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Fibre
What is a Fibre?
It is defined as one of the delicate, hair portions of the tissues of a plant or animal
or other substances that are very small in diameter in relation to their length. A
fibre is a material which is several hundred times as long as its thick.
Types of Fibres:-

Types of Fibres

Natural Fibres

Manmade Fibres

There are generally two types of fibres:1. Natural fibre: Natural fibres include those produced by plants, animals, and
geological processes. They are biodegradable over time. They can be
classified according to their origin.
A class name for various genera of fibres (including filaments) of:
animal (i.e., silk fibre and wool fibre);
mineral (i.e., asbestos fibre); or
Vegetable origin (i.e., cotton fibre, flax fibre, jute fibre, and ramie fibre).

2. Manmade fibre: It is also known as manufactured fibre. Synthetic or manmade fibres generally come from synthetic materials such as petrochemicals.
But some types of synthetic fibres are manufactured from natural cellulose;
including rayon, modal, and the more recently developed Lyocell. A class
name for various genera of fibres (including filaments) produced from fibreforming substances which may be:
Polymers synthesized from chemical compounds, e.g., acrylic fibre, nylon
fibre, polyester fibre, polyethylene fibre, polyurethane fibre, and polyvinyl
fibres;
Modified or transformed natural polymers, e.g., alginic and cellulosebased fibres such as acetates fibre and rayons fibre; and
Minerals, e.g., glasses. The term manufactured usually refers to all
chemically produced fibres to distinguish them from the truly natural
fibres such as cotton, wool, silk, flax, etc.e.g: Glass fibre.

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NATURAL FIBRES
A. Plant fibres
Plant fibres include seed hairs, such as cotton; stem (or bast) fibres, such as flax
and hemp; leaf fibres, such as sisal; and husk fibres, such as coconut. Types of plant
fibres are as follows:i.

Abaca

Abaca is a leaf fibre, composed of

long slim cells that form part of
the leaf's supporting structure.
Lignin content is a high 15%.
Abaca is prized for its great
mechanical strength, buoyancy,
resistance to saltwater damage,
and long fibre length up to 3 m.
The best grades of abaca are fine,
lustrous, light beige in colour and
very strong.

Origin:
Abaca, another member of the "hard" fibre group is the Spanish name for what is
more widely called Manila hemp, and is indigenous to the Philippines. It is a member
of the banana family of plants with the botanical name of MUSA TEXTILES.
The Republic of the Philippines remains the largest producer at around 50,000 tons
per annum, but over the past 40 years production has been developed in Ecuador
which today produces some
11,000 tons.
Production in the Philippines is
based on a "smallholder" system
of agriculture, with most farms
being between 3 and 5 hectares in
size. The Ecuadorian system is
more reminiscent of the African
sisal industry and is essentially a
large estate-based industry
although there is also a substantial
smallholder Co-operative
movement.

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Source:
Also called manila hemp, abaca is extracted from the leaf sheath around the trunk
of the abaca plant (Musa textilis), a close relative of the banana, native to the
Philippines and widely distributed in the humid tropics. Harvesting abaca is
labourious. Each stalk must be cut into strips which are scraped to remove the pulp.
The fibres are then washed and dried.
Major Producers:
The world's leading abaca producer is the Philippines, where the plant is cultivated
on 130 000 ha by some 90 000 small farmers (above). While the crop is also
cultivated in other Southeast Asian countries, the Philippines' closest rival is
Ecuador, where abaca is grown on large estates and production is increasingly
mechanized.

Uses of Abaca:

During the 19th century abaca

was widely used for ships' rigging,
and pulped to make sturdy manila
envelopes. Today, it is still used to
make ropes, twines, fishing lines
and nets, as well as coarse cloth
for sacking. There is also a
flourishing niche market for abaca
clothing, curtains, screens and
furnishings.

Bank of Japan: Paper made from

abaca pulp is used in stencil papers, cigarette filter papers, tea-bags and
sausage skins, and also in currency paper (Japan's yen banknotes contain up
to 30% abaca).

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Mercedes Benz: Mercedes Benz

has used a mixture of
polypropylene thermoplastic and
abaca yarn in automobile body
parts. Production of abaca fibre
uses an estimated 60% less
energy than production of glass
fibre.

Abaca is also used for making outdoor furniture and lifestyle items. Baskets,
mirrors and lamp shades are also very common uses of abaca.

Properties of Abaca fibre:

Due to its strength, it is a sought

after product and is the strongest
of the natural fibers.
Abac fibre is very durable,
flexible and resistant to salt water
damage.
Most of abaca fibre is pulped and
processed into specialty papers
due to its texture and versatility.
It is also a substitute for bark,
which was once a primary source
of cloth.
It is considered an excellent raw
material in the processing of security and high quality paper, diapers,
napkins, machinery filters, hospital textiles (aprons, caps, gloves), and
electrical conduction cables, as well as some 200 other different finished
products

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ii.

Coir Fibre

Coir fibres measure up to 35 cm in

length with a diameter of 12-25
microns. Among vegetable fibres,
coir has one of the highest
concentrations of lignin, making it
stronger but less flexible than
cotton and unsuitable for dyeing.
The tensile strength of coir is low
compared to abaca, but it has good
resistance to microbial action and
salt water damage.
Origin of Coir:
Coir is the native name of the fibre
extracted from coconut husk, the fibrous mass surrounding coconut, the fruit of the
perennial plant cultivated extensively in the tropics. There is every reason to believe
that the word 'Coir' has its origin from the Malayalam word 'Kayar' which means a
cord, string or yarn spun out of fibre extracted from the husk of the coconut to
Cocos fibre or coir extracted from the husk of the coconut is classed among the
industrial hard fibres which enter the world market in the form of fibre, spun yarn or
floor coverings. Kerala, the land of coconut palm, got its name by this fact from the
Sanskrit word 'Kera', the name for coconut tree. The word coir was supplied to the
European vocabulary by MarcoPolo, the Italian traveler.
Source:
Coir is extracted from the tissues
surrounding the seed of the
coconut palm (Cocos nucifera),
which is grown on 10 million ha of
land throughout the tropics. There
are two types of coir: brown fibre,
which is obtained from mature
coconuts, and finer white fibre,
which is extracted from immature
green coconuts after soaking for
up to 10 months.
Major Producers:
The coir industry is fully developed only in India and Sri Lanka, but economically
important in Brazil, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam. Coconuts are typically
grown by small-scale farmers, who use local mills for fibre extraction.

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Uses of Coir:

White coir spun into yarn is used

in the manufacture of rope and,
thanks to its strong resistance to
salt water, in fishing nets.

Brown coir is used in sacking,

brushes, doormats, rugs,
mattresses, insulation panels and
packaging. In Europe, the
automobile industry upholsters
cars with pads of brown coir
bonded with rubber latex.

Geotextiles made from coir mesh

are durable, absorb water, resist
sunlight, facilitate seed
germination, and are 100%
biodegradable.
Coir peat, a residue of milling, is
gaining economic importance as
mulch, soil treatment and a
hydroponic.
Coir Fiber Liners that are
environment friendly products and
are used for indoor gardening.
These products offer an
outstanding drainage and aeration
to roots and prevent the plant
from root rot.

Properties of Coir:

Coco has high water-holding

capacity. It can hold water up to
eight times of its weight and
release it over a period of time.
Coco has ideal pH in the range of
6-6.7
It has excellent drainage and air porosity for better plant growth
Coco is very low in EC and carries mostly potassium salts, which is an
essential major plant nutrient

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Cation exchange capacity

is very good
Coco coir has some
antifungal properties that
help plants to get rid of soil
borne diseases. It inhibits
pathogens like Pithium
Coco is very easy to rehydrate after being
dehydrated
It is a biodegradable source
that degrades very slowly
and has a life of three to
four years
Contains significant
amounts of phosphorous (10-50ppm) and potassium (150-450 ppm)

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iii.

Cotton

Cotton is almost pure cellulose, with softness and breathability that have made it
the world's most popular natural fibre. Fibre length varies from 10 to 65 mm, and
diameter from 11 to 22 microns. It absorbs moisture readily, which makes cotton
clothes comfortable in hot weather, while high tensile strength in soap solutions
means they are easy to wash.
Source:
The cotton fibre grows on the
seed of a variety of plants of the
genus Gossypium. Of the four
cotton species cultivated for fibre,
the most important are G.
hirsutum, which originated in
Mexico and produces 90% of the
world's cotton, and G.
barbadense, of Peruvian origin,
which accounts for 5%. World
average cotton yields are around
800 kg per hectare.
Origin:
In the Indus River Valley in Pakistan, cotton was being grown, spun and woven into
cloth 3,000 years BC. At about the same time, natives of Egypts Nile valley were
making and wearing cotton clothing.
Arab merchants brought cotton cloth to Europe about 800 A.D. When Columbus
discovered America in 1492, he
found cotton growing in the
Bahama Islands. By 1500, cotton
was known generally throughout
the world. Cotton seed are
believed to have been planted in
Florida in 1556 and in Virginia in
1607. By 1616, colonists were
growing cotton along the James
River in Virginia.
Cotton was first spun by
machinery in England in 1730.
The industrial revolution in
England and the invention of the cotton gin in the U.S. paved the way for the
important place cotton holds in the world today. Eli Whitney GinEli Whitney, a native

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of Massachusetts, secured a patent on the cotton gin in 1793, though patent office
records indicate that the first cotton gin may have been built by a machinist named
Noah Homes two years before Whitneys patent was filed. The gin, short for engine,
could do the work 10 times faster than by hand.
The gin made it possible to supply large quantities of cotton fibre to the fastgrowing textile industry. Within 10 years, the value of the U.S. cotton crop rose from
$150,000 to more than $8 million.
Major Producers:
Cultivated in around 80 countries,
cotton is one of the world's most widely
produced crops and uses about 2.5% of
the world's arable land area. Cotton is
fundamental to the economies of many
developing countries, particularly in
West and Central Africa, where around
10 million small farmers depend on the
sector for their income.
Uses of Cotton:

An estimated 60% of cotton fibre

is used as yarn and threads in a
wide range of clothing, most
notably in shirts, T-shirts and
jeans, but also in coats, jackets,
underwear and foundation
garments.
Cotton is also used to make home
furnishings, such as draperies,
bedspreads and window blinds,
and is the most commonly used
fibre in sheets, pillowcases,
towels and washcloths.
It is made into specialty materials
suitable for a great variety of
applications: fire-proof apparel,
cotton wool, compresses, gauze
bandages, sanitary towels and cotton swabs. Industrial products containing
cotton include book bindings, industrial thread and tarpaulins.

Properties of Cotton:

Cotton, as a natural cellulosic fibre, has a lot of characteristics, such as;

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Comfortable Soft hand with good absorbency.

Good color retention and is easily printable.
Machine-washable and dry-cleanable.
Good strength with good drape-ability.
Easy to handle and sew.
Cotton has an excellent resistance to alkalis.
It can be washed repeatedly in soap solution
without any problem.
Cotton is not attacked by moth-grubs or
beetles.
There is no gradual loss of strength when
cotton is exposed to sunlight.

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iv.

Flax Fibre

Like cotton, flax fibre is a cellulose polymer, but its structure is more crystalline,
making it stronger, crisper and stiffer to handle, and more easily wrinkled. Flax
fibres range in length up to 90 cm, and average 12 to 16 microns in diameter. They
absorb and release water quickly, making linen comfortable to wear in hot weather.

Source:
Flax fibres obtained from the stems of the plant Linum usitatissimum are used
mainly to make linen. The plant has been used for fibre production since prehistoric
times. It grows best at northern temperate latitudes, where moderately moist
summers yield fine, strong but silky flax. In Poland, a hectare of flax plants yields
1.5 to 3.5 tonnes of fibre.

Origin:
Flax has been cultivated for its remarkable fibre, linen, for at least five millennia.
The spinning and weaving of linen is depicted on wall paintings of ancient Egypt. As
early as 3,000 B.C. , the fibre was processed into fine white fabric (540 threads to
the inchfiner than anything woven today) and wrapped around the mummies of
the ancient Egyptian pharaohs. Mentioned several times in the Bible, it has been
used as a cool, comfortable fibre in the Middle East for centuries as well. Ancient
Greeks and Romans greatly valued it as a commodity. Finnish traders are believed
to have introduced flax to Northern Europe where it has been under cultivation for
centuries.

