Water and Sanitation

Every eight seconds a child dies of a water-related disease. Every year

more than five million human beings die from illnesses linked to unsafe
drinking water, unclean domestic environments and improper excreta
disposal.

At any given time perhaps one-half of all peoples in the developing world
are suffering from one or more of the six main diseases associated with
water supply and sanitation (diarrhoea, ascaris, dracunculiasis, hookworm,
schistosomiasis and trachoma). In addition, the health burden includes the
annual expenditure of over ten million person-years of time and effort by
women and female children carrying water from distant, often polluted
sources.

Nearly a quarter of humanity still remains today without proper access to

water and sanitation.

हर आठ सेकं ड में पानी से संबंधित बीमारी से एक बच्चे की मौत हो जाती है। हर साल पांच मिलियन से अधिक मनुष्य असुरक्षित
पीने के पानी, अशुद्ध घरेलू वातावरण और अनुचित उत्सर्जन निपटान से जुड़ी बीमारियों से मर जाते हैं।

किसी भी समय शायद विकासशील देशों के सभी लोगों में से एक-आधे लोग पानी की आपूर्ति और स्वच्छता (दस्त, एस्के रिस,
ड्रैकु नलैसिस, हुकवर्म, सिस्टोसियोसिस और ट्रेकोमा) से जुड़े छह या एक से अधिक मुख्य रोगों से पीड़ित हैं। इसके अलावा,
स्वास्थ्य बोझ में दस लाख से अधिक व्यक्ति-वर्ष का वार्षिक खर्च और दूर-दराज से अक्सर प्रदूषित स्रोतों से पानी लाने वाली
महिलाओं और महिलाओं के बच्चों के प्रयास शामिल हैं।

लगभग एक चौथाई मानवता आज भी पानी और स्वच्छता के उचित उपयोग के बिना बनी हुई है।

During the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade

(1981-1990), some 1600 million people were served with safe water and
about 750 million with adequate excreta disposal facilities. However,
because of population growth of 800 million people in developing countries,
by 1990 there remained a total of 1015 million people without safe water
and 1764 million without adequate sanitation.

Overall progress in reaching the unserved has been poor since 1990.
Approximately one billion people around the world still lack safe water and
more than two billion do not have adequate excreta disposal facilities.
Rapid population growth and lagging rates of coverage expansion has left
more people without access to basic sanitation today than in 1990.

Another problem with coverage goals is the magnitude of resources

needed to achieve them. At the Global Consultation of Safe Water and
Sanitation for the 1990s, held in New Delhi in 1990, it was stated that
universal coverage by the year 2000 would require US$ 50 billion per year,
a five-fold increase in current investment levels.
अंतर्राष्ट्रीय पेयजल आपूर्ति और स्वच्छता दशक (1981-1990) के दौरान, कु छ 1600 मिलियन लोगों को सुरक्षित पानी
और लगभग 750 मिलियन में पर्याप्त उत्सर्जन निपटान सुविधाओं के साथ सेवा दी गई थी। हालाँकि, विकासशील देशों में
800 मिलियन लोगों की जनसंख्या वृद्धि के कारण, 1990 तक कु ल 1015 मिलियन लोग सुरक्षित पानी के बिना और
1764 मिलियन पर्याप्त स्वच्छता के बिना बने रहे।

1990 के बाद से अयोग्य तक पहुँचने में समग्र प्रगति खराब रही है। दुनिया भर में लगभग एक बिलियन लोगों के पास अभी भी
सुरक्षित पानी की कमी है और दो बिलियन से अधिक के पास पर्याप्त उत्सर्जन की सुविधा नहीं है। तेजी से जनसंख्या वृद्धि और
कवरेज विस्तार की बढ़ती दरों ने 1990 की तुलना में आज बुनियादी स्वच्छता तक पहुंच के बिना अधिक लोगों को छोड़ दिया
है।

कवरेज लक्ष्यों के साथ एक और समस्या संसाधनों की भयावहता है जो उन्हें प्राप्त करने के लिए आवश्यक है। 1990 के दशक
में नई दिल्ली में आयोजित 1990 के दशक के लिए सुरक्षित जल और स्वच्छता के वैश्विक परामर्श में, यह कहा गया था कि वर्ष
2000 तक सार्वभौमिक कवरेज के लिए प्रति वर्ष यूएस $ 50 बिलियन की आवश्यकता होगी, वर्तमान निवेश स्तरों में पांच
गुना वृद्धि।
In 1992, WHO concluded its monitoring of the Decade with the estimate
that a total of US$ 133.9 billion had been invested in water supply and
sanitation during the period 1981-1990, of which 55% was spent on water
and 45% on sanitation. Urban areas received 74% of the total and rural
areas only 26%. Contrary to widespread perceptions, almost two-thirds of
all funds were provided by national sources and only a third by external
organizations.

WHO estimates that it costs an average of US$ 105 per person to provide
water supplies in urban areas and US$ 50 in rural areas, while sanitation
costs an average of US$ 145 in urban areas and US$ 30 in rural areas.

Water supply and sanitation can be viewed as a process having three

interactive elements. The most fundamental of these elements is the
availability of safe drinking water and sanitary means of excreta disposal.
This means 20 to 40 litres of water per person per day located within a
reasonable distance from the household. Safe water implies protection of
water sources as well as proper transport and storage within the home. It
also means facilities for bathing and for washing clothes and kitchen
utensils which are clean and well-drained. Sanitary excreta disposal is the
isolation and control of faeces from both adults and children so that they do
not come into contact with water sources, food or people. To break the
transmission chain of faecally-related diseases, good standards of personal
and domestic hygiene, which begin with handwashing after defecation, are
essential.
1992 में, WHO ने इस अनुमान के साथ दशक की अपनी निगरानी का निष्कर्ष निकाला कि 1981-1990 की अवधि
के दौरान कु ल US $ 133.9 बिलियन का पानी की आपूर्ति और स्वच्छता में निवेश किया गया था, जिसमें से 55%
पानी पर और 45% स्वच्छता पर खर्च किया गया था। शहरी क्षेत्रों को कु ल का 74% और ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों को के वल 26%
प्राप्त हुआ। व्यापक धारणाओं के विपरीत, सभी धन का लगभग दो-तिहाई राष्ट्रीय स्रोतों द्वारा प्रदान किया गया था और के वल एक
तिहाई बाहरी संगठनों द्वारा।

डब्ल्यूएचओ का अनुमान है कि शहरी क्षेत्रों में पानी की आपूर्ति और ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों में यूएस $ 50 की आपूर्ति के लिए प्रति व्यक्ति
औसतन यूएस $ 105 खर्च होता है, जबकि स्वच्छता में शहरी क्षेत्रों में औसतन यूएस $ 145 और ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों में यूएस $
30 का खर्च होता है।

जल आपूर्ति और स्वच्छता को तीन संवादात्मक तत्वों की प्रक्रिया के रूप में देखा जा सकता है। इन तत्वों का सबसे मौलिक है
सुरक्षित पेयजल की उपलब्धता और स्वच्छता के उत्सर्जन के साधन। इसका अर्थ है कि घर से उचित दूरी पर स्थित प्रति व्यक्ति
प्रति दिन 20 से 40 लीटर पानी। सुरक्षित जल से तात्पर्य जल स्रोतों के संरक्षण के साथ-साथ घर के भीतर उचित परिवहन
और भंडारण से है। इसका मतलब स्नान करने और कपड़े और रसोई के बर्तन धोने के लिए सुविधाएं हैं जो साफ और अच्छी
तरह से सूखा हैं। सैनिटरी मलमूत्र निपटान वयस्कों और बच्चों दोनों से मल के अलगाव और नियंत्रण है, ताकि वे जल स्रोतों,
भोजन या लोगों के संपर्क में न आएं। मल से संबंधित बीमारियों की संचरण श्रृंखला को तोड़ने के लिए, व्यक्तिगत और घरेलू
स्वच्छता के अच्छे मानक, जो शौच के बाद हैंडवाशिंग से शुरू होते हैं, आवश्यक हैं।
A second element in the water and sanitation development process is the
use and care of water and sanitation facilities. People must use these
facilities properly to obtain the health benefits inherent in them. This means
knowing how to protect and store water safely, how to maintain personal
and domestic cleanliness, how to care for excreta disposal facilities and
how to avoid or minimize unsanitary environmental conditions. Knowledge
transfer, behaviour change and personal responsibility are the key factors.

