Conservation and Management of Archaeological Sites, 2018

VOL. 20, NO. 2, 58–75

https://doi.org/10.1080/13505033.2018.1453725

Burning Images: A Critical Review of Rock Art Conservation in

Zimbabwe
Ancila Nhamo
Archaeology Unit, History Department, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe

ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Rock art is the most easily accessible of archaeological material. Rock art conservation; rock
In Zimbabwe, there are thousands of sites, mostly in open-air art management; rock art
environments which can be accessed and enjoyed by many people in Zimbabwe; Zimbabwean
without any restrictions. Yet, rock art is also easily damaged and rock paintings; Zimbabwean
rock engravings
therefore requires conservation. Social, political and economic
challenges in the last two decades have had profound effects on
the conservation status of this particular cultural heritage. This
paper examines the state of conservation of rock art, conservation
approaches and challenges in Zimbabwe. It also discusses possible
solutions especially as the country is making frantic efforts at
international re-engagement. The story of rock art conservation in
Zimbabwe is similar to what is happening in many neighbouring
developing countries such as Kenya, Uganda and South Africa.
Therefore, the discussion in this paper also informs on general issues
in rock art management and conservation in Africa.

Introduction
In Zimbabwe rock art occurs in the form of paintings, petroglyphs, and engravings (petro-
graphs) found on mostly granite and sandstone rocks. The country has a long history of
attempting to conserve its rock art heritage. This formally began with the Bushmen Relics
Ordinance of 1912 and protection of the rock art has continued in subsequent legislations
of the country i.e. Monuments and Relics Act (1936) and National Museums and Monuments
Act (1972). Currently, rock art is mainly protected by the National Museums and Monuments
of Zimbabwe (NMMZ) Act chapter 25/11 1972. The legal framework protects the rock art
from damage and unmitigated destruction. In the NMMZ Act, rock art is defined as a relic,
that is ‘drawing or painting on stone or petroglyph known or commonly believed to have
been executed in Zimbabwe prior to 1st January 1890’ (NMMZ Act 25/11, part 1, section
2da). As a relic, when discovered, rock art should be reported to the NMMZ Board of Trustees.
Thereafter, the site may be acquired by the state and will be preserved by the NMMZ on
behalf of the people of Zimbabwe. The law also asserts that it is an offence to damage or
remove rock art without written consent from the Board of Trustees of the NMMZ. Under
the law, NMMZ should compile and keep a register of all rock art sites in the country (NMMZ

CONTACT  Ancila Nhamo  ancilanhamo@arts.uz.ac.zw

© 2018 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES   59

Act 25/22, part 11, section 4 2d). This act is currently under review in order to put it in align-
ment with the new Zimbabwean constitution and contemporary international best practices.
It is expected that the new law will provide similar protection to the rock art. However, even
with the laws in place, the protection of the art has not always been successful. Rock art has
been on the rock surfaces for hundreds or thousands of years. Although much of it is affected
by natural threats, human induced damage is the most detrimental to the art. At present, a
number of human induced threats to the rock art of Zimbabwe are graffiti, mining activities,
and lighting of fires in the caves.

Rock art conservation in Zimbabwe: the challenges

Graffiti
Although the problem of graffiti is not widespread, where it occurs, it is very serious. In most
cases, it is done by young people while herding cattle or just playing in the wilderness. The
most common graffiti is written in charcoal, although stones have been used to inscribe
names on top of the art itself. The problem of graffiti is mostly found at sites that do not have
custodians. Rock art sites present a public platform where political messages as well as topical
issues happening in the communities are also written about anonymously. Tourists are also
responsible for some of the graffiti. At rock art attractions within the Chiremba Balancing
Rocks in Harare, tourists have written their names and years that they visited the site. Graffiti
breeds graffiti thus, it often attracts others to follow suit.

Mining Activities
A threat which has become increasingly serious in the last few years is that of mining activ-
ities. In Zimbabwe, two kinds of mining activities seriously effect rock art. Due to the increase
in construction and renovation of personal homes and business premises that has been
witnessed since the introduction of the US dollar in 2009, the illegal quarrying for granite
has become very common. Rock art in Zimbabwe is mainly done on granite, the major raw
material for concrete stones. In and around Harare, the quarrying of granite has destroyed
many sites. Harare had more than 200 rock art sites recorded on the national archaeological
database. Although comprehensive documentation procedures to assess the situation are
yet to be conducted, most of these sites are likely under threat from both legal and illegal
mining activities. Large and small-scale mines are dotted around the city. Large-scale quarry
mines can destroy entire hills while small-scale mines also do considerable damage since
they can crush entire boulders with rock art (Figure 1). Even though it is a legal requirement
that archaeological impact assessments are conducted and mitigatory measures are put in
place before the establishment of the mines, this is rarely observed.
Apart from the quarrying of concrete stones, other threats come from large-scale mining
for black granite especially in the Mutoko District, in north-eastern Zimbabwe. This district
has some of the best rock art in the country and consequently in all of southern Africa. The
art has featured in some of the critical debates about southern African rock art (e.g. Solomon
1994; Garlake 1995). However, this art is constantly under threat because of the mining of
black granite that is conducted in the area. The mining process can destroy an entire hill in
a matter of weeks. Thus, the rock art sites can be destroyed together with associated cultural
60   A. NHAMO

