [goes to:] attains happiness by means of yoga ardtrresfit | balaih agacchati he is coming with the children firdt teraanoret 1 jito Raksasah Canakyena Raksasa is beaten by Canakya saha The comitative sense of the instrumental is, however, usually re- inforced by the addition of the preposition W€ saha ‘together Se =with’, which like most Sanskrit prepositions usually follows the substantive it governs: wet erresit | balaih saha agacchati he is coming with the Past passive sentences The example given earlier, jito Raksasas Canakyena ‘Raksasa is beaten by Canakya’, might with very little alteration of sense also be translated as “Canakya has beaten Raksasa’. But further- more, since Sanskrit does not normally distinguish perfect from preterite, it might be translated as ‘Canakya beat Raksasa’. We thus have in Sanskrit a way of expressing past active statements in which the subject i is represe by the instrumental case, the object by the nominative case and the verb by a past participle agreeing with the latter.* In Sanskrit this is one among several ways of expressing past statements. Other possibilities include the use of a finite past tense (imperfect, aorist or perfect—often, in the later language, with- out distinction of meaning) and the use of past active participle (see Chapter 9). In this and the immediately following exercises it is the past participle construction that is to be practised. In translating into Sanskrit you will find it convenient to recast the sentence mentally in English first: though tired, the friends seized the very first opportunity by the f friends, though tired, the very first opportunity (was) afteretfa aac: get vara yet: | pariérantaih api vayasyaih prathamah eva avasarah grhitah ‘When a verb is intransitive, an impersonal passive constructtion might theoretically be used: at WM tena gatam ‘by him (it was) gone’; ‘he went’, But this is far less common than the use * This type of construction was so well favoured that it became the regular way of expressing such statements in some of the languages descended from Sanskrit. Thus the Hindi sentence TH am fire Ramne kam kiya ‘Ram did the work’ represents the Sanskrit THU Gry Ramena karma ketam. From this re- sults the apparently curious phenomenon in Hindi that in the past tense the sub- ject of a transitive verb takes a special suffix, and the verb agrees in number andof such a participle in an intransitive sense, with the subject in the nominative case: aaah: ug art wat: | te ca vayasyaih saha nagaram gatah and they are gone/have gone/went with their friends to the city There are, however, a number of past participles that may have both an active and a passive sense. Thus “ pita, like ‘drunk’ in English, can be applied both to the drink and to the drinker (though in Sanskrit there is no necessary implication of intoxication). Similarly, 8faB pravista ‘entered’ or ‘having en- tered’, fare vismrta ‘forgotten’ or ‘having forgotten’, Thus with an active construction: ‘wa sft wrt wie: Ramo api nagaram pravistah and with a passive construction: wont ert ufteq Ramena api nagaram pravistam the meaning of both versions being ‘and Rama entered the city’. Omission of pronouns It is not uncommon to find in Sanskrit sentences such as 4 7 ‘wt: hanta, na gatah ‘oh, he hasn’t gone!’. Here, the pronominal subject ‘he’ is completely omitted and can only be inferred from the masculine singular form of the predicate gatah. This is par- allel to the already mentioned omission of the personal pro- nouns with finite verbs (7 TeBft na gacchati ‘he is not going’ etc.) but is of more limited scope. First and second person subjects cannot normally be omitted (unless replaced by the appropriate form of the verb as ‘be’—see Chapter 5), since they are not dis- tinguished by any special form of the past participle. The ‘logical subject’ of past passive sentences, in other words the agent expressed by the instrumental case, is also often omitted. But this omission is of a different order, since the Sanskrit sen- tence is grammatically complete without any expressed agent. While jito Rakgasa’ Canakyena means ‘Canakya beat Raksasa’, there is nothing lacking in the simple jito Raksasah ‘Raksasa’ got beaten’. Hence Sanskrit may not bother to express an agent whose presence is grammatically necessary in English: one person may ask fér @B WUT kim drstam tat udyanam?, meaning ‘have (you) seen that garden?’, and another may reply ‘A drstam, meaning ‘(I) have seen it’. In the following exercises 51English pronouns are bracketed where they are not expressed or directly implied in the Sanskrit version. (The term ‘logical subject’ points to the parallel between the nom- inative subject of present active sentences and the instrumental agent of past passive sentences. It is a blanket term useful in dis- cussing sentences that attribute past or present behaviour to ani- mate beings. But it cannot be pressed too far, for the term ‘subject’ is also used to cover the nominative subject of intransitive presents and nominal sentences, and the nominative of past passive sen- tences is itself often comparable to this latter type of ‘subject’.) eva i eva is an enclitic particle which serves to emphasise the im- mediately preceding word. It may thus correspond to the em- phatic inflection of the voice which we represent in print, if at all, by the use of italics: aertaesm: | svalpani eva icchamah we want the small ones (The degree of emphasis would often be better represented by the use of a stress mark such as“ (‘we want the small ones’), and such a mark is occasionally used in this book where the use of italics would be particularly distorting to the sense.) This type of emphasis may also be represented in English by a relative clause construction (as regularly in French—‘c’est moi qui Pai fait’, ‘I did it’). Ara YoNFesMT: | etan eva gunn icchamah these are the qualities we want or it is these qualities we want aatdafeer 1 devena eva etat istam it was His Majesty who wanted this eva may also be translated by a specific word such as ‘really’, ‘ac- tually’, ‘in fact’, ‘quite’, ‘very’, ust’, just ‘only’. ‘Sgt Wa adbhutah eva ‘really extraordinary’; edinary’s are wae: balah eva esah ‘he is just a child’; ‘W Wa WA: sah eva janah ‘that very person’. The use with the demonstrative sah, as in the last example, is particularly note- worthy and may be represented in by the word ‘same’: ‘Wea BAT tat eva ksetram ‘that very field’: ‘the same field’. eva is particularly used to mark the predicate of a nominal sen- tence: WG FT wMeT: | egah eva sah brahmanah [that brahmin is this one] here is the raha tesah : egah ‘this’ is a compounded form of the demonstrative pro- noun ‘sah ‘that’. Its inflexion follows that of sah precisely, except that by internal sandhi the nominative singular masculine sah/sa and nominative singular feminine s& become W4:/U@ esah/ega and WM es respectively. The distribution of the forms esah/esa is the same as that of sah/sa. Whereas sah is an unemphatic pronoun used to qualify what is not immediately present to the speaker, esah is a deictic pronoun normally referring to what is close at hand. When it qualifies an already defined substantive, it may be represented in English by ‘here’, ‘here is/are’, ‘see’, etc. Wea wet: | esah sah brahmanah here is the brahmin eta arena | esah Ramah balan anayati see, Rama is bringing the children or here is Rama, bringing the children The most striking example of this usage is in conjunction with a first or second person verb: we sent after 1 esah udyanam pravisami see, I am going into the garden va ‘@ va is yet another enclitic particle. It has the meaning ‘or’ and follows what it ‘disjoins’ as ca follows what it joins. ‘Either . . . or...’ is represented by... va... va. arerdor ar firetat aa ue sirfta: 1 acaryena va éisyaih va gajah esah Anitah either the teacher or the pupils brought this elephant here krtam, alam and kim ‘FR krtam ‘done (with)’ and seq alam ‘enough (of)’ are used with a substantive in the instrumental to express a negative ex- hortation, ‘cease from’ (the exhortation occasionally being ad- dressed to oneself): aret vitart 1 alam gokena enough of sadness: do not be sad Bet FRAT | kqtam kutdhalena have done with curiosity: Vyou must not be curious fem kim? ‘what (with)?’ is used in a similar fashion: fqarta cUAeT 1 kim udy3nena ramaniyena? -what is the point of an attractive garden? 53 i - eS =Adverbs of manner Sanskrit adjectives do not have a termination exclusively re- served for adverbial usage. Instead, the accusative singular neuter (acting as an ‘internal accusative’) may do duty. siti weft | sighram calati [he moves a swift (moving):] he moves swiftly Adverbs of manner are also frequently represented by substan- tives in the instrumental case. faMe4 visadena ‘with dejection’: ‘dejectedly’, 4w%: vacanaih ‘by words’: ‘verbally’. Internal sandhi The rules of external sandhi, as covered by the sandhi grids, de- scribe juncture ture phenomena between complete words within a sentence. Internal sandhi concerns the juncture of morphemes within a single word. Extremal sandhi is the more regular and in variable because it is comparatively ad hoc: in principle, any Sanskrit word may find itself next to any other Sanskrit word. The rules of internal sandhi are both less invariable and, from the learner’s point of view, less overwhelmingly important, because they describe a previously established set of forms, the forms which inflected words do in fact have, and which are due to other factors as well as to the operation of internal sandhi. (Similarly in English, while we may by rules of internal sandhi pi edict both ‘cats’ and ‘dogz’, that ‘children’ is the plural of “chide i is merely an historically determined fact about the language.) The principles of internal sandhi are therefore best absorbed by observation of actual nominal and verbal formations. There are many features in common with external sandhi, but broadly speaking, instead of assimilation of the first sound to the second, the assimilation is two-way and a greater variety of combination is permitted. Instead of reducing to k/t/t/p, stops preserve both as- piration and voicing, and the palatal series is also retained. Before vowels, semivowels and nasals, all these stops remain unchanged. The t of the past participle may assimilate the voicing and aspira- tion of a root final sound: so 9% budh ‘awake’, Fa buddha (for *budh-ta) ‘awakened’. Before vowels and y, the diphthongs revert to ay/ay/av/av: so ne + ati = nayati (cf. Chapter 2). Retroflexion of s and n Included within the scope of internal sandhi are two $ rules which are really al ol mt re npa Sanskrit word. (Minor exceptions to both rules occur, but these are not important for the beginner.) The first rule is that $ is found instead of s immediately after k, r or any vowel except a or , provided that it is neither final nor followed by r. This happens even if there is an anusvara or visarga between the pre- ceding vowel and the s. The rule will appear plainer in tabular form (Table 4.1). Table 4.1 in spite of an Thus esa/esah in comparison with sa/sah. If the following sound is, in fact, t, th or n, this also becomes retroflex. Thus, in comparison with the root stha ‘stand’, tisthati (for *tisthati) ‘he stands’, The second rule is at once more important and more difficult to apply, for the reason that it is capable of operating over a much longer phonetic sequence (though only within a single word). See first the rule in tabular form (Table 4.2). Table 4.2 if followed by vowels, m, y, ¥ or n (which also becomes n) in spite of any combination of velars (k, kh, g, gh, a), labials (p, ph, b, bh, m | ton and v) or y, h, m (bh cannot occur) ¢ | or vowels The point is this. The pronunciation of the retroflex sounds 1,8, 1, § (but not of t, th, 4, dh or n) is such that the tongue does not release the retroflex position even after the sound has been made. This retroflex position continues (within a single word) until there occurs either a retroflex sound of the releasing type (t, th, d, dh, n) or a sound that requires the use of the tongue in another position (¢, ch j, jh, $,t thd, dh, Ls) But if n, an easily assimilal le sound, occurs while the tongue is in the retroflex poorer it is realised as a retroflex n (thus causing re- lease of the retroflex position)—unless, indeed, it is the last sound in the word or is followed by some less easily assimilable Fas ich Baars ie gental quality of both. Under the same circumstances nn becomes an. i =v0 An illustration of both the above rules occurs in the past ticiple of W& sad ‘sit? when combined with the prefix ‘down’. The past participle of sad is @® sanna. “nisanna becomes by the first rule *nisanna, which in turn becomes by the second rule Faq nisanna ‘seated’. The rules do not apply between separate words or (with rare and unimportant exceptions) between the elements of a nominal compound: thus nara;nagarani, not *nara;nagarani. After a verbal prefix the rules do operate, but with many excep- tions. Generally speaking, n and s are retroflected only if they are the first sound in the following stem (a restriction already naturally applicable to s), and not always even then. Thus, as quoted above, faq nisanna, but as an exception visarpati (from fargq vi+ srp) ‘glides’. From Mn pranamati ‘salutes’. But from r= nind, either or Uftfreftt parinindati ‘censures’. The vocabularies will show whether or not retroflexion occurs after a prefix. As they will also show, particular lexical items do not always ex- hibit the expected retroflexion of s: e.g. kusumam ‘flower’, not *kusumam. The most important sphere of application of both rules is in the addition of suffixes: e.g. guru + su = IY gurusu, locative plural of guru ‘heavy’. The terminations so far encountered containing an n liable to retroflexion are the neuter plural Ani and the instrumental singular -ena. It is not easy at first always to remember to make n retroflex. If after several exercises you find this is still causing trouble, you should make a special check of each exercise to determine whether the rule has been fully applied. Absence of external sandhi When some pause of sense occurs within a sentence, the rules of sandhi are not necessarily observed (in prose). Thus, in particu- lar, sandhi does not occur after interjections and is optional after initial vocatives. If you abstain from making sandhi in the latter circumstances, it is wiser to show that this is deliberate bv in- serting a dash or a comma. Vocabulary 3aat: avasarah opportunity, 2%: devah god; His occasion Majesty; Your Majesty Sart udyanam garden, FTE nagaram city, town park Wt: putrah sonat adbhuta th extraordinary, marvellous wf jivitat alive ® dara far off; adv. (dairam) a long way exhausted, tired ® ke (VI watt karoti) do, make RR tyaj (1 aft tyajati) abandon, leave, give up am alam = enough; + instr. enough of, do not, etc. eva in fact, actually, quite, only, (the) very are: ate: vayasyah friend (lit. of same age) fare: visadah despair, dejection samdehah doubt wert = prathama first, Previous; adv, (prathamam) freq vis sme (I ferareft vismarati) forget wt: egah pron. this @ va or ag saha + instr. (together) with @ he (before vocatives) o Exercise 4a Translate into English: Bh: Be Te ae 1g AgUET— fe: 13 1 star w feretange: Wea: Ba: 130 frit att are el Mhfeatas eae isl we UT ayerrerremstar 1 1 Trott ayia fas a areata 1G) eer a vo 1 ta TT: fafresrhfer qaeert ye afreft ic 1 gta art aa et Ofte wT: Ig gemdaae at igo 1 pet ae saree gle ferns aM: 1981 Yat: UAT saat: 19d aa TTATM: 1931 freA see Tent farara: 19% 1 3 after eared oe aareitfer yet sft arent 7 aah 194 1 fae wer—ita wat ayafer ta: neg * In origin a past participle.Exercise 4b Translate into Sanskrit: : 1 Your Majesty is tired: let us sit down here. 2 The people did not forget these words. 3 This is quite beautiful. 4 He re- members (his) son although he has gone to the forest. [Translate for both meanings of the second ‘he’.] 5 We came only today. 6 Your Majesty, these two children have even now not left the garden. 7 Here he stands with (his) friends. 8 What is ex- traordinary in this? I have already seen this man. 9 See, His Majesty Candragupta has actually arrived. 10 We have seen the garden with interest. 11 (He) has gone either to the forest or to the park. 12 Friends, we have been brought a long way by this horse. 13 An end of doubt: here come the two pupils alive. 14 Even today it is with pleasure that we remember that extraordi- nary sight. 15 Despair has conquered them. 16 Although as- tonished by this sight, they are not giving up the attempt.Paradigms: m. and n. of kanta, aham, tvam, sah, esah and ayam; present indicative of as ‘be’ Sanskrit grammarians discussed the cases of the noun in terms of inflexional morphemes modifying the nominal stem. In addi- tion to the vocative (sambuddhi, not re; ded as on a par with the other cases), those so far introduced have been the nomina- tive (prathama ‘first (inflexion)’), the accusative (dvitiya ‘sec- ond’) and the instrumental (trtly4 ‘third’). The order of the cases in Sanskrit was principally determined by the wish to group like endings together. The following is a brief sketch (by no means a full account) of the chief uses of the remaining cases. Dative (caturthi fourth’): ‘to, for’ Of all the cases the dative has the smallest scope. In Middle Indo- Aryan dialects it was lost, merged into the genitive. Even in Sanskrit itself the tendency of the genitive to usurp the traditional functions of the dative is very noticeable. The dative may be used to denote the indirect object after verbs of giving, telling, etc.: wt wer arena efor! dattam maya brahmanebhyah - dravinam I have given the brahmins wealth But in such a sentence the genitive brahmananam may be sub- stituted for the dative. severed by aan other cane chav of denctey epee one not shared by any other case, that of denoting or result, The best translation in English is often by means of ofan infinitive: wus weanfe oer agit! Landram gacchami nrpasya darganaya T’m going to London [for the seeing of:] to seeSO at: wesTt:1 aiganam bhaigaya arddhah ih prakarah the children climbed the wall [for the breaking of:] only to break their limbs Especially noteworthy is the use of such a dative as a predicate in itself: wedaftrrt eet) sarvam atimatram dosaya all (that is) ex- cessive [is for a fault:] becomes reprehensible Ablative (paficami ‘fifth’): ‘from’ The ablative expresses the relationship ‘from’: srranfit resfitt nagarat ksetrani gacchati he goes from the city to the fields When a causal relationship is implied, translations such as ‘be- cause of? may be used: RT krodhat ‘from anger’, ‘out of anger’, ‘because of anger’, ‘through anger’. Thes ablative of comparison will be mentioned later. Genitive (sasthi ‘sixth’): ‘of, 's/s” The genitive is the case with the widest range of uses. It most often qualifies another substantive, and has a possessive sense of some kind: Trea att wees: 1 nrpasya krodham na avagacchamah we do not understand the king’s anger/the anger of the king Where the substantive embodies a verbal notion, the rela- tionship may be either subjective or objective, just as the word ‘its’ in English is subjective in the Phrase ‘its consumption of electricity’ and objective in ‘its consumption by the community’, nrpasya in the preceding example is subjective (the king is angry) in in [Tet Bee nrpasya daréanam when this means ‘sight of the king’ it is objective (I see the king). The use of the genitive as an alternative to the dative after verbs of giving, telling, etc. has been mentioned. Furthermore, it is the genitive and not the dative that should be used in relation to ad- jectives to express ‘point of view’, conveyed in English by ‘to’ or ‘for’. firrronita firadeeyfay, mitranim eva priyam etat darganam to friends, this is a welcome sight‘RRA SEI Que RaaATA: | tat sthane asya ‘Vrsalah’ devah Candraguptah then a) propriately is His Majesty Candragupta (just) “Vesala’ to sy — TY: valet FeTeT! — srutam — na punah paryaptam hrdayasya (I) have heard, yet (it is) not sufficient for (my) Similarly, past participles formed from roots meaning ‘to know’, ‘to desire’ or ‘to honour’, such as fafet vidita ‘known’, take a genitive (instead of an instrumental of the agent) when used ad- jectivally: anf fafeetratereai api viditam etat devasya? is this known to Your Majesty? But: anf fafeet 84 terafiemra: 1 api viditah devena tesim abhi- prayah? did Your Majesty (get to) know their intentions? The possessive adjective 44% madiya ‘my, mine’ was given in the previous chapter. There are various others—e.g. Aa mamaka (same meaning), YWétt yusmadiya ‘belonging to (all of) you’, etc. More commonly, however, the genitive of the ap- propriate pronoun is used instead of the possessive adjective: . wa yet mama grham [the house of me:] my house am gait mama ksetrani my fields Wayat: tava putrah your sons (addressing one person) ‘genes Yat: yusmakam putrah your sons (addressing sev- eral persons) wea gent kasya puspani? whose flowers? wave tasyahastau his hands The unemphatic forms of the first and second person Pronouns me, # nau, etc.) may also be used. Like the ordi- nary forms, they may either precede or follow their substantive, but as enclitics they may not stand first in the sentence. FAT Wz! ime nah grhah here is our house (the plural of gtha often has a singular sense) Generally speaking, neither possessive adjectives nor the geni- tives of pronouns may be used to refer to the subject or ‘logical subject’ of a sentence. If necessary, the reflexive adjective ™@ sva ‘my own, your own, his own, their own, etc.’ or the genitive 6162 1 singular of the reflexive word STF atman ‘self’ may be em- ployed, b but it is usually omitted unless exceptional emphasis is nded. [sva is often compounded with its substantive, while as a separate word atmanah 's more normal.] garzafr putran raksati_he protects his sons wer Garett tasya putran raksati he protects his fi.e. the other’s} sons arta Yaraafa svan eva putran rakgasi you protect your own sons Because the omission of the reflexive possessive is standard, it is from now on not normally indicated in the exercises by any bracketing of the English word: ‘he protects his sons’, not ‘he protects (his) sons’. Locative (saptami ‘seventh’): ‘at, in, on, among; into, onto’ The locative expresses such notions as station or circumstance: ‘erefit a4 fa fort carati vane kim cit something is moving in the forest ‘Wes aren safer: phalake balah upavistah the children are seated on the table feravott yf + far fergeft — mitranam dargane na kim cit vadati [at the sight of:] on seeing his friends he says nothing It also expresses the end result of motion: we are figaft jale balam ksipati he throws the child into the water It can bear the sense ‘in the matter of’: aratt se watt aham Parvatesvare I am guiltless [in the matter Be psactern Parvatesvara “=n particular, it is used to denote the object of feelings (English eas ‘for’): arerrenntty & afereierét! avagacchimi te tasmin sauhardam l understand your fondness for him = It thus occurs after a verb such as fe7@ snih ‘feel affection (for)’: fe 3 ag are sferetca em gt Ferm # Fee kim nu khalu bale asmin aurase iva putre snihyati me hrdayam? nowwhy indeed does my heart feel affection for this child as for a son of my own loins? The use of the locative in expressing circumstance leads to the ‘locative absolute’ construction (Chapter 11). Expressions of time Many of the cases are used in expressing statements of time. The following is an indication of the main usages: (a) Accusative, ‘time during which’: Wfzrarwaft: tin divasin bhramanti they wander for three days (b) Instrumental, ‘time within which’: @ sft fafigaeint orem: 1 te api tribhih divasaih nagaram praptah and they reached the city in three days (c) Ablative (sometimes genitive), ‘time after which’: @ sft frat feat: orem: pi brah divasebhyah praptah and they arrived aker ferret arerea mrait sfit1 cirasya kalasya praptah asi you have arrived after a long time/at long last (d) Locative, ‘time at which’: & sft qa fead art wrem:1 te api trtiye divase praptah and they reached the city on the third day ayam The irregularity of the declension of the pronoun ayam is partly due to the fact that it derives from two stems: one a (cf. the ad- verbs 3 atra and 3@: atah, the other i (cf. 3 iha and ¥@: itah). Two pronouns are conventionally translated by the English ‘that’: @: sah and arait asau (Chapter 13); and two by the English ‘this’: 374 ayam and WW: esah. Traditionally, the distinctions are that sah is used of what is not present to the speaker, asau of what is remote from him (though possibly visible), ayam of what is present and esah of what is near at hand. Thus asau is the ‘stronger’ of the two which mean ‘that’, esah the ‘stronger’ of the two which mean ‘this’.64 It is evident that even if these distinctions were adhered to there would be considerable overlap within each pair (and also that ayam in particular might represent ‘that’ as well as ‘this’). In practice, the distinctions are somewhat blurred and, at any rate, not always easy to apply. A different distinction is that, used in reference to discourse, esah means ‘what precedes’, ayam ‘what follows’. aqrdafee aefti Srutva etat idam vadati hearing this, he says the following This rule also is not universally observed, but it is true enough to be worth remembering. In the oblique cases other than the accusative (and in practice to some extent in all cases), ayam may be used simply as an unem- phatic third person pronoun. In this sense it is usually enclitic. wretat swraresfit: krodham esim na avagacchami I don’t understand their anger Pronominal adjectives Certain common adjectives in a follow wholly or in part the pronominal rather than the nominal declension, anya ‘other’ does so wholly: its neuter singular nominative/accusative is 5%, anyat (cf. the d of Latin aliud). 74 sarva ‘all’, We eka ‘one’ and @ sva ‘own’ are also wholly pronominal, except that their neuter singular nominative/accusative is Ta sarvam, TA ckam, svam. ‘waai Gaon at: 1 sarvesim nrpandm ayam margah this is the path for all kings waferta av ad aren: 1 ekasmin eva dese sarve balah the children are all in a single place Becopiyaction with an interrogative, 3@ anya may be translated SFI: BATT! anya kah Agacchati? who else is coming? kaé cit and ko >pi The addition of an indefinite particle, usually either faqcit or aft api, turns the interrogative pronoun (‘who?’, ‘what?’) into an in- definite pronoun (‘someone’, ‘anyone’, ‘some’, ‘any’, ‘a little’,‘a few’). The addition of 4 na (‘not anyone’ etc.) gives the Sanskrit for ‘no one’, ‘nothing’, etc. ‘ra aet dq! kena jalam pitam? who has drunk the water? ‘Seater wet thay/ara first eq! kena api jalam pitam/kena cit jalam pitam someone/somebody has drunk the water ‘@enfe set a diet kena api jalam na pitam no one/nobody has drunk the water Bart a weet! udyane na kah cit carati_ no one is walk- ing in the park wa fa ferret staf 7% feta tava kim cit jalam bhavati?— na kim cit eva have you any/a little water?—none at all Interrogative adverbs are used in the same way: wrotgach 1 wafereavenfitt §~Kalahansakam na kya cit pasyami don’t see Kalahamsaka anywhere qa: wenft we:1 krtah katham api ghatah somehow (he) made the pot wemft katham api or a fr katham cit has by extension the sense ‘scarcely’, ‘with difficulty’: ea wanft went candram katham api pagyami_ I can only just see the moon as ‘be’ The verb as ‘be’, a very common irregular verb, is an athematic of class II (Chapter 12). The six first and second person forms of the present indicative provide an alternative to (and are, in fact, much more frequent than) the use of pronominal subjects in nominal and past participial sentences. So afrenrat sfa acral at a wel a eee aaa vam “you are eran and it Sf gata asmi as well as "Ht S@(gatah aham ‘I went’. Similarly ardt wa: dhanyau svah ‘the two of us are lucky’, art et: praptau sthah ‘the two of you have arrived’, etc. These forms are normally enclitic. The third n forms (sft asti, Bt: stah, AFA santi), on the other hand, are seldom if ever used as a copula but have exis- oe force (‘there is’, ‘there are’) and most frequently stand as the first word. afer wdag TH! sti parvatesu nagaram there is in the mountains a city66 ara: erate firenfet! atah param api priyam asti? is there (any) blessing beyond this? i ARAL! astietat this is —i.e. this is true, that is so "| bha‘be’ This verb, a regular verb of class I, may mean in its non-copula- tive uses either ‘exist’ (like as) or ‘come into existence’, ‘arise’: swafa art gyet:t bhavanti ca atra flokah and on this point there are stanzas 8 wragaft witg:1 krodhat bhavati sammohah from anger arises delusion As a copulative verb it provides a less frequent alternative to a nominal sentence, more particularly in general statements. aitara wait waft ufterarm daréanam eva asya bhavati parigrantanam the very sight of it is aehateeal to the exhausted ‘To have’ The notion of the English ‘have’ in the sense of ‘possess’ is gen- erally ex, pressed by means of the genitive case: i.e. instead of ‘John has a hat’, one says ‘of John there is a hat’. However, even in this existential sense the verb as or bhi is sometimes omitted. wa yaot et 7 waft! «tava putranam dhanam ana bhavati your sons have no money afer arerenmreftt fier! asti ca asmakam anyat api mitram and we have another friend too IMU arkiey YAAeT! srutam—asamtosah tu hrdayasya (I) have heard, but [(there is) dissatisfaction for my heart:] my heart has/feels no satisfaction (Compare the use of var- tate [Chapter 9].) ‘To feel’ As the above example suggests, there are various ways in which the notion ‘to feel (an emotion etc.)’ might be represented in Sanskrit. It may, however, be worth pointing out that the equiv. alent of %@ iva in first person statements is often ‘feel’ (‘stem being inappropriate): ste FNAeA! agaranah iva asmi_ | feel helplessThe absolutive Of an ancient verbal action noun in -tu (cf. the Latin supine) two cases survive in Classical Sanskrit: the accusative, supplying the Sanskrit infinitive (4Y{netum ‘to lead’, with strengthening of the root), and the instrumental, supplying the absolutive (or ‘gerund’, or ‘indeclinable participle’) —*temt nitva ‘after leading, by leading’, with weak grade of the root. The absolutive in -tva is not difficult to form. With very few exceptions it may be obtained by substituting tva for the -ta or -na of the past participle (with internal sandhi as appropriate). So ‘Seet uktva ‘after saying’, Bf drstva ‘after sering” Seat labdhy ‘after taking’, Wrat patitva ‘after falling’, tirtva ‘after crossing’. The absolutive in -tva may not be used when a verb is com- pounded with a prefix or prefixes. In such a case the suffix -ya (probably itself the instrumental of an old action noun in -i) is added to the verb, which usually appears in its weaker form. In internal sandhi, fortunately, y is without effect on the preceding sound. Roots ending in a short vowel add -tya instead of -ya, and those roots ending in -an/-am which shorten to -a in the past participle may optionally do so (again shortening to -a). So Ae samdssya ‘after seeing’, WYEA pratyucya ‘after replying’, visitya ‘after conquering’, APY agamya or SMTA agatya ‘after coming’. (A minor exception to both the above formations is pro- vided by derivative verbs in -ayati. They form their past participle in -ita but their simple absolutive in -ayitva. In the compounded absolutive, they substitute -ya for -ayati in gen- eral but -ayya if the vowel of the stem is unstrengthened. So waferet gamayitva ‘after causing to go’, SMTA Agamayya ‘after causing to come’, Wa¥a pravesya ‘after causing to enter’. See pp. 85-7-) The sense of the absolutive is generally that of action preceding the action of the main verb. Its closest equivalent is often there- fore in primer English the perfect participle (‘having led’) and in ordinary English the present participle (‘leading’). We wat at aftumft grham tyaktva vane paribhramati leaving his home, he wanders about in the forest This might alternatively be translated as ‘he leaves his home and wanders. . .’. In English both versions are possible. In SOSanskrit a sequence of events is almost invariably represented by the use of absolutives rather than by clauses connected with Gea. sert nfaya m afer Gat wfrescearesreaft udyanam pravigya = acchadayati he enters poeta tle sees the young man, and hides the picture ‘yea year putram ahdya prechami [ll call my son and ask him The subject of the action expressed by the absolutive is not nec- essarily the grammatical subject of the sentence. Rather it is the logical subject, which in passive sentences will be in the instru- mental case and in some other sentences in yet some other case: waft gqeererna ufraeagem tena api slokam avagamya 0 es ee et and he understood the stanza and spoke a reply Tat J FM geet Fed waft orpanam tu kumaram drgtva atyantam kutOhalam bhavati [but of the kings, having seen the young man, an intense curiosity arises:] but the kings, on seeing the young man, feel an intense curiosity Sometimes the logical subject itself remains unexpressed: wunfatita fafa fefia: sete: katham acirena eva nirmaya likhitah slokah [what, after composing within a very short while, a stanza has been written:] why, he has (/youlthey have) rapidly composed and written out a stanza wd: agra faqer werent ere! hanta bhoh— visrjya labdham idanim svasthyam Oh, in bidding farewell to yell t Sakuneala (I) have now found ease khalu We khalu, like Wa eva, is an enclitic particle of emphasis. But whereas eva is an affirmative particle stressing what is new, khalu is a confirmatory particle tending to stress what is already implicitly known. In consequence, whereas eva often marks out a predicate, khalu may equally well qualify the subject (or per- haps spread its emphasis more evenly over the whole statement), The subject is then usually placed first in the sentence. For convenience, khalu is represented in the exercises by ‘indeed’,‘assuredly’, ‘of course’, ‘after all’, ‘certainly’. we: weafa! darunah khalu asi you are indeed cruel wrafers: weaw:! kapalikah khalu esah this man is assuredly a monster aes: a faaeretert: | anutsekah khalu vikramaalam- iasah odecty, after all, is valour’s ornament External sandhi Now that a wider range of forms is occurring in the exercises, attention is drawn to two disconcerting rules of external sandhi: (a) final n preceded by a short vowel is doubled when the next word begins with a vowel (thus when n closes a word, the final syllable can never be light) and (b) t combines with a following § to make cch. Vocabulary ama: avegah alarm wftresaér praticchandakam gaa: upayah method, portrait, picture means, way Ufraet prativacanam gar: = kumarah (well-born) answer, reply young-man; prince; art: margah road Your/His Highness fit mitram (N.B. gender) qt: ksanah instant of friend time, second, moment et muharta m./n. short amt: degah place; country while, ‘minute’ We: padah foot wet hrdayam heart, yet puspam flower mind Jere pustakam book (Kalahamsaka, Madhava and Rama are proper names.) wa ayam (pron.) this amt kana one-eyed ara andha blind wa papa evil, bad; m. 8FI anya (pron.) other villain Ws eka (pron.) one wa sarva (pron.) all, wafer aisft kas cit / ko pi every; 1. sg. everything; (see chapter text) m. sg. everyone i a70 afuferag, abhi + likh (VI afuferaft abhilikhati) draw (picture) aq as (0 afer asti) be, exist We grah (CX Yet grhnati) seize, take W pat (I waft patati) fall mt pra+bhu (Iawaft prabhavati) arise; prevail, have power y bho (I waft bhavati) become, be 4] Sra (V7qURR Senoti) hear, listen aft api and (sentence GY khalu indeed etc. connective, placed I mu (enclitic) but, after subject) however Feri, idanim now @ ha ah! oh! 3 iha here; in this world Exercise Sa Translate into English: pica: 191 afrerert & gen feafeesha 12 1 Teta F ye 131 aaa geafranfa ar iv sfterment qeiquiaena: 141 May ws waht 1) 2a srvromeragent: wire: 101 aqurd wate a gaat wafer ic 1 aiterren apret ga At ged 19 1 ard Hareferske R01 we equrietrafrger eB rar garetts 1g gt ata: at sft ant y wafer 1221 gstardar firaronfirerstt cree aatay, 123 1 arta shir RaarERMT 1261 ‘We nieve aa atari a are eft Talqeshe 1g 41 seat Bt ST maf 12 8) aetan dtramrrc nftreszanfifetarry g's Exercise 5b Translate into Sanskrit: x You are blind indeed. 2 From this house he was led to the woods. 3 And they went to the park and seized the villains. 4 The anger of these two is extraordinary. 5 You have been seen, (my) sons. 6 But we have friends in Candanadasa’s house. 7 I ask because I’m tired. 8 We have seen this on all the country’s roads. 9 Your Majesty, I am that same prince. 10 He falls at the blind (man)’s feet. 11x By some means I saw (them) all. 12 This reply of the prince (will make) for anger. 13 But hearing this they sit in the road. 14 Kalahamsaka, we Hower 6 Even aes seisg veryting Your flighacss 7 ers. 16 Even seeing ev our ess says nothing. 17 wht, have you doubt about it [atra]? 18 Oh Makaranda, oh Kalaham saka, your friend has gone. 19 But the prince stayed in another place and heard the vllain’s whole reply. 20 What advantage this (man) see in anger?Paradigms: f. of kanta; f. of sah, ayam and other pronouns Feminine gender In addition to the masculine and neuter genders so far presented, Sanskrit has a feminine gender. Feminine substantives in -@ decline like the feminine of the adjective kanta. There are no masculine or neuter substantives that end in this -4, and no feminine substantives in -a. The majority of adjectives (among them all past participles) that end in -a form their feminine in -4. A substantial minority, however, form their feminine in -i and inflect like madi ‘river’ (among this group are most adjectives formed by vrddhi derivation). A certain a ee of adjectives have the option of either formation: so papi (the latter is the more archaic form), feminine of pe ea Adjectives in -a with feminines in -i are so cated in the vocabulary, but the use of forms in -i is not required in this chapter. There is, of course, concord of adjectives, including pronominal adjectives, with feminine substantives: vayasya, iyam sA varttd friend, this is that news Determinative compounds Present-day English shows a considerable fondness for form- ing determinatives. If the food we buy nowadays cannot be urged on us as either ‘homebaked? or ‘farm-fresh’, it is at least quite likely to be ‘oven“ready’. A determinative ‘compoundis one in which the final element, whether adjective or substan- tive, is merely further defined by what precedes it: 1 black:bird, girl:friend new:found, ice:cold 2 door-stop man-eating 3 sword-fight hand-written 4 dining-room accident-prone 5 book-learning trouble-free 6 status-symbol class-conscious 7 side-door home-made Each of the above examples is a limited exemplification of its final element. A blackbird is a bird, but of a particular kind; a dining-room is a room, but for a particular purpose. Similarly, the adjectives (including past participles) in the second columpa mean: cold to a particular degree, free from a particular thing, and so on. If we compare determinative with other compounds, the point will become even clearer. Twenty: eight is not a particular kind of eight. Bare; foot is not a particular kind of foot (in fact, the compounded word is not even a substantive). Richard the Lion-heart was not a heart. And an over head railway is not a ‘head railway’ of a special sort. (Our use of the underscore is explained on p. 100.) In analysing in ish the meaning of determinatives, we can usually make use of a preposition, chosen according to the sense of the compound. ‘Home-made’ no doubt means made in the home or at home (cf. home-baked); but ‘hand-made’ must mean made by hand or with one’s hands. In Sanskrit it is broadly pos- sible to express the relationship between the elements of any par- : ticular determinative (tatpurusa) compound in terms of one of the seven cases. The above English examples are set out accord- ing to this analysis. Compounds analysed as involving nominative relationship will be discussed below. Those involving relatio in any oblique case (accusative to locative) are known as Dependent determinatives . In the punctuation of compounds in this book, dent | determinative relationship is represented by a hyphen.. Occasionally, when a more precise analysis is desired, a number ‘‘from 2 to 7 is superscribed, perscribed, representing the particular case. So paksa-dvaram sapeseiribs , locative (saptami ‘seventh case’) relationship. Assignment toa icular oblique case may sometimes be arbitrary, and irrelevant to understanding of the compound. ‘Book-learning’ ‘bas been taken to be learning from books, but it might be thought of as learning in books (locative) or perhaps by means of books (instrumental). As an example of accusative case relationship, ‘door: may not be thought entirely convincing (it is here or oP as ‘a stop (which stops) a door’, but perhaps it is simply ‘a stop for a door’ or ‘the stop of a door’). The point is, of course, that the accusative case essen- tially relates nouns to verbs. The corresponding relationship be- tween substantives is expressed by the objective genitive. In a sense nrpa-darsanam ‘king-seeing’ contains an accusative rela- fonshige but expressed by separate words it would appear as arpasya/nrpayor/nrpanam darsanam ‘sight of the king/kings’. (A subjective genitive “relationship 1 may also be expressed by a determinative compound: in the appropriate context orpa-daréanam could also mean ‘sight by the king’ etc.) The last example will serve to remind you of the principle that stem forms are indeterminate between singular, dual and plural. There is a similar indeterminacy in English, as the example ‘book- learning’ will have suggested. In the same way a ‘garage-owner’ may own one or many garages. A phrase such as ‘child welfare’ (the welfare of children) shows that determinative relationship in English may exist between words not joined by a hyphen. Although such compounds are frequent in English, they are by no means substitutable in all circumstances for more analytical turns of phrase. In general they denote characteristic rather than ad boc relationships. A ‘hand-held’ camera is such by virtue of its design or at least some deliberate policy of its user. We do not say ‘He brandished the hand-held book’ instead of ‘He bran- dished the book held in his hand’. In Classical Sanskrit there is no such inhibition. Wherever nouns are connected among them- selves by oblique case relationships, compounds are formed ex- tensively. In fact, a long sentence composed entirely of short words each with its own case termination would have seemed unnecessarily clumsy. samvadaty ubhayor Malatiniveditah Sarin-akarah appearance-of-body reported-by-Malatt fits for both] ee are both as Malati described them74 kala-jiia devi—| kary-Sparodham me pariharati Her Majesty is [‘occasion-knowing’] tactful—she avoids interruption- of-my-business The compound kéla-jiia illustrates the fact that a number of forms are found at the end of determinative compounds which would never be used as words by themselves. In particular, many verbal roots are so used, predominantly with an active participial sense. If the root ends in a consonant, it is inflected according to the consonant declension (to be described later). Furthermore, roots ending in i, u or r add a euphonic t. But roots in 4 and certain others are simplified so as to end in a, and are inflected like kanta (thus kala-jiia, from jiia know). drg see sarva-dré _all-seeing kr make vighna-krt _obstacle-making, interfering ji conquer satya-jit conquering by truth stha stand marga’stha standing (/being) in the road jan be born jala‘ja_ born in the water Very frequent also in such compounds is the root extended by the suffix a. So side by side exist jala- “ruh (consonant-stem) and jala-ruha (inflected like kanta) ‘growing in the water’. Occasionally compounds are found in which the first member appears in an inflected instead of a stem form, and this is not uncommon when the final member cannot be used as an inde, pendent wor agre-ga ‘going in front’ m agram ‘ nt?” and the root gam. From the same root hrdayamgama ‘going to the heart’, An example of a case termination (here dative singu- lar) before a word which also occurs independently is the Bram matical term parasmai-padam ‘word for another, active voice’. In such instances, one of the most important criteria for the ex- istence of a compound rather than two separate words is lack- ing, but others remain: in Vedic, specialised meaning or unity of accent; in Classical Sanskrit, specialised meaning or the ability to occur as part of a longer compound. The word arthah ‘ ‘purpose’ is used adverbially at the end of com- pounds, usually in the accusative case, artham, to mean ‘for the sake of’: udak-Artham ‘for the sake of water’, ‘for water’, ‘to get water’; kim-artham ‘for the sake of what’, ‘for what purpose’, ‘why?’.The first member of a dependent determinative must be a nomi- nal or pronominal substantive, or a substantially used adjective (e.g. priya m. and priya f. ‘loved one’—or the first of these two forms, priya, used with neuter significance, ‘benefit, service’). This does not apply to the other class of determinative compounds. Descriptive determinatives For this type of determinative there is a special name in Sanskrit, karmadharaya. The notion that it expresses nominative relation- ship between the two members should not be pressed too far, for where the final member is an adjective it is not usually possible to achieve even an approximate representation of the sense of the compound merely by assigning the same case ending to the first member as to the second. The point is rather that in de- scriptives the first element stands in an attributive relationship (represented in the punctuation by a colon) to the second, Where the second element is a noun, the relationship is adjectival, the first element being either an adjective or a substantive used ‘ad- jectivally’, that is to say in apposition. Where the second element is an adjective, the relationship is adverbial, and the first element is either an adverbially used adjective (or sometimes an actual adverb) or an adverbially used substantive. Karmadharayas may thus conveniently be discussed under four main headings. 1 Adjective + substantive (black:bird). What is true of such compounds in English originally applied in Sanskrit too. They were used principally where the compound had a conventional sig- nificance transcending the separate meanings of its parts. In the same way that ‘blackbird’ in English does not mean just any bird that is black, so the equivalent Sanskrit compound krsna:sakuni meant, in fact, a crow. Even in the Classical period it remains true ‘that an adjective qualifying a substantive preserves its own inflex- ion in the vast majority of cases, in preference to being com- pounded in its stem form with the latter. However, there was a continuous whittling away at this principle. It was often violated in verse for reasons of metrical convenience. Common adjectives of unemphatic meaning such as maha ‘great’ and sva ‘(my etc.) own’ may be used fairly freely, and so may common collocations such as priya:vayasyah ‘dear friend’. In later Sanskrit prose words like sarva ‘all’ and anya ‘other’ are compounded in karmadharayas with increasing frequency. In the exercises you should not yourself todo so, (But this doce not apply to karmadharaya forming part to do so. (But this not to yas forming part of a longer compound: see Cheprer 7) 7576 + An adjective has only one stem form for all three genders, deriving from that of the masculine-neuter. So priya:sakhi ‘dear [female] friend’, not priyasakhi, which could only be either two separate words or a dependent compound meaning ‘friend of (my) sweetheart’. 