LESSON NOTES

HISTORY FORM 1
GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
INTRODUCTION
The state was founded by the Shona people between 1200 and 1450AD as a result of Iron Age
development. The capital was based at the Great Zimbabwe. The state has an estimated population
of above 10000 at the height of its power. The state was famous for its stone work with wall built
without water. The name Great Zimbabwe was derived from these stone structures at Great
Zimbabwe (DZIMBADZAMABWE) houses of stones.
WHY GREAT ZIMBABWE WAS BUILT
- As a trading centre
- As mambo’s court
- As a dwelling place for the nobles
- For religious purposes
- Environmental factors
- As a symbol of power
FACTORS THAT LED TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATE
1. Availability of enough water from Mutirikwi for domestic and agricultural purposes
2. An increase in competition over the control of existing land resources
3. An increase in cattle herding and gold mining created more wealth for the ruling clans. As
people grew richer they married more wives they had children who were then drafted into
the army
4. The army enabled to conquer derived groups thereby establishing control over land
resources on the more fertile Zimbabwe Plateau
5. The building of defensive walls that protected people from their rival groups and wild
animals
6. The buildings at Great Zimbabwe were a display of power and it was viewed as a symbol
of wealth
7. Trading activities at Great Zimbabwe brought in more wealth. Gold was traded for the
imported ceramics from Persia and China
POLITICAL ORGANISATION
1 .The king was the head of the state whose duties were:
-to control over the allocation of grazing land
-the ownership of cattle and mine production
-collection of tribute
-presiding over religious and political activities
2 .The king enjoyed a number of privileges which were:
-access to the products of hunting such as ivory and skims
-enjoyed peasant labour at his court and the field
-enjoyed a monopoly of the long distance trade with the Persians and the Chines
3 .The king was assisted by the members of the ruling class in carrying outs his duties. Some of
them saved as village chiefs and some as provincial chiefs
4. The Great Zimbabwe State extended its influence beyond the city state at Great Zimbabwe . As
a result of their power, smaller towns were built North of Great Zimbabwe following similar design
such towns were Khami, Nlodlo and Tsvide

SOCIAL STRUCTURE
-The society at the Great Zimbabwe state was characterized by social classes namely the ruling
class that enjoyed a number of privileges and the commoner class paid tribute
- the division of labour was based on occupation hence the society had farmers, herders, miners,
traders, hunters etc.
- the division of labour was based on gender thus women were cultivators , weavers, pottery makers
while men were herders, hunters, miners, traders, etc

THE RELIGION OF THE STATE

- The shona of Great Zimbabwe were a religious group who worshiped the Mwari Cult
through use of Vadzimu
- Mhondoro/ masvikiro had powerful religious and mystic abilities. They practiced rain
making ceremonies through the Masvikiro or spirits
- Mwari was the Supreme divine being worshiped by the Shona People
- Shona chief had power to control religion which was the only way in which people
could talk to mwari
- The king had the power to intermediate between people and mhondoro for social unity
 THE ECONOMIC STRUCTURE
-The great Zimbabwe state economy was diversified into:

1. Livestock Production
- Cattles were used for meat as well lobola payment
- Cattles were used at ritual ceremonies and for payment of tribute
- It was also used to provide manure for use in cereal cropping
- Cattles were a symbol of wealth thus more grazing lands were reserved at Great
Zimabwe

2. Trade
- Trade in ivory , beads, gold, ceramics, copper and clothes was practiced
- It was both the capital and the trading centre for Zimbabwe
- They practiced internal and external trade
- Evidence of external trade were found at Gokomere and Ziwa, Persian bowls, Chinese
dishes, copper chains were some of the items found by archaeologist at the above
historical sites