Figure 1. Granite quarrying, Epworth, Harare. 1(a) shows a large elephant image that has been partially
destroyed through small scale granite quarrying. 1(b) shows a heap of quarried granite below the affected
image in 1(a).

material found in caves. Although archaeological impact assessments have been conducted
there is very little monitoring of the sites to see if the miners are not encroaching onto the
rock art sites. Some of the rock art sites have already been destroyed by mining activities
(see Taruvinga 2007, 144). Continued quarrying may result in the disappearance of hills and
boulders with rock art.

Urban Developments
Urban developments that are continually taking place have affected many sites. Harare,
for example, is one of the few urban areas with prehistoric rock paintings found within
 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES   61

Figure 2. Crocodile men, Glen Nora, Harare. New housing development located less than 20 m from the
Crocodile men national monuments. Residents also quarry the granite stones around the site.

the city boundaries. Some sites are large and impressive enough to have been listed as
national monuments. In the past, land surrounding major rock art sites in Harare was
reserved for recreational parks in order to avoid extensive interference with the art through
building of structures. However, with the expanding urban landscape many of the national
monuments list are being engulfed into newly established (legal and illegal) residential
areas. Because of this, sites such as Somerby, Bridge, and Glen Nora that have survived for
many years but are now being threatened by further developments that are encroaching
into these recreational areas. At Glen Nora, new houses are encroaching towards the site
(Figure 2).

Contemporary Use of Rock art Sites

Archaeological heritage has to be useful in the present for it to remain relevant. Many rock
art sites are being used for various purposes ranging from tourism to places for religious
gatherings. The threats from these modern uses emanate from lack of awareness of the
importance of rock art. People who use shelters with rock art are not aware of the impor-
tance of the art. They also do not realise the impact of some of their actions on the con-
tinued survival of the rock art. A good example is the lighting of fires in the shelters during
overnight prayers. Religious groups who use the rock art sites as places of worship may
stay in the caves for weeks or even months. This is a common occurrence such that at
almost all the national monuments with rock art, except those within the Matobo Hills
World Heritage Landscape, there is evidence of fire being lit by religious groups. At some
sites such as Mawunga or Makumbe Cave, the roofs of the shelters have been blackened
by the smoke and soot that comes from the fires (Figure 3). This has obliterated the art on
62   A. NHAMO

Figure 3. Fire damage at Mawanga (Makumbe) Cave. 3(a) shows the blackened rock shelter walls at
Mawanga. 3(b) the fire logs left in the small cave at Mawanga.

the rock surfaces. The shelters are also peeling from the heat generated by these fires. The
same has happened at Gamble’s Cave in Mutoko where a religious vigil has led to fire
damage to all the art in the cave. Although the site was not on the national monuments
list, it had peculiar rock art (Goodall 1959, 58). However, on a recent visit it was discovered
that it was burnt down, most likely by someone who was conducting religious activities
(Nhunzvi 2015).
What such contemporary uses of rock shelters an endangerment to rock art is the lack of
constant monitoring and implementation of mitigation measures by heritage managers.
Many of the human induced threats have occurred in the last two decades due to a reduction
 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES   63

Figure 4. Rock art damage by salts residue.

in monitoring activities by NMMZ. In the past, these activities were detected in time and
preventive measures were taken (Taruvinga 2007). However, since the beginning of the
economic downturn for the country at the beginning of the twenty-first century, it has not
been possible to respond to the threats.