2 Substantive + substantive (girl:friend). In these compounds the substantives are in appositional relationship: so rajazsi ‘king-seer’. In particular, titles are compounded: améatya: Bharivasu ‘Minister Bhirivasu’, bhatt»:Odbhatah ‘Dr Udbhata’. Other types are stri:janah ‘womenfolk’, dhvani:éabdah ‘the word “dhvani®, Where proper names are involved, the expected order is sometimes reversed: thus Rama:bhadrah ‘dear ‘Rama’, Sita:devi ‘Queen Sita’. One particular type of karmadharaya made from two substantives is of great importance in literary style. It may be called the karmadharaya of comparison. According to Sanskrit literary critics, it embodies the figure of speech ropakam ‘metaphor’ (as opposed to upama ‘simile’), in which one makes a comparison by stating directly that something is sor else. So if we take the word padmam ‘lotus’ and qualify it by the word padah ‘foot’, we have the compound pada:padmam ‘foot lotus, a lotus consisting of a foot’. This means, in effect, ‘a lotus-like foot’, and such compounds are often so translated, though strictly speaking such translations would exemplify upama and not ripakam. The more literal way to translate these compounds is by means of the preposition ‘of’, also use- ful in translating other ‘ypes of appositional karmadharaya, eg. Kaiic:puram ‘the city of Kaficl’: so ‘the lotus of (your) foot’; smita:jyotsna ‘the moonlight of (her) smile’; nara:pumgavah ‘a bull of a man’, ete.: katham, idanim unmAd>:dpar4ga eva Madhav>:éndum what, does the eclipse of i insanity now attack the moon of Madhava? (i.e. does i insanity engulf him, like an eclipse engulfing the moon?) 3 adjectiveladverb + adjective (new: found). So from udagra ‘intense’ and ramanfya ‘lovely’, udagra:ramantya ‘inte lovely’. A past participle as a final member is particularly com- mon: nava:baddha ‘new-bound, newly bound’; madhur:ékta ‘spoken sweetly’. The first member may be an actual adverb: punarzukta ‘spoken again, repeated’; anyatha:vadin ‘speaking otherwise’; bahih:éruta ‘heard outside’; atra:stha ‘standing here’.jCertain past participles may be qualified adverbially by words jwhich in a verbal sentence would stand in a predicative rela- pone So corresponding to the sentence sa sranta Agacchati ¢ arrives tired’ is the compound Srant:4gata ‘arriving tired’. In ‘particular, substantives, adjectives or adverbs which would ap- ipear as the complement of the verb bhai ‘be’ may qualify its past (participle bhiita ‘having become, being’: so nimitta:bhata ‘being ithe cause’, sukumara:bhfita ‘being delicate’, evam:bhita ‘being 's0°, bhiita need not always be translated into English, serving merely to smooth or clarify the construction in Sanskrit, e. eB. mad-anuja-marana-nimitta:bhotayah papaya of the wicked Balacandrika, cause of my brother’s death .. {Occasionally an instance occurs of an adverb predicatively qualifying a substantive: alam anyatha:sambhavanaya ‘enough of supposing otherwise’.) i4 substantive + adjective (ice:cold). A substantive adverbially ‘ualitying an adjective typically implies a comp arison: hima: ira ‘ice-cold, cold as ice’; prina:priya ‘dear as As karmadharayas, these compounds have such a meaning. ;Ambiguity arises, however, because they may often be inter- as dependent determinatives with, for instance, instru- imental or ablative relationship: so hima-éigira might mean ‘cold because of the ice’. The same author may write in one place ipivagusyama ‘dark as the black vine’, and in another jambini-éyamala ‘(skies) dark with rainclouds’. Prepositions The relationships expressed by the Sanskrit case terminations are expressed in English by a number of prepositions: ‘to’, ‘with’, ‘for’, ‘from’, ‘in’, etc. The existence of six oblique cases, each used in a variety of circumstances, means that the use of prepositions is a comparatively unimportant feature of Sanskrit. In the Vedic language (as in other Indo-European languages) the particles used as verbal prefixes are also found functioning as prepositions, usually placed after the noun they govern. But in Classical Sanskrit only two of these remain really i important, 4 and prati. 4 governs the ablative and usually means ‘up to’: 4 samudrat ‘up to the ocean’. It is the only preposition regularly placed before its noun (the others would more aj propriately be called postpositions). prati means firstly ‘ ‘cowards. against’ and, iby extension, ‘with regard to’: vanam prati ‘towards the forest’, devasy>a: n prati ‘with respect to Your Majesty’s illness’.anu (with accusative) ‘after’ also occurs. Related to the verbal prefix sam is the preposition saha referred to in Chapter 4. In addition, there are a number of prepositions of adverbial and nominal origin, for instance vind (usually with instrumental) ‘without’, pascat (with ablative or genitive) ‘behind’. These shade into eee use, with the genitive, of a number of nouns of somewhat blunted meaning, e.g. madhye ‘in the middle of, among’: : eka eva mama putranam madhye ‘one alone among my gone. . Instead of the genitive, a determinative compound may be med: tan-madhyat kim idam ekam? _ is this one [from among:] of them? jala-margena pagyamah let us watch [by way of:] through the window Occasionally such compounding occurs even with actual prepositions: e.g. rath»-6pari instead of rathasy> épari ‘upon the chariot’. Verbal action nouns in a It is well worth noticing the more important types of nominal stem formation from the Sanskrit root, not in order to form such stems for oneself but in order to make sense of the relationship between various individual items of vocabulary. One of the most important is the addition of a to the root to form a masculine substantive. Normally the root appears in guna grade, and the predominant meaning is of an abstract ‘ac- tion’ noun: so from the root krudh ‘be angry’, krodhah ‘anger’. Similarly, but with some development of meaning, from dif ‘point’, deSah ‘point, place, country’. The verbal root and the derived noun may have a prefix: sam + dih ‘smear, confuse’, samdehah ‘confusion, doubt’; upa + i ‘approach’, upayah ‘approach, means’, Vrddhi instead of guna is quite often found, but only where the resulting vowel is a: vi + sad ‘be dejected’, visadah ‘dejec- tion’; bhr ‘bear’, bharah ‘burden’. The longer grade is particu larly found after a prefix: thus from ru ‘ ‘roar’, ravah ‘roar’ but samravah ‘uproar’. A point to be noted particularly is that (for historical reasons) roots ending in a palatal stop usually change that stop _ to the corresponding velar: vij ‘start; tremble’, avegah/samvegah : ‘agitation’; Suc ‘grieve’, Sokah ‘grief’. :: : Among examples of the formation in the vocabulary of Exercise 79 6 are: anu + $f lie alongside, anugayah consequence, regret i abhi + las crave, abhilasah craving o 4 + rabh begin, arambhah beginning pari + has laugh, parihasah laughter prati + sidh forbid, pratigedhah prohibition pra + vig enter, pravesah entry vi+ava+hr deal with, vyavaharah dealings, usage Ss Ambiguities of external sandhi Sometimes the operation of different sandhi rules can lead to a single result, so that the final form is ambiguous. The following are the ambiguities most likely to cause difficulty: I om may represent t+norn+n. Example: asmannaeasmat+na or asman+na Furthermore, if the vowel preceding the nn is short, this may represent the sandhi of final n before a vowel. Example: pasyannaste < pagyan + Aste, pasyan + n4ste or pasyat + naste 2 a before a vowel other than a may represent ah or e. Example: aéva eva « aévah+eva or aégve eva (Theoretically the a might also represent a final 0, but this is rare.) 3 & before a voiced consonant may represent 4h or simple 4. Example: kanya nayati ~ kanyah nayati or kanya nayati 4 och may represent t + § or t+ ch. Example: asmacchalat < asmat + éalat or asmat + chalat 5 ggh etc, may represent a stop followed by h or by gh etc. Example: asmaddhrtat © asmat+hrtat or asmat + dhrtat 6 Long vowel followed by r may represent long/short vowel with h or itself alone.Example: éuct raksati © éucih raksati, éucth + raksati or] Suci + raksati The sandhi of two vowels is also a source of ambiguity, but here’ a learner is less likely to assume one particulai it resol of the sandhi. The possibilities implicit in the sandhi vowels , 1, d, ¢, ai, o, au are set out in Table 2.2. Vocabulary akgaram syllable, written character anarthah reverse, disaster anuéayah repentance, regret abhijiia conversant with (gen) abhilasah craving, passion for (loc) amé&tyah minister ambi (irreg. voc. amba) mother (either one’s own or as a title of respect) avasth4 state, condition asphuta unclear, illegible arambhah beginning arya noble, honourable; f- noble lady agahkA apprehension asa hope aéramah hermitage ida (f. 1) of this kind, such uddeéah region, part, place uparagah eclipse ubha both (only dual) katama (pr. adj.) which? kanya girl, daughter kasta grievous, harsh kastam alas karyam task kalah time kulam family kugalam welfare Kusumapuram name of city Kaumudi-mahotsavah Full Moon Festival . caritam conduct, deeds cinta worry tapasah ascetic Duhsantah pr. n. dvayam couple, pair (one way of expressing two) niyata constrained; niyatam necessarily niyojyah servant nirvanam bliss netram eye pathah (usually ifc.) path parihasah joke Puram city paurah citizen; paura:janah citizens, townsfolk Pauravah descendant of Puru Praja subject (of king) pratisedhah prohibition, cancellation prathita widely known pradesah place Prayojanam purpose pravatam breeze praveéah entry, entering priya beloved (woman) bhadra good; f. voc. madam mandapa m./n. pavilion, bower maha:rajah great kingF imahn:Gtsavah [great] festival, holiday ‘Midhavyah brn. (Maricah pr. n. feaudea seal ‘midha deluded, idiotic; m. idiot mrgah deer vyavaharah usage 81 vyasanam vice, vicious failing vratam vow i Sakuntala pr. n. Sonottar’ pr.n. ° Sravanam hearing Srotriyah learned (brahmin), \Lakgmanah pr. n. scholar iat creeper samvegah agitation Jokah_ world satya true; satyam truly vartté news subhaga delightful eo Vasavah (epithet of) Indra seva attendance (upon some- a vistirga extensive one), servitude vfttantah news, happening sthanam place, occasion; Vesalah pr. n. sthane in place, appropriate a+ pat ([4patati) befall, happen upa + gam (I upagacchati) go to, reach pari + grah (IX parigrhnati) accept pari + bhuj (VII paribhunakti; p.p. paribhukta) enjoy pra +nam (I pranamati) make obeisance to (dat./gen./loc./acc.) prati + sidh (I pratigedhati) restrain, forbid fabh (atm. labhate; p.p. labdha) take, gain, win vi+ pra + labh (vipralabhate) mislead, deceive aho oh ittham thus, so iha here kim-artham for what purpose, why? kutah? from where? . tat (first word in sentence, frequent connecting particle) so, then tarhi (usually enclitic) in that case nanu surely (often in objection to a previous remark) prati (+acc.) to, towards; with regard to Note: The abbreviations ibc. and ifc. signify respectively ‘ in the beginning (ie. as first half) of a compound’ and ‘in fine compositi, as second half of a compound’.Exercise 6a Translate into English: shot feerrramretorny 1 | Sey, — eng 12 TET ‘Herel FrcemoTeT 13 1 Ha: Gales arate 1 arafirehyy Taher vy anrer frefel: Sergeqer: 11 erate: ge ge Tee: ti amirath arden tc Lana ante — fiandng cra wfafirg: 19 wagered, 1g 01 Saar 1g esa ai areahraret gt: myraerny 2 1 eer Vy Var 1931 TV Teer ATTTNT TA Set at ‘er: Brydhegreramfirter: 19 1 fas carrer fereran g | Arete area a ergrrereatt nf graeery, 12 G1 sitfiraferfraraaratin werafeafear=att Frenrepertt wah igo Exercise 6b Words joined together by points (-) should be translated by a single compound. 1 This is a deer-of-the-hermitage. 2 A beginning-in-the-task has been made. 3 Here stands Minister-Raksasa. 4 Idiot, this is no time-forjokes. 5 In that case whose is this seal? 6 You are- indeed conversant with the usages-of-the-world. 7 Then did the, townsfolk not accept [ourword:] what we said? 8 Oh, this! part-of-the-wood is delightful-forits-breeze. 9 Do not be ap-i prehensive. x0 (I) have gained a bliss-forthe-eyes. 11 How (is; it that) you do not see Rama’s condition? x2 Sarigarava, such agitation [of you:] on your part from-entering-the-city is indeed. appropriate. 13 Descendants of Puru have this family-vow, 14 Madam, Duhsanta’s-conduct is widely known among his! subjects. 15 Then have done now with the vice-of- hope. 161 do not of course truly have a passion for the ascetic’s-daughter. 17 But with regard to the eclipse-of-the-moon, someone has’ misled you [f]. 18 [ll stay for a while just here in the bowerof-creepers enjoyed-by-(my)-beloved.Paradigms: Unchangeable consonant stems (suhrd, manas, etc.); fi Nominal stems ending in consonants i The largest class of nouns in Sanskrit is the ‘thematic a’ class, ithe members of which are inflected like agvah or phalam. But *historically speaking, thematic a is a formational suffix added either to a root or to an existing stem. Nominal stems ending in a consonant in general represent an earlier stage of Indo- ,European word formation. They may consist of a plain root ‘used in a nominal sense (so from yudh ‘fight’, yudh f. ‘battle’— and, more important in Classical Sanskrit, ‘the use of a root form at the end of a determinative, as described in Chapter 6); cor of the root extended by some consonantal suffix (so from sad ‘sit’, sadas n. and sadman n. ‘seat’). There are two main reasons why the inflexion of consonant stems is more complicated than that of thematic a stems. One is that variations may occur in the basic form of the stem in inflexion, due ultimately to an ancient shift of accent. Stems exhibiting this variation are not intro- duced until Chapter 8. The other reason is that direct contact between the final consonant of the stem and the case termina- tions causes a number of internal sandhi changes. As opposed to a single stem in thematic a, we have in fact a series of related stems in ¢, j, t, th, d, dh, p, bh, &, s, h, as, is, us, etc. The basic terminations of consonant stem nouns are exhibited in the declension of the stem suhrd ‘friend’. Before a vowel the stem final remains unchanged (except that s after i etc. becomes ¢ by internal sandhi—cf. Chapter 4); in the nominative singular or before a termination beginning with a consonant, it must be reduced to one of the ‘permitted finals’ and the rules of4 external sandhi thereafter applied (with consequent voicing be- fore bh, lack of voice before su). This reduction is according to the following scheme (a number of sounds not actually occut- ring as nominal stem finals are included for completeness): k, kh, g, gh; ¢, *j, §, *h become k t, th, d, dh; ch, *j, jh; *8, s, *h become t t, th, d, dh; *h become t p, ph, b, bh become p i, i becomei D, Mm remain s becomes h, r remains n, ysl, v do not occur The asterisked sounds (j § h) are those treated differently in: different words: where ambiguity exists, the nominative singular ; form is added in brackets after the stem form in the vocabulary, : In a number of words, for historical reasons, a final aspirate‘ throws its aspiration ‘back upon a preceding stop: go-duh’ ‘cow-milking’, nom. sg. go-dhuk. Feminine consonant stems are inflected like the masculine’ (though changeable masculine stems may often form correspon} ding feminines in i). Among the unchangeable stems, newtes at rare—except for stems in s, which are rarely masculine or femi- nine (unless at the end of an exocentric compound), Neuter stems! have no termination in the nominative, vocative or accusat Singular ld or a i he doa ands for an che pla wil n infixed before a final stop or sibilant and assimilated as appro-: priate to the class nasal or to anusvara. The nominative singular of masculine/feminine nouns in as is with lengthened In addition to learning the paradigm suhrd, you should i ety carefully the examples listed after it of stems ending in other consonants. ob Soeataatnns sadness Feminines in7 The suffix 1, inflected as in nadt, is important as forming a large! number of derivative feminine stems—in particular, ab! mentioned above and in Chapter 6, the feminine of arpayati ‘he hands over his insignia to his ver’. Class X verbs The present stem of verbs belonging to class X is formed with the addition of the suffix aya: so fom the root sprh ‘desire’, sprhayati ‘he desires’. But, as has just been described, the aya in conjunction with a strengthening of the root is used to form causatives, while another suffix, ya, frequently preceded by a short a, is used in the formation of denominative verbs (see Chapter 9). And, in fact, all but a handful of the verbs. classified by the grammarians under class X may be looked on either as causatives (but lacking obvious causative significance) or as denominatives (but receiving the old tonic accent upon the first 4, instead of upon the ya as do regular denominatives): chad, chadayati covers varn, varnayati depicts, describes (really from varnah colour, appearance: the root varn is artificially contrived)" kath, kathayati relates, tells (really from katham how?— i.e. says how, relates circumstances)L0 Karmadharayas with inseparable prefixes Just as the second member of a dependent determinative may be a form that cannot occur in isolation, so the first member of a descriptive may be a prefix incapable of independent use. Under this heading might logically be included all verbal nouns begin- ning with prefixes. Thus, as a compound of gamanam ‘going’, nirgamanam ‘outgoing’. But where corresponding verbal forms occur or are possible (thus nirgacchati ‘goes out’), this analysis is unnecessary. Occasionally, however, verbal prefixes are compounded with nouns ere no serreyponding eal form exists: so pati ‘ ‘over:lord’, ati:dfira ‘extreme! , prati:znayanam ‘en- countering eye’, prati:éabdah “[responding sound:] echo’, a:Syamala ‘darkish’. More frequent are a number of prefixes never compounded with finite verbs: su (laudatory particle) ‘well, very’ —surkrta ‘done well’, suipakva ‘well cooked, very ripe’, su:bhadra ‘very good’, susjanah ‘nice person’, su:vicarah ‘ ‘proper thought’ dus (pejorative particle) ‘ill, badly’—durrukta ‘ill spoken’, dus:cesta ‘misconduct’, dur:gandhah ‘bad smell, stench’ * Like other prefixes ending in s and a few other initial forms in compounds (e.g. namas ‘obeisance’ in namask4ra making obeisance’), dus retains a final sibilant before k/kh and p/ph (except when these in turn are followed by a sibilant). In conformity with internal sandhi it appears as dug : dus:krta ‘ill done’. (Sandhi before other sounds follows the usual pattern.) Corresponding to the verbal prefix sam, occurs occasionally sa or saha ‘together’: saharmaranam ‘dying together’, sa:brahmacarin ‘fellow-student’. The most important karmadhiraya prefix is the negative parti- cle a (before consonants) or an (before vowels). Unlike other ‘non-verbal’ prefixes, it may be compounded freely not only with ordinary adjectives and substantives and with past partici ples but also with other participles and with absolutives and gerundives: askrta ‘unmade, undone’, an:ukta ‘unspoken’, a:dharmah ‘unrighteousness’, an:atiidira ‘not particularly far’, an:agacchant ‘not coming’. The negation not infrequent qualifies a whole compound: a:guna“jita ‘not recognising a:loka* sAmAnya ‘not common in the world’, sckalakgeparhs ‘not brooking delay’.Especially noteworthy is the use with the absolutive. The best translation is usually ‘without’: a:drstva ‘not having seen, without seeing’. Note that the addition of a/an, unlike that of a verbal prefix, does not in itself entail the use of the compounded (ya) form of the absolutive. uttaram a:dattv» aiva prasthita she set off without giving any reply pirva A curious anomaly in the formation of karmadharaya com- pounds is that the word parva ‘previous’ used adverbially may be placed after the word it qualifies; so parva:krta or krta:parva ‘previously done, already done’. kim atrabhavati maya parinita:pirva? did I previously marry this lady? Compounds of more than two members Determinative compounds are based upon a relationship be- tween a prior element and a final element. In a sense therefore a determinative, considered in itself, cannot possibly consist of more than two parts. However, either of these parts may in turn on closer analysis be found to consist of a compound expression, itself resolvable into its constituent parts. In English ‘waste paper basket’ is a dependent: a basket not ‘for paper’ but ‘for waste paper’. But the prior element is itself a compound, a de- scriptive determinative ‘paper which is waste’, subordinated to a larger whole. We may represent the subordination by brackets: (waste:paper)-basket. Thus in Sanskrit: Malati-mukham Malatl’s face (Malati-mukb»)-avalokanam gazing on Malati’s face From a different starting-point, mukly-avalokanam ‘gazing on a face’, we may arrive at a compound with the same form but a different meaning: Malati-(mukly-avalokanam) Méalati’s gazing on a face The fact that this latter is a far less natural interpretation illustrates an important point about Sanskrit compounds: they build up as they go along. As each element is added to the compound, it should form by itself a complete final element, to i x 20L0 which all that precedes will stand in the relation of prior element: Malati-mukha (Malati-mukha»)-avalokana {(Malati-mukha)-avalokana]-vihasta clumsy from gazing on Malatt’s face This is not an absolute rule. But it represents the first interpre- tation that will occur to the reader’s mind. If therefore two or more elements are to be added en bloc, i.e. ‘bracketed’, they must form a natural group: in other words, the first of the added elements must group itself more naturally with what follows than with what precedes, as in the following: (sayamtana:snana)- -(savisesa:sitala) completely cool from the evening bathe Since it merely represents the normal rhythm of a Sanskrit com- pound, it is not necessary to indicate by successive bracketings the progressive expansion of the prior element of a compound. Where, on the other hand, a subordinated group is added as the final element (for the moment) of the compound this may be most simply indicated by some sign for subordination, such as ~ , above the relationship sign within the group. The above thus becomes: sayamtana:snana-savisesa ¢ gitala Slightly more complex is the following: tanaisnana-savisesaiéitala completely cool Pree vecmne evening bathe * ov This is a compound built up in three stages: pratyagra recent Ppratyagra:s4yamtanaisnana recent evening-bathe pratyagra:sayamtana:snana-savisesa‘sitala The first three words in this compound illustrate two points. First as remarked in Chapter 6, there is no restriction on the use of karmadha4raya compounds as part of a longer compound, provided that the finally completed compound is not in itself a karmadharaya (the rule boils down to this: in general, if you can avoid a karmadharaya simply by putting an inflexion on an ad- . jective, or on a compound functioning as an adjective, do so).Secondly, where two adjectives qualify the same substantive within a compound, it is more likely that the second is in a closer rela- tionship with the substantive and thus forms a subordinate unit with it than that the two adjectives are linked in a co-ordinative relationship. So in ish ‘startled: old:woman’ means an old woman who is startled, not a woman who is startled and old. Like karmadharayas, dvandva compounds occur very frequently as a subordinate part of a longer compat Pard;Sindhu-sambhedam avagihya nagar‘ é eva pravisavah let us bathe at the confluence of the ot (rivers) Para and Sindhu, and go into the city aho samAna:vayo;ripa-ramantyam sauhardam atrabhavatinam how delightful [for the similar age-and-looks:] for its equal- ity in youth and looks is the friendship of you (young) ladies Within a subordinate group a further subordinate (or ‘double- bracketed’) group may sometimes be detected. This is even less frequent than one-degree subordination. Subordination in general is more frequent in bahuvrihi compounds (see Chay ter 8) than in determinatives. Here is an example of sucl compound, one that can actually be analysed as including three degrees of subordination. The point is that such compounds are possible because the way the elements group together is natural and immediately evident to anyone who knows Sanskrit. virajat;katipayat komala‘dantafkutmab fagra with (a few (tender (tips of budlike teeth))) gleaming out If you find any difficulty in grasping the logic of subordinate groupings, remember the analogy with algebra, and ‘first solve what is within brackets’—i.e. determine the meaning of words linked by the sign ~ before relating them to the rest of the compound. In theory, any word standing outside a compound may form a grammatical relationship only with the compound as a whole, not simply with some prior portion of it. In practice, in Classical Sanskrit this rule is sometimes violated if the alternative of in- corporating the extra word into the compound is inconvenient or not not sufficiently clear. Typically one may find that a word or ‘Blow in the genitive qualifies the first clement or elements of a lowing compound: tasya kAn»-dnmattasya citra:vadha-varttapresanena (ple: me) by sending news of the [variegated death:] death ‘by torture of that love-crazed (one) 91Here the genitive -unmattasya qualifies citra:vadha not ~Preganena. The use of long compounds A single compound inserted into a Sanskrit sentence may serve the purpose of a whole clause or even of a separate sentence in English. The following sentence: itah pradeéad spakramya Madhav-apalciram praty abhinivista wami [ll withdraw from this iPaiece aad Be become intent upon the ruin of Madhava may be augmented by a compound qualifying pradesat: ito Malati-vivaha-parikarma-satvara:pratihara-éata-samkulat pradesad apakramya etc. I'll withdraw from this place, (which is) crowded with hundreds of porters busy on tions for Malatt’s wedding, and work for Mad- va’s ruin But the announcement of withdrawal in the word apakramya occurs late in the sentence. We would therefore be more faithful to one aspect of the original, the order of ideas, by translating: This place is crowded with porters busy on preparations for Malati’s wedding: I'll withdraw and etc. or even Preparations for Malati’s wedding have brought hundreds of porters flooding into here etc. On the other hand, if we always adhere religiously to the order of the original, this may involve us in destroying its structure, and the latter may sometimes be the more important. This is the dilemma of all translators faced with the more elaborate styles of Sanskrit, and there is no general solution: each case must be judged on its merits. The construction of long compounds is exploited to good effect in both literary and academic prose, making possible the han- dling of a vast mass of detail without any obscuring of the main thread of narrative or argument. Beginners in writing Sanskrit prose, however, often misguidedly attempt large numbers of ex-’ ceptionally long compounds. These are difficult to handle suc- cessfully, and the translation of ordinary English prose offers lit- tle scope for them. A practical limit to aim at is the com of three, four or, very occasionally, five members. Page afterpage of elegant, perspicuous Sanskrit may be read containing no compound longer than this. gata The past participle gata ‘gone to’ is often used at the end of a compound to mean ‘[being] in’, without any sense of prior mo- tion. Thus citra-gata nari ‘the woman in the picture’; kara-tala-gat >ksamala ‘the rosary in (his) hand’. Sugangay -gatena devem> aham Aryasya padamilam presit His Majesty was in the Sugahga Palace when he sent me to Your Honour|’s feet] (It would be wrong to translate this as ‘having gone to the palace, His Majesty etc.’ For the latter sense one should rather use the absolutive gatva.) gata may also be translated by ‘referring to, about’, or it may represent the locative used with verbs of feeling: ‘putragatah snehah ‘affection towards a son, love of a son’. Vocabulary atyanta excessive, extreme gatram limb atyahitam calamity ghatakah executioner a:daréanam lack of sight, not Candraguptah pr. n. seeing cira long (of time); ciram for Avalokita pr. n. a long time awvinayah lack of breeding, cirgam powder discourtesy chaya shade astram missile, weapon tatah (one’s own) father a:sthane not in place, inappro- tiram bank Priate darbhah (and pl.) a type of abharanam ornament eantiiah “aie "ype aryah Your Honour; voc. sir dire far away aharanam (act of) fetching devi goddess; (the) Queen, Her udvigna distressed (Your) Majesty Urvasi pr. n. nirvrta content, happy rtvij (rtvik) m. priest purugah man ausadham medicine parva previous; in karmadha- katha story; talk, speaking raya previously, before, once, Keira-vykgaly fig-tree already ksudra mean, common, low prakarah manner, way 2094 pratikarah remedy prabhavah power bhagavati Her Reverence bhayam fear, danger bhavati you (polite form of address to woman) madanah (sexual) love madam-édyanam park of (temple to the god of) Love migra mixed yatnah effort yoga-ciimam magic powder Rakgasah pr. n. Ramayanam name of an epic poem vanij (vanik) m. businessman, trader vatsala affectionate, loving vadhya condemned to death vibhagah part, portion anu + grah (IX anugrhnati) favour apa+hr (I apaharati) carry off spargah touch sva_ pron. adj. (one’s) own svagatam (lit. ‘well come’) welcome to (dat.) ava +tf(I avatarati) descend; caus. (avatarayati) remove 4+ éri (I Aérayati/asrayate) resort to (acc.) upa+ram ([ uparamate) cease, die upa+hbr (Iupaharati) offer kath (X kathayati) say, tell, relate kip (Ikalpate) be suitable; caus. (kalpayati) arrange, prepare ksud (I kgodati p.p. kgunna) trample, tread dr caus. (darayati) show dhr caus. (dharayati) hold, carry, wear ni + yuj (VII niyunkte) engage (someone) upon (/oc.) pa (I pibati) drink; caus. (payayati) make to drink prati + pal (X pratipalayati) wait for prati + budh caus. (pratibodhayati) wake (someone) Prati + i caus. (pratyayayati) make confidentpra + yuj (Vil prayuitkte) employ | pra +stha (I pratigthate) set out | pra +ig caus. (presayati) despatch, send ; lajj (VI lajjate) be embarrassed; caus. (lajjayati) embarrass vit ket (IX vikrinite) sell to (loc.) : vi+cint (X vicintayati) consider, think of * viedra (I vidravati) run away; caus. (vidravayati) disperse, chase away vit dha (II vidadhati) arrange, manage ’ vit yuj (VI viyuhkte) disjoin, deprive of (instr.) vrdh (I vardhate) grow; caus. (vardhayati) increase aye ah! used to express a present intention, tena hi therefore and may be represented by just in tavat (enclitic, lit. meanwhile) English (as in P'll just buy a and yavat (usually first word, newspaper) Jit, during which time) are Exercise 7a 3f& yt @at igi sfiatfiva wanfer arafe 121 | PRATT ATT, 13 1 Te AeTaT Yee frger: wr: 1st gafetadt ree yt amd aft wen frida 181 carafe ameerdratery, tot a7 Gat aitqaresrearnsram: ic 1 ferorerPrarter wagigrt: tet wart tet gol senrmefrTaeEN it see wis arrquifenited exganrs 1221 at sdyitrreanitea Prot & erétoy, 193 1 ord Rncreented stander: 19x 1 araherséhtercont auigiems saga 1941 wefreraifinre aeirert wet ater eft 1g G1 ae, sraoReaMt qa: igi! at wenn sonfircds ar gag: 1201 aantt aragaedt wettrt Paferepesrt: 19 ¢ SATET FEAT FANT wayrtrorcaard firey, 1120 11 - Exercise 7b 1 I am Atreyi. 2 You increase my curiosity. | 3 This is the bank-of-the-lake. 4 1 will just wait for these (girls) * [having resorted to:] in the shade. 5 This is a road trodden-by- common:people. 6 Clearly these [7.] too were sold to us by a trader employed-by-Canakya. 7 Oh, (you) have shown | love-for-(your)-friend. 8 The danger is at (your) head, the rem- i edy-for-it far away. 9 Dear [use sakhi] Madayantika, welcome. | You [bhavati] have favoured our-house. 10 It is this dispute , which makes me confident. 11 The two of us set out{for-the-fetching-of:] to-fetch-firewood. 12 Why did you two ladies check me? 13 That is well-managed on the occasion-of-the- heventry” -of-Kalahamsaka-and-Makaranda. .14 What, (was) this ornament once-worn by (my) father? 15 I have in fact engaged her-dear-friend Buddharaksita on the mat- ter [tatra]. 16 Are these the two-men-in-the-RamAyana:story? 17 This dearfriend Siddharthaka chased the executioners away and carried me off from the [place-of-the-condemned:] execution ground. 18 Quite different [anya] is this [un-trodden:] unhack- neyed way-of-speaking by [use gen.] Her Reverence. 19 This must be [use khalu] the powerof-the-Varuna-weapons-em- ployed-byPrince-Lava. 20 That doctor indeed was made to drink the same medicine, and at once died. [Express at once by linking the two verbs with ca... ca.]Paradigms: Consonant stems in an (rajan, atman, naman) Changeable consonant stems Indo-European vowel gradation was based on the position of the accent: guna or vrddhi occurred in an accented syllable, zero grade in an unaccented syllable. From Vedic texts, in which the ancient accentuation is preserved, we know that this distinction is broadly true of Sanskrit itself. It applies to gradations of the root not only in derivative formations (from i ‘go’, éti ‘he goes’, itd ‘gone’, ayanam ‘path’) but also within the inflexion of a sin- gle tense: e.g. émi ‘I go’, imah ‘we go’. In nominal inflexion we should expect the root to undergo similar changes, but only the traces of such a system remain, even in Vedic. An interesting ex- ample, mentioned in Chapter 5, is the infinitive (nétum ‘to lead’) in comparison with the absolutive (nitva ‘after leading’): in ori- gin these are the accusative and instrumental singular respec- tively of an obsolete verbal action noun. Similarly, in Vedic, from kgam ‘earth’ occur nominative plural ks4mah and ablative singular kgmah. But most nouns have standardised one grade of the root throughout their inflexion. For instance, from vac (or uc) ‘speak’ the noun vac ‘speech’ has standardised vrddhi grade throughout (cf. Latin véx, vdcis). So the nominative plural is vécah and the ablative singular vacah, with no distinction of grade despite the fact that the shift of accent is preserved. And since the ancient system of accents was lost early in the Classical period and is not marked in Classical texts, it is reasonable to say that in Classical Sanskrit the ablative and genitive singular, and the nominative, vocative and accusative plural of vac are identical in form.Nevertheless vowel gradation remains an important feature of nominal inflexion, for although gradation of the root is almost entirely lost, gradation of the suffix is preserved in many types of declension. In this chapter attention is confined to the de- clension of stems ending in the suffix an. [Latin has a corre- sponding declension, but has standardised the strong grade in one type (serm6, sermOnis) and a weaker grade in another (nomen, ndminis).] Strong cases of the noun (those in which the accent stood origi- nally not on the termination but on the stem) are nominative, vocative and accusative singular, nominative, vocative and accu- sative dual, and nominative and vocative (not accusative) plural for the masculine; and nominative, vocative and accusative plu- ral only for the neuter, Feminines hardly occur, the feminine of changeable stems being formed by the addition of the suffix 1 The other cases are the weak cases. Of these, however, there is a subdivision in many types of declension between ‘weakest’ and ‘middle’ cases. The weakest cases are those whose termination begins with a vowel (-ah, -i, etc.); the middle cases are those whose termination begins ‘with a consonant (-bhih, su, etc.) and also the nominative, vocative and accusative neuter singular, which has no termination. among thee which dscnguish thee tree grades song, middle among those which distingui ese grades, strong, mi and weakest. Here the difference between middle and weakest is straightforward, and historically easily explained. The suffix an reduces to n in the weak grade, and this n remains before a vowel but appears as a (representing * ‘syllabic ’) in the mid- dle cases: so mammnA instrumental singular of naman, but namabhih (for *ndmnbhih) instrumental plural. The n is assimi- lated where “pepe to the class of the preceding consonant: so rajiia ‘by Except in the vocative singular the strong stem appears not in the guna grade an but in the vrddhi grade an: rajanau ‘the two kings’ I In the nominative singular masculine the final n is lost: raja (cf. Latin serm6). In the locative singular and in the nominative, vocative and ac- cusative dual neuter, an may optionally replace n: rajiii or rajani ‘in the king’, namni or namani ‘the two names’. In stems ending in -man or -van preceded by a consonant, man/van nec- essarily replaces mn/vn (for ease of pronunciation) in all the weakest cases: so 4tmana, karman4.An important practical point about nouns with changeable stems (and some consolation for the greater difficulties of in- flexion) is that in the masculine plural they distinguish the nom- inative from the accuative. suhrdah (as well as being ablative and genitive singular) may be either nominative or accusative plural; rajanah can only be nominative (or vocative)—and rajanah, if plural, can only be accusative. Exocentric compounds: bahuvrihi Ifa nominal compound functions neither as an aggregate in some sense of its parts (co-ordinative) nor as a hyponym, ‘special in- stance’, of one of its parts (determinative—in Classical Sanskrit that part is, in fact, always the final element, if we except rari- ties like drsta:piirva), then it must function as the qualifier of some substantival notion outside itself, whether the latter is ex- pressed or left unexpressed. For this reason the term ‘exocentric’ is used to describe the third main class of nominal compounds. The class is extremely various: in principle, any meaningful col- location of words may be isolated and used as a descriptive tag. This is, in fact, our practice in English: we talk of a ne’er-do-well husband, ban-1 the-bomb marchers, the two-car family. The English practice helps to explain the way in which such com- pounds may have arisen in the Indo-European period, namely as survivals of an earlier stage of the language in which nouns had lacked inflexion, and relationships could be expressed by simple juxtaposition, much as in English: to give an example based on Sanskrit, ava mukha ‘horse’s face’. When a system of inflexions arose, such collocations, where used with their primary value, could easily be superseded: so aévasya mukham. Therefore com- pounds with determinative sense survived only if well estab- lished or of specialised meaning. Used, on the other hand, with exocentric value, aévamukha ‘horse face’ could not be replaced by two inflected words and would thus survive as an adjective: asvamukhah ‘the horse-faced (man)’. There are very few instances of exocentric compounds in Sanskrit ee ee on some random phrase (one example wor ‘wanting to irst” on the phrase aham pirvah ‘Pm first!’). The commonest type is that exempli- fied in the preceding paragraph, the compound based on two nouns standing in determinative relationship. This is termed in Sanskrit a bahuvrihi compound (literally ‘much-riced’, an example of the class). In the system of punctuation here eamdeyo100 adopted, exocentric value is denoted by an underscore, and this is placed beneath the mark of the relationship between the ele- ments. So based on the dependent determinative aéva-mukham ‘horse’s face’ is the exocentric compound aéva-mukha ‘horse- faced’. In fact, however, the vast majority of bahuvrihis are based on descriptive (karmadh4raya) relationship. Examples are ugra:zmukha ‘grim-faced’, tri:sirsa ‘three-headed’, krgna:varna ‘black-coloured’, In general, as these examples indicate, the type of compound in English which represents the bahuvrihi most closely is that formed with the possessive suffix ‘-ed’. Truly parallel English bahuvrihis are few, but a useful one to remember is ‘bare:foot’. Like the determinative ‘tooth-brush’, it illustrates the fact that stem forms do not distinguish singular from plural: a bare-foot man is one whose feet are bare. All bahuvrthis are essentially adjectival. The compound on which a bahuvrihi is based is reduced to a stem form, and then inflected to agree with a substantive expressed or understood. The stem form must in the first place be a masculine stem form. Thus a feminine substantive in 4 at the end of a bahuvrthi has its final vowel reduced to short a: e.g. from svalp»:éccha ‘small de- sire’, svalp»:éccha ‘having small desire’. But although in theory almost any noun might be used at the end of a bahuvrihi, in practice restraint is observed so as to avoid awkward termina- tions. For instance, a polysyllabic feminine in 1 is hardly to be found at the end of a bahuvrihi (cf. Chapter 10). Among bahuvrihis ending in consonants, a notable type (paral- leled in Greek) is that formed from neuters in -as: e.g. from su:manas ‘good mind’, su;manas ‘well-disposed’, nom. sg. m. or f. suymanah (cf. Gk. eumenés). The adjective mahant ‘great’ (Chapter 10) when used as the first member of a karmadharaya or bahuvrihi compound takes the form maha: maha:purusah ‘great man’, maha;bala ‘of great strength’. The term bahuvrihi is often translated ‘possessive compound’, and this certainly reflects the prevailing sense of these com- pounds in Sanskrit. In perhaps nine cases out of ten the sense can be represented by putting the word ‘having’ before the de- terminative meaning of the compound: ‘having three heads’ and so forth. However, the sophisticated exploitation of bahuvrihis is a striking feature of Classical Sanskrit, and the simple notion of ‘possession’ can be unhelpful or positively mis- leading in their interpretation, particularly in the many instances«where a past participle forms the first element in the compound. : ‘it commentators have standardised a more adequate yanalysis by means of a relative clause, the full neatness and use- sfulness of which will be more obvious later when the construc- .tion of Sanskrit relative clauses is explained (cf. Chapter 11, p. 448). For the present, the analysis is introduced in a translated version. Let us begin by labelling the first element in the com- pound A and the second element B. The compound then means ofyfin etc. | whom/which | B (sg./du/pl.) | isfare | A. a (or of or simply whose By this analysis the compounds already encountered might be- come ‘whose face is grim’, ‘whose heads are three’, ‘of which the colour is black’, ‘whose feet are bare’, ‘whose desires are few’, ‘whose disposition is good’. Where there is dependent determi- native relationship, a preposition or ‘apostrophe s’ needs to be attached to A: ‘whose face is a horse’s’, ‘of whom there is the face of a horse’. As in the last example, the formula may be var- ied by substituting ‘there is/there are’. This works very well for the normal possessive bahuvrihis—‘of whom there are three heads’ etc.—but is not always appropriate elsewhere: the Sanskrit version of the formula usefully blurs this distinction. Bahuvrihis based on various special types of karmadharayas occur. The prefixes su and dus are perhaps even commoner in bahuvrihis than in simple karmadharayas. sujmanas has been mentioned; similarly, dur;4tman ‘evil-natured’. The negative pre- fix a is probably rather less common in bahuvrithi than in karmadharaya sense (the alternative being the use of the prefix nis—see Chapter 9): examples are a;nimitta ‘for which there is no cause’ and a;visrama ‘from which there is no respite, cease- less’. An example of sa converted from karmadhdraya to bahuvrihi sense is found in sa:pinda ‘having the ancestral offer- ing in common’, but sa usually has a different sense in exocen- tric compounds (see Chapter 9). The prefixes su (‘easily’) and dus (‘with difficulty’) are used with verbal action nouns to give a ‘gerundive’ sense: e.g. durzjaya ‘dif- ficult to conquer’, su:bodha ‘easy to understand’. The noun is normally in guna grade, even in the case of a medial a: thus sujlabha ‘easily got’, dur;labha ‘hard to get’, even though labhah does not occur as an independent word, the form being abhah ‘acquisition’. 