3. Mining
- The main ores mine were gold, copper and iron
- Craftsman worked with gold and copper into jewellery i.e. bangls and anklets
- Iron was forged into tools
- The gold and copper products was traded and the iron tools were traded and used in
rain production, hunting and mining
4. Grain Production
- Much emphasis was on the production of cereals such as sorghum, rapoko and millet
- It was the king who was in charge of land allocation for grain production
- Cereals were used for domestic consumption, tribute payment and trade
-
5.Iron smelting and blacksmithing
6. weaving and spinning of clothes from indigenous cotton was used to pay for the
pride and was called machira
 DECLINE OF THE GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
- To decline means to fall in power
- The reasons for the decline of the great Zimbabwe state are
1. Shortage of salt
2. Decline in sources of Ivory
3. Depletion of reserves
4. Decline in trade with the Portuguese
5. Shortage of enough pastures
6. Population increase causing pressure/ competition on available resource
7. The empire was so large giving problems to the king to control
8. Succession disputes leading to civil wars
9. Migration of Nyatsimba Mutota to the Dande region

MUTAPA STATE
SOME OF THE LEADERS WHO RULED MUTAPA STATE
- Nyatsimba Mutota
- Nyahuma
- Chikuyo Chomunyaka
- Gatsi Rusere
- Kapararidze
- Neshangwe
- Chivero Nyasoro
- Negomo Mapunzagutu
- Mavhura Mhande
- Mukombwe
INRODUCTION
- The state has been founded by Nyatsimba Mutota
- It was formed around 1400 AD. Mutota led a number of people and soldiers from Great
Zimbabwe to the Dande region.
- The state was formed after the decline of Great Zimbabwe state around 1400AD.
- The son Matope continued with the extension of the state boundaries, 16th century the
Mutapa state included Guuruswa, Manyika, Mbire, Tete, etc
REASON FOR THE FORMATION OF THE STATE
1 .Nyatsimba Mutota was an ambitious leader who wanted to create his own empire outside Great
Zimbabwe state’s influence.
2. The depletion of resources at Great Zimbabwe due to population growth leading to the migration
of groups of people in search of better resources northwards
3. Succession Disputes within the Great Zimbabwe caused some revolts which resulted in
Nyatsimba Mutota being pushed outside Great Zimbabwe
4. Decline of the great Zimbabwe as major state and trading centre caused other people to migrate
to other areas
5. Nyatsimba Mutota was eager to control major trade roots and resources along the Zambezi
Valley.
6. Need to control vas pieces of land for agricultural/ grazing
7. The military strength of some leaders enabled them to dominate the weaker chieeftainships and
expand the Munhumutapa state and there was the existence of several chieftaiships which were
the joined together to create the Munhumutapa state.

RELIGION
- The King presided over the national religious activities
- Religion was a form of control and unity
- This was achieved through the use of traditional symbols, religious rituals and beliefs
that emphasize King’s supreme power.
- The territorial Kings were expected to relight the royal fire that was sent from the King
as a sign of loyalty
- People worshipped Mwari/ God through the ancestral spirit
POLITICAL ORGANISATION
-The king was the head of the state that held political and economic powers
-The king was called by the praise name Munhumutapa
-the main duties of the Munhumutapa were:
1. To control long distance trade
2. Allocation of land for grazing and cultivation
3. Collection of Tribute
4. The head of state and the military commander
5. Presides over national religious duties
- The Munhumutapa was assisted by the aristocratic officials, territorial Kings and Chiefs to
administer the state
- At the top of the political hierarchy was the King who with the assistance of the aristocratic
officials was in charge of the Mutapa state.
 - He was followed by territorial /provincial chiefs who were in charge of the provinces and they
collected tribute on behalf of the King

 Council (Dare)
The council advised the king when ruling. The council included Priest of the Mwari cult,
councillors, blacksmiths, army commanders, sons of provincial chiefs, king’s mother, queen’s
mother, queen and king’s brothers and sisters.

 Provincial Chiefs
Provincial chiefs ruled provinces such as Guruuswa, Mbire, Manyika,Barwe, Uteve etc. The
position of chiefs was hereditary and the provincial chiefs were either relatives of the king or
friends of the king. They collected the royal fire once a year from Munhumutapa as a sign of
respect. They paid tribute to the king. They gave troops to the king in times of war. They distributed
land to district chiefs.