Natural Deterioration
Although rock art in Zimbabwe has survived for millennia, it is not resistant to natural dete-
rioration. In fact, the art could have been more common than it is now but much of it must
have disappeared due to both human induced and natural threats. Natural threats are weath-
ering, emission of minerals and salts, animal excretions, dust and so on.
As mentioned earlier, in Zimbabwe, much of the art is found on granite and some on
sandstone. The rock art suffers deterioration due to natural factors which affect these
types of rocks. Granite tends to discharge salts through cracks that develop on the cave
shelters. These salts are washed down the walls during the rainy season. The salts usually
leave a whitish substance that obliterates the rock art (Figure 4). The wash zones also tend
to develop algae and lichens both of which turn black when they dry out. Apart from all
these discolorations, a closer look at the wash zones also reveals that pigment is washed
away. On boulder faces, many of the images are faded due to exposure to rainwash and
sunlight.
Rock art on sandstone suffers similar but slightly different problems. Rainwash seems to
be the major problem. Sandstones are more porous that granite, therefore the percolation
and water wash problems are exaggerated. Sandstone also tends to produce minerals that
have different colours including red, pink, maroons and so on. These also obliterate the rock
art. The red minerals can be mistaken for faded paint. However, the major problem found
64   A. NHAMO

in sandstone regions is the chemical and mechanical weathering which results in flaking,
disintegration, and crumbling of the rock surfaces. It is very common to find large parts of
the image missing due to natural weathering. It is possible that much more of the rock art
that was in the sandstone regions has been lost as compared to that which was in the granite
areas.
Other natural problems that affect rock art in Zimbabwe include insects that either build
their nests on the rock art surface or deposit their excretion on the art. The most common
threat of this kind comes from different kinds of wasps such as Sphecidae and Crabronidae.
These build their mud nests on top of the art and cover up the art with mud. The extent of
the damage to the rock art has not been determined since there has never been a concerted
effort to study this kind of damage. However, even if the art remains intact underneath the
mud nest, its aesthetic value is seriously compromised.

Current Conservation Approaches

The approaches that have been employed in the management and conservation of the rock
art of Zimbabwe include provision of a legislative framework, recording, classification, and
monitoring of the sites. Other site-specific interventions have been also been implemented
such as fencing off the sites and employment of resident custodians. However, the imple-
mentation and success of these procedures has varied from site to site depending mostly
on the location, and size. The economic downturn of the last twenty years has also exacer-
bated the challenges of looking after rock art sites in Zimbabwe.

Rock Art and the Law

A number of challenges militate against the effective application of the law in the protection
of rock art. The major challenge is the lack of awareness of the law. Generally, the people of
Zimbabwe are not aware of the existence of the NMMZ Act therefore, very few people realise
that it is a criminal offence to damage or vandalise the art. Unfortunately, members of the
law enforcement agencies also have limited knowledge of this legislation such that they see
no reason to arrest anyone who is found damaging cultural property such as rock art. For
example, there are people who are illegally quarrying granite in urban centres such as Harare.
Some of the rocks being quarried have exquisite rock art. During recent fieldwork, these
people’s fear of being arrested for the environmental damage that they cause rather than
the destruction of the rock art that is found on the granite boulders (personal
observation).
The other challenge associated with the legal protection is the lack of effective policing
around rock art sites and other cultural resources. NMMZ has minimal resources to monitor
what is happening and to assist in apprehending perpetrators. The institution does not carry
out investigations when they find sites damaged. To date, nobody has ever been arrested
and prosecuted for vandalising rock art in Zimbabwe, yet many sites have been damaged.

Documenting Rock Art

Documenting rock art sites is a very important first step towards protection and conser-
vation. Through recording, the sites become known to the people who can offer them
 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES   65