401102) Corresponding to the karmadharaya of comparison is a bahuvrihi in which the same elements appear in reverse order: dakajam ‘the lotus of (her) face’, but patikaja;vadana ‘the lotus-faced (girl). (This latter was classed by critics as sim- ile rather than as metaphor.) The first element of the bahuvrihi may be an adverb instead of an adjective. Examples are sarvatozmukha ‘{whose face is in all directions:] facing all ways’, and tatha;vidha or evamzvidha (from vidha ‘form, sort’) [whose sort is thus:] of such a kind’. ‘When the first element of the bahuvrihi is a past participle, an ambiguity exists which makes correct analysis important, drst>;artha ‘whose purpose is seen, having a visible purpose’ is easily understood. drsta:kasta, however, is used to mean not ‘whose calamity is seen’ but ‘by whom calamity has been seen’, ie. ie. Mone) who has experienced calamity’. Similarly, krtazsrama means ‘by whom exertions have been made’, viditayvartea ‘by whom news has been learnt’. A past participle like datta ‘given’ introduces a further ambiguity: dato;adara may mean either ‘by whom respect is given’ or ‘to whom respect is given’. Besides the mainly literal translations mentioned above, the use of bahuvrihis may correspond to various kinds of idiom in English. The ‘having’ of the ‘possessive’ translation may be replaced by a preposition such as ‘of’ or ‘with’, as in: ramantyaidarganah (a man) of attractive appearance bahu;svara (a word) of many syllables alaksya:dantaimukulah a:nimitta:hasaih (children) with their buds of teeth just visible through causeless chuckles elo;4nvayo »yam asmakam he is of one family with us In apposition to the subject, a bahuvrihi may often be translated by an absolute phrase in English: ubhe vismayad urasi nihitazhaste parasparam alokayatah the two (girls) look at each other in astonishment, their hands placed on their breasts The addition of api results in a concessive clause: avasita;pratijiia:bharo »pi Vrsab-apeksaya sastram dharayami {though one by wont the burden of The romise has been fulfilled, through regard for Vrsala I bear the sword:]though I have discharged the burden of my promise, I bear the sword (of office) out of regard for Vesala 103) vamaiiikaso »pi vayam loka-jiia eva though our home is the forest, we do know the world The difference between Sanskrit and English idiom is most strik- | © ingly illustrated in the many sentences in which a bahuvrihi forms the predicate to a nominal sentence. The way of translat- ing these will vary, but as a general rule the most naturally cor- responding English sentence will make the final element of the bahuvrihi into the subject, and the subject of the Sanskrit into a word dependent on it: o distya jivita;vatsa smi thank God my children are alive © pracdra-siicita:évai aranyam the forest is one-in- “which-the-beasts-are-indicated-by-the-movements-of-the deer:] the game in the forest has been tracked by the move- ments of the deer nany iyam samnihita;vetr-asan» aiva dvaraprakostha-éala [why, this hall of the entrance-court is in fact one-in- which-a-seat-of-cane-is-present:] why, there is already a canework couch here in the hall of the forecourt In questions the neuter singular interrogative kim may be used as a stem form: kim;vyaparo bhagavan Maricah? [the revered son of Marici is one whose occupation is what?:] how is the revered son of Marici occupied ? tesam Daéarath-dtmajinam kim;namadheyany apatyani? t are the names of the offspring of those sons of Dagaratha? Where a past participle is used, a simple English perfect may be the obvious translation: Pratyapannazcetano vayasyah [(my) friend is one-by-whom: consciousness-isregained:] my friend has regained con- sciousness labdl»:dvakaséa me manorathah [my desires are ones-for- which-scope-has-been-obtained:] I have won the scope for my desires It has already been pointed out that karmadharayas are not freely formed as complete compounds. One reason for this will104) i now be clear, namely the ambiguities of interpretation which would arise: hataputrah is not used in the sense of ‘a slain son’, because it is in the sense of ‘(he) whose son is slain’ or. ‘(he) who has slain a son’. Conversely, although bahuvrihis as’ the earlier part of some longer compound are not impossible, they are not particularly common in simple prose style. The rule of thumb in translating from Satiskrit is therefore: expect hata- putra as a complete word to be a bahuvrihi, but as a stem form to be a karmadhd4raya—thus hata:putradarsanam ‘the sight of (his) slain son [/sons]’. ‘Called’ To express the idiom ‘a man called Devadatta’ the word naman may be used in either of two ways: adverbially in the accusative, e.g. nama ‘by name’: Devadatto nama purusah a man, Devadatta by name or else at the end of a bahuvrihi compound (feminine in 1): Devadatta;nama purusah a man whose name is Devadatta Madayantika:namni kanyaka a girl called Madayantika atman This is a masculine substantive meaning ‘self’. It is also used, in the masculine singular, as a reflexive pronoun for all three num- bers, genders and persons: 4tmanam prasamsatha you are praising [the self:] yourselves Atmany esi dosam na pagyati she sees no fault in herself In the genitive, atmanah, it is thus a frequent alternative to the reflexive adjective sva: &tmano grham idanim pravigami ll now enter my own house Often a phrase qualifies Atman which in English would qualify the subject: pura kila . . . Sita:devi prapta:prasava-vedanam 4tma4nam ati:duhkha-samvegad Gaig4-pravahe niksiptavati Once, it seems, Queen Sita, when the pangs of childbirth were upon her, cast herself in the extremity of her suffering into the Ganges’ stream ‘ Neither atman nor sva is restricted to referring to the nominative subject: they may refer to any appropriate substantive orpronoun in the vicinity: hence a phrase such as asya sva:bhrtyah ‘this man’s own servant’. In the following example, the first sva refers to amusya, the second to mahi-patih: sva:bhavam-dpanayanam apy amusya sva:m4hatmya-praka Sanaya_mahi-patir anvamamsta and [for the displaying of:] to display his generosity, the king permitted {the carry- ing to his own home of that one:] him to be carried to his own home svayam The stem sva provides an indeclinable form svayam. This repre- sents the notions ‘personally’ or ‘of one’s own accord? (the in- ‘strumental atmana is sometimes used in the same way). It may therefore correspond to the emphatic use of the English reflex- ive: svayam agacchati ‘he is coming himself (/in person)’. In com- bination with a past participle an agentive sense is uppermost: svayam adhigata ‘acquired by oneself’. Predicative accusatives In sentences such as ‘he likes his curry hot’, ‘they drink their martinis dry’ much of the burden of statement is carried by an adjective (‘hot’, ‘dry’) syntactically dependent upon a subordi- nate element (‘curry’, ‘martinis’) in a sentence that might already appear to be structurally complete. Such an adjective is ‘pred- icative’ in rather the same way as is the adjectival complement of a nominal sentence: the sentences are, in fact, closely similar in meaning to ‘the curry he likes is hot’, ‘the martinis they drink are dry’. In Sanskrit, too, the object of a verb may be qualified by such a predicate. The verb avagam ‘understand, perceive, etc.” may be used to illustrate possible equivalents of the con- struction in English: Arkham tva ami (a) I think you a fool (6) I perceive you to be a fool (c) I recognise you as a fool (/for a fool) (d) I realise that you are a fool There is no ‘accusative and infinitive’ construction of the Latin kind in Sanskrit, but an ‘accusative and accusative’ construction as illustrated by the above is not uncommon and may be an al- ternative to the use of an ‘iti clause’. Thus the above might also 105 {106 i have been expressed by mirkhas tvam ity avagacch4mi. tat kim khalv idanim pirnam atmano manoratham m abhi- nandami? {so do I not now Tejoice in my own desire (as) fulfilled:] may I not now rejoice that my desire is fulfilled? Here again, pirnam atmano manoratham might conceivably be replaced by parno me manoratha iti. Particularly noteworthy is the predicative use with a verb such as is ‘want’ of a present participle (Chapter 10): bhadra Bhasvaraka, na mam dirl~bhavantam' icchati kum- arah good Bhasvaraka, His Highness does not want me [being far away:] to be far away Verbal action nouns in ana The suffix ana added to the verbal root (normally strengthened to guna grade) is sometimes used to form nouns with adjectival or agentive force: thus from éubh ‘shine’, sobhana ‘brilliant’; from nand ‘rejoice’, nandana ‘gladdening’. ‘But its far more frequent function is to provide neuter action nouns. So from dré ‘see’, darganam ‘(act of) seeing’; from 4 + gam ‘come’, , agamanam “(act of) coming, arrival’. There is thus an overlap of meaning with the masculine action nouns in a already described, and sometimes both formations are found from the same root in much the same sense, €.g. uparodhah or uparodhanam ‘(act of) blocking’. A more concrete meaning is also not uncommon with this formation: bhojanam, from bhuj ‘enjoy, eat’, means ‘thing eaten, food’ more often than it means ‘act of eating’; vacanam usually means ‘thing spoken, word’ rather than ‘act of speaking (cf. in English the two senses of the word ‘utterance’ and the frequent ambiguity of words ending in ‘-ation’, so that, for instance, ‘formation’ can equally well mean ‘act of forming’ and ‘thing formed’). The first a of the suffix coalesces with the vowel of roots ending in 4: sthanam ‘place’, jianam ‘knowledge’, etc. The roots labh and rabh insert ediat nasal: ane hanam ‘deception’. Lengthening of a m ais und, except to some extent in distinguishing a causative significance: maragam ‘cying’, ‘killing’. More generally, however (and especially in later iy aN derivative stems both causative and denominative make use of a related feminine suffix ana: ganan ‘counting’, prarthana ‘solicitation’, vijiiapana ‘requesting’. " For the tilde ~ in compounds of kr and bhti see Chapter 12.samvrtta The past participle of samvrt ‘happen’ is frequently used to express the ‘change of state” equivalent (in past time) of a nominal sentence. It thus represents English ‘became’ or ‘has become’. eso »smi kirya-vasad Ay tadanim tanaé ca samvrttah behold, through (theatrical) need I have become (/earned into) an inhabitant of Ayodhya and a man of the period Often jata, the past participle of jan ‘be born, arise’, is used in the same way: nihsaha si jata you [f.] have become exhausted ‘Palace’, ‘temple’ Sanskrit usually designates types of buildings more analytically than English. There is no single word that exclusively denotes either the residence of a king or the place where a god is wor- ped. Therefore the notion ‘palace’ may be represented by an ite number of phrases meaning ‘king’s house’, e.g. nrpa~ thavansen (The word prasadah normally denotes a fine building and may therefore be used by itself to mean ‘palace’ if the context makes it plain who the owner is.) Similarly, ‘temple’ is expressed by the phrase ‘house of god’, e.g. deva-kulam. Where a specific deity is named, the inclusion of a word such as devah or devata is, of course, not necessary: Siv-ayatanam ‘tem- ple of Siva’. Vocabulary anguriyaka m./n. ring arthah meaning, matter; (for finger) purpose, object atitbibhatsa extremely avasanam termination, end, repulsive, foul conclusion atrabhavati this lady anuktla favourable aparadhah offence apavarita hidden abbiyukta diligent aranyam forest avasita terminated, over 4tman m, self amodah scent ayatanam abode asakta fastened, fixed, occupied autsukyam eagerness kataka m./n. (royal) camp karman n. deed, work seydeyo & 8 a108) ‘asaya astringent, sharp (of scent) i Kama:devah the god of Love kusumam flower kesaram hair, filament krauryam cruelty gamanam going gugah merit, quality, worth carya movement, riding (in vehicle) cittam thought, mind japyam (muttered) prayer tadréa_(f. i) (of) such (a kind) daksinapathah southern region (of India), the Deccan Daruvarman m., pr. n. divasah day -dur;bodha difficult to understand dur:vipakah cruel turn (of fortune) daivam fate, chance, fortune dosah fault, inconvenience dharmah religious law, duty, Piety namadheyam appellation, name naman n. name orsamsa_ injurious; m. monster Padmapuram name of a city parinamah evolution, outcome parinirvanam complete extinction Parivrta surrounded, having a retinue parisad f, assembly, audience ank (X akayati) brand, stamp parita encompassed, overcome padapah tree pundarikam lotus pratigrahah present (to a brabmin from a king) prabandhah (literary) work bahumanah respect for (loc.) manas 7, mind manda sluggish, slack mahant (stem form in compound maha) great mukham face mudra authorising seal/stamp, ‘pass? rathah chariot rajan_ m. king vatsah dear child vrttantah news; event, scene (of activity) veéman 7. residence vaitalikah royal bard vaimanasyam despondency vairam hostility vyaiijanam sign, insignia, fisgui Sanka suspicion, fear Sapa curse Sitala_ cool -sad_ifc, dweller (in) sadréa_(f. 7) similar, suitable, worthy samdhya twilight, evening siddha achieved sundara (f. i) beautiful stambhah pillar adhi + gam (I adhigacchati) find; realise, perceive anu + kamp (I anukampate) sympathise with, take pity onabhi+as (IV abhyasyati) practise; p.p. abhyasta familiar (to one 7109 through practice) ava + nam (I avanamati, p.p. avanata) bow down, bend down ut + évas (II ucchyasiti) bloom, blossom upa + ru (V upasrnoti) hear of, learn of eo jan caus. (janayati) beget, produce, arouse nis + dig (VI nirdigati) designate, specify nis + kram (I niskramati) go out of (abl.) pari + iks (I pariksate) examine, scrutinise pari+ at (I paryatati) wander about prati + vas (I prativasati) dwell, live (in) o prati + abhi + jiia (EX pratyabhijanati) recognise Cc bandh (IX badhnati, p.p. baddha) bind, fix; enter into (friendship or hate) vas (X vasayati) perfume vid (II vetti, p.p. vidita) know, learn, discover sam + vit (I samvartate) happen, become (see chapter text) adhastat + gen. beneath bho bhoh ho there! itah from here; over here svayam (emphatic pron.) myself kim tu (first in sentence) but etc., personally tada then, at that time hanta ah! alas! nanu why! well! hi (enclitic) for (as conj.) Exercise Sa eat fagril pi] strange ground-forrespect towards [loc.] (one’s) elders, Saudhataki! 14 This (man), employed-by-Raksasa, had Parvateévara killed by a poison-girl. 15 (She) casts the gar- land-of-bakulas into Madhava’s joined hands. 16 (I) congratu- late *you on your greatness-in-valour, sufficient-forthe-aiding-of- Mahendra. 17 Thereupon there enters, her-occupation-as- described, together with two [female] friends, Sakuntala. 18 Truly [nanu] friend, we [two] often walk along [instr] the very street-beside-the-minister’s-residence—so this is possible. 19 To Candra; ’s-subjects assuredly it is Canakya’s-faults which are gr -for-disaffection. 20 Friend, the sun burns without-restraint, as cruel as fate. 21 Bravo, Vesala, bravo! You have commanded (this) after consulting with my own [eva] heart. 22 Ah! the meaning-of-the-verse is ‘I am one-who-has- {jfta)-news-of-Kusumapura, and *your-agent’. 23 See, we two have entered Prajapati’s hermitage, itscoral: trees-tended-by- Aditi. 24 This time when-the-heat-is-fierce that lady generally ‘ spends with-her-friends on the banks:of-the-Malini with-{vant]- " (their)-enclosures-of-creepers. 123 {mols Paradigms: Stems in i and @, stri; stems in in; present participles in ant, mahant; imperative (para. and atm.) of ni Stems in7andd Polysyllabic stems in i such as nadi were introduced in Chapter 7. The declension of the few polysyllables in @ is exactly parallel, with the important ion that they add h in the nominative singular. Quite different 1m these, and parallel to each other, are the monosyllabic stems in i and &: these in effect are like conso- nant stems, with i/i changing to iy/uv before vowels (though they - have the option of the special feminine endings ai, ah and 4m). It will be noted that the word stri ‘woman’ behaves more like a polysyllabic than a monosyllabic stem: it is to be treated as one, and probably was one in origin. Xr has already been mentioned that nouns like nadi are rare at the end of an exocentric compound. Sometimes the difficulty is sur- mounted by the addition of the adjectival suffix ka: so sa_patni~ka ‘with one’s wife’, pravrtta:bibhatsa:kimvadanti~ka ‘(citizens) among whom foul ramours are current’. The sign™ is used here to indicate that the suffix is added to the compound as a whole. based on if monosyllables and determina- tives formed with verbal roots in i andi do occur, and are most usu- ally inflected like the plain monosyilables (alternative forms being possible, but neuter forms of any kind being little found). Examples are su:dhi ‘of good intelligence’, padma-bhi ‘sprung from a lotus’. Stems in in The inflexion of stems in in presents little difficulty. They are es- sentially single-stem, but the final n drops before consonants' and in the nominative (vocative) and accusative neuter singular. : The nominative singular masculine ends in i, and the nomina- * tive, Focative and accusative neuter plural in ini; the adds i— The suffix in is a common alternative to the suffix vant after stems in a or 4, the final vowel being dropped. Thus balavant or balin { ssessing strength, strong’; sikhavant or éilchin ‘crested’. With the same meaning, but rare, are the suffixes vin (in partic- ular, after a number of nouns in as) and min. Two common ex- amples of the former are tapasvin ‘practising austerities, ascetic’ {also ‘pitiable’) and manasvin ‘possessed of intelligence’. The substantive svamin ‘owner, master’ derives from sva ‘own’ and the suffix min. in as a verbal suffix The same suffix may also be added, with strengthening of the root, to verbs: so from the root pat, patin ‘flying, falling’. [In this instance at least, it might seem that the suffix can be regarded as added to the verbal action noun patah ‘flight, fall’, and certainly the distinction between the ‘primary’ formation described here and the ‘secondary’ formation described above is not absolute. But there are limiting cases of difference of form: thus from bhuj ‘enjoy’, the velar consonant of bhogah * ‘enjoyment’ contrasts with the palatal of bhojin ‘enjoying’.] In ‘this formation the root syllable is almost invariably heavy, medial a being lengthened where necessary to 4. Roots ending in 4 take a connecting y: thus sthayin ‘remaining, stable’. The formation has an active verbal meaning, close to that of the present participle. Where it differs from this latter is in vending towards a more general, characterising sense: e.g. nagaragimt margah ‘the road going to the city’. The difference is conveniently illustrated by the phrase Can wyayind raja-lokem» Anugamyamanah ‘being attended (on this occasion— present Barticiple) by the princes that (would normally —adjec- tive in in) attend Candragupta’. Here are examples from the verbs chid ‘cut out’, anu + kr ‘imi- tate’, hr ‘carry’, Sams ‘proclaim’: vimaréa-cchedi vacanam [the speech is doubt-removing:] (her) words are such as to remove all doubt sakhe, kv» édanim upavistah priyayah kim cid anukarinisu latasu drstim vinodayami? Friend, where shall I nowOrserdeyo by [being seated, distract:] sit and distract my gaze among — vines that somewhat imitate my beloved? kim Kanva-samdeéa-harinah sa_stri~kas tapasvinah? ascetics with women, bringing a message from Kanva (you say)? aye, daksinena priya-carana-niksepa-Samsi ndpuraéabdah ah, a sound of anklets to the right, proclaiming my beloved’s tread While it may not always be easy to distinguish the meaning of this formation from that of the present participle, certain clear-cut distinctions of a formal nature do exist. The present participle may govern an accusative and may not normally stand at the end of a compound (in these respects it resembles a finite verb form). The verbal noun in in, on the other hand, with rare exceptions cannot govern an accusative and (as the above examples illustrate) is commoner at the end of a compound than as an isolated form. Present participle Two participles are attached to the present stem (and other thematic a paradigms), one in ant (parasmaipada) and one in amAna (atmanepada): so nayant ‘leading’, vartamana ‘going on, current, contemporary’. The declension of participles in ant differs from that of stems in vant/mant in only two particulars: the nominative singular mas- culine ends in an (not va), and the feminine (and the neuter dual form) is anti (not *at7). (Remember that by sandhi a final an becomes ann before vowels.) [On the formation of athematic participles (Chapter 12 onwards) the following points should be noted. The feminine (and neuter dual) is in ati (this is also an option for class VI verbs and fu- tures). The strong stem is like the third person plural paras- maipada without the final i, and in reduplicated verbs is therefore simply at: note that as a further consequence the nominative sin- gular masculine (as well as neuter) in these verbs ends in t not n, e.g. dadat ‘(he) giving’. For athematics, the atmanepada termina- tion is Ana not am4na.] It was pointed out in Chapter 5 that where the English partici- ple in ‘-ing’ represents an action prior to that of the main verb its usual Sanskrit equivalent is the absolutive. The Sanskrit pres- ent participle is therefore normally reserved for actions or states which can be seen as contemporaneous with those of the main verb. Whether active or middle, it agrees syntactically with thesubject and governs an object in the accusative: pura kila Karal»-dyatane Malatim oraghantalt krpanazpanir Madhavena meee ago, it seems, while (engaged in) Malati in the temple of a Aarons niin ws any Mahe an gacchantam ae i n> anugacchanti thee we (of mine) is indeed extremely niggardly, in that even today it does not follow (my) father, although he was my benefac- tor, as he goes somewhere (the father has died) vanam gatena maya ka cid aiSaranya vyalcajkArpanya> éru muiicanti vanitd vilokita having gone to the forest I saw a woman without refuge and of obvious wretchedness shedding tears Beyond simple contemporaneity, a casual or (with the addition of api) a concessive force may be implied. One particular impli- cation, that of responsibility, ‘doing B by virtue of doing A’, de- serves special mention. It may usually be turned in English by the translation ‘in/by (doing etc.)’: atmana krto -yam dosah Samjivakam Piigalakasakasam Aanayata it is (I) myself, in bringing Samjivaka to Pingalaka, who have done this mischief evam atidurmanayamanah pidayati mam vatsah the dear child tortures me by being so miserable The verb as ‘be’ forms a present participle sant, feminine sati, which may function as an adjective meaning ‘real, true, good, virtuous’ (hence ‘suttee’). As a participle it is sometimes added pleonastically to predicative adjectives, particularly compounds: €.g. prasannazmanasa sata Madhavena ‘by Madhava, being of The adjective mahant ‘great’ is irregular in having a rong stem in ant (the middle and weak stem is mahat). The feminine is mahati, the nominative singular masculine mahan. The stem form for karmadharaya and bahuvrihi compounds is maha, for others mahat. enam is an enclitic pronoun, occurring only in the accu- sative (enam, endm, enat; enau, ene; enan, endh, endni), the instrumental singular (enena, enaya) and the genitivellocativedual (enayoh). (Of these the commonest forms are enam and enm.) It is used as an unemphatic third person pronoun (‘him, her’), not usually adjectival, and normally referring to persons, Oblique cases other than the accusative may be supplied by the pronoun ayam (see Chapter 5). Stem forms in composition It may be useful to summarise here the ways in which the form of a stem as it appears in a compound may differ from the form in which the word is quoted in a dictionary (apart from the normal operation of the rules of external sandhi). Of nouns in general it need only be pointed out that consonant stems show their middle form: so atman becomes atma; dhanin, dhani; and bhaga- vant, bhagavat (this last being at any rate the form in which such stems are often quoted). The.use of pronouns in composition is somewhat restricted. The first person forms mat and asmat, sec- ond person tvat and yusmat (dual forms are hardly found), and the demonstrative tat are used freely, except as the final member of the compound, The relative yat is also used freely, but only as the first member. Of the interrogative pronoun kah, the (primarily neuter) form kim occurs quite often: not, of course, in the animate sense of ‘who(m)’, but capable of qualifying a substantive of any gen- der—as in kim;vyap4ra ‘of whom the occupation (vyaparah 7.) is what?’ The pronouns ayam, enam and asau have as stem forms idam and Certain words change to forms from different, though related, stems when used in composition. So, at the end of a compound, ahan ‘day’, rajan ‘king’, ratri ‘night’ and sakhi ‘friend’ become a stems: aha, raja, ratra and sakha. mahant ‘great’ when forming the prior member of a karmadh4raya or, in consequence, a bahuvrihi compound regularly changes to maha: the stem form mahat, even in the substantival sense of ‘great man’, is not very much used. Two of the changes mentioned are illustrated in the karmadharaya maha:rajah ‘great king’. The imperative One way of expressing a command or wish in Sanskrit is by means of the imperative mood, Which is a part of the present stem: so ‘gol’, paritrayasva ‘save us!’. The impera- tive is in effect confined to the second and third persons. The first person forms given in grammars to complete the paradigms are really survivals of the old subjunctive mood, and at any rateare not particularly common; first person expressions like ‘let’s go’ are usually put in the indicative—thus gacchavah. In moderately urgent second person commands, the verb, as is natural, tends to stand first (after any vocative), unless special emphasis is put on some other item in the sentence: siita, preray> 4évan driver, start the horses masi-bhajanam pattram c> épanaya bring inkpot and paper But if an absolutive is also used, chronological sequence should be preserved: vayasya, upasrtya Lavaipika-sthane tistha go up and stand in Lavangika’s place, friend If less urgent instructions or a wish are in question, the verb may stand elsewhere, often (and particularly in the latter case) at the end: sakhe Viradhagupta, tvam anem aiv> ahitundikacchadmana punah Kusumapuram eva gaccha Virddhagupta my friend, you are to go back again to Kusumapura in this same disguise of a snake-charmer vatsa, ciram prthivim palaya my child, long may you protect the earth When an imperative is genuinely ‘third person’, the same vari- ous principles apply: Arye, tisthatu tavad ajiia-niyogah good (wife), for the mo- ment [let the entrusting of orders stand:] never mind what orders I have for you atrabhavati tavad 4 prasavad asmad-grhe tisthatu this lady, then, should remain in our house till her confinement But where the third person is used as a polite form of address, it is particularly common for the imperative to stand as penulti- mate word followed by the quasi-pronoun: bho bhos phos tapasvinah, -vana-samnihita:sattvaraksanaya sajjibhavantu bhavanteh ho ¢ there ascetics, prepare {for the defending oft] to defend the creatures about the ascetic grove | perso obbho does ieeen Se Rin the coal parton foes | eee aera eet “of person forme"course, are necessary as copula where indicative forms could dispensed with: The use of the imperative in an iti clause is a device allowing representation of ‘indirect command’ in the widest sense. Translation by means of the English infinitive is usually appro- priate: nanvy idanim eva mayd tatra Kalahamsakah h presital praccha- nnam upagamya Nandam-Avasa-pravrttim peat wpa ei, why, I have just now sent Kalahamsaka ere, {(saying) ‘after approaching stealthily find out events in Nandana’s| house’: 7 to find out discreetly what has been happening i Nandana’s house To express a prohibition the negative particle to be used with the imperative is ma, e.g. mA gaccha ‘don’t go’. This, however, is rare, the more elegant alternative (as mentioned in Chapter 15) being the use of ma with the unaugmented | form of the aorist or occasionally of the imperfect. Even this is not especially fre- quent. The usual way of expressing a Prohibition i if it it implies ‘cease to’ is simply alam or some other particle with the instru- mental: alam é gokena ‘do not grieve (any more)’. But i in other cir- cumstances, probably commonest is the use of the gerundive (Chapter 12): Vrsala, sa_vigam ausadham—na patavyam ala, the medicine’s poisoned—don’t drink it " Abstract nouns Mention was made in the previous chapter of the formation of neuter abstract nouns (i.e. substantives) by means of vrddhi, e.g. pandityam ‘learning’. Another device to achieve the same effect, and a simpler one to apply, is the use of the suffixes tvam (neuter) and ta (feminine, » this latter normally rested to occurence afte a stem ending in a short vowel, usually a): so panditatvam and panditata ‘learning’, or more explicitly ‘being a pandit’. These suf- fixes may be added not merely to simple words but also to whole compounds: e.g. ramaniya;dargana™ta ‘the state of having an attractive appearance’, {As in the case of the adjectival suffix ka, discussed above, the sign ~ indicates that the suffix is to be added to the compound as a whole. The following example will illustrate the potential difference of meaning: nis_panditya means ‘(who is)without scholarship’; nis_panditatva would be a very improbable formation with the same meaning; but nis_pandita~tva means ‘the state of being without a pandit’, as in the sentence lajjayati ‘grima-nivasino nis_pandita~tvam ‘being without a pandit embar- rasses those living in the village’.] Most of the uses of abstract nouns possible in English are possi- ble also in Sanskrit. In particular (and in contrast to Latin and Greek), their use as the subject of an active verb does not imply any vivid personification of the abstract concept: ata eva m4m prayojana-Suéris4 mukharayati that is why the desire to learn [Suéris4] of (your) motives is making me {talkative:] so persistent Often an abstract noun is the subject of a nominal sentence: rajiiam tu carib:artha~ta pi dubkh:6ttar» aiva but for kings, [even the state of being one whose aims are effected has as a consequence unhappiness:] even success is at- tended with unhappiness The difference between Sanskrit and English idiom lies in the thoroughness with which Sanskrit exploits the various, possible uses of abstract nouns, and particularly in the potential length of abstract compounds. The following sentence easily permits of literal translation: sa © Ausanasyam danda-nitau catuhsasty:ange jyotih-ésastre ca param pravinyam upagatah and he has attained a high proficiency in the political science of Usanas and the [sixty- four-limbed:] sixty-four branches of astronomy But what in this particular sentence is unremarkable represents a regular Sanskrit idiom whereby almost any verb of motion (and some others implying acquisition etc.) may be construed with the accusative of abot any abstract noun to express what we most usually represent in English by ‘become’: so, in the above, ‘he has become highly proficient’. Another example, showing better the scope of the idiom, is: tad idanim raj-artha~tam Apadyate that now [arrives at king-property-ness:] becomes the property of the king Hence the common idiom for ‘he dies’, paficatvam gacchati ‘he becomes five’, i.e. ‘is resolved into the five elements’. Furthermore, the causative of these verbs, and any other verb of _ appropriate sense such as ni ‘lead’, can be used in the sense of 131 i = So —_ oSsae to. fo be prota!) tend’t ‘tp be replaced in producing a certain condition in someone or something, i.e. ‘making A [into] B’: loke gurutvam viparitatim ca sva:cegtitany eva naram nayanti in (this) world it is his own actions which [lead a man to im- portant-ness and opposite-ness:] make a man important or the reverse In English we know without thinking about it that the phrase ‘the greenness of the grass’ is related to the phrase ‘ ‘green grass’, In Sanskrit it is often advisable to keep the point more explicitly in mind. To take an example of extreme simplicity, a commen- tary discussing an author’ use of the term vyavahara ‘litigation’ in in the plural says tasy> aneka;vidha~tvam daréayati bahuvaca- nena ‘he shows by the plural the several-sortedness of it’. We may, if we wish, translate this as ‘he indicates by the plural its manifoldness’. But we shall remind ourselves more plainly what we are talking about, besides being fairer to the simplicity of the original, if we say ‘he indicates by the plural that it is of several sorts’. Often at any rate literal translation is impossible: w sty eva dhvanih, y -vyatire-kinah kAvya- prakdrasya h [dhvani (a technical term of literary criticism) just does not exist, from the abandon- ment of [/deficiency in] poetry-ness of a type of poetry dis- tinct from established ways:] there is no such thing as dhvani, for a kind of poetry which transgressed the recog- nised norms would cease to be poetry It would be quite mistaken to suppose, on the basis of such us- ages, that the ‘thought’ of Sanskrit writers is somehow more ‘ab- stract’ than our own. It would be truer to say that their style is nominal rather than verbal. In coming to grips with academic prose, students tend to be vague and ill at ease about the mean- ing of sentences unt until the purely syntactical nature of this differ- ence sinks in. And, as was implied above, even in translating quite simple nominal phrases the possibility 0 of ‘denominalisa- tion’ in English should 2 always be kept in mind. In brief, the difference between: English and Sanskrit usage is that English noun. clauses (‘that the grasa is gree nse Ce phrases with a verbal component such as-an . houn {‘shé gfeenness of’ the. grass”). Re subjective and'-Objective genitivés are’ ; Norn only the: :objective genitive is compounded with the abstract—e.g, balanam kusumydvacayah ‘children’s flower-picking’: ‘for cl dren to pick flowers’. Furthermore, the use of the abstract noun in various oblique cases corres] to English adverbial clauses and phrases of various kinds. Commonest is the ablative of cause: suhrt-sampadita~tvat sadhutara:phalo me manorathah {from being brought about by (my) friend:) because (you my) friend brought it about, my desire (has been) better re- ware No doubt because its ablative is not distinct in form from its genitive, the suffix ta is less usual here than tvam or a veddhi de- rivative. But it is common enough in the instrumental, another case which is used to express cause (‘by (reason of)’): asau au Punar abhinivistaya dréa Malati-mukb»-dvalokana- vihasta~taya vigamaiviracit;aika? bhagam tam eva bahu manyamand ‘mahan ayam prasida’ iti grhitavati but she with an intent glance, highly esteeming that same (garland) of-which-one-portion-was-worked-unevenly [by clumsiness through gazing:] because-(I)-had-been-clumsy. through-gaz- ing-on-Malati’s-face, accepted it (with the words) [‘this is a great favour’:] ‘thank you very much indeed’ The dative is normally used with another type of abstract noun, the verbal action noun, to express purpose. Examples of this, such as nrpa-darsanaya ‘in order to see the king’, have already been en- countered, The locative expresses circumstance of one kind or another: kula-ksaye ‘on the destruction of the family: when/if the family is destroyed’, Prayojamétpattau ‘if/when/as the need arises’. The addition of api gives concessive force: kula-ksaye »pi ‘feven on destruction of the family:] despite destruction of the family: though the family is/were to be destroyed’. Exclamations The English ‘what (a) . . .’, though it has direct Sanskrit equiv- alents such as kidréa, i is more usually represented by the parti- cle aho ‘oht’ followed by a substantive in the nominative case: aho samyaranam what duplicity! aho raga-parivahini gitih [oh the song overflowing with passion/ ‘musical mood’:] what an impassioned séng! 133 l —_ SoWhere the whole emphasis would be put on an adjective quali- fying the substantive, the phrase is often turned round and the adjective becomes an abstract noun: in other words, ‘oh the blue sky!’ becomes ‘oh the sky’s bliieness!’ Similarly in English, according to the particular emphasis intended, we may say ei- ther ‘what a blue sk¥!’ or thow bliie the sky is!” The normal suf- fix here is ta, or a veddhi derivative, rather than tvam: aho vaidagdhyam {oh the cleverness:] how cléver (she is)! aho sukha-pratyarthi~t4 daivasya [oh the-being: hostile-to- happiness of fate:] how héstile fate is to happiness! Sentences containing ‘how’ are slightly ambiguous in English because they can be stressed more than one way. For this rea- son, an acute accent has been added to mark the main sentence stress: this falls somewhere on the word or phrase which ap- pears as a nominative substantive in the Sanskrit: , aho vyabhra digah what a cloudless sky! or how cloudless the sky ist aho disam vyabhrata how cloudless the sky is! aho cesti-pratiripika kami:jana-manovrttih how like to the deed (itself) is a lover’s iinagindtion! owe 0 ‘Containing’ The word garbhah ‘womb, foetus’ occurs at the end of a bahuvrihi compound with the sense ‘having inside, containing’: C8. dhanazgarbham bh&ndam ‘box containing money’s of, a6 a sentence, ‘the box money in it’. Verbal nouns in ti The suffix ti may be added to the weak grade of a root to form a feminine substantive. Thus gati (cf. Greek bdsis) ‘going, pro- cedure, course’. The formation is less productive than those ina and ana, and less ‘action-oriented’, tending towards a more gen- eral sense. The ti is normally treated exactly like the ta of the past participle (and is seldom found with verbs that form their past participles in ita or na). Other examples are bhakti ‘devo- tion’, drsti ‘sight, faculty of sight’, mati ‘thought’, siddhi ‘achievement’, veddhi ‘growth’. A number of roots ending in d, although forming a past participle i in na, do take this suffix: thus utpatti, from ut + pad, ‘arising’.Vocabulary aficalah border (of dress) atifaya surpassing an:adhyayanam non-studying:] holiday from lessons apathya-karin [doing what is unwholesome (to king):] traitor apavadin decrying a:pramadin {not negligent:] vigilant abhiyogah intentness, preoccu- pation avayavah portion, particle asurah demon adefah command ayudham weapon vegah attack (of emotion) utsahah enthusiasm eka pron. adj. one, alone enam see chapter text kalakalah disturbance, noise karin doing karyam affair, business kidréa _(f. i) of what kind? of what kind! what (a)! ksitipati_m. king Keipradkain (swifvacting|] precipitate igarbha see chapter text gtham quarters, chamber gha-janah family (more partic- ularly wife) cakravartin mm. emperor dandah stick; punishment darganiya attractive dargin seeing, that see dig (dik) f. cardinal point, region (of sky); pl. sky, skies dub;éila_ irritable dur;itman vile drdha firm Nandanah pr. n. nir_daya pitiless nyayya regular, right paksa-patin on the side of, partial to paakti f. row, line Paficavati_ name of a place patah cloth, robe pati m. lord (of) Parijanah attendant, servant pipilika ant paurah citizen pratijiia promise, assertion pratividhanam precaution, countermeasure against (gen.) Ptatyavayah reverse, annoyance Pratyasanna near, at hand, about Pratyutpanna prompt, ready Pratyutpanna;mati ready- witted prabhita numerous prarthana longing Candanedasah pr. 2. chidram hole, chink tapasvin m. ascetic tiksna sharp, severe tiksna:rasah [sharp liquid:] poison tiksna:rasa-dayin [poison- giving:] poisoner tirtham ford, sacred bathing place 135 i =~ 3 —_ Sotaikgnyam sharpness trikalam [the three times:] past, present and future mati f. thought, wit Madayantika pr. 2. Manmathah (name of the god of) Love maharghya valuable Madhavyah pr. n. muni m. sage mlecchah barbarian raksas_n. devil vayas n. youth, age Vasigthah pr n vidha kind, sort; garad f. autumn Sista learned; éisp-ana- dhyayanam holiday in hon- our of learned (guests) Sanya empty, devoid (of) Sokah grief batu m. young brahmin (stu- dent); fellow (used contemptu- ously) balam force, strength; sg. or pl. (military) forces balat forcibly bahu many bhaktam food bhakti f. devotion, loyalty bhavin future, imminent bhite: f. wall bhiru fearful madhura sweet Sobha brilliance, beauty Sregthin m. eminent business- man, merchant . sakhi [female] friend; wife of one’s friend samayah occasion, season samadhi mm. concentration [religious] meditation sambandhah union sambhrta assembled, prepared; augmented sarpah snake salilam water sahabha inherent, natural samnidhyam presence _Avadhina careful siddhi f. accomplishment, success surah god suhrttamah close friend stei_ woman svamin m. master svikaranam marrying svairam gently anu + gam (I anugacchati) follow, attend anu + bhai (I anubhavati) experience, undergo anu + rudh (IV anurudhyate) adhere to, comply with (acc.) ava + lok (X avalokayati) see akulayati denom. confuse, disturb a+ krs(Lakargati) drag, draw 4+ pad (IV apadyate, p.p.4panna) attain, come to ut + pad caus. (utpadayati) cause to arise, causeut + vest caus. (udvestayati) unwrap, open (letter) khel (I khelati) play cine (X cintayati) reflect, think things over tvar (I tvarate) hurry; caus. tvarayati dah caus, (dahayati) make burn, cause to be fired dré caus. (daréayati) cause to see, show ai + grah (IX nigrhnati) repress, restrain nis + gam (I nirgacchati) go away, retire from (abl.) pari + tug caus. (paritogayati) make satisfied, tip, reward pari + trai (I paritrayate) rescue, save pari + pal (X paripalayati) guard, preserve, keep intact . pari + bhramé (IV paribhraéyate, p.p. paribhrasta) fall, drip, slip pari + hr (I pariharati) avoid, shun, resist prati + as (IV pratyasyati) cast aside pra + stha (I pratisthate) set forth bhaiij (VII bhanakti, p.p. bhagna) break, shatter mudrayati denom. stamp, seal vand (I vandate) venerate, worship vi + jiia caus. (vijipayati) say politely, request, entreat, beg vi + srj caus. (visarjayati) release, dismiss vij (X vijayate) fan sam + stambh (IX samstabhnati, absol. samstabhya) make firm, sustain, compose atah from this abo bata oh alas! kila apparently, it seems that ta, tvam abstract noun suffixes; see chapter text bhoh (in calling) oh! ho! (irreg. sandhi bho before vowels and voiced consonants) sampratam now, at once Exercise 10a Uva arreremrereay_ 18 1 Tater fared aa & Taller: IU) FS Teregermnfred atom 191 atl aetttaraarafin isi aetqaferere iu st: After werera Ueraeenity Aeoreoat Tat 181 AINA TeTISTR ET We, No Meare: fever Berenfererd wnfiat Gt: ict wesat waat ie: siterafey feeraaft a aq Aracorenraen: Brat 201 WA meer Fanhrst wr el set freer gererat dherony—argt Teer Te: fiamennfear 1g 21 ARTEL He qryergeres weretayetey, 18.3 1 Ay war: acractdeat storey, VQwe sate: Bar sfx wrargenfear wrt 1g 41 stele Bagi = oa x 4 seydeyoaettsereermarraty sf 1g &t ater frerrereratiter Great wear wer Igo vat ett weg wee: leet URtareaat Bee wT: aSUNTOeTeNTgT: Uy AU 23 | wa eonalraTEy IVeL TAT MARU wT Te yet Fefieor Trafinkey waranrgfiory 1241 af derenermysera writ afcantet fermen 2&1 Exercise10b x Look, Your Excellencies. 2 What valuab} jéwels! 3 She stands gazing. 4 This lady must hurry. 5 that-see-past-present-and-future have proclaimed [4+dis] a flict-(between)-gods-and-demons (to be) imminent. 6 B king has-many-annoyances. 7 [It is from this:] That is (men) such-as-*you are great. 8 May you have success-in-youy affairs. 9 Keeping the seal intact, open (it) and show (me)... ¥ How devoid-of-discrimination is the barbarian! 11 Restrajg [dual] your attack-of-grief and follow me. 12 It is preoccupa tion-with-affairs, dear child, that is disturbing us, and not [na punar] the irritability towards pupils natural-in-a-teacher. a ‘Though I am resisting (pari + hr], love-of-Paficavati seems t€ draw me forcibly. 14 How sweet is the sight of these (gicls)f 15 Citralekha, get Urvaéi to hurry. 16 The gods (do) have this fearfulness-of-the-meditations-of-others. 17 The longing af great (men) is of course {high-soaring:] for higher things. 18 Ag once let our-forces set forth to-besiege-Kusumapura. (Being) _ partial-to-*yourmerits, I have forgotten t merits-of-(my)-master. 20 Priyamvadaka, we have no int in snakes. So tip him and dismiss him. 21 (It) slipped your friend’s wife at the ford-of-Saci as she was worshipping they water. 22 Be careful, dear child. 23 Because (my) mind is en- grossed-in-affairs and (my) agents numerous, (I had) forgotter 24 Noble Jajali, you too go back with-the-servants: Bhagura alone shall attend me. 25 How surpassinglylévely the are, theirwealth-of-beauty-augmented- by-the-autumn-seasor is, Then, seeing a ne ants sparecese sft of f ole-in-the-wall carry: e -particles-af-food, -: grasping thé-fa ct ferkitn athe En aera er tn Se ee, ~aradigms: karte, pitr, svasr, matr fn origin the inflexion of stems in r is parallel with that of ronsonant stems in an. They exhibit a strong stem with vrddhi rguna grade (kartaram, pitaram: cf, rajanam); a weakest grade th the stem in consonant form (kartra: cf. rajiia); ad a iddle grade with the stem in vocalic form (kartrbhih: cf. jabhih <*rajnbhih). stems are nevertheless classified as vowel stems rather onsonant stems, for two reasons: r has a distinctive vocalic tt (r), whereas n does not (since *s became a); and some i tions have been acquired through the analogy of other vowel stems. Thus by analogy with kantan, sucin, etc., an accu- sative plural in fn (f. -th); and by analogy with kantanam etc. a genitive plural in -fnam. (These formations create the long alter- nant of syllabic r, which is not part of inherited Indo-European F phonology.) As with an stems, the nominative singular takes vrddhi and loses its final consonant: kart, pita. An unusual feature is the geni- tive singular in uh (or ur). Guna grade of the focative singular, an alternative form for stems in an, is here obligatory: Stems in ¢ fall into two main classes, agent nouns and nouns, of relationship. Agent nouns end in tr (though the t is sometimes changed by internal sandhi) and are added to a guna grade of the root, often with connecting i. [The description of the infinitive in Chapter 13 may be taken as a guide to the formation of thisstem, with substitution of tr for tum.] The suffix of agent nouns is always inflected with vrddhi in the strong grade: netaram ‘leader’ acc. (cf. Latin amdtérem). A derived feminine is made with the suffix i: netri ‘she who leads’. Neuter forms on the anal- ogy of the neuter of Suci etc. are theoretically possible but not very common. Nouns of relationship normally take guna in the strong grade, and may be feminine as well as masculine (in which case thé ac- cusative plural ends in th); nay naptr ‘grandson’, bhartr ‘husband’ and svasr ‘sister’ are exceptional in taking veddhi. Thus pitaram, mataram, but svasaram (cf. Latin batrem, matrem, but sorérem). The dual form pitarau means ‘parents’. The suffix ka may be employed when one of these nouns occurs at the end of a bahuvethi compound: mrtazbhartr~kai ‘she whose husband is Like the presen iple active, the agent noun does not nor- mally stand at rs of a determinative compound. But, as might be expected, whereas the present participle construes with an accusative, the agent noun construes with an objective genitive: varm>;4éram4nam raksita ‘protector of (all) classes and conditions (of men)’. The agent noun in ty is not so prominent a feature of Sanskrit as are nouns in ‘er’ of . Other suffixes also denote the agent. For instance, ‘lea ? may be expressed by nayakah as well as by netr. ‘Potter’ (‘pot-maker’) may be translated by kumbha-karah or Possibly Poubha‘iae, but not by kumbha- Karey. Noun phrases will often be represented by a compound _ coding int in the suffix upatyaka -ranya-vasinah ‘dwellers in cme There is, however, one distinctive oe sere the agent noun which is worth noting. It may have > Po- tential force—‘someone to do something’. Thus neta jana upaigyati ‘a person will come [as guide:] to guide (you)’, or the following: tvadréam punah pratipaks>-dddharane sambhavya; gaktim abhiyoktaram as4dya ksipram enam parityajya tvam ev : @rayante However, having found (someone) like your- self, with enough power to destroy the enemy, [such as to attack:] to be their champion, they (will) quickly abandon him and flock to you [Peripbrastic future. Allied to this potential sense is the use of the : agent noun to form a comparatively rare tense known as the | periphrastic future. Mention of it is included briefly here, since:it will not be introduced into any of the exercises. The noun is used predicatively to refer to future time, with the verb . as in the first and second persons, without in the third person: kartasmi ‘I am to do’, karta ‘he/she is to do’. Three features distinguish the tense formally from a straightforward deploy- ment of the agent noun. Feminine and (in so far as they occur) neuter subjects do not affect the masculine form of the verb; the ending -tA remains unchanged in the first and second persons, even in the dual and plural (kart smah ‘we are to do’; and a direct object appears in the accusative, not in the genitive (ambham bale Kartirau ‘the rwo girs are to make 2 por). The tense is used ially for events fixed for a particular fu- ture time: often, in fact, the verb is accompanied by an adverb of time. Thus sva aganta ‘he is to come tomorrow’.] The suffix tra Allied to the agent suffix tr is the neuter suffix tra denoting the instrument used by the agent. Thus patr ‘drinker’, patram ‘(that which is a drinker’s (when he drinks):] drinking-vessel’. Similarly, astram ‘[instrument of throwing:] missile’, gatram ‘[in- strument oe movement:) limb’, Sastram ‘finstrument of cutting:] knife’—this last to be Carefully distinguished from 4stram ‘[instrument of instruction:] treatise’. The suffix occurs in other Indo-European languages. Thus Greek drotron, Latin ardtrum ‘plough’, beside arotér, ardtor ‘ploughman’. The passive In origin the passive may be regarded as a specialisation of the atmanepada of class IV verbs. It is formed with weak grade of the root, the suffix ya and the thematic atmanepada endings. [Secondary differentiation occurred, in that passives retained the accent on the suffix, while class IV verbs shifted the accent to the root. But this distinction being inoperative in Classical Sanskrit, forms such as manyate may be interpreted according to context either as atmanepada (‘thinks’) or as passive (‘is thought’).] The passive is a present system, com- prising a present indicative, imperfect, imperative and optative, anda participle i in ména. [In the future, the perfect, and to some extent the aorist, Atmanepada forms may be used with passive significance.] 