 District chiefs
These were under provincial chiefs. Their position was hereditary. They paid tribute to the king.
They also collected tribute from the subjects in the form of ivory, cattle, grain, gold and labour.
They distributed land to the people. They also tried cases brought before them.

 Village chiefs
These were under District chiefs; they distributed land to the people and tried cases brought before
them. They paid tribute to the king and also received tribute from the subjects. Their position was
hereditary.

THE ARMY
- The state had an extending army of about 200-500 soldiers
- The army used traditional weapon
- The king was the head of the military
- The army was responsible for maintaining peace and order within the state, defending
the state from external forces and carrying out military campaigns against weaker states
ECONOMIC ORGANISATION
- THE STATE’S ECONOMY WAS DIVERSIFIED INTO
- 1.TRADE
- - The state engaged in both external and internal trade. Internally people exchanged
goods such as grain for cattle, grain for tools etc
- -The king and the ruling class dominated the external trade of the Portuguese and the
Swahili traders
- -Such trade was in form of tools, grain, gold, copper in return for jewellery, beads,
guns, rings, bracelets, ceramics, cloth etc
 - -In this was the Munhumutapa and the ruling class controlled the creation distribution
of wealth. This was quiet evidenced their luxurious lives (clothing and ornaments worn
by their wives)
- 2. TRIBUTE COLLECTION
- -Mutapa collected tribute through territorial and village chiefs. Such tribute was in the
form of grain, cattle, goats, sheep, tool and labour
- - Tribute was a sign of Loyalty to the king
- 3. LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION
- - The Mutapa people engaged in rearing of livestock such as goats, cattle, and sheep
- - Livestock played an important role in the emergence of the state
- - Cattle were viewed as a symbol of wealth this partly explains why much emphasis as
placed on cattle rearing
- -Cattle were mostly for tribute payment, payment of lobola, for food
- 4. The also practiced mining, black smithing and iron smelting
- 5. HUNTING

SOCIAL ORGANISATION
 The Mutapa state had people of different dialects e.g. Karanga, Ndawu and Zezuru.
 There was gender awareness when allocating duties. Men were part of the army and hunted
whilst women were involved in household chores e.g. cooking, taking care of children etc.
 People of the same totem were not allowed to marry one another.
 They believed in life after death and so they consulted family spirits, clan spirits and national
spirits, this was usually done in times of war, drought and harvest.
 Family spirits were believed to help family members achieve their ambitions.
 Clan and national spirits also intervened in political disputes, succession disputes and inter-
clan disputes.
 They believed in avenging spirits (Ngozi).
 They believed in God the creator of mankind whom they worshiped through their ancestors.
They practised polygamy
PORTUGUESE PENETRATION OF THE MUTAPA

During the 15th century Portugal was sending exploration voyages to central Africa. One of the
explorers Vasco Da Gama reached the Cape of Good Hope. Therefore, the Portuguese were the
first Europeans to settle in the Indian Ocean coast. They discovered the sea route to India and
trading activities between Central Africa and east coast. They investigated the presence of gold at
Sofala and Kilwa. The two ports were used to acquire gold and ivory from Mutapa state and in
exchange got Indian spices from India.
Reasons for penetration
 To establish a number of trading posts in the interior especially the Zambezi.
 To gather more information on trade especially presence of gold, ivory and alcohol.
 To drive any Swahili traders from the interior so they could take over trade within African
states. They established Sena and Tete around 1530s.
 Later they developed interest in African politics; they did not aim for this in the beginning.
 Later moved inland to avenge the death of Fr Goncalo Da Silveira.
 To spread Christianity.
Developments

 After the death of Matope there were quarrels over leadership.