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Both wool and linen were tremendously important fibres in the New World.
Relatively easy to grow, American settlers were urged to plant a small plot of flax as
early as the seventeenth century. While flax is easy to grow, settlers knew all too
well the tedious chore of processing the woody stalks for its supple linen. Before the
industrial revolution much sturdy, homemade clothing was woven from linen
cultivated, processed, spun,
dyed, woven, and sewn by
hand. It may be argued that
until the eighteenth century,
linen was the most important
textile in the world.
By the late eighteenth century,
cotton became the fibre that
was most easily and
inexpensively processed and
woven in the mechanized
British and New England textile mills. By the 1850s, linen production had virtually
been abandoned in the United States because it was so much cheaper to buy the
factory-made cotton. Some New Englanders of Scot or Irish background continued
to cultivate some flax for processing into linen used for fancy domestic linens such
as bedsheets, toweling, and decorative table clothes as their ancestors had for
centuries. However, most Americans abandoned the cultivation of the plant in this
country and instead chose cheap cotton that was carded, spun, woven, and rollerprinted for just pennies a yard. Thereafter and until recently, a different variety of
flax plant was raised in this country not for its linen fibres but for its seeds which
exude a useful vegetable oil known as linseed oil when pressed.

Major Producers:
The leading producers of flax fibre are France, Belgium and the Netherlands. Other
significant producers are China, Belarus and the Russian Federation. The total area
dedicated to flax cultivation for fibre is estimated at around 120 000 ha in Europe,
and some 320 000 ha worldwide.
Uses of Flax:

Fine and regular long flax fibres

are spun into yarns for linen
textiles. More than 70% of linen
goes to clothing manufacture,
where it is valued for its

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exceptional coolness in hot weather - the legendary linen suit is a symbol of

breezy summer elegance.
Linen fabric maintains a strong traditional niche among high quality
household textiles - bed linen,
furnishing fabrics, and interior
decoration accessories.
Shorter flax fibres produce heavier
yarns suitable for kitchen towels,
sails, tents and canvas. Lower
fibre grades are used as
reinforcement and filler in
thermoplastic composites and
thermoset resins used in
automotive interior substrates,
furniture and other consumer
products.

Properties of Flax:

70% is composed of cellulose,

it cannot provoke allergies,
absorbs humidity and allows
the skin to breathe: therefore
it is very indicated in the
manufacturing of summer
articles.
Very resistant, above all if
wetted it can be washed many
times without alteration,
rather it becomes softer,
something very important for articles of clothing and for daily use which
require frequent washing such as shirts.
Having very low elasticity, linen cloths do not deform themselves.
European linen fabrics today are luxurious, elegant, comfortable and
practical.
Linen is thermo regulating, non-allergenic, antistatic and antibacterial.
Because it can absorb up to 20 times its weight in moisture before it feels
damp, linen feels cool and dry to the touch.
It is not by accident that the worlds oldest and most useful fibre is still in
great demand.

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v.

Jute Fibre

Dubbed the "golden fibre", jute is long, soft and shiny, with a length of 1 to 4 m and
a diameter of from 17 to 20 microns. It is one of nature's strongest vegetable fibres
and ranks second only to cotton in terms of production quantity. Jute has high
insulating and anti-static properties, moderate moisture regain and low thermal
conductivity.

Source:
Jute is extracted from the bark of the white jute plant, Corchorus capsularis and to a
lesser extent from tossa jute (C. olitorius). It flourishes in tropical lowland areas with
humidity of 60% to 90%. A hectare of jute plants consumes about 15 tonnes of
carbon dioxide and releases 11 tonnes of oxygen. Yields are about 2 tonnes of dry
jute fibre per hectare.
Origin:
Jute is a member of the family of "soft" vegetable fibres, second only to cotton in
amount produced, and traditionally one of the cheapest natural fibres. It falls into
the category of bast fibre (produced from the skin of the plant) and White Jute
(Corchorus Capsularis) is known to have been cultivated in India more than four
hundred years ago, to be spun into cloth by artisans, and also used in ropes and
twines.

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Tossa Jute (Corchorus Olitorius) which is silkier and stronger than White Jute - has
traditionally been grown around the area of the Ganges Delta, and was already in
such large-scale production two hundred years ago to allow export of raw fibre to a
nascent Jute-spinning industry in Dundee.
Large-scale spinning of Jute began in Dundee centuries ago, when machinery used
for Flax spinning was adapted to produce Jute yarns, using fibre sourced from the
India sub-continent. The principal use for these yarns was for cheap packaging - the
term "Gunny bag" derives from a Hindi word - but as Jute spinning industries
developed in countries across the world, the uses of Jute and Jute products
expanded rapidly.
At one stage the future of Jute was
threatened by the increase in use
of synthetic fibres, but the
environmental advantages of
natural fibre and the closure of
Jute spinning and weaving plants
in many of the developed nations
of the world, which resulted in the
transfer of production of finished
articles back to the point of origin
of the fibre itself, have reduced
the costs of production and
enabled jute to maintain a stable
level of consumption for an
extended period.
Tossa Jute is known as the "Golden Fibre", from the lustrous appearance of the
threads, although Tossa can range in colour from dark to reddish, depending upon
the area of cultivation. Bangladesh (formerly East Bengal until the Partition of India,
and East Pakistan until independence), together with the Indian state of West
Bengal, produces most of the world's Jute fibre.
There is also cultivation of Jute, or its allied fibre Kenaf (Hibiscus Cannabinus) - a
coarser textured plant - in other Asian countries eg; Myanmar, Thailand, China. New
uses of Jute in the non-woven sectors have opened up fresh areas, to offset the
decline in the production of more traditional articles
Major Producers:
Bangladesh and West Bengal in India the world's main jute producers, with
Myanmar and Nepal producing much smaller quantities. In India and Bangladesh
some 4 million farmers earn their living - and support 20 million dependents - from
jute cultivation, while hundreds of thousands work in the jute manufacturing sector.

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Uses of Jute:

During the Industrial Revolution, jute yarn largely replaced flax and hemp
fibres in sackcloth. Today, sacking still makes up the bulk of manufactured
jute products.
Jute yarn and twines are also woven into curtains, chair coverings, carpets,
rugs and backing for linoleum. Blended with other fibres, it is used in cushion
covers, toys, wall hangings, lamp shades and shoes. Very fine threads can be
separated out and made into imitation silk.
Jute is being used increasingly in rigid packaging and reinforced plastic and is
replacing wood in pulp and paper.
Geotextiles made from jute are biodegradable, flexible, absorb moisture and
drain well. They are used to prevent
soil erosion and landslides.

Properties of Jute:

Jute fibre is 100% bio-degradable and

recyclable and thus environmentally
friendly.
Jute is a natural fibre with golden and
silky shine and hence called The
Golden Fibre.
Jute is the cheapest vegetable fibre
procured from the bast or skin of the
plant's stem.
It is the second most important vegetable fibre after cotton, in terms of
usage, global consumption, production,
and availability.
It has high tensile strength, low
extensibility, and ensures better
breathability of fabrics. Therefore, jute
is very suitable in agricultural
commodity bulk packaging.
It helps to make best quality industrial
yarn, fabric, net, and sacks. It is one of
the most versatile natural fibres that
has been used in raw materials for
packaging, textiles, non-textile,
construction, and agricultural sectors.
Bulking of yarn results in a reduced
breaking tenacity and an increased
breaking extensibility when blended as
a ternary blend.

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Unlike the fibre known as hemp, jute is

not a form of (Cannabis). Therefore it
can be much more easily distinguished
from forms of Cannabis that produce a
narcotic
Jute is one of the most versatile
natural fibres that has been used in
raw materials for packaging, textiles,
non-textile, and agricultural sectors.
Jute stem has very high volume of
cellulose that can be procured within
4-6 months, and hence it also can save the forest and meet cellulose and
wood requirement of the world.
The best varieties of Jute are Bangla Tosha - Corchorus olitorius (Golden
shine) and Bangla White - Corchorus capsularis (Whitish Shine), and Mesta or
Kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus) is another species with fibre similar to Jute with
medium quality.
Raw Jute and Jute goods are interpreted as Burlap, Industrial Hemp, and
Kenaf in some parts of the world.

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vi.

Hemp Fibre

Long, strong and durable, hemp fibres are about 70% cellulose and contain low
levels of lignin (around 8-10%). The fibre diameter ranges from 16 to 50 microns.
Hemp fibre conducts heat, dyes well, resists mildew, blocks ultraviolet light and has
natural anti-bacterial properties. Shorter, woody core fibres ("tow") contain higher
levels of lignin.

Source:
Hemp fibre is obtained from the bast of the plant Cannabis sativa L. It grows easily to a height of 4 m - without agrochemicals and captures large quantities of carbon.
Production of hemp is restricted in some countries, where the plant is confused with
marijuana. Optimum yield of hemp fibre is more than 2 tonnes per ha, while
average yields are around 650 kg.
Origin:
Hemp has been grown for millennia in Asia and the Middle East for its fibre.
Commercial production of hemp in the West took off in the eighteenth century, but
was grown in the sixteenth century in eastern England. Because of colonial and
naval expansion of the era, economies needed large quantities of hemp for rope
and oakum. In the early 1940s, world production of hemp fibre ranged from 250 000
to 350 000 metric tonnes, Russia was the biggest producer.

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In Western Europe, the cultivation
of hemp was not legally banned by
the 1930s, but the commercial
cultivation stopped by then, due to
decreased demand compared to
increasingly popular artificial fibres.
Speculation about the potential for
commercial cultivation of hemp in
large quantities has been criticized
due to successful competition from
other fibres for many products. The
world production of hemp fibre fell
from over 300,000 metric tons
1961 to about 75,000 metric tons
in the early 1990s and has after that been stable at that level.
Major Producers:
The world's leading producer of hemp is China (above), with smaller production in
Europe, Chile and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. In the European Union
hemp is grown on around 15 000 ha of land. Major producers are France, Germany
and the UK.
Uses of Hemp:

Hemp has been used for

centuries to make rope,
canvas and paper. Long
hemp fibres can be spun and
woven to make crisp, linenlike fabric used in clothing,
home furnishing textiles and
floor coverings.
In China, hemp is degummed for processing on
flax or cotton machinery.
Blending with cotton, linen,
silk and wool gives hemp a
softer feel, while adding
resistance and durability to
the product. In Europe, hemp
fibres are used mainly in the special paper industry - thanks to lower lignin
content, it can be pulped using fewer chemicals than wood.
Hemp fibres are also used to reinforce moulded thermoplastics in the
automobile industry. The short core fibres go into insulation products,

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fibreboard and erosion control mats, while the fibrous core can be blended
with lime to make strong, lightweight concrete.
Properties of Hemp:

Hemp fibre is one of the strongest and

most durable of all natural textile
fibres.
Products made from hemp outlast
their competition by many years.
Not only is hemp strong, but it also
holds its shape, stretching less than
any other natural fibre. This prevents
hemp garments from stretching out or
becoming distorted with use.
Hemp may be known for its durability,
but its comfort and style are second to
none. The more hemp is used, the softer it gets.
Hemp doesn't wear out, it wears in.
Hemp is also naturally resistant to
mold and ultraviolet light.
Due to the porous nature of the fibre,
hemp is more water absorbent, and
will dye and retain its color better
than any fabric including cotton. This
porous nature allows hemp to
"breathe," so that it is cool in warm
weather.
Furthermore, air which is trapped in
the fibres is warmed by the body,
making hemp garments naturally
warm in cooler weather.

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vii.

Ramie Fibre

Ramie fibre is white with a silky lustre, similar to flax in absorbency and density but
coarser (25-30 microns). One of the strongest natural fibres, it has low elasticity and
dyes easily. Strands of ramie range up to 190 cm in length, with individual cells as
long as 40 cm. Trans-fibre fissures make ramie brittle but favour ventilation.
Source:

Native to East Asia and commonly known as China grass, ramie (Boehmeria nivea)
is a flowering plant of the nettle family. Its bark has been used for millennia to make
twine and thread, and spun as grass-cloth (or "Chinese linen"). It grows to a height
of 3 m. Yields of green plants range from 8 to 20 tonnes per hectare, with fibre
yields of 1.5 tonnes reported.