The third of the interactive elements is the institutional support from the
communities, developing agencies and government policies that provide a
framework for water and sanitation improvements. Experience has shown
that community-based efforts, whether in a small village or a large
metropolis, are most effective in identifying and meeting peoples' needs.
Governments, especially at the regional and national levels, are more
effective as facilitators of the development process than providers of water
and sanitation improvements.
जल और स्वच्छता विकास प्रक्रिया में एक दूसरा तत्व पानी और स्वच्छता सुविधाओं का उपयोग और देखभाल है। लोगों में
निहित स्वास्थ्य लाभ प्राप्त करने के लिए लोगों को इन सुविधाओं का सही उपयोग करना चाहिए। इसका मतलब यह है कि पानी
को सुरक्षित रूप से संरक्षित करना और संग्रहीत करना, व्यक्तिगत और घरेलू स्वच्छता को बनाए रखना, मलत्याग निपटान
सुविधाओं की देखभाल कै से करना है और पर्यावरणीय परिस्थितियों से कै से बचा जाए या कम किया जाए, इसका मतलब है।
ज्ञान हस्तांतरण, व्यवहार परिवर्तन और व्यक्तिगत जिम्मेदारी प्रमुख कारक हैं।

इंटरएक्टिव तत्वों का तीसरा हिस्सा समुदायों, विकासशील एजेंसियों और सरकारी नीतियों से संस्थागत समर्थन है जो पानी और
स्वच्छता में सुधार के लिए एक रूपरेखा प्रदान करते हैं। अनुभव ने दिखाया है कि समुदाय आधारित प्रयास, चाहे वह एक छोटे
से गाँव या बड़े महानगर में हों, लोगों की ज़रूरतों को पहचानने और उन्हें पूरा करने में सबसे प्रभावी हैं। सरकारें, विशेष रूप से
क्षेत्रीय और राष्ट्रीय स्तर पर, पानी और स्वच्छता सुधार के प्रदाताओं की तुलना में विकास प्रक्रिया के सूत्रधार के रूप में अधिक
प्रभावी हैं।
Water contaminated by human, chemical or industrial wastes can cause a
variety of communicable diseases through ingestion or physical contact:

Water-borne diseases: caused by the ingestion of water contaminated by

human or animal faeces or urine containing pathogenic bacteria or viruses;
include cholera, typhoid, amoebic and bacillary dysentery and other
diarrhoeal diseases.

Water-washed diseases: caused by poor personal hygiene and skin or eye

contact with contaminated water; include scabies, trachoma and flea, lice
and tick-borne diseases.

Water-based diseases: caused by parasites found in intermediate

organisms living in water; include dracunculiasis, schistosomiasis and other
helminths.

Water-related diseases: caused by insect vectors which breed in water;

include dengue, filariasis, malaria, onchocerciasis, trypanosomiasis and
yellow fever.
मानव, रासायनिक या औद्योगिक अपशिष्टों द्वारा दूषित पानी अंतर्ग्रहण या शारीरिक संपर्क के माध्यम से विभिन्न प्रकार के संचारी
रोगों का कारण बन सकता है:

जल जनित रोग: मानव या पशु मल या मूत्र से दूषित पानी के घूस के कारण होता है जिसमें रोगजनक बैक्टीरिया या वायरस होते
हैं; हैजा, टाइफाइड, अमीबिक और बेसिलरी पेचिश और अन्य दस्त संबंधी बीमारियों को शामिल करें।
जल-धुली बीमारियां: खराब व्यक्तिगत स्वच्छता और दूषित पानी के साथ त्वचा या आंखों के संपर्क के कारण; खुजली, ट्रेकोमा
और पिस्सू, जूँ और टिक-जनित रोग शामिल हैं।

पानी आधारित बीमारियाँ: पानी में रहने वाले मध्यवर्ती जीवों में पाए जाने वाले परजीवियों के कारण; ड्रैकु नकु लियासिस,
सिस्टोसोमियासिस और अन्य हेल्मिन्थ शामिल हैं।

पानी से संबंधित रोग: कीट वैक्टर जो पानी में प्रजनन करते हैं, के कारण; डेंगू, फाइलेरिया, मलेरिया, ओंकोसेरोसिस,
ट्रिपैनोसोमियासिस और पीला शामिल हैं
No single type of intervention has greater overall impact upon the national
development and public health than does the provision of safe drinking
water and the proper disposal of human excreta. The direct effects of
improved water and sanitation services upon health are most clearly seen
in the case of water-related diseases, which arise from the ingestion of
pathogens in contaminated water or food and from insects or other vectors
associated with water. Improved water and sanitation can reduce morbidity
and mortality rates of some of the most serious of these diseases by 20%
to 80%.
 किसी भी प्रकार के हस्तक्षेप का राष्ट्रीय विकास और सार्वजनिक स्वास्थ्य पर अधिक से अधिक प्रभाव नहीं है, जो सुरक्षित
पेयजल और मानव उत्सर्जन के उचित निपटान का प्रावधान करता है। स्वास्थ्य पर सुधारित जल और स्वच्छता सेवाओं के
प्रत्यक्ष प्रभाव सबसे अधिक पानी से संबंधित बीमारियों के मामले में स्पष्ट रूप से देखे जाते हैं, जो दूषित पानी या भोजन में
रोगजनकों के अंतर्ग्रहण से और पानी से जुड़े कीड़े या अन्य वैक्टर से उत्पन्न होते हैं। बेहतर पानी और स्वच्छता इन बीमारियों में
से कु छ सबसे गंभीर और रुग्णता और मृत्यु दर को 20% से 80% तक कम कर सकती है।
 
Drinking Water Supply Programme& Policies at a Glance
 
Drinking Water Supply Programme& Policies at a Glance
Year Event
The Environment Hygiene Committee (1949) (Bhor Committee)
1949 recommended the provision of safe water supply to cover 90 per cent
of India’s population in a timeframe of 40 years.
1950 The Constitution of India specifies water as a State subject. 
National Rural Drinking Water Supply Programme was launched with
technical support from UNICEF and Rs.254.90 crore was spent during
1969
this phase with 1.2 million bore wells dug and 17,000 piped water
supply schemes provided.
Introduction of the Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme
1972-
(ARWSP) by the Government of India to assist States and Union
73 
Territories to accelerate the pace of coverage of drinking water supply.
 India as a party to the International Drinking Water Supply and
Sanitation Decade (1981-1990) declaration sets up a national level
1981
Apex Committee to define policies to achieve the goal of providing
safe water to all villages.
The National Drinking Water Mission (NDWM) launched to accelerate
1986
the process of coverage of the country with drinking water
First National Water Policy drafted by Ministry of Water Resources
1987
giving first priority to drinking water supply.
The National Drinking Water Mission (NDWM) renamed as Rajiv
1991
Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission (RGNDWM).
The 73rd Constitution Amendment makes provision for assigning the
1994 responsibility of providing drinking water to the Panchayati Raj
Institutions.  
Formation of separate Department of Drinking Water Supply in the
Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India.
 
For ensuring sustainability of the systems, steps are initiated to
institutionalize community participation in the implementation of rural
drinking water supply schemes through sector reform. Sector Reform
ushers in a paradigm shift from the ‘Government-oriented supply-
driven approach’ to the ‘Peopleoriented demand driven approach’. The
1999 role of the government reoriented from that of service provider to
facilitator. 
 
Total Sanitation Campaign (TSC) as a part of reform principles
initiated in 1999 to ensure sanitation facilities in rural areas with the
specific goal of eradicating the practice of open defecation. TSC gives
strong emphasis on Information, Education and Communication,
Capacity Building and Hygiene Education for effective behavioural
change with involvement of PRIs, CBOs, and NGOs
2002 Scaling up of sector reform initiated in the form of Swajaldhara
Programme. The National Water Policy revised; priority given to
serving villages that did not have adequate sources of safe water and
to improve the level of service for villages classified as only partially
covered.
 
India commits to the Millennium Development Goals to halve the
proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water
 and basic sanitation by 2015, from 1990 levels.
The Government of India launches the Bharat Nirman Program, with
emphasis on providing drinking water within a period of five years to
55,069 uncovered habitations, habitations affected by poor water
2005
quality and slipped back habitations based on 2003 survey. Revised
sub Mission launched as component of ARWSP for focused funding of
quality affected habitations. 
Pattern of funding under Swajaldhara changed: 50:50 Centre-State
2007
shares.
National Rural Drinking Water Programme launched from 1/4/2009 by
modifying the earlier Accelerated Rural Water Supply Programme and
2009
subsuming earlier sub Missions, Miscellaneous Schemes and
mainstreaming Swajaldhara principles.
Department of Drinking Water Supply renamed as Department of
2010
Drinking Water and Sanitation
Department of Drinking Water and Sanitation upgraded as to the
2011
Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation 
Twelfth five - year plan focusing on piped water supply with 55 LPCD,
2012 earmarking of 5% funds for coverage of quality affected as well as 60
JE/AES affected districts
Launch of special Programme to address the rural water supply and
2013 sanitation
issues of four low income States with collaboration of World Bank.
2014 Focus on Innovationsin rural drinking water
Focus on reforms in NRDWP to make it more outcome. Performance
linked financing of the programme while keeping in mind that States
2016
with limited revenues and average performance are not left behind as
well.
 