protection. Recording also ensures that those who can protect the sites know exactly what
they need to protect and the resources required to do so. In Zimbabwe, the formal docu-
mentation of rock art has been undertaken since the advent of colonisation in the early
1890s (Garlake 1997). As a result, substantial information has been assembled over the
years with more than 4000 rock art sites being on the archaeological database of the
country. During the colonial period, farmers, native commissioners, police officers, and
other people who were interested went around the country recording different cultural
resources, including rock art sites. Archaeologists from the National Museums and
Monuments of Zimbabwe (previously Historical Monuments Commission of Southern
Rhodesia) would officially confirm the existence of these sites. Rock art enthusiasts such
as Lionel Cripps, Elizabeth Goodall, and Cran Cooke recorded many from around the
­country (see Summers 1959; Garlake 1997; Nhamo 2007). From personal experience as a
rock art researcher, very few rock art sites in Zimbabwe have not been recorded before.
Many modern researchers and members of the public may claim to have ‘discovered’ sites
not knowing that they have already been recorded in the past and can be found on the
archaeological site database. This is because many people are not aware of these records
housed mostly in the Archaeological Survey Department of the Museum of Human Sciences
in Harare.
Even though most rock art sites in Zimbabwe have been recorded, the usefulness of the
records in the conservation of rock art is somewhat limited. The nature of the records provides
some challenges. Many of the sites recorded in the 1940s, 50s, and 60s are difficult to locate
today because of the changes in landscape and features used for descriptions and location
details. The recorders would capture the place name used during their time and little details
of the physical location. Cripps's (1934–37) records, for example, would use the name of
commercial farms within which the sites were identified. Many of these farms have since
changed ownership many times especially with land redistribution exercises that have taken
place after the country attained independence. In some cases, former commercial farms
have been subdivided into smaller farms. Some have been converted into communal areas.
Current owners of these places no longer remember (some have never known of ) the old
farm names that were used in the recording of the sites and can offer little assistance in the
location of the site. There are many instances where researchers have failed to locate sites
that are on the database. Although some of the researchers such as Goodall and Cripps
provided sketch maps to show the surrounding landscape of the area in which the site is
located. These sketch maps are only useful if one manages to get within the vicinity of the
site, which in some cases is difficult. The problems with locating the sites means that NMMZ
and interested individuals may not be able to offer protection to sites even though they
know of their existence.
The other problem with the available information is that much of it was not recorded for
conservation purposes. The data available is mostly in the form of general site records with
no indication of the state of conservation of the sites. This problem is not confined to records
collected in the distant past but even the recent ones. Archaeologists record the rock art for
their own purposes. Apart from the national monument inspection reports, many of the
archaeologists never made concerted efforts to record issues related to conservation status
of the rock art. Therefore, little conservation history of the sites is available. Nevertheless,
with painstaking analysis of the photographic documentation available the history of the
state of conservation of some sites might be deduced.
66   A. NHAMO

Nomination and Classification of National Monuments

One other approach that has been used to protect rock art sites is nominating and declaring
exceptional sites onto the national monuments list. The list was established in 1936 through
the Monuments and Relics Act in order to provide priority attention to places of special
historical interest to the country. The nomination of a place to the national monuments can
be suggested by an individual, community, or any group of people to the National Museums
and Monuments of Zimbabwe. NMMZ follows procedures stipulated by the National
Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe Act (chapter 25/11). After assessing the site, the
NMMZ must prepare a nomination dossier and through its board of trustees make recom-
mendations to the minister under which the organisation falls; currently that is the Ministry
of Rural Development, Preservation and Promotion of Culture and Heritage. This process
ends with the declaration made in the Government Gazette, newspapers, and other media.
There are 32 rock art sites listed on the national monuments list. Of these, six sites are
within the Matobo Hills World Heritage Landscape while the rest are scattered around the
country. A few other sites are part of other landscapes designated on the national monu-
ments list such as the Nharira Hills (in Norton) and the Gomba in Mazowe; both located just
outside of Harare. It is evident that those sites on the national monuments listed have ben-
efited somewhat from their privileged status. These sites have better records as compared
to those that are not on the list. Each national monument has its own file where all its records
are kept at the regional office of the NMMZ. The records include condition survey reports,
photographs, and any documentation regarding the site. These files are supposed to be kept
up to date by the monuments inspector.
However, even with the sites on the national monuments list, the data available on each
site vary depending on the location and size of site. Even with the economic downturn of
the last decade, heritage managers still managed to visit some sites that are easily accessible,
especially those near urban areas. These tend to have more records than those far from
towns, cities, and major roads. Nevertheless, the data available and the intensity of protection
measures depend on the size and class in which the monument is allotted.
Sites on the national monuments list are categorised in three classes i.e. Classes 1–3. Sites
included in Class 1 are large and have potential for significant public tourism (see Chipunza
2005). Rock art sites such as Domboshava, located outside the capital city Harare, and the
sites within the Matobo Hills World Heritage Landscape are in Class 1. Sites that have potential
for moderate tourism and are partially accessible are in Class 2. This class includes places
such as Diana’s Vow, in Rusape Eastern Zimbabwe. Small sites in areas that are difficult to
access such as Muromo in Zimunya eastern Zimbabwe are in Class 3.
Protective mechanisms accorded to each site depend on its class. For examples, Class 1
monuments have resident custodians, site museums, and have public awareness compo-
nents such as brochures, pamphlets, and research publications (Chipunza 2005, 44). The
sites in Class 1 are supposed to be visited by the monuments inspector at least three times
a year whereas Class 2 and Class 3 are visited twice and once respectively. The visits have a
two-pronged objective. The condition of the sites would be recorded during the visit. Routine
maintenance of the site would also be carried out. At the same time, the visits enable NMMZ’s
presence to be felt and acknowledged by the local communities. People would not tamper
with the sites with this knowledge. In some areas, national monuments are still referred to
as paMuseum (the Museum, a short term for NMMZ). This is because members of the NMMZ,
 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES   67