Origin:
Ramie has been grown in China for many centuries. It was even used in cloths for
wrapping mummies in Egypt during the period 50003300 BC. In the study of the
"Lazarus" mummy, three types of textiles were found. The outermost cloth was
heavy and coarsely woven; the innermost was the lightest and most tightly woven.
The outer cloth appeared to be ramie (which Wiseman notes "contains non-fibrous
material that is toxic to bacteria and fungi"in other words, an ideal textile for

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mummymaking). Farmers in ancient China are also known to have used the fibre to
weave clothing.
Ramie was used to produce an open
weave fabric called mechera, used for
shirts and dressing gowns suitable for
warm climates. The French painter Raoul
Dufy designed in the early 20th century
patterns for prints on mechera used by
the French shirtmaker Charvet.
Brazil began production in the late 1930s
with production peaking in 1971. Since
then, production has steadily declined as a result of competition with alternative
crops, such as soybeans and the important synthetic fibres.
Major Producers:
The ramie plant is grown for fibre mainly in China, Brazil, the Lao PDR and the
Philippines. While it is considered a promising "ecological" fibre for use in textiles,
fibre extraction and cleaning is difficult
and labour-intensive.
Uses of Ramie:

Coarse ramie fibres are suitable

for making twine, rope and nets.

Wet-spun, it produces a fine yarn

with high lustre, suitable for a
wide range of garments, ranging
from dresses to jeans.

Fabrics of 100% ramie are

lightweight and silky, similar in
appearance to linen. The Korean
traditional costume, the ramie
hanbok, is renowned for its fineness.

However, since it has low elasticity and resilience, ramie is usually blended
with other textile fibres. It increases the lustre and strength of cotton fabric
and reduces shrinkage in wool blends. It is also blended with silk.
Shoes made of ramie fibres have also been gaining popularity.

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Properties of Ramie:

Ramie is one of the strongest natural

fibres.
It is better strength when wet.
It is similar to linen.
It is not durable as other fibres, and so is
usually used as a blend with other fibres
such as cotton or wool.
It is known especially for its ability to
hold shape, reduce wrinkling, and
introduce a silky lustre to the fabric
appearance.

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viii.

Sisal Fibre

Lustrous and creamy white, sisal fibre measures up to 1 m in length, with a

diameter of 200 to 400 microns. It is a coarse, hard fibre unsuitable for textiles or
fabrics. But it is strong, durable and stretchable, does not absorb moisture easily,
resists saltwater deterioration, and has a fine surface texture that accepts a wide
range of dyes.

Source:
Sisal fibre is obtained from Agave sisalana, a native of Mexico. The hardy plant
grows well in a variety of hot climates, including dry areas unsuitable for other
crops. After harvest, its leaves are cut and crushed in order to separate the pulp
from the fibres. The average yield of dried fibres is about 1 tonnes per hectare,
although yields in East Africa reach 2.5 tonnes.

Origin:
The East African sisal plant originated in the Yucatan, Mexico (and received its
common name from the first port of export) and arrived in what is now Tanzania via
Hamburg in 1893. A little later sisal bulbils sent from Kew Gardens were planted in
Kenya.

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After a difficult start, sisal production in East Africa prospered and by the 1960's
Tanzania production alone totalled some 230,000 tons. Production in East Africa has
contracted materially over the past three decades in response to the continuing
movement in end products away from the low value agricultural twine market into
considerably higher value more specialised end products, such as carpets, wire rope
cores, dartboards, speciality pulps, plaster reinforcement and handicrafts.
Production in 2008 was approximately 23,000 tons per annum in Tanzania, plus
some 7,000 tons of Lake Sisal (not exported), 23,000 tons in Kenya and 8-10,000
tons in Madagascar. There is also production in Southern China, unquantified, but
estimated to be around 25,000 tons (for
domestic consumption) and smaller
quantities in Mozambique, Venezuela
and Cuba.
In Mexico henequen production (largely
in the Yucatan peninsular) has fallen
from a peak of about 160,000 tons in the
1960's to about less than 5,000 tons
today, all of which is converted into
product locally. Both China and Mexico
are now large importers of sisal fibre,
than growers.
The first commercial plantings in Brazil were not made until the late 1930's and the
first sisal fibre exports from there were made in 1948. It was not, however, until the
1960's that Brazilian production really accelerated and the first of many spinning
mills, largely devoted to the manufacture of agricultural twines, were established.
Today Brazil is the major world producer of sisal at some 50-60,000 tons from a high
of 130,000 tons only 5 years ago.
Major Producers:
Sisal is cultivated for fibre in Brazil, China, Cuba, Kenya, Haiti, Madagascar, and
Mexico. Production patterns differ between counties. In Tanzania and Kenya sisal is
predominantly a plantation crop, while production in Brazil is largely small-scale.
Uses of Sisal:

Sisal is used in twine and ropes, but competition from polypropylene has
weakened demand.

But other markets are emerging - today, sisal can be found in speciality
paper, filters, geotextiles, mattresses, carpets and wall coverings.

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It is used as reinforcement in plastic composite materials, particularly in

automotive components, but also in furniture. Another promising use is as a
substitute for asbestos in brake pads. (It is also the best material for making
dartboards.)

By-products from sisal extraction can be used for making bio-gas,

pharmaceutical ingredients and building
material.

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Properties of Sisal:

Sisal Fiber is exceptionally durable with a

low maintenance with minimal wear and
tear.
It is Recyclable.
Sisal fibers are obtained from the outer
leaf skin, removing the inner pulp.
It is available as plaid, herringbone and
twill.
Sisal fibers are Anti static, does not
attract or trap dust particles and does
not absorb moisture or water easily.
The fine texture takes dyes easily and
offers the largest range of dyed colours
of all natural fibers.
It exhibits good sound and impact absorbing properties.
Its leaves can be treated with natural borax for fire resistance properties.

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B. Animal Fibres
Animal fibres include wool, hair and secretions, such as silk. Types of animal fibres
are as follows:i.

Alpaca Fibre

Alpaca fibre is partly hollow, from 20 to 70 microns in diameter and comes in 22

natural colours. It is light, stronger than sheep's wool, and provides excellent
insulation. Huacayo alpacas produce soft, dense, short fibres, while the fleece of the
rarer suri is lustrous, silky and straight. Alpaca blends well with wool, mohair and
silk.

Source:
A domesticated member of the South American camelid family, the alpaca (Lama
pacos) numbers 3 million head worldwide. Around 80% are found in the Andes, but
sizeable herds (totalling around 200 000 animals) have been established in North
America, Australia and New Zealand. Shorn annually, an alpaca produces about 3 kg
of fibre.

Origin:
Alpaca has been a must have item ever since Sir Titus Salt introduced it into the UK
marketplace in around 1836. Alpaca coats, gowns and materials were very
fashionable during Queen Victoria's reign in fact they were so prized and so

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hardwearing that they were bequeathed in the wills of the deceased to the next
generations. Sir Titus became the largest employer in Bradford, West Yorkshire,
building the model industrial village of Saltaire in 1851 on the back of this success.
Today, many UK breeders
process their own alpaca fibre
and sell the yarns and products
direct to the public. Google
British alpaca fibre you will be
amazed at what you will
discover about the enterprising
nature of the UK alpaca
community. BAS members are
making and selling all kinds of
alpaca products, ranging from
insoles for boots and
wellingtons with coarser fibre,
to babywear and exclusive
luxury fashion items at the
other extreme.
The BAS National Fibre
Committee consists of
representatives from the
regional groups who meet
together to discuss the uses of alpaca fibre. Its aim is to provide a national focus
through which the membership can advance their initiatives towards the creation of
a viable commercial market for alpaca fibre and product in the UK.
Knitters adore alpaca and rapidly become addicted to it once they have felt the
softness and quality of the yarns. South Americans use a lot of heavy bright dyes on
their yarns which suit the garments and products they want to make for their home
market, however, here in Europe the attraction is the vast range of natural colours.
The natural, subtle but expansive colour palette offered by the alpaca is one of its
main attractions. In its natural state, undyed, it also comes with an environmental
cache, making it very attractive to the 'green' market.
Major Producers:
Alpacas, usually in herds of less than 50 animals, are the main source of income for
an estimated 120 000 families in the highlands of Peru (above), Bolivia and Chile.
There is limited scope to expand alpaca production in the Andes, due to lack of
grazing land. Herds in North America and Australasia are expanding by almost 20%
a year, and could soon become significant world suppliers.
Uses of Alpaca fibres:
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Of the South American camelids,

the alpaca is the only one whose
fleece is used in any quantity for
spinning yarns for fashion
applications.
The primary end use is knitwear,
but it is also woven into cloth for
clothing, accessories - such as
shawls and stoles - and rugs. The
premium alpaca fibre is cria, shorn
from young animals and
considered lighter, warmer and
softer than cashmere.
To widen use of alpaca fibre, some textile manufacturers blend it with wool,
cotton and silk for both knitwear and woven cloth.
There is also a growing market for outdoor sports clothing made from alpaca
thanks to its lighter weight and better insulation during cold weather.

Properties of Alpaca fibre:

Elasticity in yarn form: assists yarn

uniformity and stretch via the
crimp that occurs naturally in the
fibre.
Soft Handle: a combination of
texture, humidity and natural hair
structure surface characteristics
giving a resultant soft feel to
products made from the fibre
Thermal Properties: the fibre can
retain body heat under normal
conditions via the molecular
structure that the fibre possesses.
Tensile Strength: good strength characteristics comparable with other animal
fibres such as Merino Wool and Mohair.
Durability: keeps its appearance well over time and resists attacks by fungi
and other micro-organisms.
Colour: comes in a range of twenty five natural colours which include white,
fawns, browns, greys and black.

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ii.

Angora Fibre

The silky white hair of the angora is a hollow fibre classed as wool. With a diameter
of 14-16 microns, it is one of the silkest animal fibres. Angora wool is very soft to
the touch, thanks to the low relief of its cuticle scales. The hairs are light, absorb
water well and are easily dyed. Premium wool is taken from the back and upper
sides of the rabbit.

Source:
The angora is a variety of the Old World domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus)
with a special characteristic: the active phase of hair growth is double that of
normal rabbits. The angora is intensively farmed in hutches, often in semi-darkness,
and its hair is removed usually every three months. An adult angora produces up to
1.5 kg of fibre per year.

Origin:
The origin of the angora rabbit is unknown. The hair is very fine and soft and is used
in the production of high quality knitwear, although currently there is a trend
towards incorporating small quantities of angora in woven cloth.
There are basically two types of hair. French hair is longer and spikier and contains
guard hair that is hollow and does not take up dye. The second type of hair is less

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spiky and is used to make a softer yarn that is sometimes considered to be an
alternative to cashmere.
Major Producers:
Until the 1960s, France was the
leading producer of angora wool.
Since then it has been overtaken
by China, where angora farms
count more than 50 million rabbits.
Other angora producers are
Argentina, Chile, Czech Republic
and Hungary.
Uses of Angora:

Light but warm, angora wool

is used mainly in knitted
clothes, such as pullovers,
scarves, socks and gloves, producing a moderate "fluffing" effect.
Angora fabric is ideal for thermal clothing and for people suffering from
arthritis and wool allergies.
Garments made of 100% angora wool are considered too warm and the fibres
are too fine to provide
density. It is therefore
usually blended with other
fibres, such as wool (right)
to improve its processing
performance, elasticity and
wearability. French angora
products usually contain up
to 20% sheep's wool.
Properties of Angora:

It is extremely soft, lofty,

lustrous, and lightweight.
The angora fibre is very
durable and provides the best heat retention of all natural wool.
It is 6 times warmer than wool with non-odor absorbing, insulating and
antistatic properties.

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iii.

Camel Hair Fibre

The fine down fibre of the Bactrian camel

averages around 20 microns in diameter
and varies in length from 2.5 to 12.5 cm.
Baby camel hair, which can measure as
little as 16 microns (on a par with fine
cashmere), is the softest and most prized.
Owing to its quality and scarcity, camel
hair is used in luxury textiles.

Source:
The two-humped Bactrian camel
(Camelus bactrianus) is native to the
steppes of Eastern and Central Asia. The
current herd size is estimated at 1.4
million animals. The camel's fine inner down is combed away, shorn or collected
during the 6-8 weeks moulting season. An adult camel yields about 5 to 10 kg of
fleece per year.