 
Source : www.mdws.gov.in , Updated on 11th May, 2018
 
Water and Sanitation in India’s Census-2012
 
The Census-2012 has given a very dismal picture water and sanitation
facilities in India. Improper planning and casual implementation of schemes
coupled with rampant corruption and irregularities in the concerned
departments as well as lack of awareness among the public particularly in
the rural areas have made India to be left behind in this most basic and
important aspect of public health. The statistics on drinking water and
sanitation of Assam also indicate a very disturbing picture.
 
The Census-2011 report on water and sanitation says that out of
246,692,667 (191,963,935 in 2001) surveyed households 43.5% (36.7% in
2001) in India have tap water, 11% (18.2% in 2001) has wells, 42% (41.2%
in 2001) hand pump/tube well and 3.5% (3.9% in 2001) has other sources
of drinking water. The Census-2011 added two new queries on treated and
untreated drinking water and on covered or uncovered source of drinking
water. Here the report says only 32% of Indians use treated drinking water
while 11.6% do not use treated drinking water.Similarly only 1.6%
households use drinking water from covered sources while 9.4% do not
have that. In Assam out of 6,367,295 households only 10.5% (9.2% in
2001) has tap water, 18.9% (26.7% in 2001) has wells and majority 59.4%
(46.9% in 2001) use tube wells for drinking water followed by 11.3 %
(14.6%) having drinking water from other sources. This is almost ten
percentage drop of use of wells and more than 10 percent increase of the
use of tube wells for drinking water in Assam. Likewise the only three
percent fall of the use of drinking water from other sources like ponds and
rivers is also a matter of concern and indicates the failure of concerned
departments in policy making and implementation. In the rural sector the
statistics of drinking water condition of the Census-2011 both the national
and state figures are of mixed results. While 30.8% (24.3% in 2001)
household in rural India has tap water sources for drinking water Assam
has only 6.8% (5.4% in 2001). The national figure of wells for drinking
water in the rural sector is 13.3% (22.2% in 2001) Assam has 19% (29% in
2001). 51.9% (48.9% in 2001) of rural household in India have drinking
water from tube wells while the percentage in Assam is 61.5% (51.4%). On
other sources of drinking water in rural India the findings are 4% (4.5% in
2001) and in rural Assam is 12.6% (16.2% in 2001). On treated drinking
water the percentage in rural India is 17.9% and that of rural Assam is
5.8%. On untreated water the national figure in the rural sector is 13% and
in Assam it is only 1%. Only 1.5% rural households in India collect drinking
water from covered sources while in Assam the percentage is dismal 1.1%.
Similarly on uncovered sources of drinking water the national figure of rural
India is 11.8% and in Assam it is 18%.
 भारत में जनगणना -2018 ने बहुत ही निराशाजनक तस्वीर जल और स्वच्छता की सुविधा दी है। संबंधित विभागों में व्याप्त
भ्रष्टाचार और अनियमितताओं के साथ-साथ योजनाओं के आकस्मिक नियोजन और आकस्मिक कार्यान्वयन के साथ-साथ
विशेष रूप से ग्रामीण क्षेत्रों में जनता के बीच जागरूकता की कमी ने भारत को सार्वजनिक स्वास्थ्य के इस सबसे बुनियादी और
महत्वपूर्ण पहलू में पीछे छोड़ दिया है। पीने के पानी और असम के स्वच्छता के आंकड़े भी बहुत परेशान करने वाली तस्वीर
दर्शाते हैं।

पानी और स्वच्छता पर जनगणना -2011 की रिपोर्ट कहती है कि 246,692,667 (2001 में 191,963,935)
सर्वेक्षण किए गए घरों में से 43.5% (2001 में 36.7%) घरों में नल का पानी है, 11% (2001 में 18%) में
कु एं हैं, 42% (41.2) 2001 में%) हैंड पंप / ट्यूबवेल और 3.5% (2001 में 3.9%) में पेयजल के अन्य स्रोत
हैं। जनगणना -2011 ने उपचारित और अनुपचारित पीने के पानी पर और पीने के पानी के कवर या खुला स्रोत पर दो नए
प्रश्न जोड़े। यहां रिपोर्ट कहती है कि के वल 32% भारतीय उपचारित पेयजल का उपयोग करते हैं, जबकि 11.6%
उपचारित पीने के पानी का उपयोग नहीं करते हैं। के वल 1.6% घरों में ढंके स्रोतों से पीने के पानी का उपयोग किया जाता है
जबकि 9.4% के पास ऐसा नहीं है। असम में 6,367,295 घरों में से के वल 10.5% (2001 में 9.2%) घरों में
नल का पानी है, 2001 में 18.9% (26.7%) में कु एं हैं और बहुसंख्यक 59.4% (2001 में 46.9%) पीने के
लिए नलकू प का उपयोग करते हैं जिसके बाद 11.3% ( 14.6%) अन्य स्रोतों से पीने का पानी है। यह कु ओं के उपयोग
की लगभग दस प्रतिशत की गिरावट है और असम में पीने के पानी के लिए नलकू पों के उपयोग में 10 प्रतिशत से अधिक की
वृद्धि है। इसी तरह तालाबों और नदियों जैसे अन्य स्रोतों से पीने के पानी के उपयोग में के वल तीन प्रतिशत की गिरावट भी चिंता
का विषय है और नीति निर्माण और कार्यान्वयन में संबंधित विभागों की विफलता को इंगित करता है। ग्रामीण क्षेत्र में जनगणना
-2011 के पेयजल की स्थिति के आंकड़े राष्ट्रीय और राज्य दोनों के मिश्रित परिणाम हैं। जबकि ग्रामीण भारत में 30.8%
(2001 में 24.3%) घरों में पीने के पानी के लिए पानी के स्रोत हैं असम में के वल 6.8% (2001 में 5.4%) है।
ग्रामीण क्षेत्र में पीने के पानी के कु ओं का राष्ट्रीय आंकड़ा 13.3% है (2001 में 22.2%) असम में 19% (2001 में
29%) है। भारत में ग्रामीण घरों के 51.9% (2001 में 48.9%) में नलकू पों से पीने का पानी है जबकि असम में
प्रतिशत 61.5% (51.4%) है। ग्रामीण भारत में पीने के पानी के अन्य स्रोतों पर निष्कर्ष 4% (2001 में 4.5%)
और ग्रामीण असम में 12.6% (2001 में 16.2%) हैं। पीने के पानी पर ग्रामीण भारत में प्रतिशत 17.9% है और
ग्रामीण असम में 5.8% है। अनुपचारित पानी पर ग्रामीण क्षेत्र में राष्ट्रीय आंकड़ा 13% है और असम में यह के वल 1% है।
भारत में के वल 1.5% ग्रामीण परिवार कवर स्रोतों से पीने का पानी इकट्ठा करते हैं जबकि असम में यह प्रतिशत 1.1% है।
इसी तरह पीने के पानी के खुले स्रोतों पर ग्रामीण भारत का राष्ट्रीय आंकड़ा 11.8% है और असम में यह 18% है।
In the urban sector the all India Census-2011 findings of drinking water are
like this:-70.6% (68.7% in 2001) using tap water, only 6.2% (7.7% in 2001)
using wells, 20.8% (11.8% in 2001) using hand pumps/ tube wells and 2.55
(2.3% in 2001) using other sources. In Assam statistics are very
unimpressive:-30.2% (31.4% in 2001) using tap water which is 1.02% less
than the last census, 17.8% (24.6% in 2001) using wells, 48% (35.9% in
2001) using tube wells and 4% (5.1% in 2001) using from other sources.
Similarly on the use of treated water in the urban sector Assam’s figure
(29.4%) is far less than the national figure (62%). 4.5% of urban
households in Assam have drinking water from covered sources while
13.1% do not have such.
 