141With the following exceptions, the root generally remains un- changed before the suffix ya: h Final i and w lengthen: ci, ciyate ‘is heaped’; Sru, értyate ‘is card’, Final r becomes ri after a single consonant, ar after two: ke, kriyate ‘is done’, but smr, smaryate ‘is remembered’, Final ¢ becomes ir generally, but dr after a labial: k#, kiryate ‘is scattered’; pf, piryate ‘is filled’. Roots liable to samprasdrana display it here: vac, ucyate ‘is told’; grah, grhyate ‘is taken’. Roots liable to lose an ‘infixed’ nasal do so: bhaiij, bhajyate ‘is broken’, but nand, nandyate ‘is rejoiced in’. Roots ending in 4 or ai most often convert to i: stha, sthiyate ‘it is stood’. But among several exceptions is jiid, jitayate ‘is known’. When a passive is formed not directly from a root but from a de- rived stem, the derived stem loses any suffix it may have before sae the suffix ya. Thus class X verbs and causatives change to yate: coryate ‘is stolen’; mayyate ‘is made to lead’; sthapyate vis madevo stand. The passive is used, as one would expect, when the agent of ac- tion is unknown or indefinite: tat ko nu khalv evam nisidhyate then who can it be (whom T hear) being thus checked? vatse, uparudhyate me tapovam-dnusthanam dear child, my vee | in the ascetic grove are being hindered (to specify by you would strike a jarring note) But the fondness for passive constructions so prominent in past statements may be observed to a lesser extent in the present also, so that the natural English translation is often by means of the active voice: niyatam anaya samkalpa-nirmitah priya-samagamo -nu- bhityate asst ly she is experiencing an imagined union with her beloved Priyamvade, kasy» édam uéir-anulepanam ti ca nalini-dalani iyante? Priyamvada, to “whom are (you) taking the | ugira ointment and the lotus leaves completeThe notion of ‘logical subject’ (to which, for instance, an absolu- tive refers) is, of course, applicable here as in past statements: kim ity avijfiaya, vayasya, vaiklavyam avalambyate? why without knowing (for (for certain), friend, [is despondency adopted:] do you grow despondent Even commoner than the passive antarv is the passive imper- ative (usually third person forms only): anubhiyatam tarhi narapati-kopah experience, then, the king’s anger Raivataka, sendpatis tavad ahdyatim Raivataka, summon the general, will you? The imperative, and more particularly the passive imperative, is often best represented i in English by ‘must’, ‘should’ , etc., and may be used in ways the English imperative is not, for instance in a question: tat kim anyad anusthiyatam then what else [must be per- formed:] do you wish done? The Sanskrit passive may be used impersonally in the third per- son singular: avagamyata eva [from there on, it is quite under- stood:] I can imagine the rest datta:piirv» éty aSahkyate that she has already been given (in marriage) [it is worried:] is what worries (us) The neuter demonstrative idam is often added with deictic force to an impersonal passive: idam gamyate [this is being gone:] ‘see, (we) are going’. In the imperative this impersonal passive is extremely common. Probably the most frequent Sanskrit for ‘listen!’ is érGyatam (‘let it be heard’. Similarly, asyatim or upavigyatam ‘be seated’. ayi bhinn;4rtham abhidhiyatam ah, speak plainly sukham sthiyatam remain at your ease Sarigarava, jiiayatam punah kim etad iti Sarigarava, find out again what it is The present passive participle follows the same syntax as the past participle when the latter has a passive sense: it agrees syn- tactically with the word denoting the object while the agent of4 the action it expresses is put into the instrumental. Like the pres« ent participle it is used to denote an action which occurs simul- taneously with the main action: mah:tavi-madhye éitab:épacaram racayata mahi-surena pariksyamanah dilayam éayitah ksaqam atistham in the vast forest I remained for a moment lying on a stone while being examined by the brahmin who applied cooling remedies Locative absolute Analogous to the ablative absolute of Latin (or nominative ab- solute of English), there is in Sanskrit a locative absolute. So kale subhe ‘an auspicious time having arrived’. The phrase con- sists of a small nominal sentence put into the locative, the natural case to an attendant circumstance. The predicate may be a participle (present or past), an adjective or a predicatively used substantive, and in any of these cases the present participle sant of the verb as ‘be’ is sometimes added pleonastically, The force of the construction may usually be represented in English by a temporal clause introduced by ‘when’ or, where a present participle marks contemporaneous action, by ‘as’ or ‘while’: tasmin dahyamane ‘as it was burning’. An impersonal passive is not uncommon: tatha »nusthite ‘[it having been performed thus:] this done’. i to context there may be a causal or conditional implication as as the temporal, while the addition of api adds a concessive force: aparadhe kxte pi ‘though an offence be committed’; evam ukte »pi ‘despite this being said’. The past active participle may be used in the socative absolute constructio i oe earetiee ares itavati parthive king having spoken thus’. Present participles are common: evam samatilrimatsu divasesu ‘the days passing thus’. The locative absolute is not as prominent a construction in Sanskrit as its counterpart in Latin. As has already been pointed out, English absolutes are often to be represented by bahu- vrihis—e.g. soka-samvigna:manasah ‘his mind overwhelmed with grief’. The locative absolute is better avoided when either of its elements is easily relatable grammatically to the rest of the sentence: one says vayasyam drstva ‘after seeing (his) friend’ rather than drste vayasye, if the subject of ‘see’ is also the sub- ject of the main sentence. We are left with instances like: bhoh éregthin, Candragupte rajany a:parigrahaé chalanam oh merchant, now that Candragupta is king, there is no wel- come for errorsa:gthite Raksase, kim utkhatam Nanda-vaméasya? with asa not taken, what [has been uprooted:] uprooting has there been of the Nanda dynasty? Another factor which militates against the frequency of -locative absolutes as such is the possibility of using an abstract noun of circumstance in the locative. Thus the previous example might be rewritten as Raksasasy> agrahane, or even Raksasasy> agrhitatve. [There also occurs occasionally a genitive absolute. It is used mostly with a present participle, sometimes with a verbal adjec- tive in -in. A typical example would be paéyatas tasya ‘while he _ looked on’, the implication usually being ‘looked on powerless and disregarded’. And there are borderline examples which might be classified as genitive absolutes but where the genitive can equally be seen as having some other function.] . The relative pronoun i The relative clause in Sanskrit is less frequent than its English The reason is evident enough. In English an adjectival counterpart. : relative clause provides a more substantial qualification of a noun than a single adjective can. In Sanskrit the possibility of compound adjectives, whether determinative or bahuvrihi, enables very lengthy and elaborate qualification without resort to a relative clause. The use of the Sanskrit relative clause, therefore, tends to be confined to the expression of restrictive clauses (the kind writ- ten without commas in English) or, rather less commonly, of ‘af- terthoughts’. As in other languages, the relative pronoun agrees with its an- tecedent in number, gender and (in so far as the fact is mani- fested) person but appears in the case appropriate to its own clause. Two features more special to Sanskrit are striking: the relative clause almost never appears within the main clause but either before it or after it; and the relative pronoun may be placed anywhere within its own clause, occasionally even as last word. When the relative clause is placed before the main clause, its sense is prevailingly restrictive and the relative pronoun is normally picked up in the main clause by a demonstrative pronoun (most often ren sab) as correlative, usually ‘standing at or near the of the main clause. Often, as is natural, the an- tecedent (if expressed at all other than by the demonstrative pro- noun) appears within the relative clause, usually immediately after the relative pronoun, and therefore in the same case as the latter.Putting these points together, one would rearrange an English sentence such as ‘I have asked the upholsterer who came to look at the sofa yesterday for his estimate’ rather on the following lines: ‘to look at the sofa which upholsterer came yesterday, him Ihave asked for his estimate’. yesam prasadad idam asit, ta eva na santi those by whose grace this was (so), are no (more) sarvatha Canakya;Candraguptayoh puskalat karanad yo vislesa utpadyate, sa atyantiko haved” at all events, that estrangement between Canakya and Candragupta which arises from a strong cause, will be lasting tad atra yat s4mpratam , tatra bhavan eva pram4nam so what is proper in this matter, in that you are the judge In the following example a relative clause has been used purely to add restrictive force to a word: ‘etad aryam i’—‘kum4ra ya Aryas tam prccha. vayam idanim an-Aryah sarmvrttah’ "Task (your) honoarable (self) this—’ ‘Your Highness, ask one who is honourable. [We:] I am now become without honour’ The addition of kaé cit to the relative gives an indefinite sense— ‘whoever, whatever’: yah kag cid garbha-dohado >sya bhavati, so »vagyam acirin any [longing of the womb:] pregnant fancy that she gets, [necessarily after not long must be hon- oured:] (you) must be sure to satisfy at once When the relative clause follows the main clause, this may be a mere reversal of the above pattern (but with the antecedent re- maining within the main clause): tay gava kim kriyate, ya na dogdhri, na garbhini? what is (to oie) done with a cow which is neither a yielder of milk nor productive of calves? (Note that in general statements in ish the antecedent of a restrictive clause may be qualified equally well by ‘the’/ ‘that’ or by ‘a’, the last having the sense of ‘any’.) When the main clause stands first, the correlative pronoun is often esah or ayam instead of sah. And if the main clause consists of no more than a word or two, the correlative is some- times omitted: kriyate yad esi kathayati (we) are doing what she saysIf the antecedent is indefinite or negative, it is naturally not qualified by a demonstrative pronoun: Vijayasena, apy asti Vindhyaketor apatyam yatr> dsya paritogasya phalam _daréayami? Vijayasena, has Vindhyaketu (any) offspring towards whom [yatra = yas- min] I (may) show [fruit:] a token of (this:] my satisfaction? In this following position, on the other hand, the relative clause may also be added to an already complete sentence as an additional statement. Here especially there is no need for a preceding demonstrative, and the force of the relative is roughly that of ‘and’ plus a demonstrative pronoun, or of ‘one who/which’. ath) édam 4rabhyate mitrabhedam nama prathamam tantram, yasy> 4yam adyah élokah now here begins the first chapter, called Separation of Friends, of which [= and of it] the following is the initial stanza asty atra nagaryam mah4:smasana-pradese Karala nama Camunda . . . ya kila vividha:jiv-pahara:priy» éti pravadah there is in the city in the area of the great burning-ground (an image of) the Fierce Goddess, named Karali—one who, it seems, is fond of the sacrifice of living creatures of various kinds: so (runs) the report of adventurous (people) Another very common variety of following relative clause also deserves mention. It is one which gives the reason for the pre- ceding statement. It may be paraphrased by ‘for’ or ‘in that’ with a Pronoun, and its natural equivalent in English is often an in- itive: aho a:sadhu‘darsi tatrabhavan Kanvo, ya imam valkala- dharane niyuakte oh, His Honour Kanva is not right-see- ing [who puts her:] to put her to wearing a bark-dress Keteapunya eva Nandano, yah priyam idréim kamayisyate Nan ’s really lucky {who will love:] to be going to love such a sweetheart vayam ew atra nanu Socya, ye Nanda-kula-vinaée>_ pi jivitum + dgchamiah we rather are the-ones to be pitied, who even 0 the pe ee the house of Nanda seek, fol live (on lete the noute-as amr . : salute Such at vinagte opi Natida-kule) * ae eaipe ‘Analysis of bahuvrihis An example may now be given of the way analysis of bahuvrihis can be made in Sanskrit glosses, taking advantage of the fact that relative clauses may precede their antecedent and that the relative pronoun may stand at the end of its clause. The two parts of the compound are resolved into a nominal sentence or phrase; the relative pronoun indicates the case-relationship with the substantive that is being qualified; and finally the demon- strative recalls the inflexional termination of the original com- pound. So Viditazvarttebhyah paurebhyah ‘from the citizens who had learnt the news’ becomes vidita vartta yais tebhyah paurebhyah by whom the news was learnt, from those citizens Pronouns and pronominal adverbs Now that a fair number of adverbial and other pronominal forms have been encountered in the exercises, it is worth draw- ing attention to relationships between them. The list in Table 11.1, and particularly the fourth column, is in- tended to be illustrative, not exhaustive. It could be extended ei- ther vertically or horizontally. Most pronominal adjectives have at least some adverbial forms—thus anyatra ‘else where’, ekadi ‘at one time’, sarvatha ‘in every way’. Attributively used adverbs The adverbs of ‘place where and place from where’ listed in the second and third lines of Table 11.1 have an obvious affinity of meaning with the locative and ablative cases of the correspon- ding pronouns—‘where?’ means ‘at, in or on what (place)?’; ‘from where?’ means ‘from what (place)?’. In fact, to of ad- verbs of place in Sanskrit is somewhat misleading, since their reference may be as wide as that of the corresponding pronom- inal cases, extending to people and things as well as places. Thus a common meaning of tatra at the beginning of a sentence is ‘among those (people or things just mentioned)’: e.g. tatra kew apy uktam ‘[among them someone:] one of them said’. Similarly, by a common idiom these adverbs may be used as at- tributive adjectives qualifying substantives in the locative or (ap- parently rather less frequently) the ablative case. So atra vanewow 279 3 waeyey dresuedt uj sp sy { wrempoedt ‘Baoj os soy yeAET yon smp yoedy Ypnus os saeagy (e) qons ‘pury simp jo. esipt (e) yons ‘puny aewp jo esipes ‘wreaa Kem sep uy wrens “wept sup ‘0s { ren sou vungpe “UTE! wou per ‘wosear stp 0; ‘sousq tere as0j23qp WORSEN sitp Ur foxy wor qua! arp woxy jeer aray em ee arm ener 2eIp nese ‘sep oTEde ae oq Yes sangwwassuousap 48410 BAHU IILL09 FOULONdoes not mean ‘here in the forest’ but is synonymous with vane ‘in this forest’. Other examples of the usage are: tatra kale at that time atm Antare at this juncture kutaé cid vyafijanat from some indication atra or atra vastuni in this matter tha or iha loke _ in this world The suffix tah It will be noticed that this suffix is used to form all the adverbs with ablative sense. In fact, it may also be added to the first and second person pronouns as a commoner alternative to the theoretical ablative forms: one usually says mattah rather than mat for ‘from me’ and so on. The sense of the suffix is not always strictly ablative: itah as well as meaning ‘from here’ is common in the sense of ‘over here’ or ‘in this direction’. Unlike other adverbial suffixes, tah is com- bined with a wide range of nouns as well as pronouns and con- verts them to adverbs with some such sense as well as pronouns and converts them to adverbs with some such sense as ‘in ac- cordance with’ or ‘in respect of’. The suffix often alternates not only with the ablative case but also with other cases, particularly the instrumental: samksepah abridgement samksepena, samksepat or samk- sepatah in brief vistarah expansion vistarena, vistarat or vistaratah in detail Prasatgah occasion prasahgena, prasahgat or prasahgatah incidentally, in passing api ji4yante nama tah? do (you) know them by name? tau ca bhagavat’ Valmikina dhatri-karma vastu tah parigrhya positau pariraksitau ca and the revered Valmiki, adopt- ing [as to substance:] in effect the role of a foster- mother, reared and looked after the two of them Complicated numerals are too infrequent in ordinary texts to justify the devoting of much space to them in an elementary primer. It is, however, worth committing to memory the list of numerals at the back of the book. From 1 to 4 the cardinalnumerals agree with the substantive they qualify in number, gender and case; from 5 fo 29, in number and case, but with only one form for n for all genders; from 20 onwards, in case only. Thus tisrbhir nadibhih ‘with three rivers’, sodasabhir nadibhih ‘with sixteen rivers’, Satena nadibhih ‘with a hundred rivers’. From 20 onwards the numbers are, in fact, collective nouns, and alternatively therefore the qualified substantive may be put in the genitive plural: gatena nadinam ‘with a hundred [of] rivers’. Or, Os again, a determinative compound may be made: nadi-éatena ‘with [a river-century:] a hundred rivers’. Compounds with collective nouns (‘pair’, ‘triad’, etc.) may also be used to express the smallest numbers. A dual form is very often avoided by using one of the many words for ‘pair’: g0- dvayam, go-yugam, go-mithunam, etc. ‘[cow-pair:] two cows’. All the numerals may be compounded attributively in their stem form: dvizpada ‘two-footed’, sataymukha ‘having a hundred mouths’, dasa:kum4ra-caritam ‘the story of the ten princes’. Concord The principle that a predicate should agree with its subject is modified in Sanskrit when the subject consists of a number of co-ordinated items. In such cases there is a tendency for the predicate to agree with the nearest item. This happens regularly when the verb precedes the subject. tatah pravigaty Arundhati Kausalya kaficuki ca then enter Arundhati, Kausaly4 and the chamberlain (not praviganti) tad idam tavad grhyatam abharanam dhanué ca so just take this decoration and (this) bow (not grhyetam) prabhavati prayagah kum4rinam janayit4 daivam ca (what) generally governs girls (is) their father and their fate (not prabhavatah) Nominative with iti Where in English we would quote a word such as a proper name and isolate it between inverted commas, a Sanskrit word may be isolated by iti and it is then normally put in the nominative case: so ‘Rama’ iti viérutah ‘known as “Rama”’. ‘aéva’ iti pasu-samAmmAye samgramike ca a pathyate ‘horse’ is mentioned in the list of sacrifical animals, and in the military (list)matra The word matrA ‘measure’ is used at the end of a bahuvri compound in the sense of ‘sharing the size of’ both li (angustha-matra ‘thumb-sized’, khadyota-matra ‘no bi than a firefly’) and in the sense of ‘fully measured by, nothing more than’, and so ‘mere’ or ‘merely’, ‘only’. In thi sense it may form a neuter substantive: jala-matram ‘only water, pravada-matram ‘mere talk’. Especially striking is the combination of this matra with a participle to express ‘as soon as’: thus drsta-matra ‘no than seen, as soon as seen’. roel more: Pravista -mat aiva Sayana-grham duratmand C4nakya:- hatake» avalokitam the very moment he entered, the evil; and accursed Canakya examined the sleeping quarters Vocabulary afigam limb (the four ‘limbs’ of an army are elephants, chariots, cavalry and infantry) adhikarah authority, office adhisthatr mm. superintending, at the head of antevasin [resident] disciple apanodanam driving away abhidhanam statement; appella- tion, name abhiprayah intention, inclination abbivyakta manifest, visible abbigu m. rein, bridle arth-étsargah expenditure [of money] ardhah half (portion) alamkaranam ornament atmajah son 4nuyatrikah escort to (gen.) igtasjanah_ the loved one ucita suitable, appropriate utsavah festival kalatram (N.B. gender) wife kalika bud Kugah prin. garbhah womb catur (stem form) four Candraketu m., pr. n. candrika moonlight capa m./n. bow citta-vitti_f. [activity of minds] mental process, thought citah mango-tree Janaki prin. tarkah conjecture teayam triad (of) (at end of cpd. expresses ‘three’) darah m, pl. (N.B. number and gender) wife divya celestial dipika lamp duskara difficult [to do} duhity f. daughter dvitiya second, anotherdhartah rogue dhairyam firmness tibandhanam bond panayitr m. hawker para pron. adj. other, another Parvatesvarah pr. n. pani m. hand paunaruktam redundancy pracalita in motion prabhu mm. master pramadah mishap pravrtti f. news prasadah favour ‘pranah mm. pl. [breaths] life -pearthayity m. suitor ‘Priyamvadakah pr. 7. bhaigah breaking; plucking {of buds); dispersal (of crowd) bhagah division, portion, tithe bhratr m. brother madhu m. (season or first month of) spring Mandarika pr. n. mahant great, vast, numerous maha:mamsam human flesh matr f. mother mitra mere, only (see chapter) manusah human being, mortal mamakina my Mailati pr. n. mirkha foolish; m. fool yatra procession yadyéa_(f. 3) relative adj. of which kind, such as, just as raksitr m. guard ratnam jewel rajyam_ kingdom 186i m. heap lajja-kara(f.i) embarrassing Lavah pr.n. labhah profit vane-carah forest-dweller vallabhah sweetheart Vasumdhara pr. n. vastu 7. thing, matter, subject- matter Vamadevah pr. n. Valmiki m. pr. n. vikretr m. vendor vicitra variegated, various i [distinguishing word: :] epithet Vairodhakah pr. n. Vaihinari m., pr. n. Satam a hundred S4stram treatise, law-book Slaghya laudable, virtuous samvyavabarah transaction samkulam throng sampradayah tradition -sambhava fc. arising from, offspring of sahasram a thousand sadhanam army suvarnal, sold; gold piece {iu + bianee (K anumaatzayile)* conseciaie with viral, bssanu +i (0 anveti) follow, attend anu + is (I anvesate) look for, search abhi + nand (I abhinandati) rejoice in, prize; greet with enthusiasm ava +p (V avapnoti) obtain, acquire ava + iks (avekgate) watch, watch over a+rabh (I arabhate) undertake, begin 4s (Il Aste) sit, stay, remain; josam 4s remain silent 4+ hve (I ahvayati pass. ahiyate) summon, call ih (Lihate) long, for, desire upa + kip caus. (upakalpayati) equip; assign upa + ni (I upanayati) bring ki (IX krinati) buy ja (IX janati) know, learn, find out da (I dadati) give nis + vap (I nirvapati) sprinkle, offer, donate ni + ve caus. (nivarayati) ward off, drive off ni + sidh (I nigedhati) prohibit, cancel pari + tyaj (I parityajati) leave, abandon Pari + raks (I pariraksati) protect, save, spare pra+ci(V pracinoti) accumulate (the pass. corresponds to the English intrans.) . prati + éru (V pratigrnoti) promise taks (I raksati) protect vi+ ghat (I vighatate, p. p. vighatita) become separated vi + muc (VI vimuiicati) release, loose vi + Sram (IV visramyyati) rest, cease, take a rest vi + srj (VI visrjati) discharge, release vi + iks (I viksate) discern, spy vi+ ava +hr (I vyavaharati) act, behave towards (loc.) sam +f caus. (samarpayati) hand over sam + bha caus. (sambhavayati) conceive, imagine + stu (If stauti) praise an;antaram [without interval:] madhyat from the middle of, immediately from among ayi ha! mrs vainly ekada at one time, once vihaya [‘having left kim ca moreover behind’:} cirasya after a long time beyond (acc.) tatha in that way, thus, so sarvath4 in every way, Prasaigatah in passing altogether. totallvExercise 11a arent ga Wt aruaglean Maa 1g | ART TARAS TAT TF 19S qe Aah Aad a wad Hear 13 1 fied mehr za Stee v1 fesrecrat afters 14 1 eanftas aes aerate & aoe: aera aftr er a, 14) sated afta sh wPEa quafreanAPTETs vot VitEATETET Wor: ie sit ert Rnhiet herreat 19 ceqeramTerd sits: 120 1 fe eanfrge: wddacwat dttearr ydnfegdt asad: 199) wet TATE AT TST 1221: BUENO Aaa qUTTAgENt AeeHAAy- flowy, 1231 finders grant an Aor ada aft ies amd aet gemma daferenat gayferragery 14 que ferent wa weradiert: fret ig ds it: after sift meteret deraermt nT: 1 tol erate agut sstreat gfgreraeres Bray 19 ¢ 1 ae frariaroit sf fort wa ig) wrerareitas setae samira weet Breet 120 1 Mee Sa age aah 12 ¢ 1 frye aMeaTyUf ee teat Sa:t suenfereer aenperet ower efigert:) | derafirerar TOTAAL AMAT STMT: VTL FA es Teer Fret shea afareea gonfarergee: firarara fered wary 123.1 ster TeRTTAaf terse Frege erent eitaren: fas qatther anferater waft: 12st afer wratere wage: afer us war Meena: FAT areefira aerantren were feeitet Premerer 124 1 Exercise 11b Translate all present actives (except in 14, 18 and 24) and all imperatives by means of the passive. x Give him an answer. 2 We are twin brothers. 3 Masters do not summon (those) holding-[vant]-office without-a-purpose. 4 Stop right here. 5 Give (me) one [from among:] of those three-ornaments which (I) bought. 6 Loose the reins. 7 Why speak of ‘firmness’? 8 Hurry, my good fellows, hurry. 9 The moonlight (being) visible, what point in a redundancy-of-lamps? to Latavya, call Urvagi. 11 Obs this is the decoration which I removed from my-own:person and sent to Raksasa. 12 Ha, dear child [f:]! (You) are thus praising yourself. 13 Reward the vendor and accept it. 14 Your Excellency, have (you) anyone who is going to Kusumapura or coming from there? 15 Have him come in. 16 Why vainly [search with conjecture:] specu- late? 17 ‘Minister’ is now an embarrassing epithet. 18 Alas, I am quite deluded to behave towards this forest-dweller (in a way [n. In. se) 1) appro riate-to-my friend. -Makaranda. 19 Hand over ly—enjoy for a long time (to come) the-king’s- pases ‘with -its-various-advantages. 20 Protect, at the cost of[simply use instr] another’s-wife, your own wife and yout life. ; 21 This is the son-of-Kamandaki’s-friend, Madhava, There) to: hawk human flesh. 22 (As) escort to the disciples by whose‘ hand (he) has sent that book to Bharata’s-hermitage, (he) has: sent ourbrother bowin-hand [cApa; pani] to-drive-away: ’ mishap. 23 And she having imm become separated’ (from ‘me) by the throng of numerous {mahant] townsfolk } in-motion-upon-the-dispersal-of-the-procession, I came (here). : 24 Fool, these ascetics donate a quite different tithe, one which ‘ is prized beyond even heaps-of-jewels. 25 Thus, imagining: [use p.p.)" byhisown inclinations-the-thoughts-of-the-loved-one, the suitor is deceived.ooh, Paradigms: Present of classes II, V and VIII Athematic presents The four present classes so far dealt with (I, IV, VI and X) are the thematic classes: they differ from each other only in the way in which the stem is formed from the root, for the stem thus formed always ends in (or: is linked to the endings by) the thematic vowel a. The other six classes are comparable with the nominal consonant stems, and their inflexion is of far greater dif- ficulty and variety mainly because the stem is in direct contact (collision may sometimes seem a better word) with the personal endings. One may distinguish practically between the lesser com- plications of those classes where the stem ends in a suffix (V, VII, IX) and the greater complications of those where the final letter of the stem is also the final letter of the actual root (I, I, V0). In class II, the root class, the stem consists simply of the root it- self. This generally strengthens to guna in the strong grade and remains unchanged in the weak grade. In this and all other athematic classes, the strong grade appears in the whole of the singular parasmaipada both present and imperfect, in the third person singular parasmaipada of the imperative, and in all first person forms of the imperative, while two noteworthy features of the personal terminations of athematic verbs are the absence of n in the third person plural atmanepada present, imperfect and imperative, and the addition of the suffix dhi (after conso- nants) or hi (after vowels) in the second person singular imper- ative parasmaipada. The conjugation of the commonest class II root, as ‘be’, has already been introduced. The inflexion of i ‘go’ is typical of a root ending in a vowel: among sandhi changes one may noteretroflexion of s (esi ‘you go’) and consonantalisation of i ( ‘they go’). The inflexion of dvig ‘hate’ illustrates some of the. sandhis of final g: thus ¢ +s = ks, ¢ + dh = ddh. The strong grade of han ‘kill’ is han: so hanti the kills’,, which looks misleadingly like a plural form. The weak grade is also stated as han, but it appears as ha before t/th and as ghn be- fore a: hatha ‘you kill’; ghnanti ‘they kill’. The second person singular imperative is jahi. One root retains the strong grade throughout: é1, ete ‘he ley Some, though classed as root verbs, add the suffix i before some terminations: rud, roditi ‘he weeps’, bra ‘speak’ adds 1 in the strong forms before a consonant: bravitu ‘let him speak’. Class V verbs add the suffix nu before the terminations, and this strengthens to no in the strong grade, The root éru ‘hear’ forms resent stem eee (on the basis of a more primitive form a the root, ér): Srnogi ‘you hear’. Roots ending in a vowel (a) do not take the suffix hi in the second person singular i imperative, (b) may optionally reduce nu to n before v and m: érnu ‘ or érnmah ‘we hear’. Roots ending in a consonant (a} must add hii in the imperative, (b) must change nu to nuv before vowels: apnuhi ‘obtain’; apnuvanti ‘they obtain’. Class VIII verbs add the suffix u, strengthening to o. Of the eight verbs in this class, seven have roots ending in n and behave in the same way as class V roots ending in vowels, as described above: tan, tanoti ‘he extends’; tanuvah or tanvah ‘we two extend’. The eighth verb is the common kr ‘do’. The strong stem is karo, the weak kuru, but this latter must appear as kur before v, m and y, The second person singular imperative parasmaipada is kuru. The formation of the present participles of athematics is mentioned in Chapter 10. Remember that the atmanepada par- ticiple is in -Ana, not -amana. The present participle of as ‘stay’ is anomalous, asina. Gerundives The gerundive (sometimes called the future passive participle) is a verbal adjective with bib a expressing such notions x obligation or necessity—‘(requiring) to lone’ etc. It may formed in a number of alternative ways, by the addition to the root of any of three suffixes: ya, aniya, tavya. The gerundive in ya is the most ancient of the three and shows the greatest variety of formation. In general, the following arethe changes undergone by the root before this suffix. Final 4 be- ‘comes e: da, deya ‘to be given’. Final i/i strengthens to e: ni, neya ‘to be led’. Final w/a strengthens to av or to Av: éru, Sravya or 3 ‘to be heard’. Final r/f strengthens to ar: kr, karya ‘to be gine’, Followed by a single consonant, medial i/u becomes e/o, medial r is unchanged, medial a sometimes remains and some- times strengthens to a: éuc, gocya ‘to be mourned for’; bhid, | bhedya ‘to be split’; drs, dréya ‘to be seen’; gam, gamya ‘to be j gone to’; but vac, vacya ‘to be spoken’. ' As well as exceptions to the above, there are a number of alter- ‘native forms: most notably, final i/wr may remain unstrength- ened and add a connecting t: so érutya besides gravya and éravya, krtya besides karya. Derivative stems drop aya before adding ya: varnya ‘to be de- scribed’. Gerundives in ya from causatives are, however, little found, since they would not usually be distinguishable from the gerundive of the simple verb. The suffix aniya is an adjectival extension of the suffix ana, which is most commonly used to form neuter action nouns (see Chapter 8). The root almost always appears in the guna grade, being strengthened to the same extent as in forming class I pres- ents: ke, karaniya ‘to be done’; nind, nindaniya ‘blameworthy’. Derivative stems again drop aya. A number of causative forms are found, e.g. bhavaniya ‘to be caused to be’ The suffix tavya is an adjectival extension of another suffix, this time of the obsolete verbal noun in tu on which the infinitive and the absolutive are based. This type of gerundive may in fact be formed by substituting tavya for the tum of the infinitive, and so the remarks in Chapter 13 (pp. 172-4) on the formation of the infinitive should now be studied and the list of principal parts of verbs consulted. A point to note particularly is that, as in the infinitive, derivative stems retain the suffix ay: from vid ‘know’, veditavya ‘to be known’ but vedayitavya ‘to be made known’. Causatives form gerundives of this type freely. As was mentioned in Chapter 8, the prefixes su and dus (as also isat ‘slightly’) combine not with a gerundive but with a verbal noun in a: dur:jaya ‘difficult to conquer’ etc. Gerundives may be used predicatively in sentences expressing obligation or necessity: aham bhavadbhir drastavyah ‘lam to be seen by you’. As with past participles, a passive is often best translated by an active, and so the above may be represented by ‘you must see me’. In English, in fact, it is often appropriate to 159 nNtranslate a gerundive as an imperative, and so we may also say _ ‘(come and) see me’. While there is a considerable overlap between the three of gerundive, certain differences of usa The types in ya and aniya, and fhe formes tad to havea wider, more characterising sense: thus a:nirvarnyam khalu para- kalatram ‘one ought not of course to gaze upon the wife of a steanger’—whereas ‘don’t look at her’ would probably be ex- pressed by na drastavya. These forms are thus far more likely than the tavya form to be used as simple adjectives—e.g. élaghya ‘praiseworthy’, Socaniya ‘lamentable’. They are particularly used after verbs with prefixes; they may also combine with the negative prefix a, and even appear to a limited extent at the end of deter- minative compounds: e.g. anantara:karaniya ‘to be done immedi- ately’. ‘The implication of necessity may be entirely lost in the more general notion of potentiality: ‘such as to be’, and therefore ‘capable of being’. The meaning then comes close to that of the pant participle bet is normally ¢ be distinguished by the absence of any factual implication: drsta ‘(actually) seen’, but dréya ‘visi- ble’ and prayatna-preksaniya *to be discerned with difficulty’. ari-balam ca_vihata:vidhvastam _ stri;bala-harya;éastram vartate and the enemy’s forces, broken and shattered, are in a state where their weapons [are takeable:] could be taken by women or children The gerundive in tavya, on the other hand, while it can be used in both general and particular statements and with prefixed and unprefixed verbs, seldom loses the notion of necessity and is nor- mally used as the predicate of a sentence rather than as an at- tributive adjective. (It may appear as the predicate of a locative absolute: thus durga-samskara arabdhavye ‘(at a time) when for- tifications ought to be undertaken’.) It should not be used at the end of a nominal compound or in combination with the prefix a. A strictly passive sense is more universally prevalent in gerundives than j in past participles, even for verbs normally in- transitive. Thus gamya, gamaniya and gantavya may all mean ice uiring) to be gone to’. However, a gerundive construction given to an essentially intransitive verb by means of the impersonal passive: nanu Lavatigike, Kamandakya »pi na khalv atah param .. jivitavyam why Lavahgika, Kamandaki too shall cer- tainly not live any longer (lit. it is not to be lived by Kamandaki etc.)Particularly noteworthy, as defying literal translation into English, is the frequent impersonal use of the gerundive of bhai ‘be’. The complement of the verb like the logical subject itself must be put in the instrumental case: tad bhagavati Godavari, tvaya tatra s_avadhanaya bhavi- tavyam so venerable Godavari, you must be watchful in e¢ matter vigrantena bhavata mam» 4nyasminn an:4yase karmani sahayena bhavitavyam when rested, you must be my companion in another task, which is not a strenuous one This particular gerundive is often used to mark an inference: vyaktam ahitundika_-cchadmana Viradhaguptem anena bhavitavyam ‘this (person) must obviously be Viradh- agupta disguised as a snake-charmer aye dhira:prasantah svarah—tat tapasvibhir bhavitavyam such strong, calm tones! It must then be ascetics (I can hear) Similarly, in an inference about a past event, evam anaya prastavyam ‘[thus:] this is what she must have asked’. kr and compounds of kr and bha The verb ke may be translated by ‘do’ or ‘make’ in English: kim kurmah? ‘what shall we do?’; kumbham karoti ‘he is making a pot’. With an abstract noun in the accusative it has the effect of creating a more complex verb: vandanam karoti ‘makes salutation, salutes’; aévasana-matram karoti_ ‘makes mere consolation, merely “consoles”, Like ‘make’ in English, it may also be used with an accusative and a predicative adjective to give causative sense: tvam a:kamam karomi ‘I'll [make you one-whose:desires-are-not:] frustrate you’. tat kim atra vipine priya-vartt»-aharam karomi? what then in this forest shall I make a carrier of news to my beloved? In this sense of ‘turn into’, however, there is an alternative con- struction. One may compound the predicative adjective with the verb by changing the a of the adjective’s stem to i and adding it directly to the front of kr: so tvam a: kamam karomi might a) pear instead as tvam akamikaromi (if we wish to preserve punctuation we may write a:kami~karomi). The rule is that nouns change final a, a, i or in to i and final u to & (as in laghu 161by Bea wh which [or. where];.I believe, Her Majesty ‘light’, laghtikr ‘lighten’), while most other stems would appear. without change; but the formation is far commoner with nouns in a than with any others. Substantives are as freely used as adjectives in this construction, e.g. angi~karoti ‘turns into a limb, subordinates’. ‘The same construction is found with the verb bhi in the sense of ‘become’, e.g. angi~bhiita ‘become a limb, subordinated’. This is distinct in meaning from the karmadharaya ahga:bhitta ‘being a limb, subordinate’. In this way we have pairs of transitive and intransitive denomi- native verbs. Mention was made in Chapter 9 of the denominative pair éithilayati ‘slackens (trans. ) and éithilayate ‘slackens (intrans.)’. With the ‘same meanings we may form Sichili~karoti and éithili~bhavati. This construction forms a small exception to the general principle in Sanskrit that nouns may compound with each other but not with finite verbs (and even this construction occurs most commonly of all in non-finite forms, in particular in the past participle). In a similar way there are a number of adverbs and other non- verbal forms which may be combined with kr and bhi (and to a limited extent also with dha ‘put’ and as ‘be’). So from the Vedic adverb avis ‘openly’, avis~kr ‘reveal’, avir~bha ‘become appar- ent’, Similarly, from tiras ‘secretly’, ftiras~kr ‘conceal’, tiro~bha ‘vanish’. It is kr which combines with the widest variety of such forms. Among other examples one might mention alamkaroti ‘ornaments’, namaskaroti ‘pays homage to’, satkaroti ‘does ho- nour to’. In all such compounds the absolutive used should be the com- pound form in ya. Relative adverbs The tendency of pronominal adverbs to act as extensions of the case system was mentioned in the previous chapter—e.g. atra vane =asmin vane ‘in this forest’. Relative adverbs used in this way are simple extensions therefore of the relative pronoun. This is often true of yatra ‘where, in which’ and yatah ‘from ° wheres from which be thas tad: etat Pracetas.~ ~adhyusitam . devi parityaliea. “this is the forest inhabited ° see y, substitute yasmin for yatra in the abave.. ‘seitente’ ef affect the Tieading.In their characteristic use, however, relative adverbs have simply a more limited scope than the relative pronoun, in that the correlative adverb plays the same role in the main clause as the relative adverb in the relative clause (as when relative and correlative pronoun are in the same case): so yada... tada ‘at which time, ... at that time’, yatha . . . tatha ‘in which way... in that way’, etc. Thus the relative clause and the main clause share a common feature: in ‘where the rain falls, there the plants grow’, the falling of the rain and the growing of plants are given a common location; if one substituted ‘when... then’, they would be given a common time. The general feature of adverbial relative clauses are those al- ready described for other relative clauses. The correlative adverb will correspond in function to its relative, but there may be a choice of forms. For instance, the correlative of yatha ‘as’ may equally well be either tatha or evam ‘so, thus’: kim ou khalu yatha vayam asyam, evam iyam apy asman prati syat? could she for her part possibly (be:] feel towards us as we (do) towards her? ‘kim tu katham asmabhir upagantavya iti sampradharayami’— ‘yath» aiva gurus tath» Spasadanena ‘but I am wondering in what way we ought to approach him’ —‘with the same re- spectful salutation as (one would) one’s preceptor’ A particular use of yatha is in inferences—‘from the way that’: yath»én_mukham alokayati, tatha vyaktam ‘pravas> étsuka; manasa maya na drst»’ éty aha from the way he gazes up, he is obviously saying, ‘with my mind eager for the jour- ney, I didn’t see her’ The most usual correlative of yada ‘when’ is tada ‘then’, but oth- ers such as tatah ‘thereupon’ and atha ‘hereat’ are also found. Even if tada itself is used, the relation of the two clauses is often one of sequence rather than of strict contemporaneity. Temporal clauses in narrative tend to be rather long, and for the usual rea- son that short clauses may be expressed in other ways in Sanskrit. Because it is not necessary for a relative pronoun or ad- verb to stand at the beginning of its clause, it is quite possible for the writer or speaker to be well launched on his sentence before deciding to subordinate it as a relative clause: tatah ‘kutas a mahan 2? iti ta tav. dyam pri tarpoe A err Adesad vicitrena vadhena vyapaditah then, when on beingasked ‘where did your great accession of wealth (come) from?’ he told a confused variety of stories, he was by order of the accursed Canakya [killed by a variegated death:] put to death by torture The word yavat ‘while’ deserves comment. It is in origin the ad- verbially used neuter singular of the relative pronoun yavant ‘as much .. . as’, whose use is illustrated by yavin artha udapane sarvatah samplut;ddake, t4van sarvesu vedesu brahmanasya vijanatah as much point as (there is) in a water-tank when it has water flooding all round it, so much (is there) in all the Vedas for a brahmin who discerns [gen. sg. pres. part. of vijiia] yavat thus means in origin ‘for all the time that, for as long as’, and this is the meaning which it has in forming ‘prepositional’ compounds similar to those made with yatha described in Chap 9, where it may represent the same notion as the ‘throughout’: e.g. yavad_rajyam ‘throughout the reign’, yavad_adhyayanam ‘throughout the (period of) study’. As a conjunction yavat may mean ‘during all or some of the time that’ and thus correspond to ‘while’: yavat pranimi, tavad asya . .. madana-samtdpasya pratikriyam kviyamanam icch4mi I want a remedy to be contrived for this love-torment while I am (still) breathing Vijaye, mubirtam nibhrta; pada“samcara bhava, yavad asya pardn:mukhasy> aiva panibhyam nayane nirunadhmi Vijaya, keep your footsteps quiet for a moment, while I cover his eyes with my hands as he is looking the other way ratham yavad arohami bring up the chariot ile I get in In the last two examples the idea of purpose is present, and the notion of ‘while’ shades into that of ‘until’, which is another meaning of yavat. In this latter sense it is often but not necessarily construed with the future tense: pratiksasva kani cid dinani, yavad iyam...prakrtav eva sthasyati wait a few days, until she [shall abide in her actual nature:] comes to her senses tat sarvatha »smat sthanad anyat sthanam asrayami yavad asya may vijidtam cikirsitam so at all events tl go from this place to another, until I have found out his intentions [p.p. in the sense of a (future) perfect]‘Until, up to’ is also the usual meaning of yavat when it is a preposition governing (and following) a noun in the accusative: e.g. siry-ddayam yavat ‘until sunrise’. This contrasts with the meaning ‘throughout’ which it usually has in prepositional com- uunds, (However, the difference will normally also be conveyed the presence, on the one hand, of a word more naturally im- plying duration, such as ‘life’, or, on the other, of one more nat- urally implying an event, such as ‘arrival’.) Finally, wee with a negative may be translated ‘before’ (al- though other ways of expressing this notion, such as the use of prak or pirvam with the ablative of an abstract noun): ++.ma yavad ayati, tavat tvaritam anena tarugahanen> Apasarpata [while he is not coming:] before he comes, es- cape quickly through this wood The following example combines yavat ‘while’ and yavat + na ‘before’: yavad eva sa_cetand »smi, yavad eva ca na parisphutam anena me madana-duscestitalaghavam etat, tavad ev Asmat apasarpanam Sreyah it is better to escape from this place while I am ‘still conscious, and [while by him is not clearly detected:] before he clearly detects in me this disrespect (arising) from the mischievous workings of passion The adverbial suffix vat The possessive suffix vant is used adverbially in the neuter sin- gular with the s; sense of expressing a comparison: thus brahmana vat ‘like a brahmin’. There is nothing in the form to indicate the grammatical role played by the subject of the com- parison in the rest of the sentence, and so according to context brahmana vat may be the equivalent of brahmana iva, iva, etc. In the following example the context shows that pitr vat is the equivalent of pitfn iva: Kasi-pati; Maithib ;Angairajamé ca subro-niveditan pitr vad apagyat and he (the prince) looked on the kings of Kasi, Michila and the Angas, presented by his friends, as his fa- visesah literally means ‘distinction, difference, particularity’, and is is often used in this literal sense. At the end of a determinativecompound (analysable as either dependent or descriptive) it may used idiomatically to express the notion’ “a particular... a special ...’. Thus ‘{a particularity of brah tins a opeiaity that a brchmin| 4 paral b brahmin’; stri- visesah ‘a woman’; ratna-visesah ‘a special jewel, a particularly excellent jewel’. Less frequently, visega may be used with this same meaning as the prior member of the compound. Vocabulary Agastyah pr. n. pariklesah vexation a:parildesah lack of vexation occupying apsaras f.nymph (of heaven) —_—_parityagah_ giving up, azvighna unhindered sacrificing; liberality agokah afoka-tree paécatetapah [after-pain:] confused; p.p. in confusion Pindapatin m. mendicant ayus 1. life Pracchayam shade Arta oppressed pratyakhyanam rejection Asanam sitting, seat Prayogah udghatin having elevations, (of play) bumpy mnie me favour; “omession as tee gi kasta tara more grievous Prarabdham thing undertaken, kala-haranam delay; kala- enterprise . haranam kr (to) delay Pravinyam proficiency kiyant how much? bharatah actor, player kgudh f, hunger bhami / ground; fit object tantram administration (for); parityaga-bhimi object . . of liberality, suitable ee oe eee recipient (of) D ahinity, goa aioe welfare, auspicious dhenam wealth manda_ slow, slack; mandibhi dhyanam meditation, meditating mayanam eye manyu mm. passion, anger patatrin bird maranam death panthan m., irreg. noun maru m. desert (Appendix 2) road, path, way Manasam name of a lake para other; m. enemy, (hostile) mohah delusion stranger raémi_ m. rein, bridlen. solitude, secrecy; misery rahasi in secret salah sal-tree m. enemy Stiparvatah name of a mountain h fragmenc; lavago lavagah = samyamanam__ restraint, piece by piece tightening lobhah greed samjia signal bewildered, distressed sambandhin m. relative [by frintta disciplined, modest marriage) wigesah distinction; ifc. see sahadharmacarin§ m. lawful "chapter text; vigesa tah in husband particular sahadharmacirini lawful wife wvigrambhah confidence; samijikah spectator vigcambha-katha/kathitam sara _m./n. substance; property su:caritam good deed conversation + a Fi ari ‘wegah haste, speed sthira Sony act "Ht wake yetasaly cane, reed firm, sustain; sthirT~ bho vegah dress, attire be[come] firm vyasanam vice; weakness; svi~kr make one’s own, misfortune, appropriate ati+kram (I atikramati) transgress, go against apa + ni (I apanayati) remove, take away ava + gam caus. (avagamayati) procure ‘tkarnayati denom. (ger. akarnaniya) give ear, listen to a+ da (Il adatte) take, take hold of, bring 4p (V apnoti) obtain, get aut + pat (I utpatati) fly up ut + 4s (II udaste) sit idle upa +4 + labh (I upalabhate) reproach, blame upa + 4s (II upaste) sit by, wait upon, honour cegt (I cestati) move, act, behave (towards), treat (loc.) tad (X tadayati, pass. tadyate) strike, beat oi + ket (VI nikrntati) cut up, shred para + pat (I parapatati) approach, arrive Prati + 4 + dig (VI pratyadisati) reject; put to shame (by example) pra + dru (I pradravati) run (p.p. intrans.) pra + 4p caus. (prapayati) cause to reach, convey bra (II braviti) say, tell vah (I vahati, p.p. dha) carry, take, marrysam + yam (I samyacchati) restrain, arrest sam + 4 + sad caus. (samasadayati) approach, attain, meet sam + upa + dig (VI samupadigati) point out, show asamyak wrongly tdgnim bh be{come] silent avir~bhi become manifest, nanu may be translated as reveal oneself ‘tather’ in rejoinders avig“ky make manifest, bahih outside itas tatah hither and thither va ava ‘ae oe ‘Light! tiro“bh_ become hidden, vanish chapter text mn eee tasnim 4s stay silent evat like (see chapter text) Exercise 12a 4% Wx 7 WAVE 1g! wag quite fasnvenfrnf 121 qoif wa araereqtanfic 131 anret FETT NI A Exercise 12b For convenience, gerundives in tavya are repre- sented by. ‘must’ and those in ya and aniya by ‘should’. 