Origin:
There are five primary steps to the production of camel hair; collection, sorting,
dehairing, spinning, and weaving or knitting. After collecting the hair either through
shearing or collecting during the
moulting season the hair goes
through a sorting method. In this
process the coarse hair is
separated from the fine, soft hairs.
The fibres are then washed to
remove any dirt or debris obtained
from the collection process. The
sorted and washed hair is then
dehaired. This process removes the
coarse hair and any dandruff or
vegetable matter before it is sent
to be spun into yarn and used for
either weaving or knitting.
Major Producers:

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The best quality camel yarn is produced by nomadic households in Mongolia (above)
and Inner Mongolia, China, where women spin the collected hair on drop spindles.
Other significant producers are Afghanistan and Iran. Owing to lack of infrastructure,
only very limited quantities of camel hair reach international markets.
Uses of Camel Hair fibre:

In Mongolia, camel hair is used by nomadic

herders to make yurts, winter clothing and
carpets.
Exported yarns are used for production of a
wide range of garments - overcoats, suits,
coats, blazers, jackets and sweaters - and
winter accessories such as gloves, caps and
scarves.
Since it is a premium fibre, camel hair is
usually blended with wool to make it more
economical. Nylon is sometimes used with
virgin quality camel hair in hosiery and other
knitted products, while camel/cashmere
blends are targeted at the luxury market.

Properties of Camel Hair fibre:

The color of camel is primarily golden tan

with a variance of red to light brown tones.
Camel's hair is also a fibre that supplies
warmth without added weight.
The hair contains thermostatic properties which can protect and insulate from
extreme cold conditions as well as keeping them cool in the desert.

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The same properties and characteristics

are transferred when making fabrics
woven from camel hair.

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iv.

Cashmere Fibre

US standards set an average fibre diameter for cashmere of no more than 19

microns, and top quality fibre is just 14. It has natural crimp, allowing it to be spun
into fine, lightweight fabrics. Cashmere has small air spaces between the fibres,
which makes it warm without weight, while thin cuticle cells on the fibre surface
make it smooth and lustrous.

Source:
The only source of true cashmere is the kashmir goat (Capra hircus laniger), native
to the Himalayas. Its fine undercoat hair is collected by either combing or shearing
during the spring moulting season. After sorting and scouring, the fibres are cleaned
of coarse outer hairs. Annual yield of underdown averages around 150 g per animal.
Origin:
Cashmere is a natural speciality animal fibre, derived from the soft undercoat of a
range of Asiatic goat breeds. The wool of cashmere goats has been processed into
beautiful textiles since around 1000 BC in their homeland, the Kashmir Valley in the
Jammu-Kashmir state of northern India.

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Nowadays, cashmere is primarily produced in China but other major cashmereproducing countries include Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan and Iran. There are also large
cashmere goat breeding farms in Australia, New Zealand and Scotland, where
mostly white wool species are bred; the wool then being later dyed with colour. The
annual production of cashmere wool occurs in spring with their natural shedding.

Their undercoat is combed, or in

industrialised countries it is removed
by shearing. The underside of the
neck has the softest most luxurious
fibres, because they are the finest
and longest. The downy wool is then
cleaned by a machine to get rid of
any top hairs or dirt and the fibres
are sorted by colour by hand. This
painstaking production process is
what makes cashmere wool the most
valuable and expensive natural fibre.
To reduce the cost of materials, cashmere fibres are often mixed with other fibres
and these percentages must be stated on the label. One hundred per cent pure
cashmere products are high quality, luxurious, rare, and therefore an investment.
Major Producers:
China is the world's leading cashmere producer, while Mongolia produces the finest
fibre (with diameter of around 15 microns). Other, smaller producers include
Australia, India, Iran, Pakistan, New Zealand, Turkey, and the USA.
Uses of Cashmere:

Cashmere is luxurious, rare and

expensive: spun and woven, the annual
fibre production of six kashmir goats is
enough to make just one cashmere
sports jacket.
The fabric is widely used as cashmere
sweaters (at right) because of its
warmth and in babywear because of its
softness. It is also used as blazers,
coats, jackets and underwear. Pashmina
is a type of cashmere, used mainly in
scarves and shawls, produced in the
valley of Kashmir. Coarser cashmere is used for rugs and carpets.

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To protect their industries, cashmere manufacturers in Europe, North America

and Japan are campaigning for stricter controls on the labelling of cashmere
garments.

Properties of Cashmere:

Cashmere is known for its extreme softness, warmth and lustrous quality, a
result of its extremely fine fibres. The fineness of cashmere is typically
between 7 and 19 microns.
Cashmere occurs naturally in only three colours: white, gray and brown, but
can be dyed any colour. Dark fibres are bleached to obtain light shades,
although the process may reduce strength and softness.
It has excellent draping qualities and soft
texture.
It is lightweight and lofty with a natural
crimp.
Cashmere adjusts to humidity in the air for
adaptability in all climates.
The fibre, which absorbs and retains
moisture much like wool, is somewhat
weaker than fine wool and considerably
weaker than mohair.
It is highly susceptible to damage by strong
alkalies and high temperatures.
Cashmere fabrics are subject to abrasion in wearing; pilling, or bunching
together of surface fibres, is a problem in knitwear.

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v.

Mohair

Mohair's diameter ranges from 23

microns at first shearing to 38
microns in older animals. Light and
insulating, its tensile strength is
significantly higher than that of
merino wool. Like wool, mohair has
surface scales, but they are
thinner, making it smooth to the
touch. Light reflected from the
surface gives mohair a
characteristic lustre.

Source:
"Mohair" is derived from Arabic (mukhayyar, a goat's hair cloth). The goat in
question, the Angora (Capra hircus) is thought to have originated in Tibet. Turkey
was the centre of mohair textile production before the goat was introduced, during
the 19th century, to southern Africa and the USA. Angora goats are shorn twice a
year and yield from 3 to 5 kg of mohair.

Origin:
The angora goat is thought to originate from the mountains of Tibet making their
way to Turkey in the 16th century.
However, fabric made of mohair
was known in England as early as
the 8th century. Raw mohair was
first exported from Turkey to
England around 1820, which then
became the leading manufacturer
of mohair. The Yorkshire mills spun
yarn that was exported to Russia,
Germany, Austria, etc. as well as
woven directly in Yorkshire.
Until 1849 the Turkish province of
Ankara was the sole producer of
Angora goats. Charles V is believed
to be the first to bring Angora
goats to Europe. Due to the great demand for mohair fiber, throughout the 1800s

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there was a great deal of crossbreeding between angora goats and common goats.
The growing demand for mohair further resulted in attempts on a commercial scale
to introduce the goat into South Africa (where it was crossed with the native goat) in
1838, the United States in 1849, Australia from 1856-1875, and later still New
Zealand. In 1849 Angora goats made their way to America as a gift from Turkey.
Today South Africa is the largest mohair producer in the world, with the majority of
South African mohair being produced in the Eastern Cape. The United States is the
second largest mohair producer, with the majority of American mohair being
produced in Texas.
In December 2006 the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to
be the International Year of Natural Fibres, so as to raise the profile of mohair and
other natural fibres.
Major Producers:
Although angora goats are raised for
mohair around the globe, the major
producer is South Africa. Production
is concentrated in the country's
Eastern Cape region, where the
angora goat population is estimated
at 850 000. Another major producer
is the US state of Texas, with a herd
of 200 000 goats.

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Uses of Mohair:

Mohair dyes exceptionally well

and is moisture-absorbing,
resilient, and flame- and creaseresistant. It is used mainly in
yarn for knitting and crocheting,
and in fabric for stoles, scarves
and durable upholstery.

Fine hair from younger animals is

used in clothing, while thicker
hair from older animals goes into
rugs and carpets and heavy
fabrics for jackets and coats.
Mohair is often blended with wool to make top quality blankets. Weavers in
Italy and Japan use mohair in blends as low as 20% to add crease resistance
and lustre to luxury garments.

Properties of Mohair:

Insulating - Mohair's hollow fibres do not conduct heat like wool and provides
good insulation, even when wet.
Durability - Mohair can be twisted and bent without damage to the fibre; it is
the most durable of animal fibres.
Comfort - Mohair does not irritate the skin, even for people who are sensitive
to wool.
Strength - Mohair is stronger than steel of the same diameter.
Shrink resistance - Mohair fabrics shrink much less than wool because
mohair's smooth fibres do not felt.
Elasticity - Mohair is very elastic; it can be stretched up to 30%, and will
spring back to shape; mohair garments resist wrinkling, stretching, or
sagging.
Moisture transfer - Mohair easily absorbs and releases moisture, moving
perspiration away from the skin. It is comfortable to wear in cold and hot
weather.
Luster - One of mohair's most important qualities is its ability to take dye and
to display brilliant colours that resist fading by time or hard wear.
Lightweight - Mohair's smooth fibres can be made into fabrics that have a
cooling effect. It is ideal for summer garments.
Non-flammability - Mohair will not burn unless it is exposed to a direct flame.
Easy to Wash - Mohair does not felt or shrink.

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vi.

Silk Fibre

A silk filament is a continuous thread of great tensile strength measuring from 500
to 1 500 metres in length, with a diameter of 10-13 microns. In woven silk, the
fibre's triangular structure acts as a prism that refracts light, giving silk cloth its
highly prized "natural shimmer". It has good absorbency, low conductivity and dyes
easily.

Source:
Silk is produced by the silkworm, Bombyx mori. Fed on mulberry leaves, it produces
liquid silk that hardens into filaments to form its cocoon. The larva is then killed, and
heat is used to soften the hardened filaments so they can be unwound. Single
filaments are combined with a slight twist into one strand, a process known as
filature or "silk reeling".
Origin:
The nineteenth century and industrialization saw the downfall of the European silk
industry. Cheaper Japanese silk, especially driven by the opening of the Suez Canal,
was one of the many factors driving the trend. Additionally, advent of manmade
fiber, such as nylon, started to dominate traditionally silk products such as stockings
and parachutes. The two world wars, which interrupted the supply of raw material
from Japan, also stifled the European silk industry.
After the Second World War, Japan's silk production was restored, with improved
production and quality of raw silk. Japan was to remain the world's biggest producer
of raw silk, and practically the only major exporter of raw silk, until the 1970s.

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China gradually re-captured her position as the world's biggest producer and
exporter of raw silk and silk yarn proving that the history of silk follows its own
boomerang principles. Today, around 125,000 metric tons of silk is produced in the
world. Almost two thirds of that production takes place in China.

Major Producers:
Silk is produced in more than 20 countries.
While the major producers are in Asia,
sericulture industries have been established in
Brazil, Bulgaria, Egypt and Madagascar.
Sericulture is labour-intensive. About 1 million
workers are employed in the silk sector in
China. Sericulture provides income for 700 000
households in India, and 20 000 weaving families in Thailand.
Uses of Silk:

Silk's natural beauty and other properties - such

as comfort in warm weather and warmth during
colder months - have made it sought after for
use in high-fashion clothes, lingerie and
underwear.
It is used in sewing thread for high quality
articles, particularly silk apparel, and in a range
of household textiles, including upholstery, wall
coverings and rugs and carpets.
It is also being used as surgical sutures - silk
does not cause inflammatory reactions and is
absorbed or degraded after wounds heal.
Other promising medical uses are as biodegradable microtubes for repair of
blood vessels, and as moulded inserts for bone, cartilege and teeth
reconstruction.

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Properties of Silk:

Strength: Silk as a fibre, has good tensile

strength, which allows it to withstand great
pulling pressure. Silk is the strongest natural
fibre and has moderate abrasion resistance. The
strength of the thrown yarns is mainly due to the
continuous length of the fibre. Spun silk yarn
though strong is weaker than thrown silk
filament yarns.
Elasticity: Silk fibre is an elastic fibre and may be
stretched from 1/7 to 1/5 of its original length
before breaking. It tends to return to its original
size but gradually loses little of its elasticity. This
would mean that the fabric would be less sagging and less binding resulting
in the wearers comfort.
Resilience: Silk fabrics retain their
shape and have moderate resistance to
wrinkling. Fabrics that are made from
short staple spun silk have less
resilience.
Drapability: Silk has a liability and
suppleness that, aided by its elasticity
and resilience, gives it excellent
drapability.
Heat Conductivity: Silk is a protein fibre
and is a non-conductor of heat similar
to that of wool. This makes silk suitable for winter apparel.
Absorbency: Silk fabrics being protein in nature have good absorbency. The
absorptive capacity of the silk fabric
makes comfortable apparel even for
warmer atmosphere. Fabrics made
from silk are comfortable in the
summer and warm in the winter. Silk
fibre can generally absorb about 11
percent of its weight in moisture, but
the range varies from 10 percent to as
much as 30 percent. This property is
also a major factor in silks ability to
be printed and dyed easily.
Cleanliness and Washability: Silk fabric
does not attract dirt because of its
smooth surface. The dirt, which gathers can be easily removed by washing or
dry cleaning. It is often recommended for the silk garments to be dry-

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cleaned. Silk fabrics should always be washed with a mild soap and strong
agitation in washing machine should be avoided. Silk water spot easily, but
subsequent washing or dry cleaning will restore the appearance of the fabric.
Reaction to Bleaches: Silk, like wool, is
deteriorated with chlorine bleaches like
sodium hypochlorite. However, mild
bleach of hydrogen peroxide or sodium
per borate may be used for silk.
Shrinkage: Silk fabrics are subjected
only to normal shrinkage which can be
restored by ironing. Crepe effect fabrics
shrink considerably in washing, but
careful ironing with a moderately hot
iron will restore the fabric to its original
size.
Effect of Heat: Silk is sensitive to heat
and begins to decompose at 330 F (165 C). The silk fabrics thus have to be
ironed when damp.
Effect of Light: Silk fabric weakens on exposure to sun light. Raw silks are
more resistant to light than degummed silk.
Resistance to Mildew: Silks will not mildew unless left for sometime in a damp
state or under the extreme conditions of tropical dampness.
Resistance to Insects: Silk may be attacked by the larvae or clothe moths or
carpet beetles.
Reaction to Alkalis: Silk is not as sensitive as wool to alkalis, but it can be
damaged if the concentration and the temperature are high. A mild soap or
detergent in lukewarm water is thus advisable.
Reaction to Acids: Concentrated mineral acids will dissolve silk faster than
wool. Organic acids do not harm silk.
Affinity for Dyes: Silk has good absorbency and thus has good affinity for
dyes. Dyed silk is colourfast under most conditions, but its resistance to light
is unsatisfactory.
Resistance to Perspiration: Perspiration and sunlight weakens and yellows silk
fabrics. The silk itself deteriorates and the colour is affected causing staining.
Garments worn next to the skin should be washed or other wise cleaned after
each wearing.