The distance of availability of water from the households is one important
matter of concern. The 2011 Census reveals encouraging picture of Assam
from the national level. While 46.6% (39% in 2001) Indian households have
availability of drinking water inside their premises in Assam the figure is
well above 54.8% (37.9% in 2001). The availability of drinking water near
the households in India is 35.8% (44.3% in 2001). In Assam it is also less
than national figure, from 39.7% in 2001 to 26.7% in 2011. However the
state is ahead on the availability of drinking water away from the
household. Here Assam’s figure is 18.5% (22.5% in 2001) and that of India
is 17.6% (16.7% in 2001). On this same category Assam also has
impressive figures in the rural sector than the all India figures with 50.4%
(33.6% in 2001) of households having drinking water source available
within the premises while the national figure is 35% (28.7% in 2001). There
is a fall in households in rural Assam of availability of drinking water near
the premises from 41.9% in 2001 to 29.3% this time. In India the figure is
42.9% (51.4% in 2001). The availability of drinking water away from the
households in the rural sector is 22.1% (19.5% in 2001) at the national
level while in Assam it is 20.4% (24.5% in 2001). Assam too has advanced
in availability of drinking water sources within the households in the urban
sector than the all India level with 78.8% (63.2% in 2001) while national
figure is 71.2% (65.4% in 2001). Drinking water sources near urban
households in India is 20.7% (25.2% in 2001) and in Assam is 12.8%
(26.3% in 2001) while away from the households the national figure is 8.1%
(9.4% in 2001) and the that of the state is 8.4% (10.5% in 2001).
 शहरी क्षेत्र में अखिल भारतीय जनगणना -2017 में पीने के पानी के निष्कर्ष इस प्रकार हैं: -70.6% (2001 में
68.7%) नल के पानी का उपयोग करते हुए, के वल 6.2% (2001 में 7.7%) का उपयोग करते हुए, 20.8%
(2001 में 11.8%) ) अन्य स्रोतों का उपयोग करके हैंड पंप / ट्यूबवेल और २.५५ (२००१ में २.३%) का उपयोग
करना। असम में आँकड़े बहुत अधिक अप्रभावी हैं: -30.2% (2001 में 31.4%) नल के पानी का उपयोग करते हुए जो
पिछली जनगणना से 1.02% कम है, 2001 में 17.8% (24.6%) कु ओं का उपयोग करके , 48% (2001 में
35.9%) ट्यूब का उपयोग करके । कु ओं और 4% (2001 में 5.1%) अन्य स्रोतों से उपयोग कर रहे हैं। इसी तरह
शहरी क्षेत्र में उपचारित पानी के उपयोग पर असम का आंकड़ा (29.4%) राष्ट्रीय आंकड़े (62%) से काफी कम है। असम
के 4.5% शहरी घरों में ढंके स्रोतों से पीने का पानी है, जबकि 13.1% में ऐसा नहीं है।

घरों से पानी की उपलब्धता की दूरी चिंता का एक महत्वपूर्ण विषय है। 2011 की जनगणना से राष्ट्रीय स्तर पर असम की
उत्साहजनक तस्वीर का पता चलता है। जबकि 46.6% (2001 में 39%) भारतीय घरों में असम में अपने परिसर के
अंदर पीने के पानी की उपलब्धता है, यह आंकड़ा 54.8% (2001 में 37.9%) से ऊपर है। भारत में घरों के पास पीने
के पानी की उपलब्धता 35.8% (2001 में 44.3%) है। असम में यह राष्ट्रीय आंकड़े से भी कम है, 2001 में
39.7% से 2011 में 26.7%। हालांकि राज्य पीने के पानी की उपलब्धता पर आगे है। यहां असम का आंकड़ा
18.5% (2001 में 22.5%) और भारत का 17.6% (2001 में 16.7%) है। इसी श्रेणी में असम में ग्रामीण
क्षेत्रों में भी प्रभावशाली आंकड़े हैं, जो अखिल भारतीय आंकड़े (2001 में 33.6%) के साथ परिसर के भीतर पीने के पानी
के स्रोत उपलब्ध हैं, जबकि राष्ट्रीय आंकड़ा 35% (2001 में 28.7%) है। । 2001 में इस समय 41.9% से
29.3% के बीच परिसर के पास पीने के पानी की उपलब्धता के ग्रामीण असम में घरों में गिरावट है। भारत में यह आंकड़ा
42.9% (2001 में 51.4%) है। ग्रामीण क्षेत्र में पीने के पानी की उपलब्धता राष्ट्रीय स्तर पर 22.1% (2001 में
19.5%) है जबकि असम में यह 20.4% (2001 में 24.5%) है। असम भी शहरी क्षेत्र में घरों के भीतर पेयजल
स्रोतों की उपलब्धता में अखिल भारतीय स्तर की तुलना में 78.8% (2001 में 63.2%) के साथ आगे बढ़ा है, जबकि
राष्ट्रीय आंकड़ा 71.2% (2001 में 65.4%) है। भारत में शहरी घरों के पास पीने के पानी का स्रोत 20.7%
(2001 में 25.2%) और असम में 12.8% (2001 में 26.3%) है, जबकि घरों से दूर राष्ट्रीय आंकड़ा 8.1%
(2001 में 9.4%) है और यह राज्य 8.4% (2001 में 10.5%) है।
On 6th March, the WHO/UNICEF’s Joint Monitoring Programme on
sanitation for Millennium Development Goal released its report on India
which indicated that 59% (626 million) Indians still does not have access to
toilets and they use open defecation. The Census-2011 gives another
disturbing account of India on sanitation which says 53.1% (63.6% in 2001)
households in India does not have a toilet. In the rural sector the
percentage is 69.3% (78.1% in 2001) and in the urban areas it is 18.6%
(26.3% in 2001). In Assam overall 35.1% (35.4% in 2001) households have
no toilet. That means in the last ten years the governmental schemes could
reach only 0.3% of the households. In rural Assam the picture is as same
as in 2001 with 40.4% households with no toilet in 2011 Census. In the
urban areas the state has 6.3% (5.4% in 2001) households with no toilet.
Assam also has over all only 28.5% (15.9% in 2001) households have
toilets with water closet (all India figure is 36.4% as against 18% in 2001),
34.7% (43.9% in 2001) households have pit latrines (all India 9.4% as
against 11.5%) and 1.8% (4.3% in 2001) households have other types of
toilet (all India 1.1% as against 6.9% in 2001). In the rural sector Assam
has 20.6% (8.6% in 2001) households having toilets with water closet (all
India 19.4% as against 7.1% in 2001), 37.2% (46.9% in 2001) households
have pit latrines (all India 10.5% as against 10.3% in 2001) and 1.8% (4%
in 2001) households have other toilets (all India 0.8% as against 4.5% in
2001). Similarly in the urban sector the state has an impressive
development with 71% (58.9% in 2001) households having toilet with water
closet (all India 72.6% as against 46% in 2001). In the pit latrine category
Assam has urban households 21.01% (26.4% in 2001) where the national
figure is 7.1% (14.6% in 2001). The state has 1.7% (9.3%) urban
households with other toilets (all India 1.7% as against 13% in 2001
Census).
 
The increase of allocation of funds for rural drinking water in this year’s
union budget from Rs 11,000 Crores to Rs 14,000 Crores and from Rs
1500 Crores to Rs 3500 Crores for the rural sanitation programme is the
immediate step taken by the union government to address this problem.
However policy making and implementation and public awareness hold the
key to improve the water and sanitation standards of India.
 6 मार्च को, मिलेनियम डेवलपमेंट गोल के लिए स्वच्छता पर डब्ल्यूएचओ / यूनिसेफ के संयुक्त निगरानी कार्यक्रम ने भारत पर
अपनी रिपोर्ट जारी की जिसमें संके त दिया गया कि 59% (626 मिलियन) भारतीयों के पास अभी भी शौचालय नहीं है और
वे खुले में शौच करते हैं। जनगणना -२०१ gives स्वच्छता पर भारत का एक और परेशान करने वाला खाता है जो कहता है
कि २००.१% (२००१ में ६३.६%) भारत में घरों में शौचालय नहीं है। ग्रामीण क्षेत्र में प्रतिशत 69.3% (2001 में
78.1%) है और शहरी क्षेत्रों में यह 18.6% (2001 में 26.3%) है। असम में कु ल मिलाकर 35.1% (2001
में 35.4%) घरों में शौचालय नहीं है। इसका मतलब है कि पिछले दस वर्षों में सरकारी योजनाएं के वल 0.3% परिवारों तक
ही पहुंच सकीं। ग्रामीण असम में २०११ की जनगणना में ४०.४% घरों में २०११ में शौचालय नहीं है। शहरी क्षेत्रों में राज्य में
6.3% (2001 में 5.4%) में शौचालय नहीं हैं। असम में भी के वल 28.5% (2001 में 15.9%) से अधिक घरों
में पानी की अलमारी के साथ शौचालय हैं (2001 में 18% के मुकाबले अखिल भारतीय आंकड़ा 36.4% है),
34.7% (2001 में 43.9%) घरों में गड्ढे (अखिल भारतीय) हैं 9.4% (11.5% की तुलना में) और 1.8%
(2001 में 4.3%) घरों में अन्य प्रकार के शौचालय हैं (2001 में 6.9% के मुकाबले अखिल भारतीय 1.1%)।
ग्रामीण क्षेत्र में असम में २०.६% (२००१ में rural.६%) घरों में पानी की अलमारी वाले शौचालय हैं (२००१ में .4.१%
की तुलना में अखिल भारतीय १ ९ .४%), ३ %.२% (२००१ में ४६.९%) परिवारों के पास गड्ढे हैं (अखिल भारतीय
१०.५%) 2001 में 10.3%) और 1.8% (2001 में 4%) घरों में अन्य शौचालय (2001 में 4.5% की
तुलना में भारत 0.8%) हैं। इसी तरह शहरी क्षेत्र में राज्य में 71% (2001 में 58.9%) घरों में पानी की अलमारी वाले
शौचालय हैं (2001 में 46% की तुलना में अखिल भारतीय 72.6%)। पिट लेट्रिन श्रेणी में असम में शहरी घराने
21.01% (2001 में 26.4%) हैं जहां राष्ट्रीय आंकड़ा 7.1% (2001 में 14.6%) है। राज्य में 1.7%
(9.3%) शहरी घराने हैं जिनमें अन्य शौचालय हैं (2001 की जनगणना में 13% की तुलना में अखिल भारतीय
1.7%)।

इस वर्ष के कें द्रीय बजट में ग्रामीण पेयजल के लिए धनराशि के आवंटन में 11,000 करोड़ रुपये से 14,000 करोड़ रुपये
तक की वृद्धि और ग्रामीण स्वच्छता कार्यक्रम के लिए 1500 करोड़ रुपये से 3500 करोड़ रुपये तक की वृद्धि, इस समस्या
को दूर करने के लिए संघ सरकार द्वारा उठाया गया तात्कालिक कदम है। । हालाँकि नीति निर्माण और कार्यान्वयन और जन
जागरूकता भारत के जल और स्वच्छता मानकों में सुधार करने की कुं जी है।
Source: Scoop News
 
Water Quality Criteria....