1 What do you say? 2 With this letter (I) must defeat Raksasa. 3 (You) must remain right there until the arrival-of-Makaranda-and-Madayantika. 4 Let the two of us just listen. 5 Alas, {my) enemies have made even my heart their own. _ 6 Stay, Your Majesty [ayusmant], in this aéoke- -tree’s-shade, while I announce to Indra’s-sire. 7 His-Excellency’s-instructions are that I ald Raksasa’s life. 8 So let it be as it must [be]. 9 The whole administration is in confusion. 10 Why do *you gtay silent? 11 So one should-not-blame Raksasa in this matter, 12 Good Bhasvaraka, take him outside and beat him till he talks. 13 Listen to this wonderful (thing). 14 Sakuntala must be in this very bower-of-reed-and-creeper. 15 So now you should not [make:] feel anger towards your lawful husband. _16 I'll go to the very spot where that faireyed (girl) vanished before {/oc.] my eyes. 17 The dear child has revealed proficiency-in-speaking. 18 In that case let us wait upon their honours here the specta- ors by [abi.] an actual [eva] performance-of-it. 19 *You too, e His Highness, are one-whose-words-(I)-should-not-go- inst. 20 1 behaved wrongly in delaying after I had met my wed. 21 Alas! See how [use esah], sitting idle like-a-stranger our friend’s-misfortunes, we are put to shame by this (man). 2. Oh merchant! You must rather [manu] ask us ‘and how does that lack-of-vexation reveal itself?” 23 Before these birds fly up loved from them. 24 Then, they having run hither and ither in {abl.] a pretence-of-fearon-receiving-the-signal [use thita in babuvribi], you must take Sakatadasa away from the ecution-ground and convey him to Raksasa. 25 As soon as » aiva... tad» aiva] Menaka came to Daksayani from the phs’- pool [tirtham} bringing Sakuntala distressed-by(her)-re- i t-what-had-happened [vrttanta in babuvrihi] from itating—that, as a result of {abl.] Durvasas’ curse, this poor irl) had been rejected by her lawful husband. = 2p serdeyo 3es Paradigms: Presents of classes II, VII and IX; asau Reduplication Reduplication (as a grammatical phenomenon in Sanskrit) is: the prefixing to the root of some initial part of that root in: either identical or altered form. Thus from the roots tud ‘strike’’ and kr ‘do’, the first person plural parasmaipada perfect forms: tutudima ‘we struck’ and cakema ‘we did’. Reduplication is isa feature of class III presents, of the perfect tense, of some aorists,, and of desiderative and intensive forma tions. The principles of reduplication differ somewhat in each of these formations, for convenience the following rules may be taken as a norm on; i the basis of which any variations will be described: Only the first syllable of the root, i.e. the vowel and what pre-j cedes it, is reduplicated: yuj, yuyuj; dih, didih. Of an initial consonant group only the first consonant is re-; pert kaué, cukrus. But when the group consists of s followed, a stop (or by an unvoiced sound—the rule may be stated’ either way, since s is never followed by either a sibilant or a’ voiced stop), it is the stop which is reduplicated. Thus stu, (with retroflexion by internal sandhi); whereas sru, susru fol. lows the general rule. Long vowels are shortened, and diphthongs represented byi ior! was appropriate: nf, nint; da, dada; jty, jjiv; sev, sigev. Hi roots ending in e/ai/o (often given as ending in 4 in We grammars) reduplicate with a: mlai, mamlai. Aspirated consonants reduplicate in unaspirated form: bhia,g bibhid.Velars are represented by corresponding palatals, and h by j: kram, cakram ; khan, cakhan ; gup, jugup ; hu, juhu. Roots beginning with a vowel follow the same general pattern of reduplication, but internal sandhi produces considerable changes of appearance. For instance, in the weak reduplicated form of ig, iig becomes ig; but in the strong reduplicated form, ies becomes iyes. The most important variation of the above principles is that the vowel of the reduplicated syllable is in some circumstances strengthened and in others replaced by a or by i. The vowels r/t never reduplicate without change. Presents of classes Ill, Vil and IX The present stem of class HI verbs is formed by reduplication of the root: hu ‘offer (sacrifice)’, juhoti ‘he sacrifices’, juhumah ‘we sacrifice’. The rules of reduplication are in general those de- ‘scribed above. r/f reduplicates as i: bhr ‘carry’, bibharti. The chief peculiarity of these reduplicated stems is that in the in- dicative and imperative parasmaipada the third person plural termination is ati atu, not *anti *antu: juhvati ‘they sacrifice’. fin the imperfect there is a special third person plural termina- tion ub.} ‘Among the more important stems of this class are dha ‘put’ and da ‘give’. Their weak stems reduce to dadh and dad, and dadh becomes dhat before t/th: dadhati ‘he ‘puts’, dadhati ‘they put’, ‘dadhmah ‘we put’, dhattha ‘ ‘you put’. The imperative second person singular parasmaipada i is dhehi/dehi. A noteworthy com- ipound of dha is érad-dha ‘put trust in, believe’ (cf. Latin credo): Sraddhatte ‘he believes’, etc. The roots ma ‘rieasure’ and ha ‘go forth’ have weak stems mim” djibi which reduce to mim/jih before vowels. "The di ‘suffix’ of class VII verbs is the nasal n infixed ‘after the eet of the root and strengthening to na in the strong forths. Thus from yuj ‘join’, yuflj and yunaj: yunakti ‘he joins’, yoaijanti ‘they join’. One or two roots such as bhaiij ‘break’, are quoted in a form already incorporating the nasal: this is because the nasal remains in ‘various forms outside the present ‘tem—ey 2. bhafijanam ‘a breaking’. ‘Blass IX verbs add a suffix which has the strong form na and the weak forms ni before consonants and n before vowels : kri‘buy’, krinati ‘he buys’, krinimah ‘we buy’, krinanti ‘they buy’. Roots in @ shorten to u: pi, punati ‘purifies’. The infix nasal found in various forms of roots such as bandh ‘tie’ is dropped: badhniti ‘he ties’. Two of the commonest roots of this class are jfia ‘know’ and grah ‘seize, take’: they | shorten to ja and grh re- spectively —janati ‘knows’, grhnati ‘tak A peculiar termination ana for the second person singular paras- maipada imperative is found in verbs of this class whose roots end in a consonant: so gthana ‘take (it)’. The infinitive The infinitive is formed by adding the suffix tum to the root strengthened to guna grade: ni, netum ‘to lead’; budh, boddhum ‘to learn’; gam, ‘to go’. In a fair number of verbs, most of them ending in a consonant, the suffix is added with connecting i: car, caritum ‘to move’; bhé, bhavitum ‘to be’. Generally, but by no means invariably, verbs that add ita in the past participle add itum in the infinitive. Quite frequently, infinitives of both forms are found: thus nayitum beside netum. Derivative stems retain the suffix ay: carayitum ‘to cause to move’. Strengthening to guna is not invariable : thus likh, likhitum (as well as Iekhitum) ‘to write’. Several verbs containing ¢ strengthen this to ra: the commonest of them is drs, drastum ‘to see’. The infinitive of grah ‘take’ is grahitum. The Sanskrit infinitive has a more limited range of uses than the English infinitive: various ways of representing the English in- finitive have, in fact, been encountered in previous chapters. The nominalisation of verbal notions may be accomplished in Sanskrit by means of various nominal suffixes, or (though much less frequently) by means of relative clauses. Apart from being employed like the English infinitive to express purpose, the in- finitive is generally restricted to ‘prolative’ use aker a number of verbs and adjectives with meanings like ‘want to, (be) able to, begin to, (be) ready to’, etc.: thus srotum icchami ‘I want to hear’. (However, in implying a request, such a turn of phrase does not have the abruptness of the English expression, and so ‘I should like to’ would usually be a more appropriate transla- tion.) Similarly, Srotum saknoti ‘he can hear’; srotum samarthah ‘(he is) capable of hearing’. jfia with an infinitive means ‘have enough knowledge to, know how to’.am with an infinitive usually means ‘has the capacity to’: bhuvam adhipatir bal--4vastho py alam pariraksitum a ruler, though a child in years, is capable of guarding the earth 'The verb arh, literally ‘be worthy to’, may express the notion ‘should, ought’. It is frequently used in particular as a polite way of conveying a request or instruction: Sanaih ganair arodhum arhati devah “Your Majesty should ascend very gently: be careful as you ascend, Your Majesty The second main use of the infinitive is to express purpose (‘in order to’). It has the same sense as a verbal noun in the dative or in composition with artham but is especially used with verbs of motion or where a verbal noun is not readily available. tad esa Vrsalas tvam drastum agacchati here then is Vrsala coming to see you pascat kopayitum ‘opayitum ayugmantam tatha van asmi there- after to make you angry, sire, I acted An infinitive may be used with words such as avasarah and samayah ‘opportunity to, (right) time to’: avasarah khalv ayam atmanam dargayitum this is certainly the moment to reveal myself Sometimes an infinitive comes near to functioning as the subject of a sentence, when it is an extension of an impersonal passive—e.g. alikhitum vismrtam asmabhih ‘we forgot to draw’. Similar and quite frequent is the use with yukta ‘tight, proper’, ayukta ‘wrong’, etc. (The finite verb form yujyate ‘is proper’ may be used in the same way.) The construc- tion may be with a genitive of reference, or with a predicative in- strumental, as in the impersonal gerundive: na yuktam anayos tatra gantum it is not right for the two of them to go there nir_udyogair asmabhir avasthatum ayuktam it is wrong for us to remain without exertion There is no special passive form of the infinitive. It may, how- ever, bear a passive sense when used in a passive context, e.g. hantum nlyate ‘is taken to be killed’. In particular, the passives of arabh ‘begin’ and sak ‘be able’ are used where we use a pas- sive infinitive in English: kartum arabhyate ‘is beginning to be = SL aeideyo174) done’; kartum ‘can be done’. The adjective éakya ‘posdb ble, able to be’ is frequent in this passive sense, used either per- sonally or impersonally: Sakyah khalv ega . . . prajifaya nivarayitam he can of course! be checked by by guile adhuna gakyam anena maranam apy anubhavitum it is now' possible for him to suffer even death The infinitive suffix appears exceptionally in its stem form tu, with the nouns kamah ‘desire’ and (less often) manas ‘mind’ to form bahuvrihi compounds: apahnotuzkama ‘having a desire to. conceal, anxious to conceal’; kartuemanas ‘having a mind to do, intending to do’; kim asi vaktuzkamah? ‘what are you wanting to say?” Future tense The furure tense is formed by adding the suffix sya, or igya (which is the preceding suffix with connecting i), to the root strengthened to guna grade, the resulting stem being inflected in the thematic a class. Thus ni, nesyati ‘will lead’; bhd, bhavisyati ‘will be’. There is a correspondence as to the strength- ening of the root and the addition of the connecting vowel be- tween this formation and tered infini itive: so drakcgyat i ‘will see’, i ‘wil *, likhisyati ‘will write’. The most im- 2 rile nceis tne cl ee iden an tid thee necting vowel: so kartum ‘to do’, but karisyati ‘will do’. The sense of the future corresponds to that of English ‘shall’ and ‘will’, more particularly in the ‘uncoloured’ usages of these words. If the distinction between ‘shall? and ‘will’ is crucial, it must be represented in some other way in Sanskrit; but a sentence such as acirad asya parigramasya phalam anurdpam adhigamigyasi may be translated equally well as ‘you shall soon receive’ or ‘you will soon receive, a suitable recompense for this exertion’. ardharatra-samaye Candraguptasya Nanda-bhavana-praveso isyati Candragupta’s entry into the Nanda palace will happen at midnight m édam vismarisyami I shan’t/won’t forget this ramagiyam hi vatsa:Makarandam avalokayisyati M: Ma jadayantika yantika will see dear Makaranda (looking) most attractivey instances have already been given of the present tense to announce an immediate intention. If the future tense | in the same way has any difference of force, it is perhaps in the statement of intention a shade more deliberate: i ‘Pl ask (him)’, praksyami ‘what I'll do is ask (him)’. ovam f raja sham iti parijfilanam bhavet. bhavatu, atithi-samaca- (if I act) like that, there might be the realisation that I am the king. Well then, I will adopt the behaviour of a (normal) guest “The future may express a prediction about an already existing (a itis lr on be the cas thar), leo in ‘that will be the postman’ jitasyati Candanadasasya vrttantam this man) will (be sure to) know what has Veppened to Candanadasa The prediction may also be about a past event, and here, as in the English use of the future perfect, a generalisation may be im- plied: ‘he won’t have done anything foolish’ implies ‘—because in general he would not do anything foolish’. Thus ‘would’ or ‘would have’ are sometimes possible English translations of the Sanskrit future. . fatho dréyate—na khalu so >krb;4rtho nivartisyate Hook, I can see the chariot! He won’t have/wouldn’t have returned [/wouldn’t return] unsuccessful na hy an:atma‘sadrsegu Raksasah kalatram nyast~karisyati Raksasa certainly Ww won't have/wouldn’t have entrusted [/wouldn’t entrust] his wife to those [not worthy of:] less worthy than himself Relative adverbs continued Examples have been given in Chapters 11 and 12 of subordinate clauses having a nominal or adverbial feature in common with a main clause. In any language there also arises the need:to make the whole notion of one clause a subordinate part of the notion of another. One might alternatively talk of subordinating the verbal notion of one clause. These two concepts are not in fact equiva- lent, but languages have some tendency to treat them as such. For instance, in the ‘his acquiescence has been unhappy’, ‘ happy’ may q the verbal notion of acquiescense (‘ Py ies: cence in an apy spirit’) or the implicit total notion (‘that he should have acquiesced is to be regretted’). We may use devices 175 oosuch as intonation and pause to distinguish the two: ‘he has a@j quiesced unhappily’ as against ‘he has acquiesced, unhappily’ As should already be clear (e.g. from the discussion of the use q abstract nouns in Chapter ro), Sanskrit deals with such relg tionships principally by means of nominal constructions. But where finite constructions are used, they are achieved by x, tending the sense of the relative pronouns and adverbs. (Certaif subordinating conjunctions exist, notably cet ‘if’, which are nog formally related to the relative base ya-, but they may usually b treated as the equivalent of some relative adverb—the major ex ception being, of course, iti.) As a result of this extension df usage, certain ambiguities arise. This is not surprising, for evedi in English, where subordinate clauses are far more important, there is a similar situation—cf. the two possible interpretation: of the phrase ‘the fact that we must not forget’, or the mere! comma (or slight change of intonation) which distinguishes ‘he: said nothing which annoyed me’ from ‘he said nothing, which annoyed me’. In what follows, a number of the more important extensions usage will be described. The translations of the examples given: should usually make the Usage plain. The (perhaps rather rate) theoretical framework been introduced to help coe for some ambiguities. First, there is the simple case in which a following (‘connecting’) ; relative has as its antecedent the whole of the preceding state: { ment: ja-kanya, yena tat sakalam eva kanya.’ one aie ipabtace the princess screamed—[by which (screaming) that whole girls’ quarters was thrown . into confusion:] which threw the whole of the girls’ quar- ters into confusion bakula-male upakariny asi, yatah svagatam bhavatyah . bakula garland, you are my ally—[as a result of which:] and therefore, welcome to you : katham iyam bhagavatyah . . . adya sisya Saudamani?—yatah sarvam adhuna te what, is this Her Reverence’s earliest pupil Saudamani? [as a result of which:] in that case everything now fits This use of yatah to mean ‘therefore’ (introducing an effect) con- trasts sharply with its use to mean ‘for’ (introducing a cause) as described below.\ Where the total notion of the clause is subordinate to another statement, it is introduced most neutrally by the neuter singular form yat. (In traditional terms, yat may be said to represent the ‘internal accusative’ of the subordinate verb.) yan mithah:samavayad imam madiyam dubitaram bhavan upayeme, tan maya pritimata yuvayor anujiiatam that you, sir, married this my daughter by mutual union, I gladly assent to for you both ekem abhisamdhina pratyarpayami ... yad idam aham eva yatha_sthanam nivegayami T’ll hand (it) over on one con- dition—that I should be the one to put it in place ivhen a noun clause is the object of a verb meaning ‘say’, ‘know’, etc., the regular construction is, of course, with iti, But [where t the noun clause follows the main clause, a frequent alter- jnative is to introduce it with yatha. (One might compare the use yof ‘how’ for ‘that’ in sentences like ‘he told me how a man had ‘come to see him’.) In fact, in such cases iti is frequently added pleonastically at the end of the clause (in the second of the fol- Jowing examples it is not pleonastic, being needed for the sub- subordinate clause): vatsa, ucyatam Bhagurayano yatha ‘tvaritam sambhavay> ainam’ iti child, let Bhagurayana be told to find him at once idam tavat prasiddham eva, yatha Nandanaya Malatim prar- _ thayamanam Bhdrivasur nppam uktavan ‘prabhavati nija:kanyaka:janasya Maha:raja’ iti Now it is entirely es- tablished that Bhdrivasu told the king when the latter was seeking Malati for Nandana, ‘Your Majesty has power over his own daughter’ The subordinate clause may be related as reason to the main clause. The implied correlative of yat is then tat in its sense of ‘then, so’, and its force may be represented literally in English by ‘inasmuch as’: kim atyahitam Madhavasya, yad anistam vyavasitosi? is there (some) disaster to Madhava, that you have (this) dreadful resolve? ‘This has the same force as the use of the personal relative pro- noun described in Chapter 11 (p. 147), but the latter is, of course, more restricted in its scope, since it can be used only when there is some identifiable common element in the two “clauses, In the three examples given in Chapter 11, on the other hand, yat might be substituted without change of meaning.As well as yat, other forms of the relative are used. These are somewhat illogical and represent the attraction of the relij tive into the case of the antecedent. Thus yena really means teng yat ‘in view of the (fact) that’. & aho mahazprabhavo raja Duhsantah, yena pravista:matra ¢ atrabhavati nir_upaplavani nah karyani samvettani ho great is the power of King Duhsanta, in that from the mo ment His Honour entered, our rites have become unmolested [Note that, without the locative absolute phrase, yena have been interpreted personally—‘he by whose agency’.] q na yathavad drstam, yat karanam bhavan a:pradhanalg] (you) did not see it properly, for the reason that you are not one in authority aq ega paka-vises--arambhah? or have honoured guests} come to the house, that there is this embarking upon | special cooking? na khalv anyatha vastu-vrttam, yatah sravaloavasthayami: asmat;Saudamani-samaksam anayor > pratijita © the facts are not really [otherwise:] at variance (with what has been said), for when they were students the two of them made this promise before Saudamanl and myself ‘The meaning of ‘inasinuch as’ shades into that of ‘for’ (in which’ sense the emphatic particle hi is common) and finally into that of ‘because’: yato »yam ciran nirvyto mam» dpayogam na janati, tew adhuna man» abara-dane »pi mand;4darah _ because this man, satisfied for (so) long, does not recognise my utility, he is now careless even in providing fodder for me When the subordinate clause is related as a result to the main clause, it may be introduced by yatha. This again is a case of at- traction into the form of the correlative : tatha ... yatha means ‘in such a way that (as a result)’: bhos tatha »ham utpatita yatha sakala esa Sirignagara;grama; sarid;aranya-vyatikaras cakgusa pariksicyate oh, I have flown up so (high) that this whole expanse of mountains, cities, villages, rivers and forests is encompassed by my eye} The moon, with passion [/redness] increased, has seized the . tremulous-eyed [Awinking-starred] face forepart] of the night in such a way that she has not noticed all the garment of her darkness slip away even in front [/in the east] because of (her ; answering) passion [/redness] er relatives and correlatives are possible in result clauses. Thus: IdgSas te nirmana-b parinato, yena lajjaya svacchandam akranditum api na re your [allotment of creation:] destiny in life Tras turned out to be such that for very shame one cannot even weep as one would wish lowever, Sanskrit usually expresses consequence by sub- dinating the reason rather than the result: ‘he was so miserly never spent a shilling’ would become ‘by him being miserly pet a shilling was spent’. 0, Rakgasam prati me. vitarka-bahulyad akula buddhir na sho, ante ti [oh, confused from the multitude of doubts about Raksasa, my mind attains no certainty:] I am in such a storm of doubt about Rakgasa, I cannot make up my mind evam nirbhinna:hrday~avegah éigu:janem A4py anukampito »smi [thus with the agitation of my heart betrayed, I am pitied even by children:] I betrayed my distress so clearly that even a child takes pity on me atibhimim ayam gato na Sakyate nivartayitum [having gone to excess, this one cannot be turned back:] he has gone too far to be turned back The use of yatha in expressing result is commonest in a particu- lar idiom with verbs like ky ‘act’ and vidha ‘arrange’, to express ‘act in such a way that’, ‘see to it that’: yatha svami jagarti tatha maya kartavyam 1 must see to it that my master wakes up yatha »ham bhavadbhyam sal» akASa-vartmana yami, sa upayo vidhiyatam [so that I go with you two by the way of air, let that expedient be arranged:] find a way for me to ac- company the two of you in your flight Similarly with nisidh ‘forbid’ (note how the common subject is placed with the first verb rather than with the main verb): yatha ca sainikas tapo-vanam n> éparundhanti darat pariha- ranti ca, tatha niseddhavyah [and so that the soldiers do not molest the ascetic grove and avoid it from afar, thus = epvedew OY180 (they) are to be checked:] and you must restrain the sd diers from molesting the ascetic grove and have them keg well clear of it i The notion expressed by a noun clause may be a possibilitj rather than a fact (and even so—as in the example eke Abhisamdhina . . . above—the verb may remain in the presey indicative): yac ca ‘éegalo >yam’ iti matva man» dpary avajiia kriyate, tad apy ayuktam and that (he) should feel (/for him to fe contempt for me thinking ‘he is (just) a jackal’, that als¢ (would be) wrong jl Here we might most naturally say ‘if he should feel’. And th usual word for ‘if’, yadi, is in fact in origin merely yat w ening particle. A correlative is often lacking (regulag| en the conditional follows the main clause). When pressed, it is probably most usually tat, but other correlatives arg often found, such as tatah, tada, tarhi. arye, yadi nepathya-vidhanam adhyavasitam, tad ily agam lady, if arrangements backstage are completed, come here q iha devam upatisthatu, yadi na dosah let him attend Yout Majesty here, if there is no [fault:] objection 4 The alternative word for ‘if’, cet, must not stand as the word in its clause: Saar sens dtin inen sent ines: silt erie Sop and rot (our) hospitality 2 Other words, such as atha, are also found: atha kautukam, avedayami _ if (you feel) curiosity, I’ll tell y With api added, we have yady api ‘even if, though’. Similar in sense is kamam ‘granted that, though’. The correlative may tatha pi, punar, tu ‘even so, yet’. q kamam khalu sarvasy> api kula-vidya bahumata, na punary asmakam natyam prati mithya gauravam though of course, everyone thinks highly of his own hereditary learning, oug| regard for the drama is not misplaced q yady apy ete na pagyanti, lobly-6pahata;cetasah, : kula-ksaya-krtam dosam mitra-drohe ca patakam— ikar ifieyam asmabhih papad nivartitum, st am hd in Janardana? Even if these men, their understanding killed by greed, do not see The sin caused by the ruin of a family and the crime in the in- juring of a friend, How should we not know (enough) to turn back from this wickedness, We, Krishna, who can see such sin? ju pronoun asau ‘that, he’ is less common than the other onstrative pronouns. It is used specifically of what is not at hand, but ut anything to which it refers may also be re- to, if absent by the pronoun sah and if present by the pro- ayam. To give stronger deictic force (‘thére is, look at thar) the combination ayam asau may be used: ayam asau maha:nadyor vyatikarah thére is the confluence of the two great rivers Used of what is absent, asau offers a perhaps slightly more em- phatic alternative to sah: Vrsala Raksasah khalv asau Vegala, he (/the man you are talking about) is Raksasa, don’t forget kva sampratam asau batuh? where is that fel- low, now that he has lost his job? di ‘etc.’ adi m. and less frequently some other word such as prabhrti f., literally meaning ‘beginning’, may be used at the end of a bahuvrthi compound with the sense ‘of which the beginning is X’, and therefore ‘beginning with X/[consisting of] X, etc./ such as X’: Indrsadayah surah the gods Indra, etc., Indra and the other a Srotmzadim indriyani the senses such as hearing Visvavasu;prabhrtayas trayo bhratarah Visvavasu and his two (younger) others 181 iNote the Possibility of the translation ‘X and’, particularly i the last of the above examples. Such compounds are often used without the substantive they qualify being expressed. If the omitted substantive a rather general reference, there is a tendency for the compount itself to be put into the singular: mrto sau Samjivako, »smabhis © Agny:Adina satkrtah that Samjivaka i is dead, and we have [honoured him with fire:4 etc.:] given him a cremation ceremony and so forth na hy etabhyam atidipta;prajiiajmedhabhyam asmat asmadzadehy saby:dhyayana-yogo »sti_ for (anyone) like us, there is no managing common lessons with those two, whose under:, standing and intellect are exceptionally brilliant The neuter singular form prabhrti comes to be used adverbially with the ablative or with a form ending in the suffix tah in the, sense of ‘from X onwards, since’: cirat prabhrti ‘since a long time’, tatah prabhrti ‘from that (point) on’. &jfidpayati and vijfiapayati The causatives of ajfia and vijita (of which the past participles have the anomalous alternative forms ajiiapta and vijiiapta) may often be translated ‘order’ and ‘request’ respectively. More widely, they may both mean ‘say’, the first with the implication that the speaker is someone (such as a king or guru) whose word is not to be questioned, the second with the reverse implication that the speaker is someone (such as a counsellor or pupil) who should show deference to the person addressed. A form such as vijilapayami ‘I beg to state’ may, of course, simply indicate po- liteness between equals. Vocabulary atichi m. guest aparaddha (p.p.) and anucarah companion, aparadhin offending, guilty attendant abhiyogah attack anutapah remorse amgtam nectar, ambrosia antaram interval aj command, order anvesin searching, in searchof agi m. beginning; apatyam offspring iadi_ see chapter textanxious to (see chapter text) ‘kayasthah scribe, letter-writer karanarm reason kavyam [that which derives from a kavi ‘poet, creative writer’ :} literature ‘kumarakah young man, son ‘legta-vedin conscious of {things ? done for one:] debt: grateful, ! obliged * kogah_ treasury, resources, wealth kiya doing; rite ksatriyah {member of] warrior [caste] : guhya [to be concealed:] secret | Gautami pr. 2. * gauravam high esteem, duty of respect [towards an elder} " ghagah pot . cakgus 1. eye fata p.p. born; jata-karman n. birth-ceremony jfiaty knower, person to know/ understand tikgna:rasa-dah_poisoner tuccha trifling dasi_ slave girl, servant girl Devaratah pr. n. dauhitrah daughter’s son, + grandson , dhura pole, yoke, burden Nandah pr. n. nrpati m. king Payas 7, water para far, ultimate, supreme parigrahah acquisition, Possession Paritosah satisfaction punya auspicious, holy puratana (f. i) former prthvi, prthivi earth pracchAdanam concealment pratiktila contrary, hostile pramanam measure, size prakgta (f. 3/i) of the people, vulgar, common Ppriyam benefit, service badha molestation, damage brahmacarin § m. student ; sa:brahmacarin m. fellow-student bharika burdensome bhdsanam ornament bhraméah fall, decline; sthina-bhraméah fall from position, loss of place Mati mant possessing wit, sensible madhya-stha {mid-standing:] neutral manorathah desire mantrin§ m. minister yukta proper, right rahasya secret [business of king/kingdom:] state affairs, state administration ramaniyakam _ loveliness, delightful aspect laksanam characteristic, (auspicious) mark Lopamudra pr. n.-vacanat [from the speech of:] in the name of varaka (f. i) wretched, poor vargah colour, appearance vac f. speech, words vadin speaking, talking vasin living in, dweller vijitapand request vidhi_ m. injunction [esp. for performance of religious rite]; vidhi vat according to [the injunction of] ritual vivakgita (desiderative p.p.) wished to be said, meant vibarah (Buddhist) monastery convent vedin knowing, conscious of, appreciative of vyapadesah designation, name vyayah loss; expense, extravagance vyaghrah tiger Sakatadasah pr. n. gatha cunning Satakratu m. (name of) Indra Sakuntaleya born of Sakuntala s4sanam command women’s apartments, household Sala mJn. stake; Salam 4 + ruh caus. solidus [cause to mount the stake:] impale . Speilah jackal Srote m. listener, someone to listen Srauta derived from scripture, scriptural évapakah outcast samecayah collection, quantity satkarah hospitality samartha capable, able sacivyam being minister, post of minister Siddharthakah pr. 1. secanam (act of) sprinkling, watering Somaratah pr. n. sainikah soldier ati + i (II atigete) surpass, triumph over anu + jiia (IX anujanati) allow, give someone leave to (dat. of verbal noun) . abhi + druh (IV abhidruhyati) do violence to abhi + vrt (I abhivartate) approach, go towards, make for arh (I arhati) be worthy; ‘should’ (see chapter text) ava + jf (IX avajanati) despise a+ khya (I akhyati) declare, tell a+dyg (IV adriyate) heed, respect, defer to, refer to a+muh caus. (4ropayati) cause to mount, raise onto ut + ghus (I udghogsati) cry out ut+ha (III ujjihite) start up; depart upa + bhuj (VII upabhurkte) enjoy, consume, spend upa + rudh (VII uparunaddhi) besiege, invade‘+ laigh caus. (ullafighayati) transgress, violate m caus. kamayate desire, be in love with p caus, kopayati anger Bus caus. (disayati) spoil, defile ri + ci (V paricinoti) become acquainted with, pa (IX punati, punite) purify i (caus. pirayati, p.p. parga) fill, fulfil pra + khya caus. (prakhyapayati) publish, proclaim ati + nand (I pratinandati) receive gladly, welcome prati + vi + dha (III pratividadhati) prepare against, take precautions pra + bha (I prabhati) shine forth, dawn pra + yat (I prayatate) strive, exert oneself pra + yuj (VII prayuakte) employ; perform (on stage) nan caus. (manayati) esteem, honour Pury caus. (margayati) overlook, excuse i+ 4 + pf caus, (vyaparayati) set to work, employ Kak (V Saknoti) be able, can fam caus. (amayati) quieten, appease ad + dha (I éraddhatte) trust, believe pat + ky (VIII satkaroti) receive with hospitality, entertain fam + dha (IMI samdhatte) bring together; aim (arrow) fam + 4 + saflj (I samAsajati) attach something to (oc), (VI spréati) touch (karmadharaya prefix) cirat at long last 100, over-, extremely, very cet (enclitic) if paticirat after very long prabbrti + abl. starting with, yatra elsewhere from . . . onward, ever since sau that, he, she pradur+bha become manifest, itaretara (stem form) mutual, arise ; oo teach ter yat satyam {what is true:] truth cit? Thope that . . .? to tell, in truth m admittedly; granted yady evam [if so:] in that case yatah, yadi, etc.: see chapter textExercise 13a fe % nftrreray 12 1 eran wg when afar 121 ay Spar Fave wea: 131 UT ang Wea. rv 1 ae TEAL Te firsgi ale Teed alg aroma 14 | ater erat wereed sitergard Fraqanfir he sqerarerafrg Frat 1921 Wet: WRIA 1231 reg pig mag ies eR Tater —aat feairergenr ret 4 Weare aa veg TEM! Val wa aT Tada wafer Aa wade leet aa Ureufaara: caTONTEt: etatalenans: rat quiiquairdcorseergetea R ret § areremmrenry aR 3 yeu sae ate ern se oe ard Agee ater myerangra eToTeRt afrenttft peterat: fieerat weperat: Ie) eee ee ee te ied mer nee wa aemreenyfrargqearrnterngan safratacracrdaeyrye : aon} Exercise 13b (In this exercise translate ‘should’ where appro- priate by ath. ye d girl of-thé-converit, Mandarika. 4 But where will *you (fadies) ; wait for me? 5 Why, quite without-giving an, he has‘started:to dance. 6 What, are soldiers in-search-of-mé invading the ascetic grove? 7 Granted that this is to be prized,yet we are neutral about it [atra]. 8 After not very long the ‘minister will restore (use 4+ ruh caus.] us to (our) former state. 'y It is not right to despise even a common man. ro King [Candragupta, it is already known to you that we lived for a cer- ‘tain interval-of-time with [loc.] Malayaketu. 11 Oh Visnugupta, ‘you should not touch me (who am) defiled-by-the-touch-of-an-out- caste. 12 My dear child, I hope you have greeted [abhi + nand] ‘this son born of Sakuntali whose-birth-ceremony-and-other- ‘rites-were-performed by us according to ritual? 13 Then give ‘me leave to go. 14 We are not able to triumph with words over Your Excellency’s words. 15 If Your Excellency thus sees the time-for-attack, why delay? 16 Come in, my dear fellow: you will get someone to listen and to understand. 17 ‘Just now (he) has directed his daughter to (show) hospitality-to-guests and gone to Soma-tirtha to > appease a fate hostile to her’—‘In that case she is the one I will see.” 18 Why do you ask, friend, un-believing(ly)? 19 Is the earth without-warriors, that (you) cry out in this way? 20 I should like to employ you, my dear fellow, on a certain task that-must-be-performed-by-a-trustwor- thy-person. 21 If the grandson-of-the-sage proves to be [bhd] -of-those-marks, you will welcome her and introduce her into your household. 22 Do you then not pity the poor (girl) whose-life-is-departing? 23 Loss-of-place will not oppress one-without-possessions. 24 (We) have established Sakatadasa with a great quantity-of-wealth to-look-after the poisoners-and- so-forth employed-by-us to do violence to Candragupta’s-per- son, and to-instigate-(his)-subjects-to-rebellion. 25 Madhavya my friend, you have-not-obtained-the-reward-of-your-eyes, since you have not seen the ultimate of things to see [drastavya]. 26 Oh merchant Candanadisa, a king so severe-in-punishment towards traitors will not overlook *your concealment-of "Ra-ksasa’s-wife. 27 Since those tigers-and-others, deceived-by- mere-appearance, without-knowing (him to be) a jackal regard that one (as) king—see [p/.] to it that he is recognised. 28 Your Majesty, who else anxious-to-live would have violated Your - Majesty’s command? 29 Though (your) master’s-merits cannot be forgotten, Your Excellency should honour my-request.montis Paradigms: Imperfect and optative of present stems; sreyams imperfect tense Like the imperative, the imperfect is part of the present stem off the verb. It shares its two most prominent characteristics with, the aorist tense (Chapter 15): the stem is prefixed by an aug-, ment, and the terminations are the ‘secondary terminations’. The augment consists of the vowel a: nayati ‘he leads’, anayat ‘he led’; karoti ‘he does’, akarot ‘he did’. When the stem begins with a vowel, the combination with a always results in veddhi, even in the case of i/i/u/0/t: thus icchati ‘he wants’, aicchat ‘he wanted’. When a verb is compounded with a prefix, the aug-, ment is always laced dl afer any such prefix, immediately before’ the verb: st ‘he rose up’, from sam + ut + stha. Tie reneralenditsoftie ener ene (e.g. -ti) are called ‘pri- mary’, and those of the imperfect and aorist (e.g. -t) are called’ ‘secondary’. The terminology is in fact misguided, since from an historical point of view the ‘primary’ endings are derived from the ‘secondary’. Thus on the basis of a primitive nayat (surviv- ing in Vedic as a form of the ‘injunctive’ mood), the imperfect anayat is differentiated by the addition of the augment and the present nayati by the addition of a suffix i (while the imperative nayatu is differentiated by the addition of another suffix, u). The relationship of primary and secondary endings is not always so transparent, and there is no alternative to committing the para- digms to memory, but it is perhaps also worth pointing out that the third person plural form anayan is reduced (because Sanskrit words cannot normally end in more than one consonant) from an original *anayant.bse imperfect, as in the present, of athematic verbs, the three pparasmaipada singular forms are strong, the rest weak. Those ‘bs which take -ati not -anti in the third person plural paras- pe present (class Il verbs and some other reduplicated ) take -uh not -an in the corresponding imperfect form. Final 4 disappears before this suffix, but i/i/u/a/r take guna: ajuhavuh ‘they sacrificed’. In a few further verbs of class II this ending is an optional alternative. ‘The imperfect is used as a simple past narrative tense—‘he did’, ‘he went’, etc. It is frequent in certain styles of Sanskrit, but since its sense may also be represented by the past participle and the past active participle (and to some extent by the aorist or perfect) there are other kinds of Sanskrit in which it occurs rarely. The ex- amples of the imperfect in Exercise 14 are taken mainly from Classical prose romances. The imperfect tense is so named be- cause it is parallel in formation with the imperfect of various other Indo-European languages, notably Greek. But it is important to tealise that in sense it normally has no progressive or durative im- plication (‘he was doing’, ‘he used to do’, etc.). Such implications tend, even in past time, to be expressed in Sanskrit by the present tense (sometimes with the addition of the particle sma): atha s4 yada vayu-preritair vrksa-éakha-graih spréyate, tada sabdam karoti, anyatha tisnim ste now when the tips of the tree-branches, stirred by the wind, touched that (drum), it would make a noise, (while) otherwise it would remain silent tasmat saraso» diira-vartini tapo-vane jabalir nama mahd;tapa munih prativasati sma in an ascetics’ grove not far from that lake there lived an ascetic of great austerity named Javali (Conversely, it should be mentioned, the use of the present as an ordinary narrative tense—“‘historic present’—is not charac- teristic of good Classical writers.) An exception to the general significance of the imperfect is pro- vided by the imperfect of as ‘be’, which normally has a stative sense (except in a phrase such as tasnim sit ‘fell silent’): Rsyaérhg:-asrame guru:janas tad» asit (his) elders were at that time in Rsyagringa’s hermitage priy:4rama hi sarvathd Vaidehy asit the Princess of Videha was always fond of the woodland =Sometimes, by combining with a past participle, this verb convey a pluperféct sense: atha tambdla-karahka-vahini madiya Taralika nama aiva saha gatA snatum asit now my betel-box ie called Taralika [was having gone:] had gone to bathe with g Imperfect forms may be made from the future stem, giving: tense known as the conditional: thus from karisyati ‘he will do’ akarisyat (lit. ‘he was going to do’) ‘he would have done’. use of this tense is mentioned below. The optative From the paradigms it will be seen that the optative links the secondary endings to the fe present stem by means of a suffix I or ya, which in the case of thematic verbs becomes e (from a + 1): Before either form of the suffix the stem of athematic verbs ap- pears in its weak form. : While a prescriptive usage (‘he shall do’) is common in law: books and similar texts, the prevalent sense of the optative in Classical literary texts is potential, to express what ‘may’ or ‘might’ be the case now or in the future (or even occasionally in the past). In plain statements kadacit ‘perhaps’ is often added: atha va mayi gate nrgamso hanyad enam but no, with me gone the monster may kill her kumdra, anyesim bhomipalanam kadacid amAtyavyasanam a:vyasanam syat, na punaé Candraguptasya Your Highness, for other rulers a deficiency in ministers might perhaps be no deficiency, but not for Candragupta ada-vedikayam kridadbhih paravataih patitam bhavet it [may be having been dropped:| may have been dropped by the pigeons while playing in the balcony of the pleasure-pavilion kv» édanim atmanam vinodayeyam where can I now distract myself? api khalu svapna esa syat? could this indeed be a dream? The combination api nama is uent with the optative, and may express anything from speculation or anxious hope to a wish, even an impossible wish (‘if only’): . tad api nama Rama:bhadrah punar idam vanam alamkuryat? might dear Rama, then, (be going to) grace this forest again? aapi nan» 4ham Purdrava bhaveyam if only I (a woman) could become Purdravas! ote conditions optative is used to express remote hypotheses in relation to future (‘if he were to do’) or the present (‘if he were doing’). construction does not in itself distinguish clearly between ‘if is were to happen, this would be so’ and ‘if this were to hap- , this might be so’. tad yadi kadacic ,Candraguptas Cagaleyam ati:jitak4sinam a:sahamAnah sdcivyad . amatya:Raksasaé Contraption woha sande so if by any chance Candragupta, not enduring Canakya(’s being so} 2 extremely arrogant, were to dismiss him from his ministerial post, Minister Raksasa might come to terms with Candragupta One of the optatives may be replaced by a present indicative, as in the following beautiful verse of Kalidasa: anadhigata:manorathasya pirvam Satagunit» éva gata mama triyama yadi tu tava samagame tath» aiva prasarati subhru, tatah keti bhaveyam (Earlier with my desire unobtained:] before I won my desire, night passed for me as if multiplied by a hundred: But if it could stretch like that [upon your union:] when I am with you, I should be satisfied, my fair one As in any language the conditional clause may be implied (or conveyed by an adverbial word or phrase) rather than directly expressed: vyaktam m asti—katham anyath Vasanty api tam na paéyet? obviously she does not (really) exist. Otherwise how would Vasanti not [be seeing:] be able to see her too? sadhu, sidhu! anena ratha-vegena parva:prasthitam Vainateyam apy As&dayeyam, kim punas tam apakarinam tee, bravo! With this speed of the chariot I could even overtake [Vinata’s son:] Garuda [previously set out:] after giving him a start, let alone that offender against Indra 191 —_ =>Conversely, there is an idiom whereby the main clause is pressed and a tentative supposition is expressed by yadi with the optative: ++. paraéari_ Divakaramitranama giri-nadim aéritya pratt vasati—sa yadi vinded varttam a wandering mendicant: called Divakaramitra is living (in those parts) by a moun- tain stream—it is possible that he might possess some in: formation The conditional tense may be used (in both the subordinate and the main clause) to express a past unfulfilled condition. To quote Kalidasa again: yadi surabhim avapsyas tan-mukb»-écchvasagandham, If (O bee) you had discovered the sweet fragrance of her breath, Would you (after that) have found pleasure in this lotus? But for various reasons the conditional is not a very common tense. Despite its origin, it is not needed in reported statements to express a non-conditional, ‘future in the past’ sense (‘he said he would do it’) since a direct construction with iti is available in such circumstances. Secondly, sentences of the type ‘he wouldn't have done it without asking’ are expressed by the future (Chapter 13). Thirdly, even in its special function of expressing past unfulfilled conditions it may be replaced by the optative: Vrsala, Raksasah khaly asau—vikramya grhyamAnah svayam “va vinagyed yusmad-balani va vinaSayet Vrsala, the per- son (you are speaking of) is Raksasa after all: [being seized:] if we had seized him by force either he would have . died himself or else he would have destroyed your forces Comparatives and superlatives The normal comparative suffix is tara, and the normal super- lative suffix is tama: mrdu ‘soft’, mrdutara ‘softer’, mrdutama ‘softest’. These suffixes are freely “attached to adjectives, and are also found with past participles (utpiditatara ‘particularly squeezed”) and occasionally substantives (subrttama ‘very close end’). Stems in -yams (usually -iyams) also in principle have comparative force and are paired with superlative forms in -istha. They are pri- mary derivatives of ancient formation, added always to monosyl- labic stems, and do not necessarily correspond directly to anylective in the positive degree. What correspondence there is will meaning and/or in ultimate derivation from the same root “than in form. Thus ksodiyams ‘meaner, inferior’ and intha ‘mcancet’ are derived directly from the root kyud ple’ "gand the simple adjective kgudra ‘mean’ is a separate for- mation from the same root; while kaniyams ‘smaller’ and ‘kanistha ‘smallest’ are related only in meaning to alpa ‘small’. ‘Some other examples of these stems are: guru heavy, important gariyams garistha vtddha old jyayams elder iyestha antika near nediyams nedistha patu. sharp patiyams patistha priya dear preyams prest balin strong baliyams balistha bahu much bhayams bhayistha mahant great mahiyams mahistha (cf. $i splendour) Sreyams better Srestha It should be noted that while some of the forms listed above are frequent, they do not exclude the use of the suffixes tara and tama: thus ‘dearer’ may be represented by priyatara as well as by preyams. The other term of the comparison is represented by the ablative (or by a form in -tah): sviarthat satam gurutar4 pranayi-kriy» aiva more impor- tant to the virtuous than their own interests is carrying out the request of a petitioner Itis not, in fact, necessary for the adjective to be in the compar- ative eeeree “for the se of this ablacve of rk ‘Dearer even ’ may be represented simply by pranebhyo >pi - priyah. Similarly: vajrad api kathorani, mrdani kusumad api Jolo-Stearanaza cetamsi ko hi vijiiatum arhati? harder even than adamant, softer even than a flower— who can aspire to understand the minds of those who are above the world? On the other hand, in Sanskrit (unlike English) the comparative adjective by itself need not have overtly comparative force but may be simply a more emphatic equivalent of the positive: baliyams, rather than meaning ‘stronger’, often just means ‘no- tably strong, particularly strong’. As a result, the comparative> force is expressed much more by the ablative of com than by the adjective, with the exception of a few adjective almost invariably comparative significance such as ‘elder’ and bhdyams ‘more’. One should, in fact, beware translating baliyams as ‘stronger’ unless the context makes i quite plain that a comparison is intended. Similar to the ablative of comparison is the ablative after an adi jective such as anya ‘other (than) or after a verb such as pari + ha (passive) ‘be inferior to’: na tarhi prag:avasthayah parihiyase in that case you are tad inferior to your previous state:] no worse off than you were before Occasionally, an analytical construction with a negative is foun replacing the ablative of comparison. This is the regular con: struction with the word varam ‘a preferable thing, the lesser of evils’. varam van bharya na © Avidvan putrah [a barren wife dhya is the preferable thing and not:] better a barren wife than an ignorant son ‘sarvatha »matya:Raksasa eva prasasyatarah’ — ‘“na bhavin” iti vakyagesah’ ‘at all events it is Minister Raksasa who is more to be admired—‘[“not you” is the rest of the sen- tence:] than I am, you mean?” Just as comparatives do not always have comparative force, so superlatives need not imply literal supremacy: mrdutama may mean simply ‘pre-eminently soft’, ‘very soft’, rather than ‘(the) softest (of ally” The field of comparison may be expressed either by the genitive (sodaryanam gann4m jyesthah "Eldest of the six {co-uterine} brothers’) or by the locative (buddhimatsu narah éresthah ‘men are supreme among sentient beings’). Once again, a superlative form is not necessary to express superlative force: vihagegu pandit» aisa jatih [among birds this is the clever species:] this is the cleverest species of bird Constructions with iti The uses of the particle iti may now be considered in greater de- tail than was practicable when the word was first introduced into the exercises. it is in an adverb meaning ‘thus, in this way’. But its use thie ee sence talon entre Toe in Cleoncal Sanckaed, its function is to indicate that the preceding utterance is quotation or is in some sense being treated as a quotation. Infortunately, there is no corresponding formal indication of where the quotation begins: more often than not it begins with the beginning of the sentence, but ambiguities can occur.) Although i in principle (with rare exceptions in verse) iti is placed ediately after the quotation, it is not necessarily enclitic. ‘After a long quotation, iti may be the first word in a new para- ph or a new stanza of verse. Or it may even refer to the words ‘of another speaker. iti Srutva devah pram4nam having heard (what I have told you), Your Majesty is the judge (of what to do) vatsa, ity ew aham pariplavamana;hrdayah pramugdho >smi my dear (brother), from just such (thoughts as you have voiced) my heart is trembling and I am faint The construction with iti may represent both direct and indirect discourse in English. In the latter case various appropriate changes must be made: according to circumstance, ‘T’ and ‘you’ may be represented by ‘he’ etc., ‘is’ by ‘was’, ‘here’ by ‘there’, ‘now’ by ‘then’, and so forth. For greater clarity, the words of the iti clause in all the Sanskrit examples which follow have been isolated by inverted commas. aye ‘Candraguptad aparaktan purusan janam~’ ity upaksiptam anena oh, he has hinted [I know men disloyal to Candragupta’ :] that he knows men disloyal to Candragupta tato bhagavaty Arundhati ‘w aham vadht- virahitam Ayodhyan gamisyanw’ ity aha thereupon the revered Arundhati said [‘I will not go. . .’:] that she would not go to an Ayodhya bereft of its bride abhiic ca ghosana ‘évah kinw-dtsava’ iti and there was a proclamation [‘tomorrow (there will be) a Love Festival’:] that the next day was to be a Love Festival However, the principle that the words of the iti clause should represent the original form of the quotation is not invariable. Occasionally in practice a first or second person form belonging in the main sentence intrudes into the iti clause to avoid a clumsy third person periphrasis. Theoretically, this can lead to ambuiguity, but context or common sense will normally make the meaning plain. . bhartrdarike, ‘tvam asvastha;éarir»’ éti parijanad upalabhya mahadevi prapta mistress, the Queen has arrived, having 195 i = a >heard from her attendants [‘“you” are unwell’:] that yc are unwell (The words actually addressed to the Queens would have been ‘the Princess is unwell’.) A verb of telling, being told, etc. need not be expressed after iti. From its original meaning of ‘in this way’ it can naturally imply ‘with these words’—becoming in effect the equivalent of ity uktva. Thus a speech may conclude with iti padayoh ‘with these words (she) fell at ener’ ’s) feer’ a ii Kin cid a ide mayata ‘so (saying) she smiled s ly’, ‘—she sai asl smile’. This use is especially common in the stage-directions of plays. A line of dialogue will be followed, for example, by iti Madhavam alifigati ‘[so saying] she embraces Madhava’. The usage permits great flexibility of construction, since the iti clause may represent not actual dialogue but the sub- stance of what is said: ‘es ku:matir na kalyan»’ iti nivarayantyam mayi vana-vasaya “kopat prasthita [upon my restraining (her) by saying ‘this ill notion is not beneficial’:] when I remonstrated that no good would come of such wrong-headedness, she went off in a temper to live in the forest ‘mahan ayam prasada’ iti grhitavati_ she accepted (it) [with the words ‘this is a great favour] with grateful thanks gs: s tt sel inven tr » Apavahitah Parvataka-putro Malayaketuh after vecetly frightening him by claiming sing that Canakya ‘had his father murdered, Bhagurayana helped Parvataka’s son Malayaketu to escape (Note here how the second the Sanskrit avoids the ambiguities of the English third person forms.) That iti clauses, as well as combining with verbs meaning ‘tel? or ‘hear’ (‘be told’), may be used with verbs of knowing, think- ing, supposing, etc. needs little illustration: ‘tat-sahacarinibhih sakhi te hrt»’ éti me hrdayam aéahkate my heart suspects that your friend's wife was carried off by the companions of that (goddess) But just as iti can be used without a verb of saying actually ex- pressed to mean ‘with these words’, so it can be used without a verb of thinking actually expressed to mean ‘with these thoughts, with this in mind’. iti thus becomes the equivalent of iti matva, and represents English ‘because’ or ‘since’ where these have the sense of on the grounds that’.