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vii.

Wool

Wool has natural crimpiness and scale patterns that make it easy to spin. Fabrics
made from wool have greater bulk than other textiles, provide better insulation and
are resilient, elastic and durable. Fibre diameter ranges from 16 microns in
superfine merino wool (similar to cashmere) to more than 40 microns in coarse
hairy wools.

Source:
Sheep (Ovis aries) were first
domesticated 10 000 years ago. They
currently number about 1 billion
head, in 200 breeds, worldwide.
Sheep are shorn of their wool usually
once a year. After scouring to remove
grease and dirt, wool is carded and
combed, then spun into yarn for
fabrics or knitted garments. Merino
sheep produce up to 18 kg of greasy
wool a year.
Origin:
As with many discoveries of early man, anthropologists believe the use of wool
came out of the challenge to survive. In seeking means of protection and warmth,
humans in the Neolithic Age wore animal pelts as clothing. Finding the pelts not only
warm and comfortable but also durable, they soon began to develop the basic
processes and primitive tools for making wool. By 4000 B.C. , Babylonians were
wearing clothing of crudely woven fabric.
People soon began to develop and maintain herds of wool-bearing animals. The
wool of sheep was soon recognized as one of the most practical to use. During the
eleventh and twelfth centuries, wool trade prospered. The English had become
proficient in the raising of sheep, while the Flemish had developed the skills for
processing. As a result, the British began to sell their wool to the Flemish, who
processed the raw material and then sold it back to the English.
The ambitious British soon realized the advantages of both producing and
processing their own wool. As Britain began to prosper, it sought to enhance its
position by enacting laws and embargoes that would stimulate its domestic
production. Some laws, for example, required that judges, professors, and students
wear robes made of English wool. Another law required that the dead be buried in
native wool. When the American colonies began to compete with the motherland,

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the English passed a series of laws in an attempt to protect their "golden fleece."
One law even threatened the amputation of the hand of any colonist caught trying
to improve the blood line of American sheep.
Today, wool is a global industry, with Australia, Argentina, the United States, and
New Zealand serving as the
major suppliers of raw wool.
While the United States is the
largest consumer of wool
fabric, Australia is the leading
supplier. Australian wool
accounts for approximately
one-fourth of the world's
production.
What for centuries was a
small home-based craft has
grown into a major industry.
The annual global output is
now estimated at 5.5 billion
pounds. Though cotton is the
number one plant used for fabrics and the number one fiber overall, the number
one source for animal fiber is still wool.
Major Producers:
The world's leading animal fibre, wool is produced in about 100 countries on half a
million farms. Major producers are Australia, Argentina, China, the Islamic Republic
of Iran, New Zealand, Russia, the United Kingdom and Uruguay. Depending on the
country and region, wool producers
range from small farmers (above, in
Peru) to large scale commercial
grazing operations.
Uses of Wool:

Wool is a multifunctional fibre

with a range of diameters that
make it suitable for clothing,
household fabrics and technical
textiles.

Its ability to absorb and release

moisture makes woollen garments comfortable as well as warm. Two thirds of
wool is used in the manufacture of garments, including sweaters, dresses,

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coats, suits and "active sportswear". Blended with other natural or synthetic
fibres, wool adds drape and crease resistance.
Slightly less than a third of wool goes into the manufacture of blankets antistatic and noise-absorbing carpets, and durable upholstery (wool's inherent
resistance to flame and heat makes it
one of the safest of all household
textiles).
Industrial uses of wool include sheets of
bonded coarse wool used for thermal
and acoustic insulation in home
construction, as well pads for soaking
up oil spills.

Properties of Wool:

Natural and renewable wool is grown

not made; every year sheep grow a
new fleece. Wool products also use less
energy than man-made fibres during
manufacture.
Sunsafe wool has naturally high UV
protection.
Flame retardant wool fibre has a
higher ignition threshold than many
other fibres and is flame retardant up
to 600 C. It also produces less toxic
fumes in a fire.
Biodegradable when disposed of,
natural wool fibre takes only a few
years to decompose, and with a high
nitrogen content, wool can even act as
a fertilizer.
Breathable wools natural structure
allows it to absorb and release water
vapour into the atmosphere, keeping you warm in winter and cool in summer.
Non allergenic wool is not known to cause allergy and does not promote the
growth of bacteria. With microscopic scales, wool fibres can trap dust in the
top layers until vacuumed away.
Durable and elastic wool fibre can be bent 20,000 times without breaking
and still have the power to recover and return to its natural shape. Quality
wool garments look good for longer.
Easy care modern wool can be machine-washed; retaining a small amount
of natural oil, wool fibre resists dirt and grease.
Multi-Climatic wool acclimatizes to its surroundings.

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Naturally insulating wool can insulate the home providing and retaining
warmth, and reducing energy costs.

MANMADE/SYNTHETIC FIBRES
Man-made fibres are those fibres whose chemical composition, structure, and
properties are significantly modified during the manufacturing process. A few types
of manmade fibers are as follows:i.

Viscose Fibre

Generally there are so many varieties of fibres made from naturally occurring
polymer cellulose which is obtaining in all plants. Viscose is described by BISFA as
the creature of a cellulose fibre acquired by the viscose making procedure. It is
known as rayon fibre in United States of America.

Origin:
Mr.Georges Audemars developed the first rayon fibre around 1855, but his method
was impractical for commercial use. Hilaire de Charbonnet, Comte de Chardonnay,
patented "Chardonnay silk" in 1884, but it was so flammable it had no safe use.
Finally, in 1894, Charles Frederick Cross, Edward John Bevan, and Clayton Beadle
patented the first safe and practical artificial silk, which they named "viscose".
Avtex Fibers Incorporated began selling their formulation in 1910 in the United
States.
Source:
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There are two types of fibers, they are called
naturals and artificials. Natural fibers are
cotton, wool and silk and artificial are
synthesized with petrochemicals like nylon
and polyester. Even it is considered to be
synthetic, it is not, it is made from tree
cellulose.
Major Producers:
The major portion of viscose fibre producing
countries lies in China. After China, India, Indonesia and Western Europe are also
very big players of producing viscose fibre.
Uses of Viscose Fibre:

In apparel: Accessories, blouses,

dresses, jackets, lingerie, linings,
millinery, slacks, sportswear, suits, ties,
work clothes
In home furnishings: Bedspreads,
blankets, curtains, draperies, sheets,
slipcovers, tablecloths, upholstery
Industrial uses: Industrial products,
medical surgical products, nonwoven
products, tire cord
Other Uses: Feminine hygiene
products.

Properties of Viscose Fibre:

Viscose gives the appearance and feels as

soft and silky
Viscose has the aptitude to respire in a
wary similar to cotton.
Viscose fibres have good moisture regain
property like cotton fibres.
Viscose fibres can be easily dyed in
several colors.
When heating the viscose fibre, it does
not shrink.
Viscose fibre is biodegradable.
Viscose can be blend with some other
fibres: with polyester gives Polyviscose,
with cotton give Cotton-Viscose.
Also viscose can be blend with spandex for good stretch ability.

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Viscose has a good drape-ability property.
ii.
Acrylic Fibre
Acrylic fiber is a synthetic fiber that closely resembles wool in its character.
According to the definition of the ISO (International Standards Organization) and
BISFA (International Synthetic Fiber Standardization Office), fibers which contain a
minimum of 85% acrylonitrile in their chemical structure are called "Acrylic Fibers".
Acrylic fiber is composed of acrylonitrile and a comonomer. The comonomer is
added to improve dyeability and the textile processability of the acrylic fiber. Acrylic
fiber is produced with two different systems: wet spinning and dry spinning. Acrylic

fiber can be supplied as producer-dyed either by pigmentation of the dope or with

jet dyeing systems. It can be used 100% alone, or in blends with other natural and
synthetic fibers.

Source:
Acrylic fibers are produced from acrylonitrile, a petrochemical. The acrylonitrile is
usually combined with small amounts of other chemicals to improve the ability of
the resulting fiber to absorb dyes. Some acrylic fibers are dry spun and others are
wet spun. Acrylic fibers are used in staple or tow form.

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Acrylic fibers are modified to give special properties best suited for particular enduses. They are unique among synthetic fibers because they have an uneven
surface, even when extruded from a round-hole spinneret.
Origin:
The development of acrylic fiber stemmed from DuPonts work on rayon. In 1941 a
DuPont scientist seeking to improve rayon discovered a means of spinning acrylic
polymer which unlike nylon, decomposes rather than melts through a solution.
Initially the material was targeted as a replacement for wool, but difficulties in
spinning and dyeing soon cropped up. In 1950 the May Plant in Camden, South
Carolina, went into production of the material under the trade name Orlon.
DuPont initially offered it as a filament yarn, but it didn't take off until Orlon staple,
a soft, wool-imitating yarn composed of short fibers, was introduced.
In the summer of 1952, "wash and wear" was coined to describe a new blend of
cotton and acrylic. The term eventually was applied to a wide variety of
manufactured fiber blends. Acrylic was marketed alongside nylon and the other
synthetics as "miracle fabrics" - crease-proof, insect-reistant, washable and quickdrying.
By the mid-1950s a boom in women's sweaters was underway and acrylic perfectly suited to imitate expensive wool and cashmere with its soft look and feel was there to meet the demand. By 1960 sales reached 1 million pounds a year.

Major Producers:
Over one-half of the global acrylic fibre
capacity is in Asian region, which was less
than half just 5 years ago. The rapid built
up in Asia signifies the shift in capacities
from Americas and Europe to this low cost
region. North America and West Europe
together now hold less than 20% of global
capacity, down from 35% in 2000.
Within Asia, most of the capacity is
concentrated in China. Almost 33% global
capacity and two-third of Asias capacity is
in China. Apart from Asia Middle East has been picking up quickly to take advantage
of its strong upstream and downstream linkages and its geographical posi-tioning to
supply to European and Asian markets.
Uses of Acrylic Fibre:

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Apparel: Sweaters, socks, fleece wear,

circular knit apparel, sportswear and
childrens wear.
Household Textiles: Carpet, blankets, area
rugs, upholstery, pile fabrics.
Outdoor end uses: Car tops, boat covers,
awnings, outdoor furniture.
Industrial end uses: Filtration materials,
reinforcement materials in construction,
car batteries.

Properties of Acrylic Fibre:

Acrylic is colored before it is turned into a

fibre as it does not dye very well but has
excellent colorfastness and resistance to
sunlight.
It is also resistant to shrinkage. The
filaments have a high tensile strength that
is almost as good when wet as dry. The
fibers have good elasticity and low
moisture absorption.
Acrylic has a soft, warm feel which makes
it ideal to imitate wool and cashmere. The
disadvantages are that it tends to fuzz or pill easily and that it does not
insulate the wearer as well as wool or cashmere.
Acrylic blends well with natural fibres like wool and cotton, or other
synthetics.

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iii.