Project Report on Solid Waste Management | India

The below mentioned article will help you to prepare a project report on
Solid Waste Management:-
1. Introduction to Solid Waste Management
2. Methods of Handling Solid Waste
3. Salvage and Recovery of Solid Waste
4. Process of Solid Waste Management
 5. Objectives
6. Considerations
7. Deficiencies
8. Recycling of Waste Materials
9. Recycling of Plastics and Tyres
10. Plastics and Environment and Few Others.
Contents:
1. Project Report on the Introduction to Solid Waste Management
2. Project Report on the Methods of Handling Solid Waste
3. Project Report on the Salvage and Recovery of Solid Waste
4. Project Report on the Process of Solid Waste Management
5. Project Report on the Objectives of Solid Waste Management
6. Project Report on the Considerations for Solid Waste Management
7. Project Report on the Deficiencies Associated with Solid Waste
Management System (SWM)
8. Project Report on the Recycling of Waste Materials
9. Project Report on the Recycling of Plastics and Tyres
10. Project Report on the Plastics and Environment
11. Project Report on the Need for Proper Waste Management
Programme
12. Project Report on the Resources Conservation and Recovery
13. Project Report on the Municipal Solid Waste Management
Compositing Facilities in India
14. Project Report on the Health Hazards of Landscape Pollution
15. Project Report on the Management of Solid Wastes in Developing
Countries
16. Project Report on the Disposal of Hazardous Wastes
________________________________________
Project Report # 1. Introduction to Solid Waste Management:
Solid waste management can be divided into two major areas:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(i) Collection including storage, transfer and transport, and
(ii) Disposal, including any accompanying treatment.
The collection operation can be sub-divided into two unit operations,
collection and haul. The collection operation consists of removing solid
waste from the storage point. The haul operation includes the total round
trip travel time (for the vehicle) from the collection route to the (waste)
disposal site.
Three alternatives are normally considered for solid waste disposal:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(1) Direct shipment from municipalities to a sanitary landfill.
(2) Direct shipment from municipalities to a transfer station where solid
waste is transferred to larger vehicles and then shipped for ultimate
disposal.
(3) Direct shipment from municipalities to an incinerator where the solid
waste is burned and the residue is shipped for ultimate disposal.
Solid waste management planning requires an assessment of many
complex interactions among transportation systems, land use patterns,
urban growth and development, and public health considera¬tions.
________________________________________
Project Report # 2. Methods of Handling Solid Waste:
The physical nature of a waste may determine its handling characteristics.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
The following are common handling methods:
(i) Solids, semi-solids, some wet materials, sticky, or tarry substances may
be handled by front- end loaders or buckets.
(ii) Viscous liquids may be pumped by special pumps.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(iii) Liquids are handled by normal pumping equipment.
(iv) Packages may be handled in cartons, and
(v) Some materials are handled in fiber-pack drums.
Solid Waste Shredders:
Such machines can convert rubbish into a form more easily and
economically handled for processing. Hammer mills in one adaptation or
another, are the most commonly used size reduc¬tion machines.
Compactors:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Such machines can compact refuse. Hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders exert
forces as high as 50 tons and reduce the original volume of refuse by 60 to
80%.
Incineration Equipment:
Solid and chemical wastes are often disposed of with the help of
incinerators. Incinerators can be classified on the basis of burner chamber
or fuel bed.
Common Practices for Solid Waste Disposal:
In most solid waste disposal methods, the main aim is to treat the refuse in
such a way as to render it safe and sterile so that upon returning it to the
environment, it will not pollute the air, water or land.
There are presently only three disposal methods which are practical for
most industrial applica¬tions:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(1) Haulaway loose:
Waste is removed from plant for disposal by means such as landfill,
incineration etc. Hauling away means exporting the refuse as loose
material.
(2) Haulaway Compacted:
If the amount of refuse is large, refuse is compacted and then disposed off.
It is a very popular waste disposal method for industrial installations.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(3) On site Incineration:
On site incineration is generally accepted as a good method for disposing
of solid wastes. Industrial waste is burned efficiently and economically
without polluting the air.
________________________________________
Project Report # 3. Salvage and Recovery of Solid Waste:
Many experts feel that the only lasting solution for the solid waste disposal
problem lies in recycling and reuse of wastes (Fig. 33.3).

Waste processing has the following advantages:

(i) Added revenue.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(ii) Less waste to be disposed of.
(iii) Less transportation costs of waste.
(iv) Processed residue waste is put into a form which makes it suitable for
land reclamation.
Steps involved in salvaging and recovery:
(i) Receiving the raw industrial waste and conveying it to a salvage-
separation area.
(ii) Separating the salvageable materials from waste materials to be further
processed.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Ferrous and nonferrous materials can be separated using magnets,
cardboard and paper products can also be removed and placed onto the
paper salvage conveyor for entry into the paper processing system.
(iii) Unsalvaged waste residue is conveyed to the main pulverizer unit,
(iv) Compaction system is employed to compact the pulverized residue for
disposal.
________________________________________
Project Report # 4. Process of Solid Waste Management:
(a) Solid Waste Utilisation:
A developing country cannot afford wastage. By proper utilisation of solid
waste a developing country like India can avail of many advantages, for
instance.
(a) Waste utilisation directly or indirectly contributes to economic
development.
(b) Waste utilisation generate employment opportunities.
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(c) United solid wastes create environmental hazards by spreading
diseases and causing air and water pollution.
(d) Waste utilisation helps to generate many useful products which are the
basic neces¬sities of life.
Resources recovery or waste utilisation is achieved by three techniques:
1. Reuse i.e. a given material has multiple uses.
2. Reclamation i.e. a component of the waste is recovered for use in a
manner differ¬ent from its original use.
3. Recycling i.e. isolating the material from which a given product was
made and reintroducing it into the production cycle for production of the
same product.
(b) Recycling and Reuse of Solid Wastes:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
Recycling and reuse of the waste helps to reduce the problem of waste
disposal. Re¬source recovery is a method to run wastes into resource
recovering usable products- both materials and energy. As the disposal
cost are expected to rise continuously due to increase in land price, and
pollution controls, resource recovery is becoming more common and
finding more favour.
About 70% by weight of municipal solids waste from domestic and
commercial areas is combustible. But still only a small percentage of the
resources is being recovered.
In some municipal solid waste processing facilities, the combustibles are
separated from the non-combustibles. The combustibles are then shredded
and burnt in utility boilers or industrial boilers as a primary fuel or as a
supplementary to fossil fuel. This type of solid waste processing operation
is known as a refuse derived fuel (RDF) system, RDF is used to
supplement other fuel sources in a ratio of 20% RDF to 80% soils fuels.
It was reported that 29 RDF systems were operated in USA for power
generation as early as in 1983. Processing 1250 to 18,000 tonnes of waste
per week. Incineration and RDF technology seem to be competitive in cost.
The plastic scrap or waste should be collected from the consumers or
intercepted on its way from consumers to the municipal refuse site.
________________________________________
Project Report # 5. Objectives of Solid Waste Management:
The principal objectives of solid waste management to control, collect,
treat, utilize and dispose of the solid wastes in an economical manner
consistent with the protection of public health.