‘ptana-parityagem Api raksaniyah suhrd-asava’ iti kathayami I speak out because a friend’s life must be saved even at the cost of sacrificing (one’s own) life ‘kathora:garbh»’ éti m anita si (we) did not bring you (with us) because (you were) late in pregnancy aham tvaya tasminn avasare nir_dayam nighnaty api ‘str>’ ity avajiiata on that occasion though I struck (you) fiercely, you despised me [thinking ‘(she is) a woman’:] as a woman fAs well as expressing statements and suppositions, iti clauses are jused to some extent to represent situations—‘the possibility that’, ‘the fact that’. The first of the following examples, where a finite verb occurs and where a relative construction with yat Inighe perhaps have been used, is less typical than the others: ‘tatrabhavan Kanvah éaévate brahmani vartate, iyam ca vah sakhi tasy> dtmaj»’ éti katham etat? how is it that His Honour Kanva lives in perpetual chastity and (yet) this friend of yours is his daughter? bhagavan, ‘ abhipreta-siddhih, pascad daréanam’ ity aptrvah lu vo »nugrahah revered one, for the fulfil- ment of (our) wishes to be first and the audience (with you) to come afterwards (constitutes) a quite unprecedented kindness on your part athava ‘k4mam a:satyasandha’ iti param ayaso, na punah Satru-vaiicana-paribhatih but in Pct to be wilfully false to one’s word is a greater disgrace than to be beaten by an enemy’s tricks iti clauses have so far been considered from the point of view of their relation to the main sentence. The examples quoted have been of clauses of statement. But iti clauses may also take the form of commands or questions. Where these may best be represented “by direct speech in English, they require no special mention. Elsewhere they correspond broadly to the syntactical categories of indirect command and indirect question, and may be treated from that point of view. Clauses of command Indirect command in English is generally expressed by an accu- sative and infinitive construction—‘I told him to do it’. tatrabhavata Kanvena vayam ajfapitah ‘Sakuntalahetor vanaspatibhyah kusumany aharat’ éti His Honour Kanva 197) =>198) 1 has ordered us [‘bring blossoms ...’:] to bring blossoms from the trees for Sakuntala As well as by an imperative, the command may be expressed in Sanskrit by other means such as a gerundive: ‘raksaniya Raksasasya prand’ ity ary-adegah_ His Excellency’s orders are [‘Raksasa’s life should be protected’:] to protect Raksasa’s life’ By the use of iti in its ity uktva or iti matva sense, the equivalent of a clause of purpose may be obtained. nanv idanim eva maya tatra Kalahamsakah presitah ‘pracchannam upagamya Nandam-avasa-pravrttim upa- labhasv,’ éti_ why, I have just now sent Kalahamsaka there {with the words ‘approaching stealthily find out . . .’:] to find out discreetly what has been happening in Nandana’s house ‘ma bhid asrama-pid»’ éti parimeya;purahsarau (the two of them travelled) with a limited entourage [with the thought ‘let there not be affliction of the hermitage’:] lest they should trouble the hermitage interrogative clauses These, of course, often occur with verbs meaning ‘enquire’ or ‘speculate’: tad yavad grhinim ahdya prechami ‘asti kim api prataraéo na v»’ ati so Pll just call my wife and ask [‘is there breakfast at all or not?’ whether she has any breakfast for me or not kim tu ‘katham asmabhir upagantavya’ iti sampradharayami but I am wondering how we should approach him Indirect questions also occur with verbs of knowing or stating, and here it is interesting to note another modification of the principle that the words of an iti clause represent a direct quo- tation: what is known or stated is the answer to the ion. There is, in fact, no direct speech equivalent of the indirect in- terrogative in ‘he said who had come’, unless it is a statement of the form ‘such-and-such a person has come’. yady evam tat kathaya sarvatah ‘ka esa vrttAnta’ iti Lady, if so then tell (us) exactly what this is that has been happeningna tv evam vidmah ‘kataro »>yam ayusmatoh Kusa; Lavayor’ iti but we do not know [the following,] ‘which of the two princes Kuga and Lava he is Not infrequently, the iti is omitted, so that the interrogative pro- noun has the function in itself of introducing an indirect ques- tion: pasyasi ka vartta you see what the news is na jane kim idam valkalanam sadréam, utaho jatanam samucitam I do not know if this is in keeping with the bark garment (of an ascetic), or in accord with his matted jiiayatam bhoh kim etat _ ho there, find out what that is Sometimes a relative pronoun serves to introduce the same kind of clause: brahi yad upalabdham tell me what (you) have discovered tad etat kartsnyena yo »yam, ya © éyam, yatha © Asya éravana- Sikharam samarOdha, tat sarvam aveditam so (I) have told it all completely—who he is, what that (spray of blos- soms) is, and how it {attained:] came to be placed at the tip of his ear Once again, iti may be used in its ity uktva and iti matva senses: thus ‘kim kim’ iti sahas» dpasrtya ‘rushing up [with the words “what (is it), what (is it)?”:] to find out what was happening’; ‘kuto >yam’ ity uparddha;kuthhala ‘with her curiosity mounting as to where it came from’. Word repetition Word repetition in Sanskrit may be employed for emphasis (in- tensive or iterative use). Thus sadhu sadhu ‘bravo, bravo!’; hato hatag Candavarma ‘Candravarman is murdered, murdered!’; pacati pacati ‘he cooks and cooks, he’s always cooking’ (an ex- ample given by Sanskrit grammarians); mandam mandam ‘very slowly’; punah punah ‘again and again’. Repetition may also have a distributive sense (‘each various one’). This is typical of pronouns. Thus svan svan balan anayanti ‘they bring their various children’; tat tat karagam utpadya * ‘pro- ducing [this and that reason:] various reasons’. Similarly with relatives: yo yah {altemative to fo yah kag cit) ‘whichever person, vwhosoever's yathd yatha ...tathd tathA ‘in proportion as, the more that’ >abhilagin desirous, anxious arthin having an object, want- ing, petitioning asiege (without remainder:] complete, whole, all a:sobhana_ unpleasant, awful ahamahamika rivalry adarah care, trouble; adaramkr take care (to) Adhoranah elephant-driver Apanna;sattva [to whom a living creature has occurred:] preg- rya-putrah [son of] noble-man; “voc. noble sir indriyam (organ or faculty of) sense uttama uppermost, supreme, top manmath-6omathah pangs of love upakarah help, service upanyasah mention, allusion upasthanam (religious) atten- dance ekakin alone Aiksvaka descended from King Ikgvaku katara timid, nervous kananam forest karmukam bow kimvadanti rumour kusuny;iyudhah [the flower weaponed:] god of love kalam bank, shore krpalu compassionate kolahalah_ clamour khedah exhaustion ganik4 courtesan gandhah smell, scent gariyams important, consider- * able; worthy/worthier of re- spéct gahanam dense place gir f. speech, voice, tone gunah merit; strand, string chen smelling, (sense of) candana m./n. sandal, sandal- wood-tree cGtah mango-tree jaratha old, decrepit i h goose jyayams older, elder taru m. tree; taru-gahanam thicket of trees, wood timbGlam betel daksina "right, on the right hand imi ill omen drgti f. gaze drohah injury, hostility dvandvam pair; dvandvasam- prabarah single combat, duel dvar f. door dharma-vit learned in the sa- cred lawPcohar excessive, full nivedaka announcing, indicating paiica five patu sharp; patiyams sharper pati m. lord; husband padam step paravasa_ in another’s power, patram vessel, receptacle; wor- thy recipient; actor; patra- vargah cast (of play) potakah young animal/plant; cfta-potakah young mango- tree pratikriya remedy, remedying pradhana principal, important prastavah prelude h mansion; terrace; [up- stairs] room bhajanam receptacle, box bharya ‘wife bhayams more, further matta in rut, rutting madah intoxication madhukarah, madhukari_ bee, honey-bee miirch4 faint, swoon; madana- mirch’ amorous swoon milam root, basis, foundation vitapa “min. branch, bush, thicket vitarkah conjecture, doubt vipinam forest vilaksa disconcerted, ashamed vihvala tottering, unsteady vithika row, grove Sastram knife, sword samskarah preparation, adorn- ment sa-phala [having fruit:) full- filled sampraharah fighting, combat sammiidha confused saras 7. lake sarathi m. driver of chariot su:ratam love-making surabhi fragrant suzlabha easily got, natural skhalanam failure, lapse svapnah dream svamini mistress svedah sweat good (friend) ati + vah caus. (ativahayati) spend (time) adhi + ruh (I adhirohati) ascend, mount anu + bandh ([X anubadhnati) pursue, importune ‘anu + lip (VI anulimpati) anoint anu + vrt (I anuvartate) go after, attend upon apa + ya (I apayati) go away, depart abhi + ghra (I abhijighrati) smell abhi + bh (I abhibhavati) overpower abhi + syand (I abhisyandate) flow —_ >ava + gam (I avagacchati) understand; suppose, consider ava + dhr caus. (avadharayati) determine, resolve ava + lamb (I avalambate) cling to, hold on to + gam caus. (Agamayati) acquire 4+ ghra (I ajighrati) smell A+ car ([Acarati) conduct oneself, act, do 4+ Svas caus. (aSvasayati) cause to breathe freely, comfort ut + cal (I uccalati) move away; rise ut + stha (I uttisthati) stand up, get up ut + as (IV udasyati) throw up, throw out, push out upa + kr (VIII upakaroti) furnish, provide upa + ksip (VI upaksipati) hint at upa + jan (IV upajayate, p.p. upajata) come into being, be rol upa + stha caus. (upasth4payati) cause to be near, fetch, bring up upa +i (I upaiti) approach, come to Kip (I kalpate) be suitable, conduce to, turn to (dat.) trp caus. (tarpayati) satisfy nigadayati (denom.) fetter, bind ni + Sam caus. (nig4mayati) perceive, observe pari + trai (II paritrati) rescue, protect prati + dré (I pratipagyati) see prati + ni + vrt (I pratinivartate) return ptati + pad (IV pratipadyate) assent, admit pra + budh caus. (prabodhayati) inform, admonish pra + svap (I prasvapiti) fall asleep pra +hi(V prahinoti) despatch, send bhid (VII bhinatti) split, separate vi + kas (I vikasati) burst, blossom, bloom vi+ car (I vicarati) move about, roam vi + car caus. (vicarayati) deliberate, ponder vi + lok caus. (vilokayati) look at, watch vi+srp (I visarpati) be diffused, spread sam + jan (IV samjayate, p.p. samjata) come into being, be aroused sam +4 + car (I samacarati) conduct oneself, act, do spand (I spandate) quiver syand (I syandate) flow, move rapidly agratah in front of (gen.) nu khalu (enclitic stressing ati: (karmadbaraya prefix) interrogative now (who etc.) extreme(ly) I wonder? api nama if only sakagam to [the presence of] kad&cit. perhaps yatha yatha ...tathd tatha in jhatiti suddenly proportion as, the more that14a firtacen qraat at soresiare aft firaft 1¢1 FF THAT RAUL aTTettTaRTt yPreferareey 13 1 STAT] seat eat ST Fron waerenyt ff: rs) wage scagt ordtet Wa: gt: tut Reena: ufteretferrerdizeeanrt gr rent a gem 181 froragtqear stenect ctereitefindta vol agerat went: wag way adereiydsiferreatifte ic 1 wet ferera araeraraaat Gases TESTA: 190 anf set Gera fires 1g 0 1 sree ye TaTaTAT: Bt aT eae: eel BAaagaatay wat: wat frenPraferaral as: slerorerne: seared | weTgetat evil 1221 mart afe anfreremarat wer wat care, eat amiga wet Rernara serarent Tyraenfietaa gyi weiter we aeaet eaariigemercaqaniay 1241 geraerahrentenfirenteorgay, 1d) afar ward wfnfr: afer sft myers 7 GRATER 120 1 ae wferrRyUTT: ufaRtenfatrens cetera AfehE a ude inci ada a wen wa ve afer ora ada afafeagrrafermaen feermaerarery 1° <1 agurafererat wer wR wa iol sat tanta areferqrenatol TG Sferegr ceatett Tanrernarade 13 ¢ | SaeeTaT afer wforent ae TT STATE ATTA: TS TAT: TCA JETA THAT Beet 1221 ae Yah fae wert wit era wens Tay 1231 1 sree get ger ward et wet Tat qeregenta wre aeeongarerenenh wardtfiret aesaratgenht ew aterrot Frowfirrendt anefe: git sae IIe Tanfeiar wat wef aubrericitd Fotefrafad sft art Sfaprayfoct freadanirgieragiecritra wadaatira aatra wnitfxangnghere myparegetcqaeaareraranngaranys- trenfet gyrating 1241 Exercise 14b Translate past tenses by the imperfect except in sentence 23. 1 Latavya, do *you know whose arrow this is? 2 Ah you fool! Are *you more-learned-in-the-sacred-law than our preceptor? 3 And I observed in that hermitage in the shade of a young-mango- tree an ascetic of-melancholy-ay . 4 The writing might be spoiled, friend, by the sweat rom m-(my)+ fingers. 5 What then is this great hesitation at every step? 6 And so saying she drew it (pattrika the letter) from the betel-box and showed it (to me). 203 i a —_ =>rrndeys B | 7 The allusion to (such) considerable love-and-service is indeed: opportune [avasare]. 8 Raivataka, tell our-driver to Png the chariot complete with [sa 1 ‘bow: and-arrows. 9 He se even, perhaps, ashamed-of-his-lapse- from-self-control, do some- thing dreadful [anista]. 10 Now [yavat) I heard that it was Malati who was the cause-of" his “pangs-of-love. 11 And she. became mistress-of" his-entire-harem. 12 Tell (me) what benefit I (can) provide for you. 13 After spe: thus he fe silent, his-gaze-fixed-on-my: face (to see) what I [f.] ould say. 14 Whereabouts then in this forest may news-of-my-beloved? 15 He forsooth nad, (feeling compassionate, comforted those people in a tender tone pt asked the cou courtesan the reason-for-her-distress. 16 Your Highness, Sakatadasa will never ever {na kadacid api] admit ia front of minister-Raksasa that he wrote it. 17 Why my dear Bhagurayana, minister-Raksasa is the dearest and best (of friends) to us. 18 *You [f.] having departed, I stayed alone for a little while [muhdrtam iva], and my-doubts-aroused as to what he was now doing I returned and with-my-body-concealed- in-the-thickets watched the place. 19 If only this prelude does not, like a mirage, turn in the end to disappointment. 20 Come to me (who am) Puriravas, returned from attendance-upon: the-Sun, and tell me what (f) must protect *yo you Keel from. 21 While speaking thus I [f] managed, with limbs unsteady: from-the-exhaustion-of-my-amorous-swoon to wn up by holding on to hér. And (when I had) risen, my right eye quivered, indi- cating-an-ill-omen. And my-anxieties-roused, I thought, ‘here is something untoward [apara] hinted at by fate’. 22 If (you) con- sider Raksasa worthier of respect than we are, then give him this sword of ours. 23 To start with [t4vat] friend, I should like to hear what the poisoners-and-others employed-by- me have done since Candragupta’s entry-into-the-city. 24 Yet if the descen- dant of Iksvaku King Rama were to see you such (as you are), then his heart would flow with tenderness. 25 Just as I [f.] was pondering in this way, the love natural-to-youth, by-which- distinctions-of-merit-and-demerit-are-not-pondered (but which is) solely-partial-to-beauty made me as helpless as the intoxica- tion-of‘the-season-of-blossoms does the honey-bee.aah Paradigms: Perfect and aorist tenses; ahan Perfect tense The perfect tense is formed by reduplication of the root and the addition of a special set of personal endings. As in athematic present stems, the three parasmaipada singular forms are strong, involving guna or sometimes vrddhi of the root, while the other forms are weak. Thus from dré ‘see’, dadaréa ‘he saw’, dadréuh ‘they saw’. The vowel of the reduplication is i/u for roots containing i/i, a for other roots. Initial a reduplicates to a: as ‘be’, asa, asuh. Initial i reduplicates to i (from i + i) in the weak forms, iye (i+) in the strong: ig ‘want’, iyesa, isuh. yaj ‘sacrifice’, vac ‘speak’, and a number of other roots liable to samprasdrana, reduplicate with samprasarana of the semi-vowel: iyaja, ijuh (i + ij-); uvaca, dcuh (u + uc-); similarly, from svap ‘sleep’, susvapa, sugupuh. The strong grade is normally guna. In the third person singular it is veddhi in the case of roots ending in a vowel or in a followed by a single consonant—in other words, where guna would pro- duce a prosodically light syllable. Thus dré, dadaréa, but ke, cakéra; nf, ninaya; pat, papata. This veddhi is optional in the first person singular, and such verbs may therefore distinguish the first from the third person singular, whereas these forms are nec- essarily identical in Pother verbs. Thus cakara ‘I did,’ cakara ‘I did/he did’; ninaya ‘I led’, ninaya ‘I led/he led’; papata ‘I fell’, papata ‘I fell/he fell’. Roots ending in -A make a first and third person form in -au: stha ‘stand’, tasthau ‘I stood/he stood’. The terminations -itha, -iva, -ima, -ise, -ivahe, -imahe contain a connecting i which is omitted in a few verbs ending in r or u,including kr ‘do’ and éru ‘hear’: thus éuéruma ‘we heard’. Inthe second person singular form -itha, the i is omitted in a numbeg of other verbs as well, and is optional in yet others, including those ending in -4. The form of weak stem which requires most comment is that goes wre medial Scemetines is @ i lining om ie ; jagama, jagmuh; han ‘kill’, jaghana, jaghnuh. Similarly, i process of internal sandhi the root sad ‘sit’ gives (from *sasduh). But the analogy of this last form is followed by other roots with medial a if the initial consonant reduplicateg unchanged: pat ‘fall, fly’, Papata, petuh (the expected form pap; tuh does occur in Vedic); tan ‘stretch’, tatana, tenuh. The root bho ‘be’ is irregular in reduplicating with a and in fail, ing to strengthen to guna or vrddhi: babhava, babhivuh. The root vid ‘know’ forms a perfect without reduplication which has a present sense: veda ‘he knows’, viduh ‘they know’. The root ah ‘say’ is very defective. It occurs only in the perfect and only in the third person forms aha, ahatuh, ahuh, and the second person forms attha and ahathul, It has a present sense— ‘he says’ The atmanepada forms of the perfect may. have a passive as well as a middle sense—ninye ‘was led’, jagrhe ‘was seized’, etc. The atmanepada participle in -@na attached to the perfect stem scarcely occurs at all in Classical Sanskrit; and the parasmaipada participle in -vams is rare, with the exception of vidvams, which is formed from the non-reduplicated perfect of vid referred to above and is used as an adjective meaning ‘wise, learned’. Perfect forms may be made from causative and other derivative verbs by means of the periphrastic perfect. This arose from the combination of the accusative of an abstract noun (not other- wise used) with the perfect of the verb kr: dargayam cakara ‘[he did a shor :] he showed’. In the parasmaipada, however, ke is normally replaced in Classical Sanskrit by the perfect of as (very occasionally of bhi): darsayam asa the showed’, darsayam dsuh ‘they showed’. This formation is also utilised by one or two sim: ple verbs which do not form an ordinary perfect: e.g. iks ‘look’, ikgam cakre ‘he looked’. Despite its name (and its Indo-European origins) the perfect is not used in Classical Sanskrit to express any stative or perfec- tive sense. It is a tense of historical narrative, which according to the grammarians should not be used to describe events withinpersonal experience of the speaker. In consequence the first d second person forms are not at all common and the tense as whole i is not much used in dialogue. Its frequent use is a char- of narrative poetry, both epic and Classical, as in the ract act given in Exercise 15a from the Kumdarasambhava of — ‘The aorist and imperfect tenses are specialisations of a single past tense characterised by the augment and the ‘secondary’ end- ings. From the point of view of its formation, the imperfect might be looked on as an ‘aorist of the present stem’. An aorist is an aorist, and not an imperfect, if no corresponding present forms exist. Thus ayat ‘he went’, from ya ‘go’, and atudat ‘he struck’, from tud ‘strike’, are imperfect forms because they cor- respond to the presents yati ‘he goes’ (class Il) and tudati ‘he strikes’ (class VI). But adhat ‘he put’ and agamat ‘the went’ are aorist forms derived directly from the root, since dha ‘put’ and gam ‘go’ form presents of a different kind, dadhati (class III) and gacchati (class I), with corresponding imperfect forms adadhat and agacchat. These remarks concern formation: in meaning an imperfect form (such as ayat) should differ from an aorist form {such as adhat), although the distinction becomes of little im- portance in Classical Sanskrit. Some forms of aorist, the sigmatic aorists, are characterised by the addition of some variety of suffixal s. These aorists are more sharply differentiated | from an imperfect, since no present stem ploys such a suffix. There are seven main varieties of aorist, three non-sigmatic and four sigmatic. The endings of two of the non-sigmatic and one of the sigmatic aorists are thematic, i.e. precisely similar to those of the imperfect of ni. The other types of aorist have athematic endings comparable with the imperfect of athematic verbs but without the same pattern of strong and weak forms. In all athematic types the third person plural paras- maipada ending is -uh (as in the imperfect of class Il and some class II verbs). In all athematic types of the sigmatic aorist, the second and third person singular parasmaipada forms end in ih and it respectively. Non-sigmatic aorists 1 Root aorist (small class: athematic endings; parasmaipada only). This type of aorist is confined in the Classical period to a number of roots ending in 4 and to bhi. [The class was originallymuch larger, and other isolated forms of it survive —notably supply the second and third person singular atmanepada in sigmatic aorist of some verbs: thus from kr ‘do’, akArsth, akarsit parasmai; , but akrthah, algta atmanepada_] The third pert son fon plur ending an in abhavan is anomalous. 2 a-aorist (thematic endings; weak grade of root). The class 1s; not particularly large, and 4tmanepada forms are uncommon, The class includes two reduplicated forms: pat ‘fall’, apaptat;' and vac ‘speak’, avocat (a-va-uc-at). a 3 Reduplicated aorist (thematic endings; root syllable light, geduplicated syllable heavy; sense normally causative). This form is analogous to the periphrastic perfect. It provides the or- dinary aorist of one or two verbs: thus dru ‘run’, adudruvat ‘he ran’. But, while formed directly from the root, it normally sup- plies the aorist of causative and class X verbs: ni, nayayati ‘he causes to lead’, aninayat ‘he caused to lead’; cur, corayati ‘he seeale’ acticurat ‘he stole’. Vowels other than u reduplicate asi. plicated i or ale ens to i/0 if the reduplicated sylla- te veal . The root syllable does not appear in guna oie arlns unless it a can continue to be prosodically light (and not invariably even then—cf. adudruvat). grah seize ajigrahat he caused to be seized jan be born ajijanat he be; dré see * adidréat he showed muc free amfimucat he caused to be freed ji conquer ajijayat he caused to be conquered mr die amimarat he put to death If the root syllable even in its reduced grade remains heavy, the reduplicated syllable is light. But even in such verbs a special sporening of the root often occurs, to preserve the normal ‘heavy-light’. Thus from dip ‘shine’, either adidipat or Teas ‘caused to shine, kindled’. aorists 4 s-aorist (suffix s; athematic endings; vrddhi in paras- mai ada, guna or weak grade in atmanepada). All roots take ved throughout the parasmaipada; in the Atmanepada, roots ending in f or & take guna, others remain unstrength- ened. The paradigm of dah illustrates complications caused by internal sandhi. 5 is-aorist (suffix is; athematic endings; vrddhi or guna in parasmaipada, guna in atmanepada). This is the suffix s addedwith connecting i. The basic grade is guna, but in the paras- maipada final i/i/¥ is stcengthened to vrddhi (thus ensuring a heavy syllable before the suffix), and medial a is sometimes strengthened to 4 and sometimes remains unchanged. 6 sis-aorist (small class: suffix sis; athematic endings; paras- maipada only). This aorist (inflected like the is aorist) is formed only from a number of roots ending in -4 and from nam ‘bow’, yam ‘hold’ and ram ‘take pleasure’. 7 sa-aorist (small class: suffix s with thematic endings; weak- grade). This aorist is confined to a number of roots containing i/u/r and ending in some consonant which by internal sandhi combines with the s of the suffix to make ks. In the Atmanepada, three of the terminations are athematic—i, atham and atam. 8 Aorist passive. There is a formation, independent of the types of aorist listed above, which conveys the sense of a third person singular aorist passive: e.g. akari ‘was done’, adaréi ‘was seen’, etc. The augment is prefixed to the root, and a suffix, i, is added. Medial i/u/r take guna; otherwise vrddhi is normal. A y is in- serted after roots ending in a: thus ajilayi ‘was known’. The aorist tense, like the imperfect, expresses simple past state- ments. In particular, it is supposedly the most appropriate tense where the speaker is describing a recent event. But this function was usurped at an early stage by participial construct tions, and the aorist became a learned formation little used in simple Sanskrit. In the Classical literature it takes its place beside the imperfect and the as a narrative tense. Despite its com- plicated variety of forms, the aorist is easy to spot because of the augment and the secondary terminations ; the best way to ac- quire familiarity with it is to read extensively in a work which makes use of it (e.g. the Dasakumaracarita of Dandin). Injunctive In the Vedic language unaugmented forms of the aorist or im- are often used with imperative or subjunctive force and are then described as ‘injunctive’ forms. This usage has disa; peared in Classical Sanskrit, with the following exception. particle ma may be used with the unaugmented forms of the aorist, or very occasionally the imperfect, to express prohibition. Thus ma bhaista ‘do not fear’, m»aivam mamsthah ‘do not sup- pose so’, mA bhat ‘let it not be’, ma »dhyavasyah sahasam ‘do not resolve (anything) rash’.Precative The precative, or benedictive, is a kind of aorist optative. In Classical Sanskrit it is used only in the parasmaipada. It is formed by the addition of the suffix yas to the root, which appears as before the passive suffix ya. It is used to express wishes and prayers: a:virahitau dampati bhay4stam may husband and wife be unseparated kriyad aghanam Maghava vighatam = may Indra cause elimi-- nation of ahan ‘day’ The neuter substantive ahan ‘day’ has ahar as its middle stem. The form ahar is thus nominative, vocative and accusative singular, and also the normal stem form as the prior member of a compound ; it has, however, the further irregularity of ap- ing before the voiced middle case endings as aho (as if it were from ahas)—thus instrumental, dative and ablative dual ahobhyam etc. As the last member of a compound it appears as a (masculine) short a stem in one of two forms, aha or ahna. antaram Among the meanings of the word antaram is ‘interval, differ- ence’. At the end of a determinative compound, as ‘well as meaning literally ‘a difference of’, it can signify ‘a different —, another—’: thus varm-antaram ‘a difference of colour’ or ‘a different colour’. likhit-dntaram aniyatam bring another [thing written of him:] example of his writing Sastrap4ni, agrumukha ‘There are a few bahuvrihis in which the second member ex- presses the location of the first. . Thus Sastea-pani ‘sword-handed’, Le. ‘(having a hand in Which there is a sword:] whose hand holds asword’; d abrucmukha ‘eat-faced', ie. ‘having tears on the face:). tearful-faced’. Grammarians analysed such compounds ‘by- put ting the second member in the locative case: e.g. gaduckantha ‘goitre-necked’, gaduh kanthe yasya ‘on whowe neck these i 2 goitre’. Similarly, ‘in whose hand there is a sword’ etc. :Sanskrit metre Mention was made in Chapter 1 of the quantitative nature of Sanskrit verse and of the rules for distinguishing light and heavy syllables. A general description of Classical Sanskrit metre is en here, and individual details of the commoner metres will Brent und in the grammatical section at the back of the book. The subject is often omitted from standard Sanskrit grammars, which is a pity, since Sanskrit cannot be fully appreciated by those who are metrically . Much of a poet’s creative ef- fort is obviously lost upon the reader for whom a poem might just as well have been written in tren in prose. The need, of course, is not simply to understand structure analytically but to be able to feel the rhythm of the verse without conscious effort as it is read or recited. (A practical advantage of this ability, and a test of it, is that one may, through simply noticing that a line does not scan, be alerted to some of the small misprints which plague many editions of Sanskrit texts.) While learning to mas- ter the rhythms of Sanskrit verse, there is no harm in exaggerat- ing to any degree that is helpful the natural tendency in Sanskrit recitation to prolong and stress the heavy syllables. The anustubh metre This is the bread-and-butter metre of Sanskrit verse, comparable in function and importance with the Latin hexameter or the English iambic pentameter. As well as being frequently used in Classical poetry, it is the staple metre of Sanskrit epic and of the many didactic works composed in verse. It is a simple, easily handled metre, since the pattern of light and heavy syllables is not fixed throughout the line. As with other Sanskrit metres, a normal anustubh stanza is di- visible into four quarters, called padas. The word pada literally means ‘foot’, and the latter word is therefore better avoided where possible i in discussing Sanskrit versification, although in the case of the anustubh each pada falls naturally for purposes of analysis into two groups of four syllables which might well be termed ‘feet’ in the English sense. The last group in each half- verse, i.e. the last group in the second and fourth padas, consists of a double iambus: --~-. Any of the preceding four syllables may in principle be either light or heavy. If we represent such a syllable of indeterminate quantity by », the pattern of the second or fourth pada is therefore ooo-+—~-. In the first and third padas the pattern of the last two syllables is reversed, which gives oocovnmy,212 An anustubh stanza thus consists of two half-verses of si syllables each and has the following basic rhythm (with the si ' indicating a rhythmically prominent syllable): cooovttu/oocovtud eocevttufoooovtva|| The syncopation at the end of the first and third padas gives feeling of suspense which is resolved at the end of each half-verse. There should be a caesura (a break between words—or some- times a break between two members of a long compound) at the end of each pida. But the break between the second and third padas, i.e. at the half-verse, is stronger than that between first and second or third and fourth. Thus the break at the half-verse is treated for purposes of sandhi as the end of a sentence, whereas sandhi is obligatory at all points within the half-verse. The scheme given above is subject to the following qualifica- tions: 1 The final syllable of the second and fourth padas (as in other metres) and also of the first and third padas may, in fact, be either heavy or light. (It was given as above merely to emphasise the underlying rhythm.) 2 No pada may begin e~-e (i.e. either the second or the third syllable must always be heavy). 3 The second or fourth pada must not end ----~ o (i.e. in three iambi). 4 The above pattern for the first or third pada is the pathya (regular) form. The less common vipula (permitted) forms are given at the back of the book. pe The first stanza of Exercise 15 scans as follows: e vam va di ni de var sau / par éve pi tu ra dho ma khi| ma la pat ti ni / ga na ya ma sa par va dl] (samacatuspadi) metres In addition to the anustubh, Classical literature employs a wide e of more elaborate metres, some of the commoner of which at the back of the book (Appendix 3). In most of these, eh pada is Mental and commer, Fe Boe aterm of ight andheavy syllables normally between eleven and twenty-one in num- ber. Thus the fourteen-syllabled Vasantatilaka metre, which has the pattern --= (if such a long ‘unstructured’ rng sems daunting at fist sight, t may be helpful, purely a an aid to learning, to think of it as made up of ++-+---+--4-44) 4): preyan manoratha-sahasra-vrtah sa esa, supta;pramatta;janam etad amatya-vesma | praudham tamah—kuru krtajfiatay» aiva bhadram, utksipta ;maka:mani=nfipuram ehi yamah || (A girl is persuaded to elope:) Here is that lover wooed in a thousand dreams. Here is the minister’s house where the people are asleep ¢ or inattentive. The darkness is thick. Simply from gratitude [do good:] treat your lover well. With jewelled anklets raised and muffled, come, let us be off. Similarly, the nineteen-syllabled Sardilavikridita, mo mee cee wee [anvenen (or a4 eet Leet fat vt tee): manda:kvanita;venur ahni éithile vyavartayan go-kulam barh-apidakam uttamanga-racitam go-dhdili-dhomram deat milayanty4 vana-malaya parigatah érantopi ramy>;akrtir gopa-stri-nayan--6tsavo vitaratu éreyamsi vah Keéavah || (A benediction:) Sounding his flute gently, driving the cattle back [the day being slack:] as the day declines, wearing [placed] on his head a crest of peacock feathers grey with ¢ dust from the cows, encircled with a fading garland of wild flowers, though tired attractive to look at, a feast for the eyes of the cowherd girls, may Krsna bestow blessings upon you Many metres, particularly the longer ones, contain one or more fixed caesuras within the pada. Thus in the Sardalavikri- dita there is always a break after the twelfth syllable, so that the seven syllables form a separate rhythmical unit. The final syllable of the pada in any of these metres is supposed to be heavy. A light syllable may, however, be substituted at the end of the half-verse or verse, since it is compensated for by the fol- lowing pause. A light syllable at the end of the first or third pada is not normal, but it is permissible in some metres, notably the Vasantatilaka.The way to master any of these metres is simply to fix its rhythm in one’s head. This may be achieved pleasantly enough by com- mitting stanzas of Sanskrit poetry to memory. But for those who do not find it too arid, another possibility with practical advan- tages, which, of course, does not preclude the other method, is to memorise a Sanskrit definition of each metre. Such definitions can embody in a single pada of the appropriate metre a state- ment of its metrical pattern, including any caesuras, and its name. The last is especially useful since it is all too easy to recognise a particular metre without remembering what it is called. (The name of a metre always fits somewhere into its met- rical pattern, and may perhaps sometimes have been a phrase taken from an early example of the type.) Seneyme Prosodists refer ies a ae tae i ‘heavy’, or simply g or ga; toa light le as u t’, or simply 1 or la. They proceed to an economical analysis by similarly as- signing a letter to each possible group of three syllables: yr-- bh--~ m--- g- fore fees meee 1- te-~ geen (The value of these letters can be learnt by memorising them in the following pattern: yamatarajabhanasalagah where each letter ‘initiates its own pattern—yamata, matara, taraja, rajabha, etc.) Thus the definition of the Vasantatilaka, as given by Kedara in his Vrttaratnakara, is: ukta Vasantatilaka ta;bha;ja ja;sgau gah the Vasantatilaka is described as t, bh andj (then) j and & (then) g ~~. --5% meyvoyens, My my The group of three syllables is, of course, in no sense a rhythmi- cal unit, and the pada is analysed continuously with out refer- ence to any caesura (yati). Caesuras are mentioned separately by a numerical grouping—e.g. the Sardilavikridita is said to con- sist of twelve syllables plus seven. Symbolic numbers rather than the ordinary numerals are mostly used for this purpose (these symbolic numbers are found in other contexts in Sanskrit, for in- stance in verses giving dates). For the ordinary numeral there is substituted some noun frequently associated with that particularnumber (as if we were to say ‘sin’ for ‘seven’ in English because there are seven deadly sins). Thus yuga ‘age of the world’ means ‘four’ ; surya ‘sun’ means ‘twelve’ (with reference to the signs of the zodiac); agva ‘horse’ means ‘seven’ (because there were seven horses of the sun). Kedara’s definition of the Sardilavikridita is: siiry> ;ASvair yadi mat sa;jau sa;ta ;ta;gah, Sardalavikriditam if, with twelve (syllables) plus seven, (there is) after m both s and j, (and then) s, t, t and g, (we have) the Sardilavikridita (The ablative to express ‘after’ is a grammarian’s usage men- tioned below.) Semi-even (erdhasamacatuspad7) metres There exists a number of metres which are not absolutely iden- tical in each pada, although each half-verse corresponds exactly. The commonest of these comprise a small family group in which the second or fourth pada differs from the first or third simply by the insertion of an extra heavy syllable. Of these metres the Puspitagra is the most frequently occurring. The Arya metre This metre, which was adopted into Sanskrit from more popu- lar sources, differs fundamentally in structure from all the pre- ceding. It is divided into feet (here the English term is appropri- ate and difficult to avoid), each of four matras in length. A matra ‘mora’ is a unit of prosodie length equivalent to a light syllable. Each foot ( the sixth) may therefore consist of veer —-, ~~ ore»; and the second, fourth and sixth may fur- ther take the form ~-~. A stanza is normally made up of two lines of seven and a half feet each, with the sixth foot of the sec- ond line consisting of a single light syllable. In its Classical Sanskrit use, the metre usually contains a caesura after the third foot in each line. In this metre the rhythmical ictus often falls upon a light sylla- ble, and it can be difficult when reading some Arya stanzas to keep a proper grip on the rhythm and at the same time avoid an unnatural manner of recitation. The following example, how- ever, flows smoothly. gacchati purah éariram, dhvati pagcad a:samsthitam cetah | cinaméukam iva ketoh prati_vatam niyamnasya || 215 { = a216 (as I think of the girl I have just parted from) my body moves forward, but my unsteady mind runs back, like the silk of a ban- ner being carried into the wind The Kumara-sambhava of Kalidasa Kalidasa, in almost every estimation the greatest of Sanskrit poets, wrote both plays and poems. Among the latter are two examples of the maha:kavya or major natrative poem, Raghu-vaméa “The race of Raghu’ and Kumara-sambhava ‘The birth of Kumara’, Kumira (lit. ‘the Prince’) is another name of Skanda or Karttikeya, god of war and son of the mighty god Siva. Cantos I to VIII of the poem (all that are regarded as genuinely the work of Kalidasa) de- scribe the events leading up to his birth, but stop short of the birth itself. The need a powerful general to defeat the demon Taraka, such a general will be born only from the union of Siva with Parvati, the daughter of the mountain-god Himalaya. However, Siva is a practising ascetic and has no thought of mar- riage. Kama, the god of love, attempts to inflame Siva’s feelings and is reduced to ashes for his pains; but Parvati finally wins Siva’s love by becoming an ascetic herself and practising the severest aus- terities. Canto VI describes how Siva sends the Seven Sages (ac- companied by Arundhati, wife of one of them) to ask Himalaya for his daughter’s hand in marriage. The extract given in Exercise 15 begins just after the Sage Angiras has conveyed this request. Each canto of a mahakavya is normally written in a single metre, with the exception of one or more closing verses. The metre used is either the anustubh‘or one of the shorter of the other metres, Indravajra, VamSastha, Viyogini, etc. (but never the Arya). The longer metres such as the Sardilavikridita do not lend themselves to use in continuous narrative; and even with the shorter metres actually employed, the stanzaic structure, with each stanza a polished and self-contained unit, is one of the more striking features of such poetry. The concluding stanza or stanzas of each canto are written in a different and normally somewhat more elaborate metre: this is illustrated by the pres- ent extract, which extends to the end of the canto and closes with a Puspitagra stanza. The extract has been chosen because it is a simple passage which illustrates both the anustubh metre and the perfect tense, but in its slight way it does also st some of the qualities of Kalidasa’s genius: his luminous and unerringly exact use of lan- guage, the mark of the great poet everywhere, and his ability to view human life and activity (here, the giving of a daughter inmarriage) under a transfiguring sense of divine order—an ability sometimes superficially seen as a tendency to treat the gods in secular and sensual terms. Here, as a preliminary guide to the general sense of the passage, is a comparatively free translation of it: 84 When the divine sage had spoken, Parvati, a her father’s side, Keeping her face bent down began to count The petals of the lotus she was playing with. 85 The Mountain, though he had all he could wish for, Looked enquiringly at Mena. For where his daughter is concerned A man’s eyes are his wife. 86 And Mena gave her assent To all that her husband longed for. The wishes of a devoted wife Are never at odds with those of her husband. 87 Determining inwardly The way he should reply, When the was over He took hold of his daughter, adorned for the happy occasion. 88 ‘Come, dearest child, You are destined as alms for the Most High. The Sages themselves are here to sue for you. My life as a householder has found its fulfilment.’ 89 Having said this much to his child The Mountain spoke to the Sages: ‘The bride of the Three-eyed God Herewith salutes you all.’ 90 Joyfully the sages acknowledged The noble generosity of these words, And bestowed upon Amba Blessings that would immediately be fulfilled. 91 She, in her anxiety to do them homage, Displaced the golden ornaments at her ears, And as she showed her confusion Arundhati took her upon her lap, 92 And the mother, whose face was full of tears, Made anxious by love for her daughter, 217,She reassured about the merits of that bridegroom, Who had no other to make prior claims on him. 93 When Siva’s father-in-law Had consulted them upon the wedding-date, And they had answered it it should be three days hence, The sages departed. 