especially the monument inspector had a consistent presence at the sites. Therefore, the
locals associate the sites with the National Museums and Monuments of Zimbabwe.
In addition to the regular inspections, the Class 1 sites have a resident or local custodian
who is in charge of the site on a daily basis. Most of the custodians are from local communities
and therefore they do not just act as protectors but they also raise awareness about the
importance of the rock art. The presence of custodians seems to be a much more effective
approach. This is demonstrated at sites such as Diana’s Vow and Domboshava where there
is less graffiti.
In the past, all rock art sites on the national monuments list, regardless of class, were
fenced to deter people and animals from getting too close to the art. However, at many of
the sites, the fences have long been removed by local residents who most likely found ‘better’
use for them. Only fence posts remain as evidence of the existence of this particular measure.
This is especially true at most sites that do not have resident custodians.
Another protective measure has been to erect plaques at all national monuments to
proclaim the declaration and alert visitors of the significance of the site to the country.
However, these plaques have not been effective deterrents to the vandals. Many of the
plaques themselves have been vandalised.
Normally, the conservation approach of declaring sites as national monuments should
have some success in the protection of rock art sites. However, lack of financial resources to
conduct prescribed annual condition surveys and monitoring exercises is a major challenge
to this. In the past two decades, annual visits to the sites have gradually become less and
less. Some of the sites on the national monuments list have not been visited in more than
ten years. Thus, at present, the conservation status of these is unknown to the heritage
managers and it is, therefore, difficult to make informed decisions about them. The inability
to visit regularly has resulted in deterioration of many of the sites on the national monuments
list. Some have been damaged due to declining public awareness and are in danger of being
delisted.

Rock Art Regional Cooperation

NMMZ has participated in a number of regional projects which targeted the conservation
of rock art. Of major significance is the Southern African Rock Art Project (SARAP, see http://
www.getty.edu/conservation/our_projects/field_projects/sarap/), a collaborative pro-
gramme of South African National Monuments Council, National Museums and Monuments
of Zimbabwe, The Getty Conservation Institute and International Centre for the Study of the
Protection and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) (Deacon 1997, 2006). The project
aimed, among other things, to raise awareness, encourage and build capacity for rock art
conservation in southern Africa. Short courses on conservation and management of rock
art sites in southern Africa (COMRASA) were conducted in different part of the sub region
including one held within the Matobo Hills World Heritage Landscape in 1999 (Deacon 2006).
Zimbabwe has also participated in ICCROM’s Africa 2009 programme from 1999 to 2009,
which aimed at capacity building in the conservation and protection of immovable cultural
heritage in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2007, Zimbabweans participated in a rock art conservation
course that was held in Namibia under the Africa 2009 programme.
The international rock art collaborations have managed to raise the profile of rock art
sites in Zimbabwe. The nomination of sites in the Matobo Hills World Heritage Landscape
68   A. NHAMO

was partly due to the efforts done through SARAP. However, the effectiveness of these col-
laborations has been limited due to the economic and political challenges that the country
has faced in the recent past. Many of the people who received training within the regional
programmes either have left the country or have moved away from NMMZ. None of them
is still involved in rock art management in any way. This means that the country still has a
critical shortage of skilled work force to deal with rock art conservation and protection.

Intervention Approaches
The protection of rock art in Zimbabwe has for the most part been restricted to preventive
measures especially involving clearing of vegetation around the sites. However, when the
large rock art site of Domboshava was vandalised with oil painting, cleaning of this graffiti
was conducted (Taruvinga and Ndoro 2003). NMMZ staff and international experts from
Italy and Norway successfully did the cleaning of the paint using paint stripper Toluene
(C6H5CH3) (Taruvinga 2003, 218). The project involved serious study and experimentation
before it was implemented.