________________________________________
Project Report # 6. Considerations for Solid Waste Management:
The major considerations of concern with solid waste management apart
from the economics are:
ADVERTISEMENTS:
(A) Public health,
(B) Waste separation for recycling, and
(C) Energy recovery.
A. Public Health:
Under warm and moist conditions, and particularly with the help of vectors
(carries) like water, air, food, rodents, mosquitoes and flies, organic solid
wastes are ideal breeding places for pathogenic organisms.
Potentially hazardous substances like solvent and pesti¬cide cans, medical
wastes and asbestos debris present in solid wastes, air pollution from
gaseous and particulate emissions from land fill sites and municipal
incinerators, etc., also present some additional environmental concerns
related to solid waste disposal.
Further, the solid waste management strategies should also take into
account the possible deteriora¬tion of ground water quality because of land
filling of solid wastes, residues from incinera¬tors and leachates from the
decomposing refuse.
B. Waste Separation for Recovery and Recycling:
Recovery and recycling of some of the resources in solid wastes, although
a very appealing idea is rather difficult in practice. Expensive materials
such as some metals are found to be economical to recycle by industries.
Returnable bottles and refundable cans may be recycled from municipal
wastes.
Separation of wastes at source is warranted and feasible only when the
reclaimed materials find reasonable market. However, this concept of
waste separation at source is receiving increasing attention in some
developed countries due to the dwindling landfill capacity, economic
incentives, improving markets for the reclaimed materials, environmen¬tal
concerns and political will.
C. Energy Recovery:
Recovery of energy from municipal solid wastes can be achieved by the
following two ways:
(i) Solid wastes can be burnt directly in incinerators or converted to more
efficient “refuse-derived fuel” (RDF). Pyrolysis and anaerobic
decomposition of organic matter in solid wastes are the other method’s
available for recovering the fuel value of solid wastes.
(ii) Reuse of the recovered materials from solid wastes is the other principal
mode of energy conservation. Obviously, mining and manufacture of
ferrous and nonferrous metals starting from mining of the ores is so energy
intensive that reuse of these metals is certainly justified from the stand
point of energy conservation.
________________________________________
Project Report # 7. Deficiencies Associated with Solid Waste Management
System (SWM):
(i) Rapidly Increasing Areas to be Served and Quantity of Waste:
The solid waste quantities generated in urban cen¬tres are increasing due
to rise in the population and increase in the per capita waste generation
rate. The increasing solid waste quantities and the areas to be served
strain the existing SWM sys¬tem.
(ii) Inadequate Resources:
While allocating resources including finance, SWM is assigned with a low
priority resulting in inad¬equate provision of funds. Often there is a
com¬mon budget for collection and treatment of sew¬age and SWM and
the later receives a minor share of the funds. The inadequacy of human
resource is mainly due to the absence of suitably trained staff.
(iii) Inappropriate Technology:
The equipment and machinery presently used in the system are usually
that which have been devel¬oped for general purpose or that which have
been adopted from other industry. This results in underutilization of existing
resources and lower¬ing of the efficiency.
A few attempts have been made to borrow the technology developed in
other countries like highly mechanised compost plants, incinerator-cum-
power plants, compactor vehicles etc. However, these attempts have met
with little success, since, the solid waste characteristics and local
conditions in India are much different from those for which the technology is
developed.
(iv) Disproportionately High Cost of Manpower:
Mostly out of the total expenditure, around 90% is accounted for manpower
of which major portion is utilised for collection. Since citizens tend to throw
the waste on the adjoining road and outside the bin, the work of the
collection staff is increased. Hence, the cost of collection increases
considerably.
(v) Societal and Management Apathy:
The operational efficiency of SWM depends on the active participation of
both the municipal agency and the citizens. Since the social status of SWM
is low, there is a strong apathy towards it, which can be seen from the
uncollected waste in many areas and the deterioration of aesthetic and
environmental quality at the uncontrolled disposal sites.
(vi) Low Efficiency of the System:
The SWM system is unplanned and is operated in an unscientific way.
Neither the work norms are specified nor the work of collection staff
appro¬priately supervised. The vehicles are poorly main¬tained and no
schedule is observed for preventive maintenance.
Due to shortage of financial re¬sources, the vehicles are often used
beyond their economical life resulting in inefficient operation. Further, there
is no coordination of activities bet¬ween different component of the system.
The cumulative effect of all these factors is an ineffi¬cient SWM system.
________________________________________
Project Report # 8. Recycling of Waste Materials:
Crushing of materials.
Thermal deposition of waste organic in the form of gas and oil getting food
sources as livestock from organic waste.
Melting plastic and moulding
Melting blast furnace slag for making artificial jewellery converting waste in
solid fuel.
Compositing garbage and using as manure
Utilizing refuse for land fill
Materials products made from waste:
Water work silt
Red mud from Aluminium industries
Sugar factories waste
Agricultural waste: Paper, paper board, coconut, arece-nut, cashew-nut,
fly-ash.
A tonne of solid waste processed by pyrolysis is believed to yield an energy
equivalent of one barrel of oil. The city of Baltimore reportedly operated
commercial scale facility in 1975 to produce 4.8 million pound of steam
daily from the low-BTU gas generated by pyrolysis of municipal solid waste.
Thus saving of 357,000 barrels of oil annually was accomplished, in
addition to the revenue earned from ferrous metals sorted out and the sale
of glassy aggregate for use in cone race manufacture and street paving.
Economic viability of full-scale commercial pyrolysis facility has still not
been proved beyond doubt. The advantage of pyrolysis is that it produces a
more generally useful and transportable form of energy.
________________________________________
Project Report # 9. Recycling of Plastics and Tyres:
Recycling of plastics may be carried out in any of the following ways:
I. Primary recycling where the same plastic product is manufactured again.
II. Secondary recycling where the material is reprocessed to a new product
with different composition and in some cases may be inferior in properties.
III. Tertiary recycling where the plastic material is completely processed to
a new form as in pyrolysis (where some chemicals are recovered). In USA,
high density polyethylene bottles used for supplying milk, are collected from
consumers and are converted to flake powder by grinding. This can be
used for manufacturing plastic draintic drainage pipes or as inert fill
material or an aggregate for low weight concrete.
Rubber Tyres Recycling:
Rubber tyres continue to pose disposal problems. They do not decompose
well in landfills. Incineration of rubber must be done in specially designed
facilities to check air pollution and to accommodate the intense heat
produced by burning rubber.
The Kcal content of burning rubber is nearly equal to that of coal. Some
systems burning rubber as fuel were successful. Production of fuels from
rubber by pyrolysis was also successful. However, these were necessarily
small-scale operations due to limited supply of tyres.
________________________________________
Project Report # 10. Plastics and Environment: To Be Or Not to Be:
Every citizen in India knows for sure, the fact that plastics have played a
very vital role in the growth phase of the Indian economy during the recent
past. Every vital sector of the economy starting from agriculture to
packaging, automobile, building construction, communication or info-tech
have been virtually revolutionised by the applications of plas¬tics.
The plastic processing industry, which made a modest beginning during the
70’s, had really taken off only during the post-liberalization era. The current
business environment and abundant domestic availability of plastic raw
materials have resulted in a double-digit growth rate consistently during the
recent years. Last year, the growth in polymer consump¬tion was about 12
per cent.
Moreover, it is estimated that about Rs.20,000 crores has been invested in
the last 3-4 years in this industry, leading to doubling of capacity.
Continued growth in consumption at this rate would make India the 3rd
largest polymer consumer in the world by 2010.
The Wonder Material:
This success story of Plastics would not have been possible but for the
proven advantages that it possesses over its nearest substitutes like Metal,
Glasses or Paper. Today the packaging industry is, by far the major user of
plastics.
It constitutes 52% of the total consumption. They are used to pack
cosmetics, toiletries, milk, edible oil and food products. Plastics in the