 In 1494 Chikuyo Chisamarengu became king; he was the first king to have a European visitor
called Fernandez a Portuguese trader.
 Fernandez gave the king and gun powder and Munhumutapa was able to expand his empire.
 After the death of Chikuyo in 1530 Neshangwe became king and was succeeded by Chivere
Nyasoro in 1550 who crushed the Tavara in the revolt and as symbol of the defeat took their
totem as Nzou.
 Chivere died in 1560 and his eldest son Negomo Mapunzagutu took over the leadership and
was assisted to govern by Mr Chiuyu.

 The Portuguese Priests were pushed/encouraged to move into the interior to convert
Mutapa and his people to Christianity. A catholic called Fr Goncalo Da Silvera became a
great friend of the king and his mother and the Muslim traders (VaMwenye) were angered
when the king and his mother agreed to be baptised. In 1561 the VaMwenye plotted and
killed Da Silvera and dumped his body in a pond. Fr Goncalo Da Silveira death gave the
Portuguese a chance to attack Mutapa as they were against their contact with the Moors.
The In 1570 the Portuguese king sent an army to Mutapa to avenge the death of Da Silvera and
because the Portuguese did not know the area so well they were easily defeated even though they
had superior weapons. 1567 Francisco Barretto was sent by the Portuguese to invade Mutapa so
as to avenge the death of Fr Goncalo Da Silveira as well as driving away Muslims. Unfortunately
he died before invading as they reached Mutapa during the rainy season and were affected by
diseases. In 1574- Father Vasco Fernandes Homem was sent together with 400 men. Before
reaching Manyika, he faced resistance from Chiteve. Chiteve King was defeated, but the
Portuguese realised that the area had little gold deposits. Most soldiers sent by the Portuguese
faced opposition from the Tonga and couldn’t invade Mutapa. For 35 years there was peace in
Mutapa.
In 1607 Munhumutapa Gatsi Rusere asked for Portuguese help to fight a revolt for the leadership
in return for silver mines at Chikova and other mines. However, he refused to tell them the location
of the silver mines and the people of Mutapa refused because they had seen and Prazero and
Portuguese land owners. As more and more Portuguese arrived they took more land and cattle and
forced people to work in the fields and formed their own private army. They became wild, lawless
and no longer obeyed the Munhumutapa. Portuguese began refusing to pay tribute to Mutapa;
Mutapa stopped trade with the Portuguese and ceased Portuguese properties and the Portuguese
declared war but later began to pay tribute. The next Mutapa kapararidze tried to expel the
Portuguese after they refused to pay tribute but he was over powered and replaced by Mavura
Mhandu who agreed to serve the Portuguese and become a puppet king. The new ruling Mutapa
Mavura was baptised to Philip. In 1629 Mavura signed an agreement with the Portuguese,
Portuguese had freedom to:
 Build churches whenever/ wherever they wanted.
 Travel to any part of Mutapa as traders.
 Drive away Muslims from Mutapa.
 Mine in Mutapa.
The Portuguese established Tete, Sena, Kilwa, Zumbo, Sofala, Quelimane and Luanze.

How they took over Mutapa State

 Mutapa was made a vassal state by the Portuguese; the Portuguese began to demand tribute
from vassal chiefs.
 Vassal chiefs rebelled against the Mutapa; Mutapa turned to the Portuguese for protection.
 At first Portuguese wanted an alliance with the Mutapa so as to replace Swahili and Moor
traders in gold, silver and ivory; they also wanted to spread Christianity.
 Moor traders continued to establish more routes into the interior and this influenced
Portuguese to make contacts with the interior.

 However the Mutapa :

 Lost the right to give any gold bearing territories to other whites.
 Had to pay tribute to the Portuguese.
 1652, Munhumutapa Mavura died and was succeeded by Domingos. Domingos was
assassinated and Nyenyedzi took over.
 Nyenyedzi was succeeded by Nyakunembiri, Nyakunembiri appealed to Changamire
Dombo to assist him in fighting the Portuguese; together they destroyed the Portuguese
power and killed most of the Portuguese.
 No Portuguese were seen in Mutapa until colonisation when BSAC took over Mutapa.
 Mutapa state was now under Changamire Dombo, Mutapa state was dead.