Nylon Fibre

Nylon fibers are one of the fibers having the longest history among synthetic fibers.
They are used for a variety of uses from clothing to home furnishings and industrial
uses.

In

nylon fibers, there are many types depending on the raw materials. The fibers most
manufactured in Japan is "Nylon 6" fibers. In addition, "Nylon 66" fibers, rather
resistant to heat, are also manufactured. Recently, "Nylon 46" fibers, improving
their resistance to heat with higher than 290 in melting point, are put into practical
application.
Source:
The term nylon refers to a family of polymers called linear polyamides. There are
two common methods of making nylon for fiber applications. In one approach,
molecules with an acid (COOH) group on each end are reacted with molecules
containing amine (NH2) groups on each end. The resulting nylon is named on the
basis of the number of carbon atoms separating the two acid groups and the two
amines. Thus nylon 6,6 which is widely used for fibers is made from adipic acid and
hexamethylene diamine. The two compounds form a salt, known as nylon salt, an
exact 1:1 ratio of acid to base. This salt is then dried and heated under vacuum to
eliminate water and form the polymer.
Origin:

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In the mid 1930s, several DuPont Chemicals scientists led by Wallace Carothers
were secretly slipping their names into the history books through a prototype
polymer known then as "fiber 6-6."
His team originally set out to research commercial applications for polymers, which
are large building block molecules that are now used in everything from tennis
shoes to CDs.
Carothers and company made the polymer by combining hexamethylenediamine, a
crystalline substance that easily bonds with acids, and adipic acid. They then pulled
strands from the concoction and spun them into
plastic thread using a process called cold
drawing.
Three years later, DuPonts production facilities
were capable of spinning up to 12 billion pounds
of the stuff annually. The company initially tested
nylon in toothbrushes, but eventually focused on
tapping the womens hosiery market.
Major Producers:
Demand for nylon is recovering from the global
economic downturn, but the cost differential with competing polymers continues to
suppress growth, particularly in the market for nylon fibers, which is steadily shifting
toward Asia.

The trend is decades old, says Darrel Collier,

business manager at Tecnon OrbiChem, a UKbased petrochemicals consultancy. In 1980, nylon
accounted for more than 10% of global fiber
production, but by 2000, nylon's share had fallen
to 7.4%, and by 2009 to only 5.4%.
Uses of Nylon:

Apparel: Blouses, dresses, foundation

garments, hosiery, lingerie, underwear,
raincoats, ski apparel, windbreakers,
swimwear, and cycle wear.
Home Furnishings: Bedspreads, carpets,
curtains, upholstery.
Other uses: Tire cord, hoses, conveyer and
seat belts, parachutes, racket strings, ropes and nets, sleeping bags,
tarpaulins, tents, thread, mono filament fishing line, dental floss.

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Properties of Nylon:

One of the very strong fibers. Extremely

resistant to abrasion and flexing.
The specific gravity is 1.14 Very light, i.e., 80%
of that of silk fibers, and 70% of that of cotton
fibers.
Since nylon fibers absorb little water even
though they are wetted., they dry fast and
simple in laundering.
Excellent in elasticity and resistant to wrinkle.
If properly set, nylon textiles little shrink/ extend
or little deform their shape due to
thermoplasticity.
Resistant to chemicals and oil. Non-attackable by
sea water.
Non-attackable by molds and insects.

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iv.

Polyester

Polyester is a manufactured fiber in which the fiber forming substance is any longchain synthetic polymer composed of at least 85% by weight of an ester of a
substituted aromatic carboxylic acid, including but not restricted to substituted
terephthalic units, p(-R-O-CO- C6H4-CO-O-)x and parasubstituted hydroxy-benzoate
units, p(-R-O-CO-C6H4-O-)x.

Source:

Polyester fibres are produced by the melt spinning process. Raw materials are
heated to a spinning mass, which is then pressed through spinnerets. Manufacturing
techniques are now developed to the point where they can produce fibres adapted
to suit the widest possible applications: they can have round, oval or angular
profiles, making them firm to the touch. They can be dull, bright or glittery.
On care labels polyester fibres are often given the abbreviation: "PES".
Origin:
In 1926, United States-based E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. began research into
very large molecules and synthetic fibers. This early research, headed by W.H.

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Carothers, centered on what became nylon, the first synthetic fiber. Soon after, in
the years 1939-41, British research chemists took interest in the du Pont studies
and conducted their own research in the laboratories of Calico Printers Association,
Ltd. This work resulted in the creation of the polyester fiber known in England as
Terylene.
In 1946, du Pont purchased the right to produce this polyester fiber in the United
States. The company conducted some further developmental work, and in 1951,
began to market the fiber under the name Dacron. During the ensuing years,
several companies became interested in polyester fibers and produced their own
versions of the product for different uses. Today, there are two primary types of
polyester, PET (polyethylene terephthalate) and PCDT (poly-1, 4-cyclohexylenedimethylene terephthalate). PET, the more popular type, is applicable to a wider
variety of uses. It is stronger than PCDT, though PCDT is more elastic and resilient.
PCDT is suited to the heavier consumer uses, such as draperies and furniture
coverings. PET can be used alone or blended with other fabrics to make clothing
that is wrinkle and stain resistant and retains its shape.
Major Producers:
Chinas PSF capacity although
remained stable in 2009, accounted
for 60% of global capacity while
production grew 4%, implying rise in
capacity utilization. India, the second
largest producer, increased its
volumes by 26%, producing tons
during the year. Taiwan managed to
lift output as well by 13% while output
declined in South Korea by close to
3%. North Americas, the distant
second largest PSF producing region,
led by USA and to a smaller extent by Mexico.
Uses of Polyester:

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Apparel: Every form of clothing.

Home Furnishings: Carpets, curtains,
draperies, sheets and pillow cases,
wall coverings, and upholstery.
Other Uses: hoses, power belting,
ropes and nets, thread, tire cord, auto
upholstery, sails, floppy disk liners,
and fiberfill for various products
including pillows and furniture.

Properties of Polyester:

Polyester fibres are particularly

resistant to light and weather and can withstand climatic effects.
They can be used where lightness and
fineness are primary requirements.
Polyester fibres are very well suited to
blends with natural fibres.
Fabrics in 100% polyester, or blends
with an appropriately high proportion,
are very crease-resistant and retain
shape even when affected by moisture.
Polyester fibres have good moisture
transport and dry quickly.
They are easy care.
High tenacity ensures above-average
wear qualities.
Heat treatment results in permanent
creases in trousers and skirts.

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v.

Spandex

Spandex is a synthetic fiber that has an exceptional characteristic of elasticity due

to which it is also known as elastane. It is lightweight, soft, strong and very
stretchable. In fact, spandex fiber was developed as an alternative to rubber but has
a better quality than it. The name Lycra has also come to be a synonymous of
spandex. However, Lycra is the trademark brand but it has become so popular that
all the varieties of spandex are popularly referred to as Lycra. Due to its durability
and stretchability, spandex is mostly used to make sports wear and work wear,
specially for factory workers. It wears like a second skin and for risk involved jobs
like that of machine operators, Lycra clothing is like a boon.
Source:
There are two principal methods used in processing elastane. One is to wrap the
elastane fibre in a non-elastic thread - either natural or man-made. The resulting

yarn has the appearance and feel of the outer fibre used. The second method
involves using pure elastane threads, which are worked or woven into fabrics made
from other fibres. The added elasticity makes such fabrics more comfortable to
wear. Blends with elastane depend on the type of fabric and the end use.
On care labels elastane is often designated as "EL".
Origin:
The development of spandex was started during World War II. At this time, chemists
took on the challenge of developing synthetic replacements for rubber. Two primary
motivating factors prompted their research. First, the war effort required most of the

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available rubber for building equipment. Second, the price of rubber was unstable
and it fluctuated frequently. Developing an alternative to rubber could solve both of
these problems.
At first, their goal was to develop a durable elastic strand based on synthetic
polymers. In 1940, the first polyurethane elastomers were produced. These
polymers produced millable gums, which
were an adequate alternative to rubber.
Around the same time, scientists at Du Pont
produced the first nylon polymers. These
early nylon polymers were stiff and rigid, so
efforts were begun to make them more
elastic. When scientists found that other
polyurethanes could be made into fine
threads, they decided that these materials
might be useful in making more stretchable
nylons or in making lightweight garments.
The first spandex fibers were produced on an experimental level by one of the early
pioneers in polymer chemistry, Farbenfabriken Bayer. He earned a German patent
for his synthesis in 1952. The final development of the fibers were worked out
independently by scientists at Du Pont and the U.S. Rubber Company. Du Pont used
the brand name Lycra and began full scale manufacture in 1962. They are currently
the world leader in the production of spandex fibers.

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Major Producers:
In 2010, the spandex industry of China maintained high-speed growth, leading to
domestic heavyweights to make intensified investment
grasping market shares, thus accelerated the improvement
of industrial concentration. In 2010, the top 10 spandex
manufacturers in China made up 75.8% of the total capacity,
up 2.1 percentage points comparing to that in 2009. And it is
estimated that the industrial concentration in upcoming
years will see further improvement.
Uses of Spandex:

Garments where comfort and fit are desired: hosiery,

swimsuits, aerobic/exercise wear, ski pants, golf
jackets, disposable diaper, waist bands, bra straps and
bra side panels.
Compression garments: surgical hose, support hose,
bicycle pants, foundation garments.
Shaped garments: bra cups.

Properties of Spandex:

Strength: This fibre does not reach the breaking point

until after the fibre has been stretched to its
maximum length. This point is not usually reached in
general use and wear. The great flexibility of spandex
fibres further adds to their serviceability and
durability. The abrasion resistance of the various
spandex fibres is good, thereby contributing to their
good wearing characteristics.
Elasticity: Elasticity is the prime characteristic of this
fibre along with its holding power. These fibres may
be stretched from 400 to 700 percent that is 4 to 7
times the relaxed state before breaking.
Cleanliness and Washability: All these fibres are
unaffected by dry-cleaning solvents. They are also
machine washable with the usual household soaps and detergents, but the
temperature of the water should be about 100 to 120o F, depending upon the
particular spandex fibre. Higher temperature may reduce the elasticity of the
fibre.
Effect of bleaches: All these fibres are white, though the degree of whiteness
varies. Under certain conditions, yellowing may occur. Fibres used in
conjunction with spandex in the fabric may discolor and bleaching may be

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desired. However, the several spandex fibres differ in their reaction to

bleaches. Treatment must be given accordingly.
Effect of seawater: Since we are considering the important place that this
fibre has in swimwear and other related uses, it is important to emphasize
that it is unaffected by seawater.
Shrinkage and growth: These fibres will not shrink from exposure to water;
however, some do shrink upon exposure to certain temperatures. On the
other hand, a garment may have a small loss of elastic recovery as it is used.
This gradual extension is known as growth. The amount of growth may not be
too significant, particularly if taken into during garment construction.
Effect of heat: Exposure to heat has varied effects
on the spandex fibres. Generally, excessive
exposure to heat should be avoided. As a rule,
ironing should be done quickly and with a warm
iron.
Effect of light: Light and other atmospheric
conditions have varying effects upon the several
spandex fibres. However, no really serious damage
may be expected to occur in the normal use of the
spandex for dress or sportswear.
Resistance to mildew: The spandex fibres have well
to excellent resistance to damage by mildew.
Resistance to insects: As may be expected, these
fibres are unaffected by insects.
Reaction to alkalies: Reactions of these fibres to
alkalies vary, but all are affected.
Reaction to acids: Reactions of these fibres to acids also vary. Lycra has good
resistance to most acids, though some discoloration may occur.
Affinity for dyes: These fibres have good affinity
for many classes of dyes, including disperse, acid,
chrome, and other dyes.
Resistance to perspiration: Indications are that all
the fibres have good resistance to degradation by
perspiration.
Resistance to oil: An important attribute of all
spandex fibres is their high resistance to body oils,
cosmetics, and suntan lotions. This is a particularly
important advantage over rubber for use in such
garments as girdles and swimwear.