Other Approaches
Although the NMMZ Act does not currently allow co-management of archaeological site
with local community members, NMMZ has embraced the concept. The inclusion of the local
communities (in the broadest sense) improves awareness and accountability to the cultural
heritage. This approach has been brought in at a number of rock art sites. Within the Matobo
Hills World Heritage Landscape, surrounding communities participate in the conservation
of rock art sites as stakeholders in Matobo Hills World Heritage Site Management Committee.
Some sites that were declared national monuments have been left entirely in the control
of local communities. A good example is the Nharira Hills, located about 40 km west of
Harare. The national monument with more than eight rock art sites is mostly managed by
the traditional custodian. These sites are mostly under the traditional management system
which prioritises restriction of access. They have less graffiti. Unfortunately, one of the sites
within the Nharira Hills seems to have been repainted with gloss paint (personal observation).
Inquiries as to the culprit have not yielded results as yet although the custodian is said to
have suggested repainting as a solution for the fading of the art in the past (Taruvinga and
Mutema 1998).
The adopt-a-site programme for cultural heritage management was initiated by NMMZ
in the 1990s. The programme targeted schools and encouraged them to adopt nearby
archaeological sites and help in the conservation effects. The schools would get free access
to the sites. This was extended to rock art sites such as Domboshava were also involved
(Taruvinga 2007, 141). Other community related programmes include bee keeping projects
and selling of curios within the boundaries of the national monument. Unfortunately, at
sites such as Domboshava, with the reduction of international visitors selling of curios has
become a non-viable business. The bee keeping projects have also not been sustainable
due to hyperinflation of the local currency in the last two decades. This has resulted in the
vandalism of parts of the site with the introduction of a bar which is more productive for
the community. It seems people can always buy beer even when they are doing without
other essentials.
 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES   69

Facing the Future: Mitigatory Measures

As we look into the future, there is hope of improvement in the conservation of rock art.
Currently a number of stakeholders have indicated willingness to work together to improve
both the condition of the site and utilisation of rock art as a resource for social and economic
development of the nation. These stakeholders include NMMZ, research institutions such
as universities, private companies in the tourism industry, and some members of local com-
munities. There is hope in incorporating international partners with expertise in both con-
servation and presentation of rock art sites. Although the dialogue(s) is still at the gestational
stage, possible areas of resolution are discussed here.
From the discussion on the current conservation approaches above, it is clear that the
ground work for proper conservation of rock art has already been laid in Zimbabwe. However,
there is room for improvement in the effective implementation of some of the procedures.
In other cases, there is need to adopt and adapt totally different approaches that have proved
useful elsewhere in the world. Zimbabwe is in a position to learn from the best practices
that have been used by others yet at the same time refrain from potentially detrimental
procedures that others have suffered.

General Maintenance and Presence of Management

Most rock art sites, even those on the national monuments list, lack general maintenance
and specialist care in Zimbabwe. For many of the sites, the conservation status would greatly
improve with routine maintenance that includes monitoring and clearing unwanted vege-
tation. This would give a sense of active presence at the sites. Some of the sites are abused
simply because there is no evidence of management. Constant monitoring of the sites is
important. As observed, sites that have constant presence of custodians are not vandalised.
Since anthropogenic threats are the most urgent, this will greatly improve the conservation
of rock art in the country.
On the other hand, general maintenance should work well if it is accompanied by aware-
ness campaigns among sensitive communities such as schools, churches, and traditional
authorities. Anthropogenic threats mostly emanate from these groups who have a lack of
knowledge about rock art which leads to its destruction. If people are made aware of the
importance of the rock art and that it is illegal to destroy it, this will go a long way in allevi-
ating some of the anthropogenic problems faced at rock art sites. Members of the public
have shown that if provided with the information, they can be quite interested in the rock
art (Bonyongwa 2011). Awareness campaigns should also be conducted among other stake-
holders such as the police and municipalities. The police are responsible for the implemen-
tation of the legal protection measures. The police for example are the ones who uphold
the act and if they are not aware of it, it will never be effective. Municipalities need to take
cognizance of rock art sites in urban areas in their planning of developmental projects. There
is however need for consideration of the kind of awareness campaigns that are effective in
getting to the desired target group (Jolly 2012).
It is impossible to actively conserve all the thousands of rock art sites in the country.
However, it may be possible to conserve many of them by establishing what Jopela (2010)
refers to as ‘negotiated partnerships’ with local communities inclusive of companies, schools
and municipalities. There are also community interest groups that have expressed interest
70   A. NHAMO

in conserving and utilising rock art for the purposes of tourism. For example, contemporary
art groups such as Domboramwari Art Village in Epworth and Dzimbabwe Art Centre in
Norton, both located just outside of the city of Harare have expressed interest in working
with heritage managers to protect and utilise rock art near them (personal communication).
Such groups can assist in monitoring and conducting rudimentary condition surveys which
would alert the heritage managers of any adverse developments at sites.

