JMJ Marist Brothers

Notre Dame of Marbel University

Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

Chapter 2

This shows an overview of previous related articles and related studies that

enriches the study. Also, this chapter introduces the framework of the study which

is the main focus and forms the structure of the research paper.

Conceptual Framework

Perception of Teenagers in Drinking Alcohol

Alcohol Use Participants:

 Age
 Gender
 Strands

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework

 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

Related Literature and Studies

Alcohol

Historically, alcoholic beverages have served as sources of needed

nutrients. They have been widely used for their medicinal, antiseptic, and analgesic

properties. The role of such beverages as thirst quenchers is obvious. They also

play an important role in enhancing the enjoyment of life. They can be a social

lubricant, facilitate relaxation, can provide pharmacological pleasure, and increase

the pleasure of eating. (Hanson, 2013)

There are types of alcoholic beverages, that includes: Beer, wherein it is

believed to be alcoholic beverage that humans have been consuming the longest.

It is created by fermenting any of a variety of starches including; malted barley,

rice, wheat, or maize. Cider, wherein it is made from fermented apple juice, it is

sometimes referred to as apple wine. Wine, wherein can be created from

fermented grapes or other fruits. Humans have been drinking wine for at least eight

thousand years. Spirits, wherein it refers to those alcoholic drinks that have been

distilled to make them stronger. Types of beer include: Larger beers, are fermented

and conditioned at low temperature to give them milder taste, they are usually also

a light color. Ales, are made from malted barley and involve warm fermentation

with brewer’s yeast. Wheat beers, are made with wheat as well as barley that gives

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 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

the beer the distinctive taste; this type of beer is particularly popular in Europe.

Fruit Beers, are often made by adding flavor extracts to beer rather than fermenting

fruit. Wine has also its types that include: Red wine, this type of wine is made from

red or black grapes. The taste of red wine is often described as more complex than

that of white wine. Rose wine, this type of wine is made from red grapes, but these

undergo a special process to create the rose look. White wine, this type of wine is

produced using white grapes. This type of wine has a lighter taste than the red or

rose wine. Champagne, this type of wine gets is bubbles from the fermentation

process due to carbon dioxide in the bottles. Fortified wines, this type of wine have

distilled beverage added to them to make them stronger. The reason why fortified

wines originally became popular was that they were easier to transport around the

world b ship. Spirits have also its types that include: Vodka, wherein it is usually

made from distillation of grains or potatoes. Whiskey, this type of spirits is usually

made from fermented grain mash. Rum, this type of spirits comes from sugarcane

juice. Tequila, this type of spirits is created from the blue agave plant. Gin, this type

of spirits is made from juniper berries. Absinthe, this type of spirits is made from

many different flowers. Liqueurs, this type of spirits covers a wide range of drinks

that involve the addition of herbs, nuts, fruits, spices, cream, or flowers. It is also

possible to get other spirits that have been turned into liqueurs for example vodka

liqueurs. (Dara, 2008)

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 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

Though most of the types of alcohol are made of plants and fruits

there is also growing concerns about the harmful effects of alcohol if abused. An

early study of drinking problem was conducted between year 1975-1985 where it

stated that alcohol is abused if involved in weekly drinking more than 5 or more

drinks per occasion (Berkowitz and Perkins, 1986). According to Arnarson (2017)

drinking too much on a single occasion or overtime can take a serious toll on your

health. That is because alcohol is metabolized by the liver, and frequent

consumption can lead to increased fat inside liver cells. It can also lead to cirrhosis.

Chronic alcohol abuse can impair brain function permanently. Also, heavy drinking

and beer are linked to increased weight gain, while moderate drinking and wine

are linked to reduced weight gain. Alcohol can also increase the risk of certain

types of cancer, especially mouth and throat cancer. Lastly chronic alcohol abuse

can have severe detrimental effects on your body and brain, increasing the risk of

all sorts of diseases. (Arnarson, 2017)

To lessen the number of diseases of the alcohol users might get Gleaner

(2013) weigh in with her best advice for safe alcohol consumption. That includes:

(1) Know your limit. (2) Eat food while you drink. (3) Sip your drink. (4) Accept a

drink only when you really want one. (5) Choose quality rather than quantity. (6)

Skip a drink now and then. (7) Beware of unfamiliar drinks. (8) Appoint a

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 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

designated driver. (9) Upper limits of drinks for males are 21 and for females are

14 drinks per week. (Gleaner, 2013)

There is a theory called Alcohol – Expectancy theory, wherein this theory

suggests that individuals consume alcohol because they believe drinking will lead

to a certain effect (e.g., increasing social interaction, relieving tension), and these

beliefs have long been suggested to influence individuals' drinking levels (Brown

et al., 1980). Individuals may expect different types of alcoholic beverages to affect

them in different ways and thus may drink different types of beverages when

seeking these differential effects. Previous research suggests that individuals

perceive differences among varying types of alcoholic beverages regarding the

alcohol type's global positive (e.g., alcohol leads to good outcomes) or negative