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YARNS
Yarn is a long continuous length of interlocked fibres, suitable for use in the
production of textiles, sewing, crocheting, knitting, weaving, embroidery, and ropemaking. Thread is a type of yarn intended for sewing by hand or machine.
Manufacturing Process
There are three major spinning processes: cotton, worsted or long-staple, or wool.
Synthetic staple fibers can be made with any of these processes. Since more yarn is
produced with the cotton process than the other two, its manufacture is described
below.
1. Preparing the fibers: Fibers are shipped in bales, which are opened by
hand or machine. Natural fibers may require cleaning, whereas synthetic

fibers only require separating. The picker loosens and separates the lumps of
fiber and also cleans the fiber if necessary. Blending of different staple fibers
may be required for certain applications. Blending may be done during
formation of the lap, during carding, or during drawing out. Quantities of each
fiber are measured carefully and their proportions are consistently
maintained.
2. Carding: The carding machine is set with hundreds of fine wires that
separate the fibers and pull them into somewhat parallel form. A thin web of
fiber is formed, and as it moves along, it passes through a funnel-shaped
device that produces a ropelike strand of parallel fibers. Blending can take
place by joining laps of different fibers.
3. Combing: When a smoother, finer yarn is required, fibers are subjected to a
further paralleling method. A comb-like device arranges fibers into parallel
form, with short fibers falling out of the strand.
4. Drawing out: After carding or combing, the fiber mass is referred to as the
sliver. Several slivers are combined before this process. A series of rollers
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rotating at different rates of speed elongate the sliver into a single more
uniform strand that is given a small amount of twist and fed into large cans.
Carded slivers are drawn twice after carding. Combed slivers are drawn once
before combing and twice more after combing.
5. Twisting: The sliver is fed through a machine called the roving frame, where
the strands of fiber are further elongated and given additional twist. These
strands are called the roving.
6. Spinning: The predominant
commercial systems of yarn
formation are ring spinning and openend spinning. In ring spinning, the
roving is fed from the spool through
rollers. These rollers elongate the
roving, which passes through the
eyelet, moving down and through the
traveler. The traveler moves freely
around the stationary ring at 4,000 to
12,000 revolutions per minute. The
spindle turns the bobbin at a constant
speed. This turning of the bobbin and
the movement of the traveler twists
and winds the yarn in one operation.
7. Open-end spinning omits the roving
step. Instead, a sliver of fibers is fed into the spinner by a stream of air. The
sliver is delivered to a rotary beater that separates the fibers into a thin
stream that is carried into the rotor by a current of air through a tube or duct
and is deposited in a V-shaped groove along the sides of the rotor. As the
rotor turns, twist is produced. A constant stream of new fibers enters the
rotor, is distributed in the groove, and is removed at the end of the formed
yarn.

Yarn Twist
Twist is the spiral arrangement of the fibres around the axis of the yarn. The
twist binds the fibres together and also contributes to the strength of the yarn.
The amount of twist inserted in a yarn defines the appearance and the strength
of the yarn. The number of twists is referred to as turns per inch. Yarn Twist is an
important factor in the finished consumer goods as it determines the durability
and service-ability of the fabric.
If yarns are to be finer, then more twist id needed as compared to coarser yarns.
In the woven fabric yarns which lay parallel to the selvedge i.e. the warp yarns
are given more twist than the yarns which lay perpendicular or crosswise i.e. the
filling yarn.

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In order to retain the twist in the yarns and prevent them from untwisting, they
are given a twist setting finish depending upon the kind of fibre used. The kind of
fabric to be produced also affects the amount of twist which is as follows:

If the fabric is to be soft surfaced then the yarns are given a slight twist
and are called soft twisted yarns.
If the fabric is to be smooth surfaced then the yarn is given many twists.
These twisted yarns contribute to the strength, smoothness, elasticity and
some wrinkle resistance to the fabric.
If the surface is to be rough, pebbly or crinkled, they are given maximum
amount of twist. This also makes the fabric wrinkle resistant.

Direction of Twist: The direction of the twist at each stage of manufacture is

indicated by the use of letters S or Z in accordance with the following convention:

A single yarn has S twist if, when it is held in the vertical

position, the fibres inclined to the axis of the yarn
conform in the direction of the slope to the central
portion of the letter S. Similarly the yarn has Z twist if
the fibres inclined to the axis of yarn conform in the
direction of slope to the central portion of the letter Z.

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Types of Yarns
TYPES OF YARN

Spun/Staple Yarns
Single Yarn
Plied Yarn
Cord Yarn

Filament Yarns
Novelty Yarns
Monofilament Yarn
Slub Yarn
Flake Yarn

Multi-filament Yarn

Spiral Yarn
Pratine Yarn
Loop Yarn
Knot Yarn
Yarns are broadly classified as:-

Chenille Yarn

1. Spun/Staple Yarns: Spun yarns are produced by twisting together staple

(short) fibres. They are made of: Naturally occurring staple fibres; or
Filament yarns cut into short lengths
2. Filament Yarns: These yarns are produced from filament (continuous) fibres.

They are made of: Filament fibres reeled from silk cocoons; or
Polymers extruded through a spinneret; or
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Polymer films that are split.

3. Novelty Yarns: These yarns are made of two or more strands to provide a

decorative effect to the surface of the fabric. Many novelty yarns are composed of:

Base/core strand that provides structure and strength.

Effect strand that creates decorative knots, details or loops.
Binder that ties the effect yarn to the base yarn if binding is necessary.

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Types of Spun Yarns

i.

Single Yarns

A yarn which is smooth and uniform and evenly twisted is called a simple yarn. It is
commonly used for making fabric like poplin and cambric. Simple yarns are further
classified into three types.
A simple single yarn is an assemblage of fibres evenly twisted together.

ii.

Plied yarns

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A simple ply yarn is made up of 2 or more single yarns evenly twisted together. If
the ply has two singles it is called a 2-ply and so on. This type of yarn is found in a 2
by 2 rubia fabric. It has 2 ply yarns in both directions of the fabric.

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iii.

Cord Yarns

A simple cord yarn is made of two or more ply yarns twisted together. To see a cord
yarn, one can take a clothes line used for drying clothes and untwist it.

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Types of Novelty Yarns

i.

Slub Yarn

Slub yarns are the yarns which has soft, untwisted areas at frequent intervals
throughout their length. They are coarse with slight twist having varying diameter
that shows irregularities typical of an incomplete spinning operators.
They furnish ornamental effects and are often used for that purpose in shantung
and tweed.

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ii.

Flake Yarn

Flake yarn is similar to slub yarns. The flake effect is achieved by inserting soft,
thick tough of roving between binder yarns at intervals. The result is a flake yarn of
varying thickness and softness caused by the soft effect ply held in place by the
uniform binder.
This type of yarn is also used for achieving fancy decorative details on the surface.

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iii.

Spiral/ Corkscrew/Eccentric Yarn

The general appearance of a spiral yarn is that of a coarse yarn wound around a fine
yarn giving an effect of a spiral. The thicker yarn is given a slight twist and is wound
around spirally around the fine yarn which is sometimes referred to as the core yarn
which is hardly twisted.

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iv.

Ratine Yarn

It is a variation of spiral yarn though the method of manufacturing differs. In this,

the effect yarn and the core yarn are twisted together in a spiral manner. At
intervals, a longer loop (effect yarn) is thrown out and the binder yarn keeps it in
place.
The binder yarn is added in a second twisting operation going in the opposite
direction of the effect yarn.

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v.

Boucle/Loop/Curl Yarn

This yarn is comparable to the Ratine yarn type but in Boucle yarn, the loops are
softer. This effect is achieved by allowing one of the plies to remain slack during the
twisting operation. This will cause it to twist on its own and form a loop. The size of
the loop will vary depend upon the speed of the roller.
This type of yarn is usually seen in knitted fabrics and fabrics with a loop pile to
resemble fur.

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vi.

Knub/Knot/Knoop/Spot Yarn

This kind of yarn is made by twisting the effect ply yarn around the core ply yarn
many times within a short space causing bumps or knubs that are spaced at
intervals along the length of the yarn.
In some cases the knub yarns are bound by a binder yarn and in other cases the
effect can be achieved without a binder yarn.

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vii.

Chenille Yarn

Derived from a term which means caterpillar. It refers to a special, soft, fuzzy, loft
yarn with pile protruding on all sides. It is produced from woven leno fabric structure
that is slit into narrow, warp wise strips to serve as yarn.
In Chenille yarn, pile fibres are held between 2 highly twisted base or core yarns.

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Types of Filament Yarns

i.

Monofilament Yarn

Made from a single, relatively

thicker filament fibre.
Transparent sewing thread,
metallic yarns, bare elastic,
and fishing lines are examples
of monofilament yarns. Silk is too
fine to be used as a
monofilament yarn.

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ii.

Multi-Filament Yarn

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It is made from multiple

filament fibres. Continuous
filament fibre length requires
little or no twisting to hold
the multi-filament yarn
together. WEAVES
Weaving: Weaving is the
interlacement or intersection
of two sets of yarns, namely
warp and weft yarns, at right angles. If there is selvedge, it is
easy to make out which yarn is weft and which is warp. Weft is

WARP YARNS

perpendicular to selvedge and the warp yarns are parallel to

the selvedge.
WEFT YARNS

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Weaves: Fabric weave is the pattern for manufacturing a

fabric. The yarns are used in different ways to produce various
effects or weaves. These weaves can be plain and simple as
well as artistic and decorative.

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Types of Weaves
TYPES OF WEAVES

Basic Weaves

Decorative Weaves
Basket Weave

Plain Weave
Rib Weave
Twill Weave
Satin/Sateen Weave

Jaquard Weave
Dobby Weave
Pile Weave
Leno/Gauze Weave
Crepe Weave

There are majorly two types of weaves:1. Basic Weaves: Basic weaves comprises of the basic
structure of the weft and warp yarns. They are classified
into: Plain weave
Twill weave
Satin and Sateen weave
2.
Decorative Weaves: These weaves are the ones
which are used for adding decorative details to the fabric.
Jaquard weave
Dobby weave
Pile weave
Leno/gauze weave
Crepe weave

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Types of Basic Weaves

i.

Plain Weave

Plain weave is the most simple and

common type of construction which is
inexpensive to produce, durable, flat
having tight surface on which printing and
other finishes can be easily applied.
In plain weaving, each thread of both
warp and filling passes alternately over
and under the threads at right angles.
This makes a comparatively open cloth,
requiring the smallest amount of yarn for the surface covered.
This weave is used in nearly all cotton goods, as in muslins,
sheetings, calicoes, ginghams, and thin
woolen goods. Even in the plain weave
variety is obtained by having some of the
threads larger than others, either in warp
or filling or both, thus producing stripes
and checked effects.
The examples of plain weave fabrics are
crepe, taffeta, organdy, cotton calicos,
cheesecloth, gingham, percale, voile and muslin.
Method of Construction: Each filling yarn goes alternately
under and over the warp yarns
End Uses: Draperies, tablecloths, upholstery.
Examples of Fabrics:
Chiffon: A very soft and filling plain woven Silk texture
consisting of the Finest Singles which are hard twisted and
woven in the gum condition. The cloth is afterward
degummed.
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Georgette: A cotton Crepe fabric made in imitation of silk

georgette, with hard twisted warp and weft yarn. A good
Cloth is woven plain with right and left twist thread arranged
in 2 and 2 order in warp and weft.
Shantung: Coarse Silk fabric with Slubs. Mostly Tussah Silk
but can be Polyester, nylon and viscose.

Seersucker:

It is created by holding some warp yarns at

tight tension, some at slack tension. Those at Slack Tension
puff up to form a sort of Blis-ter-effect, often slack and tight
yarn of different colour.

The plain weave may also have variations including the following:
a) Rib weave: The filling yarns are
larger in diameter than the warp
yarns. A rib weave produces fabrics in
which fewer yarns per square
centimeter are visible on the surface.
b) Matt Weave or Basket weave: A
variation of the plain weave usually
basket
or
checkerboard
pattern
Contrasting colors are often used
Inexpensive, less durable than plain
weave.
Basket
weave
is
the
amplification in height and width of
plain weave. There two types of
weave come under this category i.e.
regular and irregular weave.
1. Regular basket weave: This is
commonly used for edges in
drapery, or as a bottom in very small weave repeats,
because the texture is too loose-fitting for big weave
repeats; moreover, yarns of different groups can slip,
group and overlap, spoiling the appearance. This is why
only basket weaves 2-2, 3-3 and 4-4 exist.

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2. Irregular basket weave: This is generally a combination of

irregular warp and weft ribs.

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ii.