Economic Beneficiation
Economic beneficiation is a good incentive for the protection of rock art. The rock art has to
be made useful to communities around them. Tourism is a major consumer of rock art her-
itage worldwide (Darvill and Fernandes 2014). Rock art in Zimbabwe has great potential as
a tourist product. Many of the national monuments used to attract visitors before the eco-
nomic downturn of the last decade (Nhamo 2013). Community members were benefitting
from tourism since they provided guide services, although they had no training in the sub-
ject. Locals could sell their produce to the visitors. If one talks to people who live near many
of the national monuments, they would reminiscence about these golden days. Then, local
people viewed them as useful and important, but when this ceased, the respect for the sites
also diminished. Revival of local beneficiation through tourism and other viable economic
activities would add value to the protection of rock art sites by local communities who live
with the sites.
In Zimbabwe, a few communities are still benefiting from tourism. The best example is
that of the communities living around the Silozwane in the Matobo Hills World Heritage
Landscape. Due to its proximity to the World Heritage landscape, which is a popular tourist
destination, Silozwane is one of the few rock art sites that have continued to receive visitors
even during the years of economic hardship. The communities around the site supplement
their income by selling their curios to visitors whenever they arrive. This example also shows
that the beneficiation does not necessarily have to constitute the backbone of the local
economy but can be in the form of small contributions towards the livelihood of the local
communities. At Silozwane, locals engage in farming and other income generating activities,
they only come to the site when they get visitors. Thus, the income generated from the site
complements their other activities and ensures protection of the site since locals would
never vandalise their sites as they currently benefit economically from them. Consequently,
it is important to not just conserve the sites but to make them useful to the communities in
one way or the other and rock art tourism is one way of doing this. As a long-term plan,
efforts to develop vibrant domestic and international tourism should be taken for rock art
sites, which currently are underutilised as a resource (Bonyongwa 2011). Heritage managers
should look for partners in the tourism industry to engage and work towards this goal.
Rock art sites should also be well presented. Many tourists to rock art sites in Zimbabwe
complain that there is a lack of information on the meaning of the art even at sites within
popular tourist destination such as the Matobo Hills World Heritage Landscape (Bonyongwa
2011). Many sites that are open to the public have no interpretation whatsoever. Just as in
other archaeological materials, the meaning of the rock art is not apparent. They need to be
interpreted in the proper manner, taking both local perceptions and academic research such
that visitors are well informed after their visit. Not doing so will leave some visitors perplexed
and others with have been referred to as ‘colonial gaze’ where the art is taken as an idyllic
 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES   71

remnant of hunter-gatherer lifestyle without any meaningful cultural symbolism (Smith

2006). The presentation of art can be done though use of interpretive panels and local guides
who are specially trained for the job (see Smith 2006). This will help build capacity within
communities to be able to look after the rock art sites.
The major challenge to rock art tourism in Zimbabwe is that the industry is susceptible
to political upheavals which are common. Whenever there is political uncertainty tourism
suffers and if the conservation of rock art is dependent on this, it will also suffer. This is a
complex problem which is difficult to solve. It is important to foster appreciation of the art
beyond its possible economic benefit. In any case, not all sites can be opened to visitors
therefore we have to find other means of ensuring their usefulness in contemporary society.
Sites that are closer to schools can be used as teaching tools by history teachers. Since the
history syllabus includes sections on hunter-gatherer lifestyles, the rock art would be useful
in this respect. The Ministry of Education is also in the process of introducing a new subject
on the heritage of Zimbabwe. Rock art sites can be useful in the teaching of this and other
traditional subjects such as content and science.

Conservation Research and Training

Above all, there is a great need for research into rock art conservation in Zimbabwe. As Jopela
(2010) argued, there is a dearth of expertise at research level in the conservation of rock art
throughout southern Africa. In Zimbabwe, for example, there is limited knowledge of the
intrinsic characteristics of the material such as the mechanical and chemical characterisation
of the rock art and the rock surfaces on which it is executed. Only a few speculative papers
on the nature of granite weathering were written in the 1970s (e.g. Cooke 1971). Although
there has recently been a surge in trying to understand the characteristics of both the pig-
ment and rocks on which the art is executed in neighbouring South Africa (Hoerle and
Salomon 2004; Hoerle 2005, 2006; Hall, Meiklejohn, and Arocena 2007; Arocena, Hall, and
Meiklejohn 2008), nothing has yet been done in the country. Therefore it is crucial to the
proper management of art for interdisciplinary research among geoscientists, stone con-
servators, archaeologists, historians, and social anthropologists.
Critical research is required into the composition of the rocks, the material characteristics
of the pigments and micro environmental parameters that exist at rock art sites. This will
lead to a better understanding of the rock art, how it interacts with the threats and the
processes that result in damage. Identification of salts, microbial communities, fats, binders
and other minerals and other components can be done using advanced technologies such
as Raman spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) (Arocena, Hall, and Meiklejohn 2008;
Prinsloo et al. 2008; Laiz, Gonzalez, and Saiz-Jimenez 2003: Zoppi et al. 2002). These tech-
nologies can also be used to study the microclimatic conditions at sites. No such serious
study has been attempted in Zimbabwe. Most characterizations depend on works done in
South Africa but we know that pigment characteristics are influenced by the geological
sources, binders, and preparation methods (Bonneau, Pearce, and Pollard 2012: Hall,
Meiklejohn, and Arocena 2007). These differ from place to place thus the data from South
Africa may not necessarily be relational to the rock art in Zimbabwe. There is need to study
diagenesis processes that are taking place on both the rock paintings and engravings.
Enhanced understanding of rock such as granite and sandstone that are the most com-
mon painted and engraved surfaces will greatly assist in the conservation of the art. Although
72   A. NHAMO