(e.g., alcohol leads to negative outcomes) effects. Studies found individuals

reported higher negative expectancies for drinking shots of distilled spirits and

higher positive expectancies for beer and wine (Lang et al., 1983). In relation to

that according to Hudspeth (2017), different types of alcohol can give you different

emotional responses. For example, 53 percent of respondents reported that red

wine made them feel relaxed. There’s a physiological explanation for this; red wine

contains high levels of melatonin, the hormone that tells our brains it’s time to go

to bed. Another example is that beer relaxes the user, but the carbohydrates

therein also have a reputation for making folks drowsy. However According to

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 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

Gonzales (2013) Alcohol is alcohol – which is to say that the alcohol in wine is the

same as the alcohol in beer is the same as the alcohol in the unholy red-cup

concoction at a dorm room game of King's Cup. That alcohol is ethyl alcohol, aka

ethanol, and it'll get you drunk. The fact that liquor tends to contain higher

concentrations of ethanol than wine, and wine higher concentrations than beer,

means that the same volume of different alcoholic beverages will get you more/less

drunk, ergo the "standard drink" rule.

Age

According to Salas-Wright, Reingle Gonzalez, Vaughn, Schwartz & Jetelina

(2016) binge drinking and violent attacks among youth between ages twelve

(2002) and twenty four or twenty five (2013). Although youth drink less often than

adults does, when they do drink, they drink more. That is because young people

consume more than 90 percent of their alcohol by binge drinking. Binge drinking

is consuming many drinks on an occasion. Drinking alcohol and binge drinking

become more prevalent as young people get older. As adolescents get older, they

tend to drink more. Prevalence of drinking by boys and girls is similar, although

among older adolescents, boys binge more than girls (Johnston, L.D.; Miech, R.A.;

O’Malley, P.M.; et al.). Underage drinking poses a range of risks and negative

consequences. It is dangerous because it: Causes many deaths, causes many

injuries, impairs judgment such as drinking and driving, sexual activity (such as

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 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

unprotected sex), and aggressive or violent behavior; Increases the risk of physical

and sexual assault. Some adolescent drinks because of Risk taking, expectancies,

Sensitivity and tolerance to alcohol, Personality Characteristics and Psychiatric

Comorbidity, Hereditary Factors, and environmental aspect. (National Institute on

Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2006). Thus, perhaps the best way to understand

and prevent underage alcohol use is to view drinking as it relates to development.

This “whole system” approach to underage drinking considers an adolescent’s

unique risk and protective factors—from genetics and personality characteristics

to social and environmental factors. Viewed in this way, development includes not

only the adolescent’s inherent risk and resilience but also the current conditions

that help to shape his or her behavior (Sroufe, L.A., and Rutter, M., 1984.)

Gender

Alcohol was frequently used in childbirth throughout the ages and beer was

thought to fortify a woman for breast feeding. Hot toddies of various fruit tonics

have been used for centuries for menstrual cramps and for pre-menstrual tension.

In the latter part of the 19th Century many women drank tonics with high alcohol

contents to ease the frustrations of child rearing or for depression. Women who

were alcoholics during this period were often labeled hysterical. They were not

called alcoholics because it conflicted with their role as good mother, wife or well-

mannered spinster (Hornik, 1977). However, alcohol consumption among women

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 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

has begun to attract increased attention. This appears to have resulted from the

rise of feminism, increased drinking by women, and health concerns such as

"hidden alcoholism" and cirrhosis of the liver (Chalfant and Roper, 1980). Because

"the youth are the future," considerable attention has been directed toward drinking

among college women.

Several reasons have been suggested for the differential in drinking

patterns between men and women (Myerson, 1940; Gusfield, 1962; Lisansky,

1958). Windham and Aldridge (1965) as well as Siegel (1952) referred to the

traditional belief that the use and abuse of alcohol was a male prerogative. Clark

(1967) suggested that drinking differences are based largely on the expectation

that female sex roles are characterized by what he termed "conventionality." By

this he referred to the "acceptance of the dominant 'official' standards of morality

and propriety" Preston (1964) similarly asserted that drinking is often a symbol that

differentiates the sexes. Windham and Aldridge (1965) additionally pointed out that

women traditionally tended to be economically dependent on and subordinate to

men. In this regard Knupfer et al. (1963) emphasized that "other members of the

population who do not earn their living by paid work also have more restricted

drinking privileges than adult free males-for example, children, prisoners, mental

patients, and persons on relief". Wilsnack and Wilsnack (1978) point out that

increased drinking among females might be a result of the women’s' movement

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 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

and changes in women, roles, especially changes that involve exposure to formerly

masculine environments and roles. They suggest that changes in sex roles might

increase women’s' exposure to alcohol and opportunities to drink; might modify

traditional norms against female drinking, thereby making drinking more

permissible; and might offer females new goals and aspirations, thus causing

stress that alcohol might be used to reduce. It would appear that the "double

standard" in alcohol may be decreasing.