packaging sector provide the convenience, ease of handling and packaging
efficiency. It definitely increases the shelf life of food products.
In the transport sector, plastics are increasingly replacing or have replaced
traditional material in automobiles, aircrafts and boats; for example, fibre
reinforced plastics, fuel tanks, interiors, dash boards, bumpers and so on.
In these applications, the functional supe¬riority of plastics has been
established.
The contribution of plastics as an aid to modern agriculture is immense.
Drip and sprinkler irrigation systems, mulch films, green house films, pond
and canal lining films are proven products to conserve water, protect crops
from vagaries of weather, thus resulting in better productivity.
Plastics in Environment:
A few myths: In spite of its proven functional superiority, lately a few
misconceptions are gaining ground, which are generating a feeling among
the decision makers and the common public that plastics are harmful and
should not be used.
If a ban is put on the use of plastics on emotional grounds, the real cost
would be much higher, the inconvenience much more, the chances of
damage or contamination much greater, the risks to the family health and
safety would increase and above all the environmental burden would be
many fold. Hence the question is not ‘Plastics vs. No Plastics’ but it is more
concerned with the judicious use of plastics. The issue therefore has to be
understood in the right perspective.
In the developing economies the rate of growth of consumerism is always
high. This leads to a constant rise in the municipal solid waste. Plastics
have the advantage of flexibil¬ity, strength, resistance to nature and being
light weight. So, for packaging, plastics are the best solution. But that leads
to higher generation of waste, which has to be managed.
The best way to manage this waste is to recycle it, as resources once
generated from the petro oil do not go waste forever rather they come back
into the system. We must adopt the slogan “We don’t waste-We recycle”.
Though this problem needs to be addressed, the following facts and figures
explicitly show how India is in the right situation to tackle this issue. Let us
delve into the facts on the Indian dimension of plastic waste compared to
the world average.
The per capita consumption of plastics in India is 3.5 kg as compared to the
global average of 19 kg. The plastics present in the solid waste stream is 3
per cent in India as against 8 per cent world average. In spite of low waste
volumes Indian plastic industry has taken initia¬tives on recycling which is
about 60 per cent in India against the world average of 15-20 per cent.
Still, the often-repeated myths about plastics persist like-Plastics are toxic
and are not safe for use, plastic wastes are eco-hazardous mainly due to
non-biodegradability, plastics are harmful to plants and soil, plastic bags
contaminate water, plastics are major source of waste problems and plastic
bags choke drains during monsoon season.
Before any remark on alleged harmful effect of plastic is made, it is
worthwhile to imagine an environment without plastics. Had there been no
plastics and we were to use iron pipes for transportation of drinking water,
nearly 40 per cent higher electrical energy would have been consumed due
to pumping inefficiency and corrosion ; had there been no plastic milk
pouches, chances of adulteration and related health hazards would have
been multifold.
A Government of India Petrochemicals Industry Study states that change-
over from glass bottles to plastic pouches results in a saving of 27.6 billion
units equaling 4 X1000 MW thermal power in terms of energy consumption
over a ten year period.
Had we used paper as the only mode of packaging, we would have cut 20
million trees matured over a period of 10 years, apart from generating
highly toxic chemical pollutants that would have got discharged from the
paper mill. The use of plastic creates for transpor¬tation, in fact, helps in
controlling the denudation of forests.
CPMA has estimated that if plastics bags are used instead of jute bags for
packaging of food grains and sugar; there would be an estimated saving of
Rs.12,000crores, which is lost due to spoilage of food grains and sugar
packed in jute bags.
Thus, in a nutshell, plastics have given us a risk free eco-friendly
environment as it prevents wastage of food products. It does not generate
pollutants during the manufacturing stage or the conversion process. It
helps in conserving scarce natural resources and they are reusable and
recyclable.
Reusability and recyclability are the two major attributes of any material to
be regarded as ecofriendly. In advanced countries, though plastic waste
contributes about 8 percent of total municipal solid waste, they have never
banned plastics usage. They have gone for more pragmatic approach of
proper waste segregation and recycling to make use of the recyclates in
less value-added products, or incinerate to harness energy for further
utility.
________________________________________
Project Report # 11. Need for Proper Waste Management Programme:
For an effective implementation of proper waste management programme,
it is necessary to have holistic approach to tackle the issue. This would
mean undertaking public awareness campaign, setting up of organized
collection chain of plastics waste, incinerators or recycling units.
Instead of launching cam¬paigns like “Ban Plastics” or “Use No Plastics”
we must educate the people to propagate the avoidance of wrong littering
habits among the public. We must have campaigns on “Ban Littering” and
“Punish the Litterer”.
In any of these campaigns or establishment of disposal systems, the
involvement of Government, industry and public is very important. In this
context, it would be worthwhile considering the establishment of model
cities for waste disposal system in major plastics consumption zones.
This system must encompass waste disposal, collection, segregation,
processing and recycling, besides public awareness campaigns on wrong
waste disposal habits and compli¬ance to scientific disposal systems. The
plastics industry must debate this concept to give it a final shape. These
cities would act as models for others to emulate. We can also take a cue
from the Western world on mechanised handling and disposal systems.
Another aspect which demands attention is establishing a centre for
product develop¬ment for recycled products and scientific waste
management system, which can be a nodal institution for recycling and
reusability of plastics. Because once we show the way to the people in the
industry how they can profitably establish a unit for making different
products out of waste, the magnitude of this problem can be reduced to a
great extent. Polymer manufacturers including GAIL can extend their
support to the industry in this regard.
Another important issue that is to be addressed by this industry is the bio-
degradability of plastics. This is going to be a real challenge to the scientific
community and any break¬through in this area would be a real boon to the
plastic industry.
It is appropriate here to quote an interesting fact from a study report
published by Inter¬national Energy Agency, Paris on carbon di-oxide
emission. According to this study, the per capita CO, emission is 0.91 MT
in India. It is 20.46 MT in USA and surprisingly it is the highest at 63.11 MT
in Qatar, a small country.
The world average is 3.88 MT. definitely, we are far ahead, compared to
other countries. There is tremendous scope to preserve our environment if
we undertake scientifically planned preventive actions. The issue of
envi¬ronment has to be addressed with the right perspective by bringing in
professionalism in our Environment Management Strategies. It demands as
much attention as our business.
________________________________________
Project Report # 12. Resources Conservation and Recovery:
Many materials, such as steel scrap, which have been recycled for years
are even more attractive with the increased cost of energy because greater
power and fuel usage is required to produce virgin steel from the recycle
scrap materials.
Recovery is Necessary:
1. For Reuse (conservation):
Direct reuse of the recovery by some treatment process that would convert
it back into initial form.
Example:
The scrap automobile buses where scrap automobile is almost recycled to
the basic metals from which it was made.
2. For Heat:
This might involve the recovery of heat from fossil fuel, generating systems,
such as boilers furnace and ovens etc.
3. For other Purposes:
Waste material changed in character and is useful because of some
reprocessing.
Metal Recovery:
It is possible to improve the separation of metallic wastes in a plant and
also possible to reprocess with in the plant.
Ferrous Metal:
Separation of this material is easy because they are easily magnetically
separated. The recycling of a ferrous material from a manufacturing facility
is relatively straight forward since a company manufacturing equipment
made of steel will have steel scrap for sell.
The material is put through a crusher where size reduction tends to make
the particles more uniform. Large pieces of metal if malleable are normally
sorted out on the feeder ahead of the crusher or put through an impact type
crusher. The material is send to grinder and clean, free from nonmetallic
waste, metal is found. It is then screened and finished high grade metallic
product is found.