minimum intervention is always advocated for, there should be room to apply other proce-
dures when needs arise. Studies of weathering of the rocks have proved vital for conservation
of rock art in other parts of the world (Fernandes 2006).
Research on threats informs on the mitigation strategies that can be taken after the rock
art is affected. For example, understanding how damage results from fire is critical in the
response to be taken. Fire can cause different kinds of damage such as discoloration due to
soot and smoke or exfoliation and spalling due to the heat. The nature of damage depends
on the intensity of the fire, nature of rock and damage therefore the conservation response
should be based on intrinsic understanding of all these factors.
Research is also critical in monitoring the rock art and evaluation of effectiveness of the
conservation procedures applied. In Zimbabwe, previous conservation procedures need to
be monitored. Currently, there are two sites: Domboshava and Pomongwe, which were
negatively affected by misguided actions in the past. Domboshava was vandalised using
enamel painting in 1998 (Taruvinga 2003). The graffiti was successfully cleaned although
some of the images remained faded. The same applies to the site of Pomongwe in the Matobo
Hills World Heritage Landscape where the site deteriorated rapidly after linseed oil was
applied to the art to enhance the rock art in the 1950s (Taruvinga 2003). For sites, Zimbabwean
archaeologists and heritage managers speculate that the art seems to be regaining its clarity
with time. However, this belief is not supported by scientific inquiry, as the sites have not
been actively monitored to see the long-term effect of the substances used for vandalism
and the cleaning process in the case of Domboshava.
Research, if done will also assist in training future researchers and heritage managers.
Research encourages students to be the backbone of future conservation of the rock art.
Zimbabwe has suffered from the perennial problem of skills flight during the 2000s that has
left NMMZ incapacitated in many areas including rock art management and conservation.
Therefore, research programmes which include students from universities and junior staff from
NMMZ can facilitate rebuilding of national institutions that look after rock art. There can also
be training of response teams that quickly respond and provide first-aid to the art when there
are threats such as fire and vandalism. Local communities can be trained in fire management.

Conservation Policy and Planning

There is need for enhancement of rock art conservation policies and management plans.
Because there have been few intervention procedures in the rock art Zimbabwe has a chance
to produce a management policy which can avoid some of the problematic approaches that
have been applied elsewhere (see Darvill and Fernandes 2014). This can only be done
through rigorous planning and putting in place policies which inhibit poor choices of con-
servation approaches. The management policies and plans must ensure that conservation
approaches are carefully tested before being implemented. Site specific decisions should
be made after meticulous research to avoid ad hoc decisions that are detrimental to the rock
art and can accelerate the problems.
Rock art conservation policies and plans should emphasise comprehensive documenta-
tion procedures. With growing demands for land for urban and rural developments, it will
become increasingly difficult to conserve some of the sites in situ. Thus, there is a great need
to conduct detailed documentation for sites that cannot be saved. Nowadays, digital record-
ing of entire panels is possible with technologies such as laser scanning (Zoppi et al. 2002).
 CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES   73

There is also need to conduct risk assessments and assess the impact of developments
that have already taken place such as around sites in Harare mentioned above. There is also
need to encourage researchers to focus documentation on issues that are relevant to the
conservation of the rock art.

Conclusion
No single approach is going to solve conservation challenges in Zimbabwe. There is need
to implement a cocktail of procedures especially taking site specific approaches that are
backed by research and experiments. There is need to encourage and cultivate cooperation
in interdisciplinary studies in the conservation of rock art, something which is a rarity in
Zimbabwe at the moment. The country should also seek assistance from international
organisations and experts even while emphasising local needs. We need to learn from
other people’s successes and failures. Resources required in funding and training cannot
be afforded by the country. There is therefore need to canvas for funding from other
sources.

Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes on Contributor
Ancila Nhamo is Senior Lecturer in Archaeology at the University of Zimbabwe. She has a
Doctor of Philosophy in Archaeology from the University from Zimbabwe. She has interests
in rock art interpretation, conservation and tourism. She has also researched on general
management and sustainable utilisation of archaeological sites

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