Decline of the Mutapa State

 Inexperienced leaders - there were inexperienced leaders who took over after the death of
Matope (1450) e.g. Nyahuma.
 Overpopulation - the state became too large to be controlled by one king.
 Civil wars and Succession disputes - this was due to power struggle within the Mutapa e.g.
vassal chiefs who rose against the ruling Mutapa. Nyahuma was killed by Changa and later
Changa was killed by Nyahuma’s sons. The State became politically weak.
  Portuguese Influence - they brought Christianity which destroyed the traditional religion
of the Mutapa people.
 Shortage of Salt and Minerals - this affected trade which once made the state a prosperous
one.
 Death Of Many People - Outbreaks of epidemics killed a lot of people.

THE EARLY PEOPLE OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA

THE SAN
The San were the first known inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa. They were hunter-gathers
living in highly mobilised groups between 20-50 people either following game around the country
or living in close rhythm with the land and its seasons or maintaining a more settled life depending
on seals, shellfish, crayfish, birds and fruits for food. The Sans have left a lasting record of their
lives through a thousand paintings. These hunter-gatherers have still survive but in small numbers
in the Kalahari desert. Their physical appearance is small in structure,brown in colour and they
have unique click languages. The San were stone age people so they did not use metals so their
weapons were made of wood, stone and bones. They did not domesticate animals and cultivate
crops. No pottery was made instead they used ostrich egg shells for storing and holding liquids.
The San were nomads as they were always on the move in search of game and plant food so they
did not build permanent shelter, they preferred rock shelter for temporary shelter. A chief
controlled their resources on behalf of the group back in the day before the arrival of shelter. A
number of fish bones were found in caves and this indicates that they were accomplished
fishermen. Slivers of bones and wood sharpened at each end were used to hook fish which were
also caught by means of tidal trap made from walls constructed by river Sanda.

Social and cultural life

 The San had no sense of ownership.
 Disputes were solved by a group known as a consensus.
 The status of women was relatively equal.
 The San of both sex wore many ornaments made of seed, berries, shell and small pieces
stuck together as necklaces and bracelets they used ostrich and tortoise shells to carry and
store water.
 Movement to different campsites was organised by a group.
 Their lifestyle was primitive communism.
 The San men were responsible for hunting and fishing, they went on long hunting trips and
they would gather Hordia Gordidni and chew the bitter miracle plant to supress their
appetite.
 The women did most of the gathering of plants and that included wild fruit and berries as
well as leaves, stems bulbs, corms, and root of a variety of plants.
 They were very good hunters that knew the ways of the animals they hunted.
 The San had to devise many different hunting traps in the form of parts covered by leaves
which was another way of trapping the animals.
  Another way was extracting poison which was then used to hunt.
 The meat was cooked fresh or smoked and dried for later use, only small quantities were
preserved this way because it had to be carried when the group moved to the next place.
 Clothing was light for easy movement, men wore line skirts with a short skin in front tied
on the waist, and they also used skin cloaks and blankets to keep themselves warm
especially in temperate climates.
 Leather work was common and leather was made into Ned bag for carrying food, string
bags were woven from great fibre.
Rock paintings
They painted on rocks and in cave walls and engraved on eggshells. These rock paintings have
given us a lot on their life style. These rock paintings show that the San were tuned to their
environment.

San beliefs
 They paid tribute to the chief.
 They believed in God.
 The eland was considered the most spiritual animal.
 The taught their children through oral tradition.