94 After taking their leave of Himalaya They returned to the Trident-holder, Announced the success of their mission, And, dismissed by him, flew up to heaven. 95 And the Lord of Creatures passed those days with difficulty, Longing for union with the Mountain’s daughter. ‘When even our Lord is not immune from such feelings, What ordinary, helpless man can escape the torments? In stanza 87 ‘adorned for the happy occasion’ refers to the oc- casion of the Sages’ visit ; but by a literary resonance it hints also at the the coming occasion of the wedding. In stanza 92 the com- pound ananyapOrva, as well as meaning (as Mallinatha takes it) ‘not having another more senior wife’, is a pun meaning ‘having none other than Parvati herself as a previous wife’— a reference to the fact that Siva’s earlier wife Sati was a previous incarnation of Parvati. (I am indebted to Dr Wendy O’Flaherty for both these observations.) Mallinadtha’s commentary The extract from the Kumara-sambhava is accompanied by a commentary upon it by the medieval scholar Mallindtha, the au- thor of standard commentaries on Kalidasa’s two other main non-dramatic works, as well as on the mahakavyas of other Sanskrit poets. His work is an excellent example of the more lit- eral type of Sanskrit commentary, which expounds the original text by means of a continuous close verbal paraphrase. It is an interesting reflection of the structure of the Classical and the difficulties of Classical literary style that such a word- for-word paraphrase should be worth making. The style of such commentaries should be mastered, since when they are by good scholars they are an extremely important aid in the interpreta- tion of Classical texts. It should also be noted that many major works by writers on philosophical and other subjects are, for- mally commentaries upon earlier texts (or even upon some more succinctly expressed version of the writer’s ownviews) and exhibit certain peculiarities of style deriving from this fact. The following re: although concerned primarily with the present extract from Mallinatha, should be of some help in the interpretation of commentaries in general. The basis of the commentatorial style is oral exposition, and the simplest starting-point in understanding Mallinatha is to imagine him as a teacher sitting with a manuscript of the original text in front of him. He reads out or recites from memory—inevitably the latter, had he been expounding Panini or the Vedas—the por- tion of the original, normally one stanza, which he is about to ex- plain. (This is indicated in the written text of the commentary by the first word of the original followed by iti: thus in Exercise 15 evam iti means ‘the portion beginning with the word evam’, i.e. stanza 84.) He then goes back and takes the words one at a time or in small phrases, selecting them in the order most convenient for exposition and resolving sandhi as necessary. As he takes up each word or phrase, he follows it with a literal equivalent, unless he considers it too obvious for helpful para- phrase. This habit of making paraphrase (or ‘gloss’) the rule rather than the exception is a useful one. It may seem pointless at times: on stanza 92 it is hardly likely to help anyone to be told that dubitr-snehena means putrikapremna. But this is a small price to pay for the advantage of having a check on the inter- ret sche of passages which are not so obvious as they seem at irst sight. The commentary is often unobtrusively helpful in analysing compounds by resolving them into separate words. When this is done the compound is frequently not quoted in its original form in the commentary. Thus in 88 grhamedhi-phalam ‘reward of a householder’ occurs only as grhamedhinah phalam (with gthamedhinah glossed as grhasthasya). When the original form of the compound is quoted, it tends to appear after the analysis: e.g. 92 tasyah ... mataram tan-mataram. This forms an excep- tion to the general principle that the paraphrase is placed after the original. (In the transhterated version of Exercise 15 any di- rect gloss is placed in parentheses, and a colon is placed between the gloss and the original—i.e. normally immediately before the gloss, sometimes immediately after.) The practice serves to ‘re-establish’ an original form after analysis and is commoner with less straightforward compounds such as bahuvrihis: e.g. 92 (agri mukhe yasy4s tam:} asrumukhim. Even in such cases the original compound may be replaced by a phrase like tath» Sktah ‘(being one) so described’: thus in 85 grhini:netrah ‘having a 219)wife as one’s eye’ appears as grhiny eva netram . . . yesim te tath» éktah ‘of whom the eye is in fact the wife—those such? (the particle eva serving, as frequently, to distinguish the predi- cate), The formula yatha tatha is used to indicate adverbial value. Thus if sighram has the meaning ‘swiftly’, this may be made cleat by the gloss Sighram m yatha tatha ‘in such a way as to be While bahuvrihi compounds are regularly analysed by means of relative clauses, the analysis of other formations is generally by means of an iti clause, with the relative pronoun replaced by ayam (or, in the nominative case, omitted): e.g. balam asy> asb it bali ‘the word balin means [“this has strength” :] “that which has strength”’; pacyata iti pakah ‘the word paka means [“it is cooked”:] “thae which is cooked” As in the above examples (bali, h), a formation to be analysed is is normally mentioned in the nominative case. The for- mation is thereafter ‘picked up’, and if necessary returned to the appropriate oblique case, by means of the pronoun sah. The dis- cussion of an:anyaipirvasya in stanza 92 illustrates the use of - sah and also of the relative clause and the iti clause: I anya pOrvam yasy> asti so »nya:ptrvah ‘anya; :pirva means “one who has another (woman) as a prior (lam), 2 sa na bhavat fty an:anyaipirvah ‘an:anyaipirva means “one who is not anya:parva”’. 3 tasya an:anyaipOrvasya ‘this latter formation when placed in the genitive singular provides (the word contained in the text, namely) an:anyaipirvasya’. The present participle of as, sant, is often inserted in the course of exegesis and serves to distinguish attributive words from the substantive they qualify: so in stanza 84 adhomukhi sati ‘(Parvati counted the petals) being downward-gazing (as she did so)’. The phrase tatha hi ‘for thus’ indicates that the following portion of the text is an explanation or amplification of the preceding. The syntactical structure of the original text provides a frame- work for the commentary, but syntactical continuity is fre- quently interrupted by the insertion of explanatory remarks (such asides being natural in a spoken exposition.) One type of insertion, that occasioned by detailed grammatical analysis, has already been touched upon. In the same way the word-for-word gloss may be interrupted by a freer paraphrase of the precedingwords, followed by ity arthah ‘such is the meaning’, ‘in other words . . .’, or iti bl ‘such is the essence or implication’, ‘i. seey that is... ied yavat “which is as much as to say’, in fact” is especially used where something is glossed in terms of a sim- pler or more precise concept which might not have occurred to the reader. Where something is to be supplied in the original, this is indicated by iti gegah ‘such is the remainder’, ‘understand . Quotations and opinions from other authors are indicated byi iti plus the name of the writer or the work. The use made of Panini’s rules in explaining grammatical forms is discussed below. Lexicons are also appealed to. The oldest and most reli- able of these is the Amarakosa by Amara or Amarasimha (writ- ten in verse, for ease of memorisation). Lexicons make continual use of the locative case in a technical meaning of ‘in the sense of. Thus udaro datr;mahatoh, quoted under stanza 90, means “(the word) udara (occurs) in (the sense of) datr or mahant’. The use of punctuation and sandhi in commentary style is natu- rally different from their use in a normal text. The danda may be used at any ‘pause for breath’ and Separates the asides from the mainstream of the commentary. The following policy on san- dhi has been adopted in editing the present extract: no sandhi has been made between the words of the text quoted directly in the commentary and the surrounding words of Mallinatha himself, and similarly none before iti where this marks a quotation by Mallinatha from any other author. Paninian grammar When Mallinatha considers a form worthy of grammatical analysis, he explains it by quoting the relevant rules of Panini’s grammar. For the non-specialist, in fact, the operation of the Paninian system can be studied more enjoyably in a literary commentator such as Mallinatha, where its apy jication to the normal forms of the language can be observed, than i in the com- mentaries upon Panini himself, which are frequently concerned with recherché forms and complex theoretical conisiderations. A brief explanation of the references to Panini in Exercise 15 may help to give a first faint inkling of how his grammar works. Panini’s sitras, or aphoristic rules, are formed with the greatest possible succinctness. They are arranged in such a way that they frequently depend for their understanding upon the statements made in the sitras immediately preceding, and have indeed in principle to be interpreted in the light of all the otherstsevieuo sitras in the grammar. The suffixes which combine with wi bases to form actual words are abstractions just as the verl roots are. Thus the causative-denominative suffix is treated as; having the basic form i, which by the operation of various sitrag changes to ay and combines with the inflexional endings; Systematic use is made of anubandhas, ‘indicatory letters’ ats: tached to these suffixes. Thus the past participle suffix is known as kta, the k indicating that the preceding stem appears in its weak form. The causative-denominative is similarly known as ni: the n permits the veddhi of a root such as ke in karayati, while other sitras ensure other grades of the root where necessary. The t also serves to distinguish ni from other i suffices, such as di the neuter plural ending (kantani, mandmsi, etc.) or the Vedic ki as in papi ‘drinking’. The compound-final suffix tac referred to in sitra 5.4.91 is one of a host of a suffixes: the t indicates that the feminine is in i, and the c that the accent is on the final. These artificial words are inflected like ordinary stems of the language, so that ni is a substantive in short i (gen. neh, loc. nau) and tac is a consonant stem. But tac illustrates the fact that certain sounds may occur in final position in made-up words that are not so found in the natural words of the language. The cases are used in technical senses: the ablative to signify ‘after’, the locative ‘before’, the genitive ‘for, in place of’, while the substitute which is put ‘in place’ is expressed in the nomina- tive, It is as if one were to say ‘after child for s (there is) ren’ to express the irregular plural of child; or ‘for soft (there is) sof be- fore en’ to indicate that the t of soften is not pronounced. To de- scribe the sandhi of the mentioned in Chapter 2, we may (if we select di as the basic form) say ‘for 3i (there is) a before conso- nants’, It is not necessary to say in full ‘(there is) 59’, since (with certain qualifications) it is a principle of interpreting Paninian rules that a single-letter substitute is to be treated as replacing only the final letter of the original. The first sitra which Mallinatha quotes, Panini 7.3.43, illus- trates this last point. It concerns the fact that the causative of ruh ‘ascend’ may take the form ropayati as well as the regular rohayati. It runs ruhah po »nyatarasyam. From an earlier siitra (7.3. 36) the word gau ‘before ni is to be supplied, ruhah is the genitive of ruh. anyatarasy’m means ‘optionally’. The siitra therefore means ‘before the causative suffix, for (the final h of) ruh, p is substituted optionally’. The discussion of the word try:ahah ‘period of three days’ in stanza 93 is more complex. It may be observed in passing thatpea compounds, which correspond to the English ‘a fortnight’, twelvemonth’, are best looked on as having exocentric fvalue—‘that (period) i in which there are fourteen nights/twelve months’. But Sanskrit grammarians include them in a 5] f “class called dvigu “numerical compound’, which is treat sub-variety of tatpurusa. Mallinatha begins by quoting 2.1.51 taddhit;4rth ;éttara- pada;samahare ca. samam;4dhikaranena must be supplied from 2.1.49, which states that certain words may combine ‘with (an- other word) having the same case relationship’ to form a com- pound. This is a way of saying that they may be prefixed with adjectival or appositional value to another word so as to form a descriptive determinative. dik;samkhye must be supplied from 2.1.50, which deals with the fact that ‘(words denoting) either . fegion or number’ combine in the same type of compound to ex- press various proper names. The present sétra thus says that words expressing region or number may compound with a word having the same case relationship ‘in the following further cir- cumstances (ca): to express the sense of a taddhita (secondary suffix), or when there is a further member (added to the com- pound), or to express collective sense’. The first two possibilities will not be discussed since they are not relevant here. In tryahah we have the numeral tri ‘three’ combining with ahan ‘day’ to ex- press the sense ‘collection consisting of three days’. The ocative samahare does not here have its sense of ‘before’ but its other technical sense of ‘in the sense of? as used in lexicons. The following siitra, 2.1.52, not quoted by Mallinatha, says dviguh, i.e. ‘the name dvigu is given to a com- pound (of one of these three kinds) when the first member is a numeral’. (This explains why Panini did not make 2.1.50 and 2.1.51 a single sitra: the name dvigu does not apply to a com- pound like sayah (nom. pl.) ‘the Seven Sages’, the Sanskrit name for the Great Bear.) Although the word ahan ‘day’ is a consonant stem, tryahah is an a-stem. Mallinatha quotes 5.4.91 aj;4hah;sakhibhyas tac. This is governed by 5.4.68 sam4s~-antah ‘the following suffixes (down to the end of Book 5, in fact) are compound-final’. The sttra thus means ‘after the words rajan, ahan and sakhi there occurs as a compound-final suffix tac’. Mallinatha does not bother to quote 6.4.145 alas taskhor eva, which shows how to apply this last rule. The words lopah ‘eli- sion’, i.e. ‘zero-substitution’, and teh ‘in place of ti’ are to be supplied, ti is a technical term meaning ‘the final vowel of a 1223) { = a a olword plus the following consonant if any’. The sitra means ‘zero is substituted for the final vowel and consonant ahan, but only before a suffix with indicatory ¢ or kha’. ahan + tac becomes ah + tac, i.e. aha. Mallinatha refers to, without actually quoting, 2.4.1. ekavacanam ‘dvigu compounds are singular’; and justifies the masculine gender of tryahal, (though Kalidasd: only uses the ‘ambiguous ablative form tryahat) by 2.4.29) rate;4hm;4hah pumsi. From 2.4.26 dvandva ;tatpurusayoh is supplied: the words rltra, ahna and aha (used atthe end of a cr ordinative or determinative compound) occur in the masculine’, To summarise the above: tri + ahan means ‘group of three days’ by 2.1.51 the compound takes the suffix tac by 5.4.91 ahan + tac becomes aha by 6.4.145 the compound is a dvigu by 2 $2 therefore singular by 2.4.1 and masculine by 2.4.29. Satra -2.80 utka unmandh is interesting as an example of nipatab, a formation listed ready- made by Panini without j justi- fication in terms of its components, utka ‘eager’ is listed among formations made with the suffix kan, but is anomalous both be- cause kan is added not to a nominal stem but to the prefix ut and because its meaning, which refers to a mental state, it is not fully explicable from ite its elements. Panini thus lists it as a special form and gives its meaning. The word nipatah is better known in the sense of ‘{ ”, a meaning it acquires because particles exist ready-made without undergoing grammatical formation. Lastly, in his comment on stanza 87 Mallinatha shows his knowledge of Panini’s analysis of the word nyayya ‘proper’. Sutra 4.4.92. dharmapathyarthanyayad anapete, teaches that the taddhita suffix yat, whose real form is ya, is added to the forms dharma, pathin (the stem form of panthan as analysed by the Sariskrit grammarians), artha and nyaya in order to form words which mean ‘not departed from dharma’, etc. Although Mallinatha does not quote Panini exactly, his gloss of the word nyayyam as nyayad anapetam echoes the relevant sittra. Quotations from literary critics Besides citing grammarians and lexicographers, Mallinatha quotes from many other sources, including popular sayings andrks on right conduct (dharma-éastra) or political science (niti-S4stra), and in particular from many literary critics. He dom gives the name of the work he is quoting from, and metimes when he does so the attribution is wrong. It may be assumed that his quotations are normally made from memory. Sanskrit literary criticism as it is known from about the ninth century onward is the development of an earlier alamkAra-sastra ‘Science of Embellishment’ in combination with certain elements of natya-éastra ‘Theatrical Science’. The term alamkara ‘orna- iment, embellishment’ is wider than the English ‘figure of speech’ "and somewhat different in scope. It includes almost all the us- ages by means of which a poet’s language departs from the most colourless possible presentation of facts and ideas, and covers devices of sound such as assonance and rhyme as well as devices of ‘sense sense such as simile and metaphor. In addition to the proper, various possible ‘Qualities’ (gunas) are enu- me Mallinatha observes that stanza 94 illustrates the Quality known as Conciseness (samksepa) and quotes a rather tautologous definition of this Quality from a work called the Prataparudriya. An examination of the stanza will indeed show that Kalidasa’s telescoping of the narrative at this point is suffi- ciently marked and deliberate to be considered a literary device. Although Mallinatha does not bother to point the fact out, the second half of stanza 85 (like the second half of 86, which is par- allel) illustrates a common rhetorical figure known as arthantaranyasa ‘Substantiation’ or ‘Corroboration’. In its most typical form, as here, it consists of a general reflection provoked by the particular facts of the situation that is being described, and is frequently led by the presence of a word such as prayena ‘generally’. The figure thus has the flavour of ‘moral- drawing’, There 3 a similar flavour to the second half of stanza 95, but here, as Mallinatha points out, the precise figure involved is arth4patti ‘Strong Presumption’, i.e. reasoning a fortiori. From natya-SAstra literary critics adopted the theory of rasa (lit. ‘flavour, taste’), which in its most developed form is a subtle theory of the nature of aesthetic experience. Its basis is the divi- sion of the spectators experience of a play into a number of ‘flavours’ (at eight, later usually nine)— comic, horrific, etc. To each of these rasas corresponds a basic human emotion {sthayi:bhava ‘Stable or Dominant State’), which will normally be represented in one or more of the characters of the drama. Around the basic emotion various minor emotions come fleet- ingly into play—the thirty-three Transitory or SubordinateStates, called either vyabhicari:bhava or sarmcari:bhava. Thus in the Amorous or Romantic rasa (Smigara) the hero and heroine feel the sthayibhava of Love (rati) and the vyabhicaribhavas of of Impatience, Disappointment, Contentedness and so on. ints out that stanza 84 illustrates the vyabhi- wane of Dissimulaition (avahittha or avahittha). In fact, this stanza is the one most quoted in textbooks as an example of this particular State. Vocabulary aftikah hook; curve of the body, lap Afgiras m., prn. atgi'ky make a part, subordinate; adopt, accept, promise adri_ m. rock, mountain adho;zmukha (f. i) down-faced, with face bent down antaram interval, difference; -antaram fc. a different, another anyatarasyam {grant optionally apara pron. adj. other apipah cake: see dandapapika apeta departed; free from (abl.) abhipsita desired; abipsitam artly-apatti_f, (lit. crit.) Strong Presumption alamkarah ornament; (lit. crit.) embellishment, literary figure arvaéa powerless, helpless avahittham, avahittha disisimu- lation aérun. tear; agru-mukha ‘tear-faced’, tearful-faced ahan 12. irreg. day -ahah, -ahnah (ifc. for ahan) day akarah form, appearance, (facial) expression akaéam ether, sky apatanam occurrence, (sudden) appearance, arising . patti. happening, occurrence asis f. irreg. prayer, benediction agirvadah blessing, benison asakti f. adherence, intentness (on) istam thing wished, wish ipsita desired, wished for utka eager, longing for uttara following, subsequent, further; uttaram answer udira noble, generous un;manas eager, longing eka-vacanam (gram.) singular (number) kanakam gold kamala m./n. lotus karanam doing, performing kavi m. poet, creative writer karanam instrument, means kutumbam household, family kutumbin m. householder, family man kundalam earring, ear-ornament kgcchram hardship; krechrit with difficultykaimutika deriving from the notion kim uta ‘let alone’; kaimutika:nyayat (from the principle of ‘let alone’:] a fortiori kham hole; vacuum; sky, heaven gah the letter g; (in prosody) heavy syllable ganana counting : m being a householder giti_ m. mountain grhamedhin [performer of domestic sacrifices:} householder one who is in a house, householder gthini housewife, wife gopanam concealment, hiding caturtha (f. i) fourth Gram strip of bark (worn by ascetic) jah the letter j; (i2 prosody) the syllables ~-~ jambomada (f. i) golden jijias4 desire to know, wish to determine jitanam knowledge, perceiving tac (gram.) the suffix a tatzkganam at that moment, thereupon taddhitah [i.e. tat-hitah ‘suitable fr emer (gram.) secondary tanaya daughter taraka causing to cross over, rescuing, liberating tithi m/f. lunar day (esp. as icons date for ceremony) won the Three-eyed (god), Siva tryzahah [period of] three days dandapipika the stick-and-cake principle (‘if a mouse eats a stick he’ll certainly eat a cake’), reasoning a fortiori dalam petal dinam gift, bestowal dvigu =m. [from dvizgu ‘worth two cows’) (gram.) numerical compound nah the letter n; (i prosody) the syllables ~~~ namas-karah making obeisance nipatah (gram.) ready-made form (laid down without grammatical analysis) nigcayah determination, resolve nyayah rule, principle; propriety pah, pa-karah the letter p pattram feather; leaf, petal padam word, member of a compound Parajtantra under another’s control, not in control (of) parinayah marriage iparyanta [having as an end:] ending with, up to Pagupati_ m. name of Siva pakah cooking; ripeness, full- filment Parvati pr. n. wife of Siva parsvam flank, side pitr m. father pumiliga having masculine gender pumvant (gram.) masculine pums m. (irreg.) man, male, masculine puri, putrika daughter puraskrta placed in front, before the eyes Puspitagra (in prosody) name of a metre prthag:janah separate person, ordinary person 227] ibhavah state of being; essence, meaning; emotional state, emotion bhiksa alms bhita afraid mahidharah mountain mytyum-jayah Conqueror of Death Mena pr. n. Parvati’s mother ya-karah the letter y; (in prosody) the syllables --- yacitr m. suet, petitioner yukti f. argument yagam pair; ifc. two yuj joined, even (in number); a:yuj uneven, odd yogya suitable tah the letter 15 (in prosody) the syllables -~— ratrah at the end of compound for ratei f. night rub the root ruh tephah = rah Jakgapamy mark, characteristic; lige mark, sgos phallus; (gram.) gender lia play, sport vacas n. word, words, speech vatamsah/vatamsakah esp. earring vadha f. woman, bride varah suitor valkala m./n. bark (of tree) vaéah power; -vasat from the power of, because of vasanam dress viéy-dtman m. Soul of the Universe, Supreme Godhead. vigayah dominion, sphere, field , ‘of action, vistarah expansion, prolixity vettam metre vitti f. behaviour, conduct; wipe. .) synthetic expression (by compounding, as opp. analytic expression by separate words) vaivahika (f. i) (suitable) for a Solin ‘Trident-beares, epithet of Segah remainder, portion to be ‘supplied failah mountain §lokah stanza samketah agreement, assigna- tion; samketa-sthanam place of assignation samksipta abbreviated, in concise form transitory; samcari bhavah(lit. crit.) Subsidiary Emotional siddha_ accomplished State sitram aphorism, aphoristic peamarthanam establishment, rule confirmation stambah clump of grass samsah (gram.) compound -stha standing, being at/in h group, collection ete. sampima fulfilled Smara-harah the Destroyer satva-naman_ n. (gram.) (name of Love, epithet of Siva for anything:] pronoun Harah name of Siva the state of being Himavant m., Himalayah the sharer of a husband the mountain (range) (sapatni) Himalaya anu + yuj (VII anuyutikte) question, examine alam + kr (VII alamkaroti) adorn, embellish ah (defective verb, perf. aha) say, speak a+ pat (lapatati) occur, befall, appear suddenly, present oneself 4+ prach (VI aprechati) take leave of, say goodbye 4+ mantr (X amantrayate) salute; take leave of a+ruh caus. (4ropayati) cause to mount, raise onto ut +iks (I udiksate) look at ut + ya (Il udyati) rise up upa +iks (I upeksate) overlook, disregard edh caus. (edhayati) cause to prosper, bless gan (X ganayati) count gup (denom. pres. gopayati) guard ; hide car (I carati) move, go, depart cal (I calati) stir, move, go away ja caus. (ji@payati) inform, announce nam (I namati) bow, salute nis + ci (V nigcinoti) ascertain, settle, fix upon nis + pad (IV nispadyate) come forth, be brought about; p.p. nispanna completed pac (I pacati) cook, ripen ; pass. pacyate be cooked, ripen pari + kirt (X parikirtayati) proclaim, declare pari + kip caus. (parikalpayati) fix, destine for (dat.) pra + 4p (V prapnoti) reach, go to; obtain, win bhi (III bibheti) fear; p.p. bhita afraid ya (II yati) go ya caus. (y4payati) spend (time) lajj (VI lajjate) be shy, blush, show confusion vitke (VII vikaroti) alter, change, distort, cause mental distur- bance (vikarah) to vid (VI vindati) find ; pass, vidyate is found, exists vi+ pra+ke (VIM viprakaroti) injure, tormentSt serdeyo 8) vi+ mag (VI vimarfati) perceive, reflect, deliberate sam + vedh caus. (samvardhayati) congratulate sam + stu (II samstauti) praise sam + khya (II samkhyati) count, reckon up sah (I sahate; irreg. inf. sodhum) withstand, endure, bear sic (X sticayati) point out, indicate srams (I sramsate ; p. p. srasta) drop, slip upari after (abl.) firdhvam after (abl.) ehi (imperv. of +i) come paratra elsewhere, in the next world purah in front, immediate yasmat inasmuch as, since Exercise 15 Note: The transliterated version of this exercise should be of particular help in solving difficulties. uetenfeht Rerdf cred firgeeigeth ‘erererrereentin roremara wea tte x Ht waft 1 Saat ares eetenfehr alt ork faq: wre srettgeht wat reaaftr ae: 1 cterererenfn worarra deat | eosraENTET TorrTearat ed Ginter: 1 srafeerser: are wa sw: 1 AEE arate q erooredatarenroneatte 11 ster: agufennit sftr derapargage 1 ardor afgohttar: aratty eghert: cy ste aft Stet: ferary dgofeni sft 1 ag qafart sda: argent RRM: A tafe aed wey: erbnifterny srerereafirenfiyed agfte afrea: ne én Fa gf teafte eg: ferrereren edited aeréf BF aegterare 1 wet fer afata at arat at: ghd anitftad 7 fare cafirerdt erat a: areafirenfired wae srfferenfirorergr srereitfer era: Feniet ~areahitr gar qa a: 1 MS STATE AeFEMTTI GAT YAMT, t1c's t0a: forary aeranrt gfrarenrerart aa yfrarea ge see (231 aria caren, aera seefits gar Fert faye faferer wen wenreigpat Meee HA FAILS FMA FANE Ut i Ufe frat aed fenfa aftaferm a aay grea: weet yetfirerst wares tt Uhifien % aed ger Oe arrest fray ferara fire uftafounfa fiferenfa 1 carte erandat wa fier wafer: aft aernfaft wa: aft: afaart: grt: 1 war yeah: yeerer wel WEN FWA ARR arent afer weird: 1 — Te RRT THAT AT TET | a Fa watt a: waiftreierraghth 112 ¢ 11 wraftirn mgt: ferent Trey Tad, yale, sent adi ane! fait: gt fretertaq: srataraet a: walt waft efits freterragftfr fagaafrerrafufredt arfifr geet Seaandfirctert & sfirra fata: ' vat: Fear: fr: feraa: ae: sere, afiere wafer eager atfterenny, ara! Tera eft Ue: we! quran: YTeRETeTfir: anehfit: anefrata: werararg: saekararg: 11 a 1 RATE NS 8 afefen wornetor wreararn wet Weqae Yauifaant adds HA HUSA TAMA ARTA A See STA STATA AAT | BE: T ssraceany sft wane: 11 want eregqel sereetrart ararrager NRT afefrn sieqeer grantor ert freer sft sem) ate earegfer a wedges apraqden areeag:amgas Feds) aver a. ‘att: qedorerenfefir: farvirent Fag vary arartrq ‘Sanfeatt fat qereranat gcergarogo). t paergedaroara tealtrafag: 9 1 Sanizatintt n ciraftre: acerca: & aaftart: mage afer at i wenger ferra aenfeat frargateat feft yer: aerqgen: wM:1 waremrgt wnerceng:) ateaferacaret a gf ara: & | -cergvafnane, ft cerera: 1 fqenterererm) cece: yf aft ‘Sep tery, mary, sey salt srs ayt sett ferry: FEN ee: tien: tt a ferry: ores fe en | Peed ret Frendt afcaer: yg: new oi) Tat 8 gee: fees arg UT TEST YA: eT Tt ‘eearereerrrest rea ert Farge Freres areiq wetter are Prater qrafiren a afgger: a sqferr frqer: wy amenret afr seq: seq: ae Aireraifinaraae AT yor Se: 1 MAE —Ahrenatfient wee: aftatffa: afr wmrareyafresrgaratererarate aitg T preter aaleqaenferarg wsgaferetty areargtht Beas, zt weurerargt + fargrgz, fant t cent appa rat: gas tt TRARY eee ee en zt airgarrarnites:Anyone who has mastered the present volume is adequately equipped to read simple Classical Sanskrit. Those whose interest lies Particularly i in Indian religious thought may well wish to with the best loved of all Hindu religious texts, the Bhagavad Gita, written in eighteen short cantos of easy, straight- forward verse. Innumerable texts and translations of this work exist. For the student, the most scrupulously faithful translation is robably that by F Edgerton (Harper Torchbooks). Other dis- . ed scholars who have translated the work include R. C. Zaehner (Hindu Scriptures, Everyman; also The Bhagavad Gita with commentary and text in transcription, Oxford University Press) and S. Radhakrishnan (Allen & Unwin, including text in transcription). The pocket edition with a text in nagari by Annie Besant (Theosophical Publishing House) is cheap and conven- ient, though the accompanying translation is unreliable. In secular literature a good starting-point is the Paficatantra, a witty and sophisticated collection of animal fables (the ultimate source of La Fontaine), written in fluent, racy Sanskrit. Many versions of this work have survived, and these were collated by Edgerton, who produced a recension as near as he thought it was possible to get to the original. His translation of this has been reprinted (Allen & Unwin), but not unfortunately the Sanskrit text (American Oriental Series, Volume 2, New Haven, ip24), which should, however, be obtainable from specialist aries, An especially attractive and accessible branch of Classical Sanskrit literature is the drama. The prose dialogue is straight- forward (many sentences are likely to seem familiar to the stu- dent of this book!). Certain characters speak in Prakrit, but almost all editions include a Sanskrit translation (chaya) of these passages. The stanzas of verse interspersed among the prose are L xipuedde (8) Kpms W4ySUueS seyuny234 more elaborate in style but should not prove too difficult with the help of a translation and notes such as have been provided for most standard Sanskrit plays by M. R. Kale: Kale’s student editions are very useful and workmanlike, and are usually in print in India—though regrettably these reprints often bristle with grotesque printing errors. The best known of all Sanskrit plays is the Sakuntala of Kalidasa. Other masterpieces include the Mrcchakatika (‘Toy Cart’) of Sadraka, the Mudrardksasa ‘(The Signet Ring and Raksasa’) of Visakhadatta and the Uttararamacarita (‘The Later Story of Rama’) of Bhavabhiti— the last, although a moving and beautiful work, being of the four perhaps the least immediately attractive to Western taste in its style and feeling. Sanskrit dictionaries A. A. Macdonell’s A Sanskrit Dictionary for Students (Oxford University Press, 382 pp.) is much the most convenient in the early stages of study. The author lists in the preface the Sanskrit works for which the dictionary is specifically a vocabulary. In reading other works or for more scholarly use, M. Monier- Williams’ A Sanskrit-English Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 1333 pp.), effectively a translation and condensation of the great Sanskrit-Wérterbuch of Bohtlingk and Roth, is indis- pensable. Unfortunately, it suffers the irritating drawback of being arranged not in strict alphabetical order but according to verbal roots. All present dictionaries are grossly out of date: Sanskrit studies will be revolutionised when the vast work at present under preparation in Poona finally sees the light of day. Sanskrit grammars A. A. Macdonell’s A Sanskrit Grammar for Students (Oxford University Press) is again the most convenient work available and, despite some inaccuracies and omissions, is a model of clar- ity and conciseness. The standard Sanskrit grammar in English is still that of W. D. Whitney (2nd edition 1889, reprinted by Oxford University Press), but this is now very out of date, the presentation of Vedic and Classical material is confusingly inter- twined and the treatment of syntax is sketchy in the extreme. The really standard work is in German, the monumental Altindische Grammatik of Wackernagel and Debrunner(Géttingen, 1896-1957); but special mention should be made of a French work, the Grammaire sanscrite of Louis Renou (Paris, 2nd edition 1961), which, while of a more manageable size than Wackernagel, treats Classical Sanskrit in considerable detail and is full of valuable observations on syntax. Vedic studies Students primarily interested in comparative Indo-European philology may like to turn to the Vedic language at an early stage in their studies, and here yet again the path is smoothed by A.A. Macdonell. His Vedic Reader for Students (Oxford University Press) contains a selection of Vedic hymns transliter- ated, analysed and translated, with very full notes on points of linguistic interest and a complete vocabulary at the back of the book. The Vedic hymns, which are not without their attraction from the literary point of view, are thus made easily accessible to the nro Macdonell’s Vedic Grammar for Students is arrany to corres; ragra| x paragraph wit i Sanskrit Grammar mentioned above, so facilitating the compar- ison of Vedic grammar with Classical. i mpusdde Bipuedde x This appendix is for use in conjunction with the foregoing chaj ters, where er arities and alternative forms may ND where further irregularities and alt ive fos te an mentioned. = Nouns It will be noticed that in all nouns each of the following groups 3 has a single form: (i) Nominative, vocative and accusative (N. V. A.) dual (ii) Instrumental, dative and ablative (I. D. Ab.) dual cA) (iii) Genitive and locative (G. L.) dual - (iv) Dative and ablative plural mms = (v) Nominative and vocative dual or plural ° (vi) Nominative and accusative neuter, any number ©» — oO 1 Vowel stems o Stems in a/a: kanta ‘beloved’ = masc. neut, fem. N. sis kantam kanes oc seh a. L » Kantena kantena kantaya a Ab. : katte kaneat Kaneayah Lo kante kante ‘kanthyim 3 veo» kanta kanta kante o N.V.A. du, kantan kante kante LD. Ab. , kantabhyam Bashir kanebhyam Gh» kantayoh kantayohIrregular stri N.V. pl. kantah kantani a ae D.Ab. fan GQ faatean kantinam L ” kantem kantesu Stems in i and a: nadi f. ‘river’, vadhi f. ‘woman’, stri f. ‘woman’, dhi f. ‘thought’, bhi f. ‘earth’ Polysyllabic Nisg. nadi vadhh A nadim vadbom L nadya vadhva a aa LL nadyim vadhvam v. nadi vadhu NV. A. du. nadyau vadhvau LD. Ab. nadibhyam: vadbibhyam GL. nadyoh vadhvoh N.V. ph. nadyah vadbvah D. Ab. nadibhyah vadbabhyah G. nadinam vadbinam L nadigu vadhitgu Monosyllabic Ni sg. dhih bhob A. dhiyam bhuvam L dhiya bhuva Be 0 OES L dhiyi bhuvi- v. dhih bhoh N.V. A. du. dhiyau bhuvau 1D. Ab. dhibhyam bhibhyam GL. dhiyoh bhuvoh N. V. pl. i bhuvah A. iyah bhuvah a dhiyam bhavam, L hi bbigu Stems in i and u: Suci ‘clean’, mpdu ‘soft? masc. neut, Ni sg. Such Suci A. éucim suci L Sucina Sucina Stlti all till cit i re itn indi: wailed alll iu ALT tania S sias 4 e SF aie 4 A24> 240 Z4udd5 Ze nd24e Zad Z Zad Z2 ZadzZ udcdN. 8g. sumanah A. sent sumanasam L manasa sumanasa D. manase sumanase Ab. G. manasah sumanasah L manasi sumanasi Vv. manah sumanah N.V.A. du. manasi sumanasau LD. Ab. manobbyam sumanobhyam G.L. manasoh sumanasoh N.V.A. pl. manamsi sumanasah L manobhih sumanobhih D. Ab. manobbyah G. manasim sumanasam L. manabsu sumanabsu The neuter of sumanas is inflected like manas. Table Az.1 gives examples of stems ending in other consonants. Table A2.1 Stem Ni sg. N. pl. Lol. Lpl. ood il suyudh 7 ee od fighter suyut suyudhah oon suyutsu m.medicant —_parivrat_—_parivrdj parivradbhih — parivra dig f. direction dik difah digbbib dikea = vid, sere mah hin Stems in ir/ur (both rare) lengthen to ir/ir before consonants and in the nominative singular. Stems in is/us become is/us or ir/ur according to sandhi, and also lengthen the vowel in the nominative, vocative and accusative neuter plural (Table Az.2). & sh. er, =. 2 a aS ae * Although an is stem, this noun lengthens its i in the same circumstances as a stem in ir.Stems in in: dhanin m./n. (dhanin! f.) ‘rich’ (Table A2.3). Table A2.3 Singular Dual Plural masc, neut. mase. neut, mase, neut. N. dhani dhani dhaninau = dhanini in dhanini A dbaoinam dbaai » » inh dhanini D dhanine » dhanibhyah G. dhenineh dhaninoh dhaninam L dhanini » dhanisa Vv. dhanin dhani/dhanin (as N.) (as N.) Stems in an: rajan m. ‘king’, atman m. ‘self’, naman n. ‘name’, panthan m. ‘road’ (irreg.) ahan n. ‘day’ (irreg.) N. sg. raja atma nama A rajan: Atminam nama L rai Atmana namoa D. rajiie Atmane namne Ab. G. rajiiah Atmanah namnah L rajiti/rajani atmani namni/ndmani Vv. rajan atman nama/naman N. V. A. du. rajanau atmanau pamni/namani LD. Ab. rajabhyam atmabhyam ma GL. rajfioh atmanoh namnoh N.V. pl. rajanah atmanal namini A ein Atma pamani I i atmabhih namabbih D. Ab. rajabhyah ‘atmabhyah namabhyah G. rajiam atmanam nameam L rajasu. atmasu namasu N. 5g. panthah ahar A. panthanam ahar L patha ahna D. pathe abne Ab. G. pathah abnab L pathi ahni/ahani v. panthah ahar N.V. A. du. panthanau ahni/abani ED. Ab. Paiieytn ahobhyam L pathol ahnoh x vel pathah breve L pathibhih abobhih D. Ab. pathibhyah ahobhyah G. patham abnam L pathigu ababsu 241Pip ab | quill fll pa dd a ad Uy i ly in Hi eg Bhs, nua! — Dual mase. sceyamsau “geeyobhyain ixeyasoh (as N)Stems in vams: vidvams m./n. (vidusi f.) ‘learned’ (Table A2.5). Table A2.5 Singular Dual Plural masc. neut. masc. neut. masc. neut, N. vidvan vidvat —_-vidvamsau vidusi vidvamsah = vidvamsi A. vidvamsam vidvat » » vidusah_ vidvamsi L vidug vidvadbhyam vidvadbhib, > viduge » vidvadbhyah G. wieet vidugo vidugin L. vidugi * vidvatsu V. vidvan vidvat (as N.) (as N.) Stems in aiic: pratyaiic m/n. (pratici f.) ‘Western’ (Table A2.6). Table A2.6 Singular Dual Plural masc. neut. masc. neut. masc. neut, NV. 1 x Pratyah —_pratyak Pratyafican Prati oe ve ¥ Practica pratyagbhih Ab. peta : preva G. practic praticoh Ppraticim: L Pratici » Pratyakgo In words such as prafic ‘Eastern’, where two as (pra + aiic) coalesce, the middle and weak stems are identical: prac. Thus ablative, genitive and locative plural pragbhyah, pracam, praksu. Pronouns Ist person 2nd person. abam ‘P tvam ‘you’ (Enclitic forms in brackets.) N. gg. abam tvam A mam (m4) ‘tvam (tva) L maya D. mahyam (me) tubhyam (te) Ab. mat or mattah tvat or tvattah G mama (me) tava (te) L. mayi tvayi N.A.du. avam yavam LD. Ab. —avabhyam yavabbyam GL avayoh yuvayoh (A. D. G, nam) (A. D. G. vam) 243 izmpuedde a) ugmaa (vab) ‘ b, asmabhyam (nah) yusmabhyam (vah) Ab. asmat or asmattah ‘yusmiat or yusmattah G. asmakam (nah) "yugmakam (vah) L yugase 3rd sah ‘he, that’ mase. neut. fem. N. sg. sab tat a A. tam tat tam. L tena taya G. : tasya aa L tasmin tasyan N. A. du. tau te te LD. Ab. ‘abhyam GL tayo, N. pl. te tani ak A. tani D. wah seu B, sip ibs G. tes isan L tegu su used in the Classical language. The following pronouns follow the inflexion of sah, tat, s& in any forms not quoted here. (a) etat, es this 2 sah yan, ya who? relative pronoun (c) anyab, anyat, other (@) kab, kim, ka mn fa’ who? interrogative pronoun {e) sarvah, sarvam, sarva all (f) ekah, ekam, ek& one (g) svah, svam, sva own ayam ‘this’ masc. neut. fem. N. sg. ayam idan iyam A. imam idam imam L anena anaya > asmai asyai 5 asmat G. asya comb L asmin asyameee NLA. du. imay ime ime LD. Ab. abhyam: ‘GL . anayoh Ni ph ime imani i D. Ab. ebbyah abhyah G. eam asim L ou asu asau ‘that’ masc. neut. fem. N. An mt ta t amush amuya . amusmai amusyai Ab. amusmat smanit & amugya N. A. du. on amuyam LD. Ab. amfbhyam GL. amuyoh N. pl. ami amin = t bhih ‘ amabhih . ami D. Ab. amibhyah amibhyah GQ amigim amigam L amiga amiga For the pronoun enam ‘him’ see Chapter 10, p. 127. Numerals Cardinals 1 eka 9 [navadaée 2 dvi Gnavimsati 3 tii 20 viméati 4 catur 23 trayo;viméati 5 pafica 30 triméat 6 gag 33 trayas;trimsat 7 sapta 4° catvarimsat 8 asta 41 eka;catvariméat 9 mava 42 dva;catvariméat ro daga 43 trijcatvarimsat 11 ekidaéa 44 catué;catvariméat 12, dvadaga 4S Paiica; in 13 trayodasa 46 sat;catvariméat 14 caturdasa “ Saptajcatvariméat 15 paiicadaia 48 astajcatvariméat 1 godaéa /nava;catvarimésat 17 saptadasa 49 Ona:paiicasat 18 aggidasa 50 paiicaéatzxpuedie 60 sagti a 102{éatam 90 mavati 1000 sahasram 96 sansnavati 100 000 laksam roo Satan 10 000 000 koti To form the cardinal numbers not included in the list, the anal- ogy of 41 to 49 may be followed, though some alternative forms are possible. For the ordinals 60th, 7oth, 80th, goth by themselves only the forms in -tama are allowed. But wherever short forms are per- mitted, the forms in -tama are always a possible alternative: thus 61st aor itama. The sandhi of sas is as if it were sat, except that sas + d = sod and sas + n = samn. The ordinals are all inflected like kanta. Their feminine is always in -i, except for prathama, dvitiya, trtiya, turiya and turya.| texon of cardinals t | The cardinal numbers below 100 are all quoted above in stem : form. viméati and higher numbers ending in -i are feminine i “ stems; those ending in -t are feminine consonant stems. : The inflexion of eka is mentioned under the pronouns. dvi inflects like the dual of kAnta: dvau, dve, dve; tri three N.V. teayah tigi is ae D. Ab. tribhyah tisrbbyah L triga tisrgu catur four NV. i k catvarah: catvari a D. Ab. caturbhyah catasrbhyah G. caturpam catasrnam: L caturgu catasrgu paiica five sag six asta eight NVA Pafica sat asta/astau we paicabbih —sadbhih agabhib/aggbhih G. paficinam © sagnam a L. Paficasu satsu agtasn/astisu The numbers 7 and 9 to 19 inflect like pafica. Verbs General view of the Sanskrit verb The following scheme (which is not exhaustive) will give some idea of the range of possible formations from the verbal root. The second column adds parallel formations from the most highly de- veloped secondary stem, the causative. For the particular verb quoted, some forms are theoretical rather than actually found. 1 Finite formations From the root ni ‘lead’ From the stem may(aya) ‘cause to lead? 247) |zmpuedde Primary verb Present nayati ‘he leads’ (Included in the present system: Imperfect anayat ‘he led’ Imperative nayata ‘let him lead? Optative nayet ‘he may lead’) Perfect ninaya ‘he led’ Aorist anaigit ‘he led? Future nesyati ‘he will lead’ (Conditional anesyat ‘would have led’) Passive niyate ‘he is led’ Secondary verbs Causative (see above, second column) ° nayayati ‘he causes to lead’ Desiderative ninigati ‘he wants to lead’ (Adjective ninigu ‘wanting to lead? Substantive ainiga ‘the wish to lead’) Intensive neniyate ‘he leads forcibly’ Two further independent formations from the root are the aorist passive (third person singular only) anayi ‘he was led’ and the ictive, an aorist optative, niyat ‘may he lead!’ Parasmaipada or 4tmanepada participles, as appropriate, may be formed from the present, the furure and all other formations in precative, or Secondary verb Present causative mayayati ‘he causes to lead’ (Imperfect axdyayat ‘he caused to lead’ Imperative aayayatu ‘let him cause to lead’ Optative nhyayet ‘he may cause to lead’) Periphrastic perf mayayam asa ‘he caused to lead’ Reduplicated aorist (an independent formation) aninayat ‘he caused to lead’ Future causative mayayisyati ‘he will cause to lead’) corres Causative passive nayyate ‘he is caused to lead’ Tertiary verb Desiderative causative mindyayisati ‘he wants to cause to lead’ ninAyayigu ‘wanting to cause to lead’ nindyayis4 ‘the wish to cause to lead’) -ati/-ate. The aorist has no participle, and of the perfect participles the parasmaipada is infrequent and the atmanepada hardly found. 