Recent study of Casa Palmera (2010) about alcoholism states that men are

more at risk for abusing or becoming dependent on alcohol than women. But the

drops in the price, which has led to wine and beer becoming regular items in the

supermarket shopping trolley and part of everyday life at home, has also been a

factor, alongside deliberate marketing targeted at women (Sarah Boseley, 2016).

Men are also consistently more than twice as likely as women to report chronic

heavy drinking (at mean intake thresholds varying from 40 to 80 grams of ethanol

per day) (e.g., de Lima et al., 2003; Hansagi et al., 1995; Meyer et al., 2000; San

Jose et al., 2001; Vahtera et al., 2002). Recurrent alcohol intoxication is much

more prevalent and more frequent among men than among women (Hao et al.,

2004; Makela et al, 2001; Rehm et al., 2001). However, gender gaps in chronic or

episodic heavy drinking may be smaller among late adolescents or university

students (Dawson et al., 2004; Kuo et al., 2002; McPherson et al., 2004; Windle,

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 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

2003). Men are much more likely than women to report diagnosable alcohol abuse,

either currently (e.g., Bijl et al., 2002; Dawson, Grant, & Stinson, 2004; Hao et al.,

2004; Kringlen, Torgersen, & Cramer, 2001; Yamamoto et al., 1993) or as a

lifetime experience (Kawakami et al., 2004; Meyer et al., 2000). Men are also much

more likely than women to report diagnosable alcohol dependence, currently (e.g.,

Bijl et al., 2002; Hao et al., 2004; Hasin & Grant, 2004; Kawakami et al, 2004;

Spicer et al., 2003) or as a lifetime experience (Dawson & Grant, 1998). A higher

percentage of men are likely to drink, to drink more often, to consume more, and

to experience more drinking problems than women. While the differentials in

drinking patterns and problems might be narrowing, they clearly remain significant

and potent. To be most effective, alcohol policies and programs must reflect these

continuing differentials (Hanson and Engs, in press).

Perceptions

According to social norms theory, our perceptions and beliefs of what is

‘normal’ behavior by others will influence our own behavior (Berkowitz, 2005). This

implies that what others do may influence us to do also what they called so as

'normal' but for others is not. Eventually the environment where we are will push

us into doing things that what they believe is normal. An act that what used to be

not normal will just became an ordinary act to everyone. For example, the belief

that others drink heavily will have considerable influence on the amount a person

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 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

drinks. According to Myers (2016), Our perceptions are only one small step in

getting to the truth. Humans quest for knowledge begins with sensory input. The

collection of sensory inputs about an object leads to our perception of what that

object is (consider the feel, smell, and taste of a lemon). Then our capacity for

reason begins (Myers, 2016). Alcohol use interventions should aim at correcting

misperceptions by providing normative feedback on prevailing drinking norms.

One hypothesis is that individuals with heavy alcohol use should decrease their

consumption by correcting the misperception (Bertholet, 2010)

The studies about popular perception show that individuals with alcohol

dependence are viewed as more responsible for their problem, and more violent

and unpredictable than other individuals affected by mental disorders. They

provoke more negative reactions in the population such as a desire for greater

social distance and greater rejection than individuals with other disorders, except

for drug dependence. In addition, alcohol dependence is one of the conditions for

which the public is least willing to spend public financial resources. These negative

reactions are even more frequent than the ones reported for schizophrenia

(Peluso, 2007).

Teenagers, as a population group, incorporate cultural patterns that are

valued in the context in which they are integrated. Alcohol consumption by

adolescents is related to the specific group behavior of this age and may be

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 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

influenced by friends and characterized as a facilitator and a precondition of

interaction and permanence within a group. The risk of adolescents beginning to

consume alcohol rises because of their position in the social network of friends,

and friends of friends. This consumption is positively and significantly correlated

when family members are also consumers. Parenting styles and parental attitudes

and behaviors are significant factors associated with heavy drinking. However,

there is a lack of studies in relationship to the perception of teenagers on the

aspects involved to the initiation and persistence of this habit (Freitas, 2014)

HYPOTHESIS

Ho: There is no significant difference between the alcohol use and the

demographic profile of senior high school students.

The study uses hypothesis in statistics that proposes that no statistical

significance or no relationship exists in a set of given observations. It shows that

no variation exists between variables or that a single variable is no difference than

its mean. It presumes to be true until statistical evidence nullities it for an

alternative.

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 JMJ Marist Brothers
Notre Dame of Marbel University
Integrated Basic Education Department
Senior High School
City of Koronadal, South Cotabato

DEFINITION OF TERMS

To have an easy and better understanding of terms for the readers, the

researchers define the following terms:

Alcohol – A beverage. It is classed as a depressant, meaning that it slows down

vital functions — resulting in slurred speech, unsteady movement, disturbed

perceptions and an inability to react quickly.

Alcohol Use – Is an unhealthy or dangerous drinking habits, such as drinking

every day or drinking too much at a time.

Perception – Is the organization, identification, and interpretation of sensory

information in order to represent and understand the presented information, or the

environment

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