THE KHOI KHOI

The other early inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa were the Khoisan herders or Khoi Khoi.
The early Europeans called these people the “Hottentots” meaning stammers. The exact origin of
these people is still being debated by historians. The old theory was the Khoi Khoi migrated from
East Africa with their livestock and settled in Southern Africa but recent historical evidence has
shown it is not true. It is being argued that the Khoi Khoi were among the original inhabitants of
the area. It is also known that some of the San people adapted to the changes in their environment
and began to domesticate animals probably about 2000 years ago. The Khoi Khoi was originated
from pastoral culture and language was found. The exact place of origin of these people is still
debated and some say they originated from the northern place of Bulawayo and migrated to East
Africa with their livestock in Southern Africa. However, recent evidence argues that they were
among the original inhabitants. It is also known that some of the san adopted change in the
environment and began to domesticate animals.

Economic system
 Major economic system was based on lifestyle and production.
 They raised long horned cattle and fat tailed sheep and goats; cattle were a symbol of wealth
and prestige. Their way of life was organised around their livestock therefor they moved
from place to place during different seasons in search of pasture and water for the animals.
 Animals were kept for meat, milk and blood.
  Husbandry of sheep, goats and cattle provided a stable balanced diet and allowed the
related Khoi Khoi people to live in large groups than the previous inhabitants.
 As time went on Khoisan began to grow crops and a variety of other plants.
 Like the San both sexes were involved in the economic activities.
 Apart from herding animals men sometimes hunted wild animals for meat and skin for
clothing.
 Women milked cows and goats, gathered roots and berries and also made pottery.
 The Khoi Khoi industry was more developed than that of the San.
 Their technology included carvings of shallow dishes, bone ivory and smelting and smiting
of iron.
 Trading of some of these times was developed with traders from the Far East who often
came to the south of the east coast of Africa.
 They also extracted salt from the salt mineral springs through evaporation in soapstone
dishes.

Political and Social organisation

 The village settlement was relatively large often well over hundred persons.
 They did not live in caves because of their large numbers.
 They built dome shaped huts from young branches.
 They covered them with mats from reeds and sometimes with animal skins.
 Huts were arranged in a circle and domestic animals were often kraaled overnight within
the circle.
 Each village consisted of member of the same clan and a group of male descendants of a
particular ancestor with their wives and children.
 The young people were initiated at adulthood at about 18 years and marriage could take
place after the ceremony.
 The groom paid lobola in the form of an ox for the wedding feast.
 After the marriage a hut was built for the couple near the bride’s mother’s hut.
 Unlike the San the Khoisan community had more organised system of authority.
 Each village had a headman, it was a hereditary position passed to the eldest son of the
founding ancestor for every generation.
 Headman made decisions such as when and where to move.
 They also acted as mediators or judges in criminal and civil disputes.
 Senior people had more privileges than the juniors e.g. they lived in houses to the right of
the elder whilst juniors lived to the left side.
 Each family had their own hut; however, children who were older lived with their age
group.
 The Khoisan were polygamous (more than one wife).
 Several villages were united into a larger unit called a tribe.
  Tribes had a kinship base and were made up of a number of linked clans with a Seniority
of one of the clans being recognised.
 The head of the senior clan was recognised as the chief of the tribe.
 The extant of the tribal land was not defined by exact boundaries but reference to land
Tokay water hole.
 Tribal chiefs controlled outside access to their resources.

Religious beliefs
 The Khoisan believed in a supreme being.
 They believed in spirits of natural forces especially water and rain.
 They gave special significance to the moon which they viewed as a physical magnification
of the Supreme Being associated with heaven.
 The time of a new and full moon was a special occasion for dancing.
THE IRON AGE SOCIETIES
TRANSITION FROM THE LATE STONE AGE
 Political changes
 Permanent settlements were established. There was a lot of food so people abandoned the
idea of moving from place to place in search of food.
 Village communities were created. This led to formation of classes i.e. chiefs and subjects,
rich and poor.
 Population increase. As the economy improved people got enough food to store for the
next season. People became healthy due to balanced diet thus leading to population
increase.
 Rivals amongst villages. Villages fought to control resources and weaker villages were
destroyed by stronger ones. This led to creation of armies as a way of securing land, cattle
and grain.
 Decisions were made by a small and powerful group called a consensus.