2 Nominal formations With weak grade Past participle nita ‘led’ nayita ‘caused to lead’nitavant ‘having led’ nayitavant ‘having caused to lead” Absolutive (uncompounded) nitva nayayitva ‘after leading’ ‘after causing to lead’ {after prefix) -niya * -ndyya With strong grade Infinitive netum ‘to lead’ n&yayitam ‘to cause to lead’ Agent noun nety ‘leader’ ayayity ‘causer of leading’ Gerundives (a) neya ‘(requiring) to be led” nayya ‘(requiring) of be caused” (6) netavya ” nayayitavya » (c) nayaniya ” ‘nayaniya » 3 Remoter nominal formations Formations of the following types may be regarded as less inte- grated into the verbal structure. Often they are lacking in par- ticular roots or have developed some independent meaning. They fall into two broad categories: (a) Action nouns (‘leading, guidance’): nayanam; nayah ‘prudent conduct’; niti f. ‘prudent conduct’ (b) Agentives (‘that lead’): -ni; -nayin; nayakah ‘leading actor’; netram ‘(instrument of guidance:] eye’ (nayanam may also have this sense). Present paradigms Thematic paradigm The inflexions of the present system of class I verbs, as illustrated by ni, are shared by class IV, VI and X, the future, the passive and all derivative verbs in ati/ate (which means all derivative verbs except one type of intensive). ni ‘lead’ Present Imperfect Imperative Optative parasmaipada Ist sg. nayami anayam: nayani mayeyam 2nd nayasi naya nayeh 3rd nayati anayat nayata mayet ist du. nayavah apayava nayava nayeva * 2nd nayathah anayatam: nayatam mayetam 3rd nayatah amayatam mayatam mayetam |rst pl. nayamah anayama nay3ma mayen ad nayaniti anayan nayantu nayeyub atmanepada snd tayte apt cree aay 3) mayate amayata nayatam 2nd nayethe anayetham nayetham mayeyathim 3 mayete anayetim | nayetim ayeyithon rat pl. nayimahe anayamabi nayamahai nayemahi 3rd mayante anayanta payantam nayeran Part. nayamana Class Il (root class) Present Imperfect Imperative Optative parasmaipada 72 -£ # = tds, Goh vara irre rd dvigtah advigtam dvigtam dvigyatam ipl rumah tums ema rae 3rd dviganti advigan dvigantu dvisyub Part. dvigant @tmanepada dvige advigi dvegai dvigiya a a ee 3st du. dvisvahe advigvahi dvesivabai ——dvigivahi a Saue sigan dice bien 3rd dvigate advigata dvigatam dvigiran Part. dvigana as ‘be’ as ‘sit, stay” Present Imperfect Imperative Present Imperfect Imperative parasmaipada atmanepada astsg. asmi = sam asin ase asi Asai and asi asth edhi asse asthth == ssva 3rd ast asit asta Aste sta aseam astdu. svah sv asava asvabe asvahi —Asfvahai and sthah = stam) stam asathe asithim © asatham3rd stah = astm stm astite asttam = stam tstpl. smah = Asma asama asmahe asmahi asamahai and stha asta sta addhve addhvam addhvam 3rd santi san santo Asate asata asatam Opt. sya, asiya, syah etc. asi etc. Part. sant asina (irreg.) i ‘go’ i ‘go’ (in adhi + i ‘study’) Present Imperfect Imperative Present Imperfect Imperative parasmaipada atmanepada witeg. emi yam apt ye ayia and ei ath itt ise aithah ——_igva gtd etl ait ecu ite aita idm ist du. ivah —aiva ayava ivahe aivahi ayavahai 3rd ita aidan iam iyate aiyatam iyaam 1st pl. imah = aima ayama imahe aimahi ayamahai and itha—aita ita idhve aidhvam = idhvam 3rd yanti ayan yanta iyate aiyata iyatam Opt. iyam, iytya, iyth etc. iyithah etc. Part. yant iyana Class III (reduplicated class) hu ‘sacrifice’ Present Imperfect Imperative Optative parasmaipada Ist sg. juhomi ajuhavam jubavani juhuyam and ajuboh juhudhi jubuyah 3rd juhoti ajuhot jubou juhuyat ast du. juhuvah ajuhuva jubavava jubuyava i iabaeal ajuhutim faba shear at pl. jubumah ajubuma juhavama juhoyama 3rd jubvati ajubavuh jubvatu juhuyuh The second person singular imperative juhudhi (instead of *jububi) is anomalous. atmanepada st juhve ajuhvi juhavai jt nf jubuge ajubuthab j jubvithab is du. jubuvahe ajuhuvahi juhavavahai jubvivabi 3rd juhvate jobvaam = ji rst pl. juhumahe = ajuhumahi ji jubvimahi and jubudhve juhudhvam juhvidhvam3rd jubvate ajuhvata juhvatam jubviran Class V (nu class) ‘su ‘press’ Present Imperfect Imperative Parasmaipada Ist Sg. sunomi asunavam sunavani 2nd sunogi asunoh sunu ee Sanwvab/sanval asunuva/s rst du. fasunva sunavava 2nd sanuthah asunutam sunutam 3rd sunutah asunutam suoutam af ee eee sunutha asuouta sunuta 3rd sunvanti asunvan sunvanta Opt. sunuyam etc. Part. sunvant atmanepada Ist 8g. sumve asunvi sunavai sunuge asunuthah sunusva 3rd sunute asunuta sunutam: rst du. sunuvahe/sunvahe asunuvahi/asunvahi sunavavahai sunvathe asunvathim sunvathim 3rd sunvate asunvatim sunvatim ast pl. sunomahe/sunmahe asunumahi/asunmahi sunavamahai sunudhve asunudhvam sunudhvam 3rd sunvate asunvata sunvatam Opt. sunviya etc. Part. sunvana Class Vil (infix nasal class) radh ‘obstruct’ i RERHE T i HERBY HE ETHERad rundhvahe arundhvahi —runadhavahai Ist runddham and rundhithe — arundhatham =—rundhatham stot Tumdbmahe | srundhmabi — rupadhtmaba 1st pl. and runddhve arunddhvam —_runddhvam i randhate arundhata rundhatam Part. rundbana Class Vill (u class) keg ‘do? Present Imperfect _Imperati barasmaipada 1st $8. karomi akaray ° x kares kuru 3rd karogi akaroh karavani rst du. kurvah akarot karotu aed Kurachah akurucan karan By ese kurutam 1st pl. akurutim vd akareta kuruta ard knrvanti akurvan Part. kurvant kurvant atmanepada ia kurve alaunvi . ard kurate akuruta i korusva 1st du. curve alcurvab karst ed kurvace akurvatham = kurvatham_ oy sderistes —_korvietm rst pl. kurmahe and kurudhve akurudhvam karadhvans 3ed kurvate akurvata kurvatim Part. kurvaga The other seven verbs of this class inflect like su. Class IX (na class) {ett ‘buy’ Present Imperfect Imperative parasmaipada 2S mS is it Sa. teh agitate qe UES i i keiniyat krintyavaHu il al ail iy dal fli adulin Hdiial alia Huftiat udulia ladtiart | snsttedln dial aduli Hi lalid adilla &. g a =, win oo fasinived i ias ‘be’ (parasmaipada): asa Asitha asa; asiva asathuh asatuh; |955 asima 4sa asuh—no participle. Aorist paradigms i Non-sigmatic aorists Root aorist a-aorist Reduplicated aorist dba ‘pur’ ‘bhi ‘be’ sic ‘moisten’ _nif (cause to) ‘lead’ parasmaipada is sg. adhim abhivam asicam aninayam and adhah abbah asicah aninayal astdu. adhava abhiva asicava aninayava and adbatam abbitam asicatam aninayatam 3rd adbatam abbitam asicatam aninayatam 1st pl. adhama abbima asicama aninayama and adhata abhita asicata aninayata 3rd adbuh abhivan asican aninayan atmanepada me sg asice aninaye asicathah aninayathah 3rd asicata aninayata 1st du. asicavahi aninayavahi ba aninayethii 3rd asicetam aninayetam ad ‘adivam ——sulneyedhvan ani ard asicanta aninayanta Sigmatic aorists s-aorist ig-aorist sig-aorist sa-aorist After vowel After consonant ni‘lead? dah ‘burn’ pO‘purify’ —-yago’— dé ‘point’ parasmaipada 1st sg. i i is H ot ar aro as a anaigit adhaksit soe arash adikgat 3rd anaisfam_ adagdham apavistam ayasigtim = adiksatam rst pl. anaigma a apavigma ayasigma adiksama 21 anaigta apavigta ayasig¢a —_adikgata 3rd anaiguh = aadhakgub apaviguh adikganzrpuodde B atrnanepada ot A ii . iad” a ae dy Sah Sah =, son aan apavigmahi —_adiksimabi and apavidhvam —_adiksadhvam rd ee ‘apavigata adikganta Precative ‘be’ (parasmaipada): bhiyasam bhiyah bhiyat; bhiyasva Bistyactan bsivtotos bhayaene Vityaeee Bitinaoc‘Principal parts of verbs ‘The following list of verbs {arranged in Sanskrit alphabetical order) shows the main formations from each root. The less im- portant verbs and those, such as class X verbs, whose derivative forms are obvious are omitted. The past participle is to be taken as a guide to the formation of the past active participle and of the uncompounded absolutive in -tva; the infinitive to the for- mation of the agent noun and of the gerundive in tavya. Similarly, the gerundive in aniya, when it is found, is based on the verbal noun in ana (here normally given as anam since it is most often a neuter substantive). Where parasmaipada and at- manepada forms both exist, only the former are mentioned. A blank indicates that the part of the verb in question is not known to appear in Classical Sanskrit; and even of those forms given some are rare or dubious. 257) ia| se debeed f wh | ‘Labial seagiileetels * safslitial |a ae ig ot dutitatl linha iy Hilale |40j whale hulle h th hati Ds setsh Hattlalal ia hn Ta tlaede 3 Te diy al Reazxpuedds § Hod lin ih ' hilihalil land ! te Hel le “a i FEEL tle 4 ‘hy tk ttl i a dn B Ses anulHilll annlilll 4 4 AMTHORMALCH TD] HA meno nwo adns ai i Hihtabl a AH ih aH alah fond Hately | Haddad Hidduads@l dha fad 1H lat oh & Rs ctieits arate gasses. Gass ge: pHUH I) zxpucdie &Linda (Heb at | bade dhl sagt theately| Udntbeetedi Helly (|that ia a He Hall TSE tal WHY wl dl ul iHie 1/3 idandi {I radial lazuli stad i Heit daly if | sidddestada an haa il) ianlely 3) wll au Js iM a i pull264! i i is | fy deen lthidl sat han aL ald [WH th HI i H iho ibn f 3 ® : is Hl He Hf Saat tk aul : uel ui 3 Nesteid: Hinds tatdanly |U) i | ltttlateta da Haaladi Bia We Hdd had Hheishl 4, Mila Hapa ble i ge Gs 46 eBe rua AT MH) dy)4| Habit [Hab ib i E Hirata dafalosetl leet suiidald dala a tla hated Gall i Jy slebasdald 1 | hal | vartin wl soulit aed Ad adil 2 of i ltiliel ul Liutinal a. tlescesa ef Jutlttely| Hyd lethal i Heatils i 2 i 3 i f Hid t) mati bi Rs RS g &. ag Bs 3 a Bs ghf gee 25s ge HO) ail W| iil asl ne no na aA1 Anustubh Normal form: © 000v——0/0000v—~o (half-verse) {i) The second or third syllable of each pada must be heavy. (ii) The half-verse must not end v — v —» ©, Permitted variant forms of the first or third pada: (a) o° a vvvo (ie. the fourth syllable as well as the one second or third must be heavy) (b) e-+——~e ° (c) 0-+—-—/—— © (caesura after fifth syllable) (d) 00 0—/—+—o (caesura after fourth syllable) 2 Samacatuspadi metres (in order of length) (Name; analysis, including caesura; definition, normally taken from Kedara’s Vrttaratnakara.) Indravajra - -- ~ - ~~ -~ --(ttjgg) syad Indravajra yadi tau ja;gau gah Upendravajra v —v —- + ~~ == Gtise) Upendravajra jasta;jas tato gau Upajati Any mixture of Indravajra and Upendravajra padas (i.e. first syllable light or heavy at will) Rathoddhata - v -~ ~~ -~-~— (rorlg) ran na ;rav iha Rathoddhata la;sgau Vaméastha v - v ~— vv —v —v —(jtjr) jastau tu Vaméastham udiritam ja;rau -¢ xipuedde (2) SOJ]OW |LOISSPIO1270 eee eckaraia taiajel ronamycech i syad Indravaméa ta;ta;jai ra-samyutaih Vaméamala Any mixture of Vaméastha and Indravamé4 padas (i.e. first syllable lighe or heavy at will) Vasantatilaka -- v -~ vv —¥ += v——(tbhjjgg) kta Vasantatilaka tasbhasja jasgan gah Maliniv vv vvv——/-v- ae (anmyy 8+7) na;na;ma;ya;ya-yub» éyam / Malini bhogi;lokaih Sikharini - — - - -— - Jevvvvenves -(ymnsbhlg 6+11) rasai rudraig chinnd / yasmasnasasbhasla gah Sikharint Hariniv+ vee -/—--- /vovvn-—(nsmrslg 64447) rasa;yuga;hayair / n;sau m;rau s;lau go / yada Harini tada Mandakranta - ---—/+--~e-/-v-—~—-(mbhnttgg 4+6+7) Mandakranta / jaladhi;sad;agair / msbhau na;tau tad cet gura Sardolavikeiditam — — -v » - + -v vy -/- ave ne (msjsttg 12+7) shry;4évair yadi mat sa;jau sa;ta;ta;gah / Sardolavikeidi Sragdhara — — — -v + /vv ev evo fev env (mrbhnyyy 7+7+7) m;rasbh;nair yanam trayena / trizmunizyati-yuta / Sragdhara kirtit» éyam yvy-- bh--~- Symbolic numbers rov- vee 4 yuga (age of world); jaladhi te-y seem (ocean) m--- nevy 6 rasa (flavour) g- le 7 loka (world); aéva, haya (horse); aga (mountain); muni (star of Great Bear) 8 bhogin (serpent-demon) rx rudra (god) 12 sfirya (sun) 3 Ardhasamacatuspadi metres (The bracketed syllable occurs only in the second and fourth padas.)Viyogini vv — (-) vv -v - + ~(ssjg+sbhrig) visame sassa;ja gurub, same sasbha;ra lo »tha gurur Viyogini Malabharint - ~~ (-)v~ —»—~-—(ssjgg+sbhry) sa;sa;jah prathame pade gura cet sajbha;ra yena ca Malabharini syat Aparavaktra v - - (-) vv ~» —- = (nari g+njjr) asyuji nasna;ra;l4 guruh, same tad Aparavaktram idam na;jau ja;rau Pugpitagra - vv» (-)vv -v -~——(nnrytnjjrg) a:yuji na-yuga;repha“to yakAro yuji ca na;jau jasrasgaé ca Puspitagra (Note: Both the first two metres are known by a number of other names.) -- — (half-verse) In the usual form of the second half-verse a light syllable replaces the whole of the sixth foot. Such a stanza, made up of 30 + 27 matras, constitutes the Arya proper. Arya 30+ 27 Udgiti 27 + 30 Upagiti 27 + 27 Giti 30 + 30 Aryagiti or Skandhaka 32 + 32 (ice. the eighth foot is extended to — ~ or ~~ -) 271 oeuondisosue.s) :Sesiosexe ysij|6ug—wysues [3] Exercise 2b 1x gacchimi 2 atra na pravisamah 3 punar api likhati 4 adhuna kva vasatha? 5 evam icchasi? 6 kva punas tisthanti? 7 katham, ita agacchati? 8 atra kim dnayatah? 9 pasyami likhami ca 10 bhramab iva 11 ngtyatho | gayathas ca 12 smaranti ca Socanti ca 13 ‘atra Pravigava’ i iti vadatah 14 adhuna >pi katham m» agacchati? 15 jaya» iti 16 na jivant iti Socamah Exercise 3a 1 dcdryam Sisya anayanti 2 apy a$van icchasi? 3 aham sirya;candrau pasyami 4 sukham ko m écchati? 5 svalpam bhojanam 6 jalam afvan naro nayati 7 ‘kas tvam?” iti mam prcchatah 8 kam parvatam pandito gacchati? g atra krodho na vasab iti vanam pravigatah xo Sighram vacanam tm Avagacchimah 11 AcSrya, parvata iva sa gajah 12 kam punah prcchimi? 13 kim Sisya ylyam? 14 jalam nara ;balah pra- viSanti 15 ‘ramaniyam adhun tat phalam’ iti vismita vadanti 16 katham, ate api balah? 17 duhkhany api phalam dnayanti 18 ‘bala, atra kim sukham paSyath»?’ éti Sisyan Acaryo vadati Exercise 4a 1 putraih saha grham tyajati 2 etad udya- nam—praviSamah 3 acdryena ca Sigyais Adbhutah prayers krtah 4 priyo madiyo vayasya iti jivitam etena esa grham Agacchati? é ramapiyena darganena kim na madyas 7 dystam avagatam ca 8 ayer naeth ‘List icchone? Mi kutdhalena grham pravisati 9 diram eva nagaram, vayam ca pariSranta bhramamah 10 icchath» aiv aitan, na va? 11 ‘krtam vacanair, gato -vasara’ iti visadena vadatah 12 putrah, sa ew aiso ovasarah 13 ete vayam nagaram 4gatah 14 vismrto vayasya- bhyam prathamo visidah 15 ‘he pandita, tvam a’vam kva nayas»?’ iti prsto »pi vacanam na vadati 16 kim prayatnena?—m aiva tvam pasyati devahExercise 5a 1 imau svah 2 prativacanam me $rutva kim anyad icchanti? 3 m sty eva te pustakam 4 vayasya, hydayam iv asi mama 5 asminn udyane muhirtam upavisavah 6 ksetresu sarve bhramanti 7 deva, anyasman nagarad brah- manah kaScid agatah 8 kam upayam pasyasi mama putranam darSanaya? 9 krodham asya » avega iva no hrdaye 10 ayamm kumaras tisthati rz katham, ksanam ev> 6pavigya drste maya punar api mitre 12 anyabh ko >pi margo na bhavati 13 dubkhay> aiva mitrinim idanim Ramasya darsanam 14 anye- bhyo >pi deven» aitac chrutam 15 gtham pravisya ‘kva kw édinim sa papa?’ iti sarvan prcchati 16 andhanam deSe kana eva prabhavati 17 Kalahamsaka, ken» aitan Madhavasya prat- icchandakam abhilikhitam? Exercise 6a 1 Sonottare, kim Agamana-prayojanam? 2 kowam, anartha-dvayam dpatitam 3 maharaja, api kuSalam ? 4 kutah punar iyam vartta? 5 satyam kame “bhita ev Asmi 6 amatya, vistirgah Kusumapura- vyttantah 7 tvam aryabhih putra iva gfhitah 8 katamasmin pradeSe Mario-aSramah? 9 amba, ka >si? kim-artham aham tvaya pratisiddhah? 10 nanv anuSaya-sthanam etat 11 s» aiv éyam 12 ubhabhyam api vam Vasava-niyojyo Duhsantah parent 13 kast@ khalu seva 14 na khalu Vysalasya Sravana- patham upagato »yam may4 kytah Kaumudimahotsava-prati- gedhahe 15 kim tav- anaya cintaya? 16 Madhavya, apy asti te akuntala-darSanam prati kutthalam? 17 Srotriya-likhitany aksarani prayatnalikhitany api niyatam asphutani bhavanti Exercise 7a_ 1 aye,iyamdevi 2 pratibodhita ev asmi ken» Api 3 idam amatya:Raksasa-grham 4 aho vatsalena suhrda viyuktah smah 5 su:vicintitam bhagavatya 6 arya, api sahya Siro- vedana? 7 lajjayati mam atyanta:saujanyam esim 8 tena l» imam ksira-veksa-cchayim @$rayamah 9 ciram adarSanen> aryasya vayam udvignah 10 svagatam devyai 11 alam asmad- avinay>-aSankaya 12 amiatya, kalpitam anena yogacirpa- miSram ausadham Candraguptaya 13 aye, Urvasi-gatra-sparsad iva nirvytam me Sariram 14 rye, kim atyahitam Sita:devyah? 15 yavad iman vedi-sampstarap-artham darbhan rtvigbhya upa- harami 16 kathitam Avalokitaya ‘Madan-édyanam gato Madhava’ iti 17 kastam, ubhayor apy asthdne yatnah 18 m ayam katha-vibl »smabhir anyena va Sruta: ah 19 vayam api tavad bhavatyau sakhi-gatam kimcit ah 20 améatya, idam abharanam kuméareya sva:Sarirad avatarya presitam274 | Exercise 8a 1 hanta, siddh:4rthau svah 2 kptam Rama- sadrSam karma 3 asti daksinapathe Padmapuram nama na- garam 4 vayasya, itah stambb»-apavarita;Sarirau tisthavah 5 ramaniyah khalu divas-Avasina-vpttanto raja-vesmani 6 kim- artham a:grhitazmudrah katakan niskramasi? 7 vatsa, alam atm>-Aparidha-Sankaya 8 bho bhob, kim:prayojano »yam afvah parivrtah paryatati? 9 kam punar atrabhavatim avagacchami? ro kumara, m ayam atyanta:durbodho orthah 11 kim tv améatya:Raksasa$ Canakye baddha;vairo, na Candragupte 12 tad ega svayam pariksita;gunan brahmanan presayami 13 ha kastam, atibibhatsazkarma nySamso »smisamvrttah 14 katham, kytazmaha>paradho >pi bhagavatibhyam anukampito Ramah 15 yavad idanim avasita:samdhya=japyam mahardjam pasyami 16 sa tad» aiva devyah Sitayas tidsSam daiva-durvipakam upaSrutya vaikhanasah samvettah 17 a:phalam an:ista:phalam va Daruvarmanah prayatnam adhigacchami 18 sundari, a arinirvano divasah 19 Sakuntala-dar$anad eva mand>;aut- yo »smi nagara-gamanam prati Exercise 9a 1 kim uktavin asi? 2 samprati nivartamahe vayam 3 kpb:dfijalih pragamati 4 sarvan abhivadaye vah 5 sakhe Pundarika, m aitad anuripam bhavatah 6 yavad up- asthitam homa-velim gurave nivedayami 7 kaccid aham iva vismytavams tvam api? 8 paravanto vayam vismayena 9 arya, api Satror vyasanam upalabdham? 1o tat kim ity aSankase? 11 aham adhundyath»-ddistam anutisthami 12 bhagavan, na Khalu kagcid a:visayo nama dhimat&am 13 Sakuntala sakhim aigelye tarjayati 14 sadhu sakhe Bhirivaso sidhu 15 kim gyam, pratibuddho rbhihitavan? 16 atha sa tatrabhavati yasya raja:rseh patni? 17 bhadra, ath» Agni-pravese on te ko hetuh? .18 paravati khalu tatrabhavati, na ca samnihita:guru‘jand 19 distya dharma-patni-samagamena putra-mukhasamdarSanena © dyusman vardhate 20 tat kim ayam &ryena sa_lekhah purusah Kusumapuram prasthapitah? 21 tatrabhavan Kanvah sa$vate brahmani vartate, iyam ca vah sakhi tasy> Atmaj» éti katham etat? 22 man» Api Kanva-sutam anusmytya mygayam prati nir_utsukam cetah 23 api Candragupta-dos —_atikranta:parthiva-gunan smarayanti prakstih? 24 etém a:sambhavyam brahmanasya pratijfiam Srutva sa_sacivo raja prahrsta:mana vismay>-4nvitah sa_bahuma- nam tasmai VisnuSarmane kum&ran samarpitavan Exercise 10a _1 pasya Madhavasy 4vasthim 2 mahati viside vartate te sakhi:jjanah 3 idam tat pratyutpanna;mati~tvamstrinim 4 aho darSaniyany aksarapi 5 muhfirtam upavisata 6 bhoh Sresthin Candanadasa, evam apathya-karigu tikgna;dando raja 7 anubhavatu rapapathya-kari~tvasya phalam 8 pratyasannah kila mpgaya-vihari parthivo Duhsantah 9 gaccha- tam bhavantau 10 bhos tapasvin, cintayann api na khalu svi- karanam atrabhavatyah smarimi 11 sakhe Madhavya, drdha:pratijfio bhava 12 aho nir_daya™ta dur;atmanam pau- ranpam—aho Ramasya rajiiah ksipra:kari~ta 13 bhagavan Manmatha, kutas te kusumpzayudhasya satas taiksnyam etat? 14 nanu bhavatyah pap-dficalair vatsau vijayadhvam 15 bhagm;6tsahah kyto »smi mygaya~pavadina Madhavyena 16 aho bata, kidySim vayo-vastham apanno »smi 17 adya Sis>4nadhyayanam iti khelatam batinam ayam kalakalah 18 svairam svairam gacchantu bhavatyah 19 paritrayatim suhrdam Maharajah 20 tatrabhavatah kulapater asamnidhyad raksimsi nas tapo-vighnam utpadayanti 21 bhadra, anaya mu- draya mudray ainam 22 Satru-prayuktdndm ca tiksna:rasa- dayinam pratividhanam praty apramadinah pariksita:bhaktayah ket ti pratyasanni niyuktah puruséh 23 samprati Madayantika-sambandhena Nandam-dpagrahat pratyasta:San- k&h khalu vayam 24 bhavinam enam cakravartinam avagac- chatu bhavan 25 maya tavat suhyttamasya Candanadisasya gthe grha-janam niksipya nagaran nirgacchata nyayyam anusthi- tam 26 devi, samstabhy atminam anurudhyasva bhagavato Vasisthasy> adeSam iti vijfiapayami Exercise 11a 1 katham, iyam si Kanva-duhita Sakuntala? 2 vatse, yad aham the tad astu te 3 he dhiirta, lekho niyate, na ca jfidyate ‘kasy-? éti? 4 priye Malati, iyam viksyase 5 viSramy- atém parijanena 6 Mandiarike, yad atra vastuny esa te vallabhah kathayati, api tathd tat? 7 devem aivam nisiddhe »pi Madh»-fit- save, ctakalika-bhahgam arabhase? 8 pariraksyantam asya pranah 9 bho rajan, kim idam josam dsyate? xo tad anusthi- yatém &tmano >bhiprayah 1x kim o 4tistsjah ParvateSvara- bhratre g{airodhaletya parva:prastisruto rajy-ardhab 12 Kattan, ‘Sakuntal»’ éty asya matur akhya? 13 kah sa maha:pu- ruso yem aitan manusamatra-duskaram mahat karm 4nusthi- tam? 14 Priyamvadaka, jfidyatam ‘ka vel vartata?’ iti 13 i arya Vaihinare, diyatam abhyam vaitalikabhyam suvarnaSata-sah: ram 16 Vesala kim ayam asthina eva mahan arthy-Stsargah kriyate? 17 bhoh Sresthin, api praciyante samvyavaharanam lab- hah? 18 bhagavati Vasumdhare, slaghyam duhitaram aveksasva Janakim 19 katham , nivaryamano >pi sthita eva? 20 bhaga- van Valmike, upaniyetam imau Sita-garbha-sambhavau uonduosuey :s68]020xe ysy6ua~ sues276 Rama:bhadrasya KuSa;Lavau 21 yadrSo >yam tadySau tav api 22 visrsta$ ca Vamadev--anumantrito medhyo >$vab. upakalpitas ca yatha_s4stram tasya raksitarah. tesim adhisthata ah upakalpis majas Candraketur avapta:divy>4stra~sampradayas caturzanga: ‘sidhamnvito »nuprahitah 23 hanta, hanta, sarvatha nrSamso smi, ya§ cirasya dystin priya:suhrdah priyan daran na snigdham pasyami 24 atha tasmAd aranyat parityajya nivytte Lakgmane Sitayah kim vyttam? iti kacid asti pravyttih? 25 asti tivad ekada prasangatah kathita eva maya Madhaw>;a- bhidhanah kumaro, yas tvam iva mamakinasya manaso dvitiyam nibandhanam Exercise 12a 1x bhadra, bhadra, na pravesfavyam 2 bhavatu, §momi tavad asam visrambha-! “kathitini 3 tisnim bhava, yavad akarnayami 4 amitya, tathd pi prarabdham a:parityajyam eva 5 tad atra Sala-pracchaye mi shartam 4sana-parigraham karotu tatah 6 samupadiga tam uddeSam yatr Aste sa pindapati 7 hydaya sthiri~bhava. kim api te kastataram akarnaniyam 8 kim anyad bravitu? 9 iyam © Orvasi yavad_ayus tava sahad- harmacarini bhavatu ro tad yavac Chriparvatam upaniya lavaSo lavaSa end nikrtya dubkha;marapam karomi II asti nah sucarita-$ravana-lobhad anyad api prastavyam 12 tat kim ity udasate bharatah? 13 tatra © aivam anustheyam yathd vadami 14 nanu bhavatibhyam eva Sakuntala sthirikartavya 15 gthita:grha“sfram enam sa_putraykalatram samyamya raksa tavad yavan maya Vysalaya kathyate 16 sampraty Agasty-dSra- masya panthanam brihi 17 vinita:vesa-praveSyani tapo-vanani 18 maru-sthalyam yatha vystih, ksudh»arte bhojanam tatha 19 udghatini bhimir iti ra$mi-samyamanad rathasya mandibhito regah 20 cakravartinam putram 4pnuhi 21 tat kiyantam m asmabhir evam sambbta;balair api Satru-vyasanam avekgaméapair udasitavyam? 22 yad» ai atguriyaka-darsanid anusmytam devena ‘satyam Odha:pirva rahasi mayé tat ati Sakuntala mohat pratyadis}»’ éti, tad» aiva paScdttapam upagato devah 23 mahajdhana™tvad bahu;patni~kenm dnena_bhavi- ae 24 amatya, idrSasy> abharana- -visepasya vesatab umarepa sva:gatrad avatarya prasadilytasya kim ayam pari bhimih? 25 yavacca sampbarihine na parapatanti, tavad vatsaya Malatya nagara-devata-grham avighna:mangalaya gantavyam Exercise 13a 1x dehi me prativacanam 2 tvaya saha Gau- tami gamisyati 3 katham, Sinya iv ami pradeSah 4 esa tam igum samdadhe s5 yadi rahasyam, tada tisthatu—yadi na ra- hasyam, tarhi kathyatam 6 aham apy amum vrttantam bhaga- vatyai Lopamudrayai nivedayami 7 sa khalu mirkhas tamyugmabhir atispstam prabhftam artha-rasim avapya, mahata vyayem épabhoktum arabdhavan 8 distya su:prabhatam adya, yad ayam devo drstah 9 kim cid Bkdhydeucehend smi to upalap- sye tivad enam 11 bhadra Siddharthaka, kamam idam asya priyasya, tatha pi grhyatam 12 ayam asau raj-ajiiaya 13)-Apathya-kari kayasthah tadasah Silam dropayitum niyate 13 jfi@syathah khalv etat 14 puny>:4Srama-darSanem> punimahe tavat 15 bhadre, na tat pariharyam, yato vivaksitam an:uktam anut@pam janayati 16 m d4yam avasaro mama atum drastum 17 sakhe, na tavad enam pagyasi, yena tvam evam:vadi 18 aye, etas tapasvi-kanyakah sva:pram4panuripaih secana-ghatair bala:padapebhyah payo datum ita ev: Abhivartante 19 na cen muni-kumarako »yam, tat ko »sya vyapadeSah? 20 matimams Capakyas tucche prayojane kim iti Candraguptam kopayisyati? na ca krtavedi Candragupta etavata gauravam ul- langhayisyati 21 tena hi vijfiapyatam mad-vacanad upadhyayah Somaratah—‘amiin a$rama-vasinah Srautena vidhina satkytya svayam eva praveSayitum arhas>’ iti 22 smartavyam tu sau- janyam asya ngpater, yad aparadhinor apy an:aparaddhayor iva nau kyta:prasidam cegtitavin 23 he vyasana-sabrahmacarin, yadi na guhyam m4Atibharikam va, tatah Srotum icchami te prinay parityaga-karapam 24 arya Vaihinare, ‘adya prabhyty ram Candraguptah svayam eva raja-karyani kar- isyat’ iti grhip:@rthah kriyantém praktayah 25 vayam apy a$rama-badha yath4 na bhavati, tathd prayatisyamahe 26 kim idanim Candraguptah sva:rajya-karya:dhuram anyatra mantripy &tmani va samasajya svayam pratividhatum a:samarthah? 27 yat satyam, kavya-viSesa-vedinyam parisadi prayuiijanasya mam> Api su:mahan paritosah pradur~bhavati 28 ‘Candragupta- $aricram abhidrogdhum anena vyaparita Daruvarny:adaya’ iti na- gare prakhyapya Sakatadasah SGlam dropitah 29 sa khalu kasmim$ cid api jivati Nand>-anvay~-avayave Vrsalasya sacivyam grahayitum na Sakyate 30 idam atra ramaniyakam, yad amatya:Bhirivasu;Devaratayo$ cirat pirno »yam itaretar- Apatya-sambandh»:Amyta-manorathah Exercise 14a 1 Priyamvadaka, jiiayatém ko »smad-darfam- Arthi dvari tisthati 2 kva nu khalu gata syat? 3 dsit tadrSo munir asminn 3$rame 4 4yusman, Sriyatam yadartham asmi Harina tvat-sakaéam presitah 5 evam ukto »py aham enam prabodhayam punah punah 6 cirat prabhrty aryah parityako:- OcitaxSarira~samskara iti pidyate me hrdayam 7 vismaya;- harsazmiilag ca kolahalo lokasy> édajihita 8 tad ucyatém patravargah ‘svegu svesu pathesv asammidhair bhavitavyam’ iti 9 sakhe, cintaya tavat ken» ApadeSena punar a$rama-padamgacchimah 1o api nama dur;Atmana$ Canakyac Candragupto bhidyeta xx ayam asau mama jyayan aryah Ku$o nama Bharab-aéramiat pratinivgttah 12 surata-kheda-prasuptayos tu tayoh svapne bisa-guna-nigadita;pado jarathah ka& cij jalapadah Pratyadrsyata. pratyabudhyet&am © S6bhau 13 tad anvisyatam yadi ka cid apanna;sattva tasya bhirya syat 14 Aryaputra, m Ayam vigrambhakathaya avasaras, tado laghutaram ev 4bhidhi- yase 15 katham idySena saha vatsasya Candraketor dvandasampraharam anujaniyam? 16 ity avadhary dpasar- pam-abhilasiny aham abhavam 17 kasmin prayojane mam Ayam pranidhih prahita iti prabhita~tvat prayojananam na khalv avadharayami 18 yadi ka$ cid asty upayah pati-droha- pratikriyayai, darSayy Amum—matir hi te patiyasi_ 19 anay» aiva ca kathaya taya saha tasminn eva prasdde tath» aiva pratisiddb>; Asesaiparijana-praveSA divasam atyavahayam 20 tad upayaé cintyatam yatha saphala;prarthano bhaveyam 21 Srutv4 © aitat tam eva matta:hastinam udassidhorano raja-putro >dhiruhya ramhas» éttamena rajabhavanam abhyavartata 22 upalab- dhavan asmi pranidhibhyo yatha tasya mleccha-raja-balasya mee pradhanatamah pafica rajinah paraya subyt~taya anuvartanta iti 23 Za yadi punar iyam kimvadanti a ree tat kastam syat 24 ity avadhary> an- vestum ddaram akaravam. anvesamapa$ ca yathd yathd m Spesyamn tam, tatha tatha subrtsneha-katarena manasa tat tad aSobhanam aSahkamanas taru-gahan4ni candana-vithika lata- manda ae sarah-kilani ca vikgamago nipupam itas tato su:ciram vyacaram 25 ekasmimps ca pradeége jhatiti van-anilem dpanitam nirbhara:vikasite »pi kanane »bhibhip;- Anyatkusuma-parimalam visarpantam ati:surabhi~taya vnulim- pantam iva tarpayantam iva pirayantam iva ghray>-éndriyam, ahamahamikayé madhukara-kulair anubadhyamanam an:ghrata:pirvam a:manusa-lok-6citam kusuma-gandham ab- hyajighram Exercise 15 evam:vadini deva:rsau par$ve pitur adhomukhi | lila-kamala-pattrani am sa Parvati iba il evam iti || devas Angirasi) evam:vadini sati Parvatt pituh p” Srice adhenaebr sati | lajjay» éti Sesah | [7la-kamala-pattrani onan doa samcakhyau) | lajji-vasat kamala-dala-ganana:vya- jena harsam ji jusop ety a éty arthah anem Avahitth»; akhyah samcari bhava uktah | tad ‘avahittha tu andes harp:ady-akara-gopanam’ iti || Sailah sampOrpa;kamo »pi Men’-mukham udaiksata| ptayena grhininetrah kanya~rthesu kutumbinab |[8 5||Saila iti || Sailah (: Himavan) samparna;kamo >pi| datum kgtaznigcayo p> ity arthah | Mena-mukham udaiksata | uciv: Sttara-jijfidsay» éti bhavah | tathd hi | prayera kufumbinal (: grha- sthah) kanya-rthesu (: kanya-prayojanesu) grhity eva netram (: k&ryajiiana-karanam) yesam te tath» dktah | kalatra:pradhana; vattaya ity archab || mene Mena >pi tat sarvam patyuh karyam abhipsitam | bhavanty avyabhicrinyo bhartur iste pati;vratah {|86]| mena iti || Mena >pi patyub (: Himialayasya) tat sarvam abbipsitam karyam mene (:angi~cakara) |tatha hi patir eva vratam yasam tah bhartur iste (: abhipsite) (na vidyate vyab- hiciro yasam tah:) avyabhicarinyo bhavanti | bharty-citt»-ab- hipraya-jiia bhavant iti bhavah || ‘jdam atr> Sttaram nyayyam’ iti buddhya vimrSya sah | adade vacasim ante mangab-dlamkytam sutim Teal idam iti || sab (: Himavan) vacasam ante (: munivaky>-vasane) atra (: muni-vakye) idam (: uttara:$loke vaksyamanam danam eva) nyZyyam (: nyayad an:apetam) uttaram iti buddbya (: cit- tena) vimrsya (: vicintya) (mangalam yatha tatha >lamkrtam :) mangab-dlamkytam sutam adade (: hastabhyam jagraha) || ‘ehi, ViSvatmane, vatse, bhiksa >si parikalpita | arthino munayah—~praptam grhamedhi-phalam maya’ ||88\| eb iti |] he vatse (: putri) ebi (: agaccha) |tvam Visvatmane (: Sivaya) bbikga parikalpita >si (: niScitd >si) | ‘ratm di sarvam bhiks tapasvinah’ iti vacanad iti bhavah | arthinah (: yacitarah) munayah | maya grhamedbinah (: a) phalam praptam | iha paratra ca tdraka~tvat patre kanyadanam garhasthyasya phalam ity arthah || etavad uktva tanayam ysin aha mahidharah | ‘iyam namati vah sarvams Trilocana-vadhir’ iti ||89l| etavad iti || mahidbarah (: Himavan) tanayam etavat (: ptrw :Oktam) uktvd rsin aba | kim iti? | ‘yam Trilocana-vadhah (: Tryambaka-patni) vah sarvan namat? iti | “Trilocana-vadhor’ iti siddha~vad abhidhanem ‘A:vipratipannam danam’ iti sicayati || ipsit:4rtha-kriy»-daram te »bhinandya girer vacah asirbhir edhayam asuh purah;pakabhir Ambikam ||90|| Ipsib:arth> &ti || te (: munayah) ipsib:4rtha-kriyaya (: igp:artha- karanena) udaram (: mahat) | ‘udaro datr;mahatoh’ ity Amarah |gireb (: Himavatah) vacab (: vacanam) abbir { nie ‘i samstutya) | Ambikam (: Ambam) | ‘pacyata’ iti purab;pakabhip (: puraskyta;phalabhih) asirobib ¢ ‘Eee edhayam dsub (: samvardhayam sub) || tam prandm»-ddara-srasta;jambinada‘vatamsakam | afkam dropayam 4sa lajjamfnim Arundhati |l91{| tam iti || prandrp-adarena (: namask&r-asakty4) sraste jamba- nade (: suvarpa-vikare) vatamsake (: kanaka-kundale) yasyas tam lajjamanam tam (: Ambikam) Arundhati ankam aropayam asa | ‘ruhah po onyatarasyam’ iti pakarah || tan-mataram © 4$ru-mukhim duhity-sneha-viklavam varasy> An:anyaipiirvasya vi;Sokam akarod gunaih isa tad iti || dubity-snebena (: putcika-premna) viklaudm (: ‘viyoksyata’ iti bhitam) | ata ew (aSriini mukhe yasyas tam :) aSrumukbim (ta- syah (: Ambikiyah) mataram :) tan-mataram (: Menam) ca | (anya pirvam yasy> Asti so :) onya:pirvah | ‘sarvanamno vytti-visaye purmvad- bhavah’ iti piirva:padasya pumvad- bhavab | (sana bha- vab’ ity an:anyaipiirvas, tasya:) an:anyaiparvasya | sipatnya- dubkham a:kurvata ity arthah | varasya (: vodhuh) gunaib (: mytyumnjaya™tvzdibhib) visdokden (: nis ni, en om ll vaivahikim tithim prstas tatksanam Hara te tryahad Ordhvam akhyaya cerus Gragadgeahah a ol vaivahikim iti || cGra:parigrabab (: valkala-matra:vasanah) te (: tapasvinah) tatksanam (: tasminn eva ksane) Hara-bandhuna (: Himavata) vaivabikim (: vivaha-yogyam) tithim prstab (: ‘k»?” @ty anuyuktah) santah | trayanim ahnam samahdras try:ahah | “adahiprttarapadasamahir ca’ iti samasah ‘raj>;- ibhyas tac’ iti tac:pratyayah | dvigu~tvad ekavacanam | ‘rate ahnyahah pumsi’ iti pum:linga~ta | (tasmat :) try:abat ardhvam (: upari) akbyaya (: ‘caturthe »hani vivahah’ ity uktva) cerub (: calitah) || te Himalayam amantrya punah prapya ca Salinam | siddham © 4smai nivedy> artham tad-visrstah kham udyayuh |[94l] ta iti || te (: munayah) Himalayam ama (: ‘sadhu, yama’ ity aprechya) punab Siilinam (: Haram) eta-sthna-stham pra pya ca | siddham (: nispannam) artham (: prayojanam) asmai nivedya (: jfiipayitva) ca tad-visrstah (: tena (: Salina) visrstah) kham (: akaSam) prati udyayuh (: utpetuh) | atra samksipp:Arth>4bhidhanat ‘samksepo’nama guna uktah | tad uktam— ‘samksipp:arthy- abhidhanam yat, samksepah parikirtitah’ iti || bhagavan Pagupatis tryaha-matra:vilambam api sodhum na tad-autsukyad ity aha— Pasupatir api tany ahani kpcchrad agamayad adri-suta-samagam»-6tkah | kam aparam avaSam na viprakuryur vibhum api tam yad ami sprSanti bhavah? |l95\| Pasupatir iti |) {utkam on mano yasya sah :) utkah | ‘utka unmanah’ iti nipatah | adri-suta-samagarétkab (: Parvati-par- inay>-6tsukah) Pasupatir api tani | trip iti Segah | abani kre agamayat (: ayapayat) | kavir aha-ami bhavab (: autsuky;adayah sameSrinah) avasam (: indriya-paratantram) aparam (: prthag: janam) kam na viprakuryub (: na vikaram nayeyub) yat (: yas- mat) vibbum (: samartham) | jib:éndriyam iti yavat | tam (: Smaraharam) api sprsanti | vikurvant ity arthah | atra vibhu- vikara-samarthanad arthad itara:jana-vikarah kaimutika:nyayad spate ity arthapattir alamkarah | tathd ca sitram—‘dandapi- ya rth>-4ntan-dpatanam arth--apattih’ iti | arthantaranyasa iti pe cit, tad upeksaniyam | yuktis tu vistarabhayan m dcyate | puspitagra vrttam— ‘a:yuji na-yuga;repha”to yakaro Yuji ca nasjau jasrasgas ca puspitigra’ iti lakganat " 281 g$OS1D10X9 ys}|6ug—4sueg ) Koay Exercise 2b 1lamgoing. 2 We aren’t going [/Let us not go] in here. 3 He writes yet again. 4 Where are you [pl.] living now? 5 Do you so wish? 6 But where are they standing? 7 What, is he coming this way? 8 What are the two of them inging here? 9 I see and write. 10 He seems to be wandering {to be confused]. 11 The two of you dance and sing. 12 They both remember and grieve. 13 ‘We are coming in here,” the two of them say. 14 How (is it that) he is not coming even now. I rejoice that I am winning. 16 We grieve that they are not ‘thvings] alive. Exercise 3a_1 The pupils are bringing the teacher. 2 Do you want horses [/the horses]? 3 I see the sun and moon. 4 Who does not want happiness? 5 The food is scant. 6 The man takes the horses to the water. 7 ‘Who are you?’ the two of them ask me. 8 To what mountain is the scholar going? 9 The two of them enter the forest because anger does not dwell there [here of direct speech 0 often becomes there of indirect]. 10 We do not understand swift speech. 11 Teacher, that elephant is like a mountain. 12 But whom shall I ask? 13 Are you pupils? 14 Men and children are entering the water. 15 ‘That it is now pleasant’ they say astonished. 16 What, children here too? 17 Even sorrows bring reward. 18 ‘Children, what pleasure do you see in this?’ the teacher says to the pupils. Exercise 4a 1 He quits the house with his sons. 2 Here is a garden: let us go in. 3 Both teacher and pupils made an extraordinary effort. 4 This man gave up life because his friend was dear [or possibly because my friend was dear (to him)]. 5 Who (is) this (who) is coming to the house? 6 Why do you Not rejoice at the pleasant sight? 7 (I have) seen and understood.8 In curiosity as to what these [/the] men want here [/there], he goes into the house. 9 The city is far, and we are wandering ex- hausted. 10 Do you want this or not? xz ‘Have done with words, the opportunity is gone’ the two of them say in despair (/dejectedly). 12 Sons, this is the very opportunity. 13 See, we have come to the city. 14 The two friends have forgotten (their) first air. 15 Though asked, ‘O pandit, where are you taking the horse?” he speaks not a word, 16 What point in effort? His Majesty is not looking at you. Exercise Sa 1 Here we (both) are. 2 [After hearing:] They have heard my answer—what else do they want? 3 You do not {/do you not] in fact have a book. [/?] _4 Friend, you are like my (own) heart. 5 Let the two of us sit for a while in this garden. 6 They are all wandering in the fields. 7 Your Majesty, a [cer- tain) brahmin has come from another city. 8 What means (can) you see for seeing my sons? 9 When we see his anger, we feel alarm in our heart (/our heart feels alarm). 1o Here stands His Highness. 11 Why, after sitting for just a moment I have seen my two friends once more. 12 There isno other road. 13 The sight of Rama now actually [is for sorrow:] causes sorrow to his friends. 14 Your Majesty has heard this from others too. 15 He goes into the house and asks everyone ‘Where, where is the villain now?’ [The repetition of kva is for emphasis.) 16 In the country of the blind it is the one-eyed man who has power. 17 Kalahamsaka, who drew this picture of Madhava? Exercise 6a x Sonottara, what is (your) purpose in coming? 2 Alas, two disasters have befallen (me). 3 Great king, [is there welfare of:] is it well with Prince Laksmana? 4 But where is this news from? 5 Truly I am exactly so. 6 Minister, the news from Kusumapura is extensive. 7 You are accepted as a son by the noble ladies {in fact an honorific plural = the Queen). 8 In which place is Marica’s hermitage? 9 Mother, who are you? Why did you restrain me? 10 Surely this is an occasion for re- gret. x1 This is the same (woman). 12 To both of you alike Indra’s servant Duksanta makes obeisance. 13 Servitude is in- deed harsh. 14 Has this cancellation [made] by me of the Full Moon festival not indeed reached Vysala’s [path of hearing:] ears? 15 What have you (to do) with this worry? 16 Madhavya, do you feel curiosity [with regard to seeing:] to see Sakuntala? 17 [The characters written by a scholar, though written with care, are necessarily illegible:} However painstakingly a scholar writes, he is bound to be illegible.Exercise 7a 1 Ah, here is Her Majesty. 2 Someone [/some- el et ro hen 3 Here is Minister Raksasa’s house. we have been deprived of a loving friend. 5 (That was) well thought of by Her Reverence. 6 Sir, is (yous) head-ache bearable? 7 Their excessive kindness embarrasses me. 8 Therefore let us [resort to:] shelter in this fig-tree’s shade. [Note that this more conveniently qualifies tree in English, shade in Sanskrit.| 9 We have been distressed at not seeing Your Honour for a long time. 10 Welcome to her [/Your] Majesty. 11 Do not fear discourtesy from us. 12 Minister, he p: a medicine mixed with a magic powder for Candragupta. 23 ‘Ah, my body is (as) happy as if [from the touch of Urvasi limbs:] it had been tor by Urvasi. 14 Noble lady, [is there calamity of:] has some calamity happened to Queen Sita? 15 I will just offer the priests this grass for strewing on the altar. 16 Avalokita has told (me) that Madhava is gone to the park of (the) Love (temple). 17 Alas, the effort of both alike (was) mis- placed. 18 This portion of the story has not been heard before by us or (anyone) else. 19 We for our part will just ask you [two ladies] something concerning your friend. 20 Minister, here is an ornament which His Highness has removed from his own person and sent (you). Exercise 8a 1 Ah, we [two] have achieved our object. 2A deed worthy of Rama has been done. 3 There is in the Deccan acity called Padmapura. 4 Friend, let us stand over here [with our bodies] hidden by the pillar. 5 Pleasant indeed is the scene at the end of the day in the king’s palace. 6 Why are you going out of the camp [with seal unreceived:] without getting a pass? 7 Dear child, do not fear [offence by (your)self:] that you have offended. 8 Ho there, for what purpose does this horse wan- der around with a retinue? 9 But whom (am) I (to) understand this lady (to be)? 10 Your Highness, this matter is not terribly difficult to understand. x11 But Minister Rakgasa’s hostility is fixed on Capakya, not on Candragupta. 12 So I personally send (you) herewith [esa] brahmins of proven worth. [Or svayam may be taken with pariksita: whose worth has been ex. amined by myself] 13 ‘Alas, I am become a man of foul deeds, a monster. 14 What, though he has committed great offence, have the two blessed (goddesses) taken pity on Rama? _15 I will just (go and) see the king, now that his evening prayers are over. 16 He at that very time, hearing of such a cruel turn of fortune for Queen Sita, became an anchorite. 17 I perceive that Daruvarman’s efforts (were) fruitless or had an unwished- for fruit. 18 Beautiful one, the day is not completely over.19 From meeting Sakuntala, my eagerness to go (back) to the city has slackened. Exercise 9a 1 What did you say? 2 Now we are going back. 3 He salutes [having made an aiijali:] with joined hands. 4 I greet you all. 5 Friend Pundarika, this is [not proper for:] wrong of you. 6 I will just inform my teacher that the time of sacrifice is at hand. 7 Did you too perhaps forget like me? 8 We are overwhelmed with astonishment. 9 Have (you) dis- covered a weakness of the enemy, sir? 10 Why then are you afraid? 11 I shall now act as ordered. 12, Reverend sir, there is indeed no matter beyond the scope of the wise. 13 Sakuntala threatens (/scolds) her friend with (a shaking of) her finger. 14 Bravo, friend Bhirivasu, bravo! 15 What did he say on waking? 16 Now [that good lady is the wife of a royal seer called what?:) what is the name of the royal seer whose wife that lady is? 17 Now what (was) your friend’s motive, good fellow, in entering the fire [i.e. committing suicide]? 18 The lady is of course under another’s control, and her guardian is not present. 19 Congratulations to you, sire, on your (re)union with your lawful wife and on beholding the face of your son. 20 Then why did Your Honour despatch this man to Kusumapura with a letter? 21 How is it that His Honour Kapva lives in per- petual chastity and (yet) this friend of yours is his daughter? [Note: The answer is that she is an adopted child.] 22 For my part too, when I remember Kanva’s daughter, my heart is with- out eagerness for the chase. 23 Do Candragupta’s faults cause his subjects to remember the merits of bygone rulers? 24 Hearing this incredible promise by the brahmin, the ki company with his ministers, with delighted cahnin, (and) full ag in tonishment, respectfully handed his royal sons over to that (same) VisnuSarman. Exercise 10a 1 See Madhava’s condition. 2 Your friends are in great distress. 3 This is women’s well-known [tat] readiness of wit. 4 What attractive (characters:] handwriting! 5 Sit down [pl.) for a minute. 6 Oh merchant Candanadiasa, you see how fevam] severe in punishment towards traitors is the king. 7 Let him [experience:] reap the reward of being a traitor to the king. 8 Te serms that King Dubganta is at hand. roaming in the hunt. 9 Go (both of) you. 10 Oh ascetic! Even when I think it over, I certainly do not remember marrying this lady. 11 Madhavya my friend, be firm in your assertions. 12 How pitiless (were) the vile citizens! How precipitate King Rama! 13 Blessed god of Love, from where do you, who are armed withflowers, get this sharpness? 14 Well (all of), you [f.] fan the two dear children with the borders of your robes. 15 In decrying hunting Madhavya has made me [of shattered enthusi- asm:] lose my enthusiasm. 16 Oh alas! to what a state of (old) age amIcome! 17 This noise is (the sound) of young brahmins playing because today is a holiday in honour of learned (guests). 18 Go very gently, ladies. 19 Save (your) friend, sire. 20 Because the revered lord of our house is not present, devils are causing hin- drance to our austerities. 21 Seal it, my dear fellow, with this ne, 22 Men of proven loyalty have been appointed about the king, vigilant in countermeasures against poisoners engaged by the enemy. 23 Now that Nandana is won over by Madayantika’s union, we have indeed cast aside our cares. 24 [You must un- derstand him to be a future emperor:] know that in time to come he will be emperor. 25 Well, I did right to deposit my family in the house of my close friend Candanadasa [and retire:] before re- tiring from the city. 26 Your Majesty [f], I beg you to compose yourself and comply with the revered Vasistha’s command. Exercise 11a 1 What, is this Kagva’s daughter Sakuntala? 2 Dear child, may you have what I desire (for you). 3 You rogue. You are taking a letter and you don’t know for whom? 4 Dear Malati, see you are spied [or See, I am searching you out]. 5 Let the servants take a rest. 6 Mandarika, what your sweetheart here says on this matter—is it so? 7 Though the Spring Festival has been thus cancelled by His Majesty, do you a lucking the mango buds? 8 Spare his life. 9 Ho sire! do you remain silent like this? 10 Do, then, [your own in- clinstiow| as you will. 1z Moreover (he) bestowed on Parvate$vara’s brother Vairodhaka the half of the kingdom pre- viously promised (to Parvate$vara). 12 What, is his mother’s name ‘Sakuntala’? 13 Who is the great man who has per- formed this great deed, difficult for a mere mortal? 14 Priyamvadaka, find out what time it is. 15 Noble Vaihinari, give these two bards a hundred thousand gold pieces. 16 Vysala, why are you quite inappropriately making this vast ex- penditure? 17 Ho merchant! Are the profits of your transac- tions accumulating? 18 Blessed Vasumdhara, watch over your virtuous daughter Janaki. 19 phat, does he just stay, though driven off? 20 Reverend Valmiki, bring these two offspring of Sita’s womb, Kufa and Lava, to dear Rama [or (who are) dear Rama’s (sons)]. 21 Just as he is, so also are the two of them. 22 And a sacrificial horse blessed by Vamadeva has been re- leased, and (men) assigned in conformity with the law-books to guard it. At their head, Laksmana’s son Candraketu, who hasacquired the tradition of the celestial missiles, has been despatched, attended by a [four-limbed:] full army. 23 Alas, alas, I am a total monster not to look affectionately on the dear wife of a dear friend, seen after (so) long. 24 Is there any news as to [iti] what then happened to (/became of) Sita when Laksmana had returned from that forest after abandoning (her there)? 25 There is then a young man called Madhava [actually spoken of by me:] whom I did mention once in passing, someone who is another bond such as you (yourself are) to my heart. (The unusual possessive adjective mamakina avoids the ugly sound of mama manaso or man-manaso. The speaker is a Bi nun who ought to shun all ties of affection.| Exercise 12a 1 My good fellow, my good fellow, you mustn’t come in. 2 Right—T'il just listen to the confidential talk of these (girls). 3 Be quiet while I listen. 4 Even so, minister, (you) should certainly not give up the enterprise [or one should not give up something one has undertaken]. 5 So [let father make an occupying of seat take a vat, athe for whl in the shade of this sal tree. [atra for asmin; cf. also note on Exercise 8a, no. 8] 6 Show (me) the place where that mendicant stays. 7 Be firm, my heart. You have something more grievous to listen to. 8 What else is she [/he] to say ? 9 And let Urvasl here be your [throughout life:] lifelong lawful spouse. _r0 So I'll just take her to Sriparvata, shred her piece by piece and make her have a death. 11 In our greed to hear of good deeds, we have (something) else to ask as well. 12 So why do the players sit idle? 13 And there you must do as I tell you. 14 It is rather you two (girls) who must sustain Sakuntala. 15 Seize his house- hold pr. ,, arrest him and his son and wife, and hold him while I tell Vysala. 16 Now tell the way to Agastya’s hermitage. 17 One shoul ¢ enter ascetic groves in modest attire. 18 Like rain on desert land is food to one oppressed by hunger. [This is a line of verse—hence the unusual position of tatha.|_ 19 From (my) tightening the reins because the ground was bumpy, the speed of the chariot has slackened. 20 May you get a son (to be) Emperor. 21 How long, then, must we sit idle like this, though with our forces assembled, watching for a weakness in theenemy? 22 As soon as His Majesty, from seeing the ring, re- membered that he really had previously married in secret the Lady Sakuntala (and) from delusion rejected her, His Majesty be- came remorseful. 23 Since he has great wealth, he must have many wives. 24 Minister, is this man a suitable recipient for such a special decoration, particularly one that His Highness re- moved from his own person and bestowed (upon you)? 25 And Ay :808}010x0hoy :sasjouexe ysy6ug-ynjsues 8 before the (bridegroom’s) relatives arrive, dear MalatI must go to the city temple (to make an offering) for unhindered good luck. Exercise 13a 1 Give me an answer. 2 Gautami will go with you. 3 Why, those places seem deserted! 4 See, I am aiming that arrow. 5 If (it is) a secret, let it be—if it is not a secret, then tell (me). 6 And I for my part will announce that news to the reverend Lopamudra. 7 That fool, of course, on obtaining that large pile of money that you lavished (on him), began to spend it with great extravagance. 8 Thank heaven, it has dawned fair today, in that I see His Majesty here. 9 I [f.] want to tell (you) something. ro I will just rebuke him. 11 Good Siddharthaka, admittedly this is (an) inadequate (reward) for this service, but take it! 12 There is that letter-writer Sakatadasa, a traitor to the king, being taken by the king’s order to be impaled. 13 You [du.} will certainly learn this. 14 Let us just purify ourselves by seeing a holy hermitage. 15 Dear (young) lady, do not omit it—since what is meant but unsaid causes remorse. 16 This is not the right moment for me to see Indra. 17 Well, friend, you [are not a seer of:] have not seen her, for you to talk in that way. 18 Oh! here are ascetics’ girls making this way, to [give water to:] water the young trees with watering-pots appropriate to their own (small) size. x9 If he is not the son of a sage, what is his name? 20 Why should Capakya, being sensible, anger [/have angered] Can pta over a trifling cause? And Candragupta, conscious of his debt, would not violate {/have violated] his duty of respect (just) for this much. 21 In that case beg to tell (my) preceptor Somarata in my name that he should entertain those hermitage dwellers [by the scriptural injunctions to ritual:] with scriptural rite and personally show them in (to me). 22 But we must remember the kindness of this king, in treating us though guilty as graciously as if (we had been) innocent. 23 Ah fellow- student in misery! if (it is) not secret, nor too burdensome, I should like to hear your reason for (your intention of) sacrificing your life. 24 Noble Vaihinari, let the people be [made aware:] given to understand that from today onward Candragupta shall conduct state affairs in person, without reference to Canakya. 25 We for our part will exert ourselves (to see) that there is no damage to the hermitage. 26 Is Candragupta now incapable of imposing the yoke of his state administration upon another [anyatra = anyasmin] minister or upon himself and (thus) taking precautions for himself? 27 In truth, the greatest satisfaction arises for myself, performing (as I am) before an audience that ap- preciates especial(ly good) literature. 28 Sakatadasa was impaled after proclamation in the city that he had employed Daruvarman