Twill Weave

Creates a diagonal, chevron, hounds

tooth, corkscrew, or other design. The
design is enhanced with colored yarn is
strong and may develop a shine. Twill
weave is characterized by diagonal
ridges formed by the yarns, which are
exposed on the surface. These may vary
in angle from a low slope to a very steep
slope. Twill weaves are more closely
woven, heavier and stronger than
weaves of comparable fiber and yarn size. They can be produced
in fancy designs.
Method of Construction: Three or more shafts; warp or filling
floats over two or more counterpart yarns in progressive steps
right or left
End Uses: Upholstery, comforters, pillows.
Examples of Fabrics:
Denim: A Strong Warp Face Cotton Cloth used for overall,
Jeans skirts etc. Largely
made in 3/1 twill weave.
Generally warp yarn is dyed
brown or blue and crossed
with white weft.
Gabardine: A Warp Face
cloth mostly woven 2/2 twill,
27/2 tex warp, 20/2 tex
cotton weft. Here cotton
weft is yarn dyed but the
wool warp may be dyed in piece.
Characteristics of Twill Weave:
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May have face/back and up/down orientation

Interesting surface and texture
Seldom printed
Soil less evident
More pliable
Better wrinkle recovery
High counts possible (more
durable)
More expensive
Wale may be prominent

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iii.

Satin Weave

Satin weave, although more

complicated, is a flexible type
of weave than the plain weave.
It is called 'satin' when filament
fibers such as silk or nylon are
used and is called 'sateen'
when short-staple yarns like
cotton is used to make it. The
satin weave is lustrous with a
smooth surface and it drapes in
an excellent manner. The
examples
of
satin
weave
fabrics are bocade, brocatelle, crepe-satin, satin, peau de soie,
velvet satin etc.
Method of Construction:
Floats one warp yarn over four or more weft yarns, then tied down
with one thread, resulting in a smooth face
Common Fabrics: Satin, satin-weave fabrics out of fabrics such
as cotton & Charmeuse
End Uses: Draperies, quilts
Examples of Fabric:
Satin: Used for ribbons, trimmings, dresses, linings etc, and
originally was an all silk fabric with a fine rich glossy surface
formed in a warp satin weave. The warp is much finer and
more closely set than the weft, and the latter which only
shows on the under side is frequently composed of cotton.
Double faced Satins are made on the reversible warp backed
principle, with one side differently colour from the other.

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Charmeuse: It is a light weight fabric woven with a satin

weave ,where the warp threads cross over three or more of
the backing (weft) threads. The front side of the fabric has a
satin finish-lustrous and reflective-whereas the back has a
dull finish.
Characteristics of Satin Weave:
Satin Weave is flat and lustrous with a smooth surface.
Satin Weave surface slides easily for linings.
Satin Weave long floats like 7/1 or 11/1 and filament fabrics
are subject to snagging and is poor resistant to abrasion.
Satin Weave shorter floats like 4/1 or and spun fabrics

may be tough, compact and durable with low luster.

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iv.

Sateen Weave

In the sateen weave, nearly all of

either the warp or the filling
threads are on the surface, the
object being to produce a smooth
surface fabric like sateen. With
this weave it is possible to use a
cotton warp and silk filling,
having most of the silk appear on
the surface of the fabric.
Method of Construction:
Floats one weft yarn over four or more warp yarns, then tied
down with one thread, resulting in a smooth face.
Examples of Fabrics:
Cotton sateen, and
damask
Characteristics
Sateen Weave:

of

The
main
characteristic
of
Sateen weave is that, the face side of the fabric is very
smooth and glossy.
Only one interlacement is done between each warp and each
weft, for this reason it is very glossy.
In Sateen, no twill direction is formed on the fabric surface.
Sateen weave is comparatively looser than plain and twill
weave.
Sateen weave is mostly used for lace production.

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Types of Decorative Weaves

i.

Jaquard Weave

Jacquard patterns, when carefully

analyzed, may be seen to contain
combinations of plain, twill, and
satin weaves, even in the same
crosswise yarn. Many decorative
fabrics are made by the jacquard
technique. Yarns woven into
unlimited designs, often intricate,
multicolor effect. Expensive, but
the design dont fade or wear out.
Durability depends on the fiber used. The Jacquard loom was
invented by Joseph Marie Jacquard.
Jacquard weave is for creating complex patterns on fabrics and is
woven on jacquard loom. The fabrics made through this weave
have floats, luster, and are more stable and stretchy than the
basic weaves. Some of its examples are matelasse, satin Faconne
etc.
Method of Construction:
Warp is individually controlled
with each pick passage creating
intricate designs
Household Uses:
Upholstery, wall hangings

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Types of Jacquard fabric:

Brocade:. Originally a
heavy rich silk fiber
ornaments with raised
figures formed by extra
threads or by embroidery.
Mostly used for upholstery
fabrics and draperies.
Damask: Fabric with a weft
sateen figures on a warp satin, twist or plain grained, made
of silk, cotton, rayon and linen yarns Damasks are reversible.
Cotton and linen damasks are made either with four yarn
float or a seven yarn float in the satin weave. The Longer
floats are more lustrous, but the shorter floats are more
durable.

Characteristics of Jacquard Weave

The fabrics have the tendency to have floats.

It has luster contrasts.
It has snagging potential.
It is more stable and resilient than the basic weaves.

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ii.

Pile Weave

Extra sets of warps or fillings

are woven over ground yarns
of plain or twill weave to form
loops. Pile fabrics have been
defined as fabrics(s) with cut
or uncut loops which stand
up densely on the surface
Pile fabrics may be created
by weaving or through other construction techniques, such as
tufting, knitting, or stitch through. To create the loops that
appears on the surface of woven pile fabrics, the weaving
process.

Piled fabric are classified as:a) Uncut Pile:

Loops are possible on both sides of fabric.
Soft and absorbent, relatively inexpensive.

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Can snag if loops are caught.

Method of Construction:
Generally a plain or twill weaves with a third dimension-additional warp yarn or filling yarn is introduced into the basic
structure and forms a loop at regular intervals.

Common Fabrics: Frieze, terry cloth

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End Uses: Upholstery, towels, carpet, area rugs

b) Cut Pile:
Soft and warm, resilient, absorbent.
May have a nap that must be matched.
May be expensive and need professional cleaning.
Method of Construction:
Similar to uncut pile, but loops have been cut
End uses: Upholstery, stage draperies.
Examples of Cut pile Fabric:
Corduroy: Corded velveteen
Structures in which a weft pile
forms longitudinal lines or chords,
strong heavy clothes being used
for trouser-rings, smoking jackets
and lighter fabrics for dress
materials.
Velvet: A cut warp pile fabric with
a short, soft, dense pile.
Velveteen: A Short heavily wefted
cotton fabric uniformly covered
with a short dense pile of fibers which formed after the cloth
has been woven by cutting certain picks of weft that float
somewhat loosely on the surface.
Properties of Pile Weave Fabrics:

Plush
Resilient
Definite right and wrong side
Versatile
Lustrous
Durable

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Different finishes can be achieved

Absorbent
Soft
Warm to wear
Comfortable

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iii.

Dobby Weave

Dobby, a decorative weave results in

small designs or geometric figures all
over the woven fabric. It is done through
dobby machines. This weave uses
various yarns from very fine to coarse
and fluffy yarns to produce a variety of
fabrics. The standard dobby weave
fabrics are flat and comparatively fine.
Some examples are moss crepe,
matelasse etc.
Method of Construction:
The designs are created by adding extra
yarns or by apparently raising portions
the design. The extra yarn weave, a
variation of the dobby weave, has an
extra yarn running in either the warp or
filling direction that is used to create a
design. This allows the fabric to have
designs such as dots added to the base
fabric.
End Uses: Heavy dobby fabrics are used for home furnishings
and for heavy apparel.
Examples of Dobby Weave:

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Matelasse: A dobby or
jacquard cotton fabric. The
pattern stands out to give a
quilted look for bedspreads and
other home fabrics, or fine
apparel fabrics. As with pique,
the designing is done in the
lower cloth, with the top cloth
comprised usually of plain
weave (it gives the most
effective dimensional results) on 2 shafts. As before, the top
layer is usually of non-shrinking yarns, and the bottom layer
with shrinking yarns.
Properties of Dobby Woven Fabrics:

Inexpensive to produce
Small geometric patterns
More texture than Plain weave fabrics
Less complex than Jacquard Fabrics
Different colours available
Hundreds of different patterns can be made
Flexible
Versatile
Good Drape
Slight Stretch
Resistant to creasing

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iv.

Leno/Gauze Weave

In leno or gauze weave

pairs of warps are twisted
over each other with each
passing of filling yarn.
The leno weave is the
modern descendant of a
technique called twining
that was used thousands
of years ago for making
fabrics. In leno-weave
fabrics, the warp yarns
are paired. A special
attachment, the doup or
leno attachment, crosses
or laps the paired warp
yarns over each other, while the filling passes through the
opening between the two warp yarns. Leno-weave fabrics are
made in Open, gauzelike constructions.
Method of Construction:
A pair of warp threads is twisted over each other with each
passing of filling yarn in a figure or an hourglass twist, creating a
geometric pattern
End Uses: Thermal Blankets, curtains, medicated bandage or
gauze.
Examples of fabrics with leno weave
Bobbinet: It is a hexagonal mesh that may be very thin and
transparent (bridal illusion) or fairly coarse and opaque
(casement cloth), depending on the yarn count of the
material used to produce it. Most bobbinet sold in the United
States is produced in England and France.
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Net: It is a fine, stiff hexagonal net made from silk or nylon

yarns. It is very similar to bobbinet but lighter in weight than
bridal illusion; some references do not separate bobbinet
and tulle. It is generally used
for trimming or over draping
of dress goods.
Fishnet: It is a coarse openmesh construction created by
knotting the mesh in a
manner similar to a
fishermans knot.
Filet net: It is made with a
square mesh, and maline net, used in millinery, is a fine,
very thin, diaphanous; open a
diamond shape with hexagonal
holes.
Characteristics of Leno Weave:
It has open-weave effect.
It has low yarn count.
It is a good dimensional
stability.
It has lesser yarn slippage.

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v.

Crepe Weave

Crepe weaves constitute an

useful variety of simple weaves
and are also known as crape or
oatmeal fabrics due to their
pebbly or crinkled surface. The
size of pebbles and their
arrangement on the fabric
surface determine the type of
crepe fabric (crepe-de-chine,
crepe-Georgette, and so on) .
The crepe effect can be achieved
either by the use of crepe yarns
(highly twisted) or a crepe weave, and sometimes by special
process of finishing, i.e. embossing. Crepe weaves are commonly
used in combination with other elementary weaves, to produce a
variety of various effects in elaborate jacquard designs for
brocade and related fabrics.
Method of Construction:
Crepe weave is constructed with the combination of plain and
satin or Sateen weaves.
End Uses:
They are also employed in the production of cotton piece
goods.
It is also used for decorative coverings on furniture, covers,
curtains and wall hangings.
It is mostly used to make women's garments like traditional
skirts, blouses, evening wear and gowns.
Examples of Crepe waves fabrics:

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Crepe de chine: It is made from silk and is the most

luxurious and demanded fabric. It is light weight and is made
with highly twisted yarns in the weft and silk yarns in the
warp. The flipside of the crepe de chine fabric can be
severely damaged when exposed to excessive sweat or
sunlight.
Crepe georgette: It is made from either matter silk or
fabric similar to silk that is flexible and stretchable. This
fabric is also known as chiffon. During the weaving process
the yarn is specially treated to give it crepe like look. Leftright hand twists or providing varied degrees of stiffness to
twists or slackness in the warp yarns gives a crepe effect to
the fabric. Wool crepe is used to created lingerie and

dresses.
Properties of Crepe Weave:

They contain no twilled or other prominent effect.

The fabric is covered by minute spots or seeds.
Highly irregular surface- puckered in appearance.
High twist yarns are used with controlled shrinkage.

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Formed mainly by 4 methods, though more methods are

available.

REFERENCES
Primary References:

Schlomann-Oldenbourg Illustrated Technical Dictionaries Volume XVI:

Weaving and Woven Fabrics.
Home Science, Higher Secondary-First year; Authors-Ms. Stella
Satheesh, Ms. Raziya Kamil, Ms. M. M. Ramalakshmi, Ms. M.
Ambikapathi; Tamil Nadu Textbook Corporation.
Textile and Dress Designing, Higher Secondary-First year; Tamil Nadu
Textbook Corporation.
Textile fibers (Technology of textile processing), Sevak Publications, 2d
ed., revised.

Secondary References:

www.textileinfo.com
http://www.lenzing.com
http://www.madehow.com
http://textilesindepth-textileweaves.blogspot.in/
http://www.fibre2fashion.com/
http://www.teonline.com/
http://textilefashionstudy.com/
http://www.lewcospecialtyproducts.com/

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