 Economic Changes
 The new iron users did not completely break away with the past Stone Age and continued
to hunt and gather to supplement their food.
 However, they began to mine minerals copper, gold, silver and iron ore were mined. Hoes
and axes were vital for mining as hoes were used to dig for minerals and axes for cutting
trees to use for the furnace. Before Iron Age these minerals were ignored and regarded as
colourful rocks. Gold and copper were processed into jewellery and Iron was used to make
tools. These were used for internal and external trade, externally with Swahili, Chinese and
Oman on the Indian Ocean coast.
 Bantu farmers began to pay more attention to farming although agriculture is believed to
have begun in the late Stone Age. A variety of crops were grown e.g. millet, sorghum and
pumpkins. These became the main source of food though hunting and gathering were still
done but on a small scale.
 They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Goats and sheep were killed for meat but cattle were
vital as it was considered as a symbol of wealth. They were killed on special occasions e.g.
deaths, rain making ceremonies and births.
 This was mainly done by women and pottery was decorated, it was used for storing grain,
water and milk.
 They started paying tribute to the ruling class as a sign of respect by the subjects. Tribute
could be in the form of crops, iron tools, minerals, cattle and labour.
 They traded internally and externally, they traded with foreigners from Persia and Arabia.
They traded gold and ivory and sometimes copper for cloth, silk and glass beads. Internally
they exchanged surplus goods, surplus grain could be exchanges for iron tools, pots and
livestock.
  Social Changes
 The early age people abandoned living in caves and began to live in pole and dagga huts.
 There was division of labour which indicated specialisation of jobs. Men went for mining
as it was dangerous and women concentrated on household chores.
 Specialisation led to exchange of goods amongst neighbours especially in times of crisis
e.g. blacksmith could exchange axes and hoes for cattle, sheep and goats.
 Gaps between different classes broadened.
 Chiefdoms emerged.
 Polygamy was widely practised. It was vital for social status of a person because the more
wives one had the more one was respected. This also meant a lot of labour in the fields and
a good crop yield.
 The boy child was valued more compared to the girl child because he perpetuated the
family name.
 Lobola was wide spread and it was in the form of cattle, hoes, beads and labour.
 They believed in life after death therefor they buried the dead with their belongings.

Impact of the changes

 Food was now in abundance.
 Hunting became effective due to new iron tools.
 Trade became very important.
 More permanent settlements were built therefor people stayed at one place for a long time.
 Exploitation of women and children by men and also exploitation of men by other man began.
 Displacement of earlier San inhabitants.
 Formation of chiefdoms/states.
 Tribute was introduced where by subjects would pay or give a token of appreciation to their
rulers.
Bantu Migration
Bantu are people who spoke related languages. They originated from Sudan (Benue cross region)
and are between Cameroon and Nigeria.

Migration – The movement of a group of people from one region to another and they moved with
their livestock (cattle, sheep and goats).

Reasons for Migration

 Population Pressure – As population increased, the Bantu were forced to move to spacious
areas.
 Bad Climatic Conditions – Some areas were tsetse and malaria infested e.g. Congo Forests.
These areas became unfavourable and therefore they migrated.
 Land Exhaustion – The land became exhausted and the Bantu migrated in search of fertile
lands.
  Political And Social Problems – Succession disputes and civil wars were greatly
experienced. Some Bantu were running away from cruel chiefs after practicing witchcraft.
Most Bantu therefore migrated and moved to Central and Southern Africa. Therefore, it is
related to introduction of Iron Age hence Early Iron Age.
Results
 Introduction of new farming methods.
 Settlements became more permanent.
 New weapons / tools were made leading to better hunting and farming.
 Land previously unoccupied became occupied.
 Specialization of jobs resulted in farmers, miners, hunters etc.
THE LATE STONE AGE AND EARLY IRON AGE
The Early Iron Age is the period which followed the Late Stone Age. The early began to be
practiced in Central Africa in AD300. The Bantu are associated with the Early Iron Age. They
absorbed San hunter-gathers, they brought with them iron tools which changed mode of production
i.e. How people obtained necessities of life e.g. clothes, food housing etc. The Iron Age was called
the revolutionary period therefore it led to the formation of States.

Political Changes
 Permanent settlements were established. There was a lot of food so people abandoned the
idea of moving from place to place in search of food.
 Village communities were created. This led to formation of classes i.e. chiefs and subjects,
rich and poor.
 Population increase. As the economy improved people got enough food to store for the
next season. People became healthy due to balanced diet thus leading to population
increase.
 Rivals amongst villages. Villages fought to control resources and weaker villages were
destroyed by stronger ones. This led to creation of armies as a way of securing land, cattle
and grain.
 Decisions were made by a small and powerful group after reaching a consensus.
Economic Changes

Change of tools and their results

LATE STONE AGE EARLY IRON AGE

The hand-axe was blunt, difficult to use when Hand axe was now lighter and sharper therefore
cutting down trees for agriculture and it was it was easier to clear large pieces of land for
also heavy. agriculture
Used the stone tipped arrow for hunting and it Used iron tipped arrows for hunting and it was
was difficult to kill a lot of animals. easier to kill a lot of animals.
Stone knifes were used for cutting meat. Iron knifes were used for cutting meat.
 Most people had no food to store for the next A lot of people had food to store for the next
season. season.
Farming was done on a small scale. Farming was done on a large scale.
Population was stable as food was scarce. Population increase as food was in abundance.
People could die early because of diseases People could live longer because they ate a
associated with malnutrition. balanced diet.
Fish was caught using baskets. Fish caught using iron fish hooks.

 Mining
It came due to iron technology. Copper, gold, silver and iron ore were mined. Hoes and axes were
vital for mining as hoes were used to dig for minerals and axes for cutting trees to use for the
furnace. Before Iron Age these minerals were ignored and regarded as colourful rocks. Gold and
copper were processed into jewellery and Iron was used to make tools. These were used for internal
and external trade, externally with Swahili, Chinese and Oman on the Indian Ocean coast.
 Cultivation
A variety of crops were grown e.g. millet, sorghum and pumpkins. These became the main source
of food though hunting and gathering were still done but, on a small scale.

 Pastoralism
They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Goats and sheep were killed for meat but, cattle were vital as they
were considered as a symbol of wealth. They were killed on special occasions e.g. deaths, rain
making ceremonies and births.

 Pottery Making
This was mainly done by women and pottery was decorated, it was used for
storing grain, water and milk.

 Tribute
It was paid to the ruling class as a sign of respect by the subjects. Tribute could be in the form of
crops, iron tools, minerals, cattle and labour.

Social Changes
 The early Iron Age people abandoned living in caves and began to live in pole and dagga huts.
 There was division of labour which indicated specialisation of jobs. Men went for mining as it
was dangerous and women concentrated on household chores.
 Specialisation led to exchange of goods amongst neighbours especially in times of crisis e.g.
blacksmith could exchange axes and hoes for cattle, sheep and goats.
 Gaps between different classes broadened.
 Chiefdoms emerged.
 Polygamy was widely practised. It was vital for social status of a person because the more
wives one had the more one was respected. This also meant a lot of labour in the fields and a
good crop yield.
 The boy child was valued more compared to the girl child because he perpetuated the family
name.
 Lobola was widespread and it was in the form of cattle, hoes, beads and labour.
 They believed in life after death therefore they buried the dead with their belongings.
Impact of changes
 Food was now in abundance.
 Hunting became effective due to new iron tools.
 Trade became very important.
 More permanent settlements were built therefore people stayed at one place for a long time.
 Exploitation of women and children by men and also exploitation of man by other man began.
 Displacement of earlier San inhabitants.
 Formation of chiefdoms/states.
 Tribute was introduced whereby subjects would pay or give a token of appreciation to their
rulers.