By recovering and recycling two important objectives are achieved:

(1) A valuable resource has been made available for reuse,
(2) A valuable space in a landfill.
________________________________________
Project Report # 13. Municipal Solid Waste Management Compositing
Facilities in India:
Municipal solid waste management in India is becoming important in view
of the fact that increasing amounts of solid waste generated in most cities
is now being recognized as a major public health problem. Poor
management of solid waste leads to problems, which transcend traditional
environmental boundaries and contribute to air, water and soil pollution of
the various technological solutions.
Compositing is being looked as one of the most suited solution in the
hierarchy of integrated solid waste management programmes. Besides the
various advantages which compositing methods provides, it faces several
challenges which need to be addressed to use this technology without any
environmental and health hazards in long run.
Dynamic changes occur in chemical composition during compositing
process along with substantial changes in microbial populations and
species abundance. As a result during compositing cycle some harmful
gases are released in the atmosphere, which pose odour and health
hazard in neighbourhood, and microbial contamination poses health hazard
to workers.
Municipal solid waste management in India should be adopted with care
and strict measures for safety of onsite workers. Proper maintenance of
operational parameters should be ensured to minimize the health effect
due to various gaseous emissions.
Down Stream Technologies for Waste Management:
The rapid industrialization and increasing environmental degradation have
necessitated development of effective waste management technologies.
The downstream technologies are very effective in utilization of waste from
process industries with nominal additional investment, value added
products can be made using these wastes, which enhances the profit of the
industries.
Present scenario is that most of the chemical and process industries are
not having the downstream process for waste management. It is not the
reason that these industries are unwilling to install such process, but such
processes are not available for all the industries.
Some researchers have developed the processes for converting the low
value streams into high value products. Ironically the industries are not
coming forward to support such works by their active participation. Only
joint efforts of the research institutions, consultants and industries would be
able to solve this global problem in a betting economically and ecologically
manner.
Cleaner Production Training:
The importance of training as a business environmental objective is
recognized in the many environmental management standards being
established around the world. The most important standard the ISO 14001
Environmental Management System (EMS) specification explicitly identifies
training as one of the major components of a verifiable EMS.
The business managers who developed the standards are conducting
cleaner production training in their own companies as a critical complement
to their pollution control technologies. Without such training, the production
employees are usually unaware of the high costs and risks of pollution
control and they do not know the best strategies for reducing the
environmental problems caused by the particular business processes on
which they work.
________________________________________
Project Report # 14. Health Hazards of Landscape Pollution:
Improper handling of solid wastes is a health hazard especially for the
workers who comes in direct contact with the wastes. During handling and
transfer of biological wastes (from hospitals and clinics) disease
transmission may take place by infection through open sores or vectors like
rats and insects which invade refuse dumps for food.
Rats spread many diseases like plague, salmonellosis, endemic typhus,
trichinosis etc. through direct bite. They quickly proliferate and spread to
neighboring areas destroying property and spreading diseases. Flies breed
on refuse dumps, human faeces etc. from where they migrate to food and
water and result in transmission of many diseases like bacillary dysentery,
diarrhea and amoebic dysentery in humans.
The improper disposal of hazardous wastes results in contamination of
crops or water supplies and thus pose a serious health hazard for humans
and animals resulting in acute effects like death.
Large scale epidemic of cholera, gastro-intestinal diseases, jaundice,
hepatitis etc. result from contamination of soil and water bodies by the
leachate from decomposed and purified garbage dumps. Chocking of
drains and gully pits by the solid wastes result in water logging especially
during the rainy season. This water logging results in breeding of
mosquitoes in the stagnant water.
________________________________________
Project Report # 15. Management of Solid Wastes in Developing Countries:
Protection of the health and environment through the proper management
of municipal solid wastes is beginning to gain importance in economically
Developing Countries (DCs). Uncontrolled and improper management and
disposal of municipal solid wastes and contaminated water sources are
major threats to public health and environmental quality in DCs.
Although these threats are very real, pollution control and environmental
improvement have been relegated historically to a low status in many DCs,
while governmental policies emphasized industrial development.
Recently, however, environmental quality in most DCs has deteriorated to a
level at which it can no longer be ignored. The result has been a substantial
concern and intensification to efforts to find and apply means of reversing
the deterioration and of raising environmental quality to an acceptable
level.
Environmental degradation is especially serious and evident in the larger
cities and their surrounding metropolitan areas. These areas have become
overcrowded in the extreme, mostly due to the influx of migrants from the
rural areas to the metropolitan centers.
This migration has taken place at a rate such that the capacity of
municipalities to provide even the most basic of services is greatly
exceeded. The problem is compounded by the fact that most of these cities
have expanded their boundaries in an uncontrolled manner.
The explosive growth of the affected cities usually is characterized by the
development of human settlements in the outskirts of the cities, as well as
within the city boundaries in vacant lots, abandoned buildings, and similar
areas. In the human settlement of these cities, water supply services are
not available, and sewage and solid waste collection are non¬existent.
Typically roads are unpaved and narrow, and accessibility for organized
solid waste collection is difficult.
Basically, the typical situation in large municipalities of developing countries
is one in which available resources (human, financial, etc.) are not
sufficient to provide adequate municipal services to the mainstream of the
population, or to those residing in human settlements.
Recently, the risks to the public health and to the environment in large
metropolitan areas has become intolerable. Public officials recognize the
risks and the close relation between pollution control and public health.
Consequently, governments, in cooperation with some international lending
institutions, have started to take steps to implement some measures of
pollution control related to solid waste management.
Data Collection and Planning:
Two problems in particular are associated with data collection and planning
in DCs: the lack of locally available trained personnel and the need for
relevant data.
(i) Lack of Locally Available Trained Personnel:
Most universities and other education institution in DCs fail to offer curricula
in solid waste management. This neglect results in a serious lack of trained
human resources necessary for the planning and implementation waste
management system. Consequently, DCs often times solicit and rely on the
services of advisors from industrialized countries.
External advice will be of little utility unless the advisors are aware of the
substantial differences in the social, cultural, financial, and environmental
conditions and in the waste characteristics between DCs and those of the
native country of the advisors. The reason is obvious— the conditions and
waste characteristics are significantly different.
The result is that alternatives and technologies that are acceptable and
practical in an industrialized country are seldom directly applicable to
conditions in a developing country. Either the technologies must be
modified, usually substantially, or they may in fact be completely
incompatible. Efforts to directly transfer technology and practice from an
industrialized nation to a DC usually do not meet with success and
frequently fail miserably.
Such efforts generally are the result of a lack of understanding of the local
conditions in DCs. An understanding of the conditions requires the
collection of certain key data as well as a knowledge of the social, cultural,
financial, and environmental conditions prior to the preparation of a plan of
action.
(ii) Need for Basic Solid Waste Data:
Some of the required basic data are those that deal with quantity,
composition, and characteristics of the waste generated in the developing
country. In addition, information should be collected on current waste
management practices in the DC, e.g., storage, collection, final disposal,
availability of equipment, maintenance procedures, availability of human
resources, budget, and sources of revenue. Preferably, these data should
be collected by experienced and trained personnel.
If there is not sufficient time for collecting data in the field, then the data
should be obtained from reliable sources and should be critically evaluated.
A critical evaluation of data is extremely important because it enables a
determination of the accuracy of the information and subsequently justifies
any needed modification to the data as a consequence of the evaluation.
The characterization of the waste is an important element in the
development of a realistic and sustainable solid waste management
program. One reason is that successful management and processing of
wastes depends on the types and composition of the material.
Waste generation rates and composition vary substantially among
developing countries as illustrated by the data in Table 5.1. Wide variation
are apparent from observation of the data in the table, for example, the
percentages of paper, glasses; plastics/rubber/leather; and
ceramics/dust/stones.

The substantial putrescible content of the wastes in DCs (22% to 75%)

results in moisture contents and bulk densities of waste that are
significantly greater than those encountered in most industrialised
countries.
The bulk density of residential wastes in DCs varies from 11 to 24 I b/ft3.
The average density of wet organic matter ranges from 30 to 35 1 b/ft3.
Because bulk density is very sensitive to moisture content, care must be
exercised in the collection and reporting of data concerning bulk density.
The desired level of detail regarding waste composition depends upon the
type of treatment system to be used in processing the waste and the
method of final disposition.
For example, in a developing country, the preparation of a waste
management plan in which land filling would be the primary means of final
disposal would depend mostly upon information on types (domestic,
commercial, industrial, etc.) and quantities of waste to be disposed. A
cursory knowledge of the composition of the waste would be sufficient.
On the other hand, a waste management plan in which resource recovery
and recycling are key components would be greatly dependent upon
detailed information regarding the characteristics of the waste (e.g.
composition, bulk density and moisture content), as well as quantities.
Storage, Collection and Transport:
Although the utilization of data obtained in one region or country and
application of the data to other regions or countries is technically
inappropriate, some important similarities are evident in activities pertaining
to storage, collection, and transport of solid waste.
The generalities presented are based on observations made by the authors
in the course of studies carried out by them in several DCs in Asia, Africa,
Central and South American, and in the Caribbean, as well as observations
by others in various DCs. Since all observation pertain to DCs, no further
reference to that fact is made in the discussion.
Storage Containers:
Containers used for storage of solid wastes are of many shapes and sizes,
and are fabricated from a variety of materials. The type and applicability of
the containers generally reflect the economic status of its user (i.e., the
waste generator).
Types of containers include newspaper wraps, baskets, cardboard boxes,
plastic bags, and metal or rigid plastic containers. The wide variety of
container types and shapes commonly encountered within a community
creates difficulty in establishing and operating an efficient solid waste
collection system.
Several cities make use of communal containers (bins). The containers
generally are constructed of metal, concrete, or a combination of the two.
Communal containers may reduce the cost of waste collection, and can
minimize problems associated with lack of storage space on site.
However, some problems are inherent in the use of such communal
containers, including:
1. Depending upon the type of communal container, removal and transfer
of the wastes from the container to the collection or transport vehicle may
be difficult and time consuming.
2. If the bins are not emptied on a regular basis, the contents may be set
on fire or illegal dumps may be established at the location.
3. Scavengers and animals may have access to the waste in the
containers.
In human settlements, it is common practice to use two problems in
particular are associated with data collection and planning in DCs: the lack
of locally available trained personnel and the need for relevant data.
Collection and Transport:
A broad assortment of methods and equipment is used for the collection of
wastes. The methods range from labor intensive to fully mechanized.
Types of equipment and vehicles extend from simple hand-drawn wagons
or bins to modern waste collection vehicles.
The typical collection crew consists of three or four workers, although
crews of as few as two or as many as eight have been observed. In some
instances, the crew may be augmented by unauthorized individuals who
take part in the collection activity in order to scavenge materials from the
wastes. The usual situation is that the collection activity is characterized by
excessive handling and use of inefficient methods.
Compactor trucks, both of the rear and front loading variety, are found in
many countries. Unfortunately, the use of such trucks is becoming
increasingly popular, despite the fact that generally little, if any, additional
compaction occurs in the vehicle because the loose wastes have a high
bulk density.
Furthermore, some complex features and consequences are associated
with the use of compaction vehicles some of which may not be evident or
considered at the time that vehicle is purchased.
They are:
1. The need to adequately match compaction chamber to the truck chassis.
2. The possibility of the weight of the truck (and its load of waste)
exceeding the bearing capacity of roadways.
3. Inaccessibility of the vehicle to remote areas and narrow streets.
4. The requirement for adequate facilities and trained personnel to conduct
complex repairs and preventive maintenance, particularly of the hydraulic
system; and
5. The need for a readily-available source of spare parts to maintain the
regularity of the collection service.
Although preventive maintenance is necessary to maintain a collection fleet
in proper operating condition, neglect of preventive maintenance is a
common situation in DCs. Maintenance generally takes place only after a
catastrophic failure of the vehicle or its equipment. A carefully planned
maintenance program minimizes catastrophic failures and prolongs the life
of the equipment.
A maintenance program is of significant importance since collection and
transport account for a large portion of the total cost of the waste
management system. Due to lack of maintenance programs, those
responsible for dispatching the vehicles to their respective routes
commonly are not aware of the exact number of vehicles at their disposal
of a given day.
Frequency of collection varies from daily to monthly. In some cases, waste
collection is provided only on special occasions, such as during cleaning
campaigns.
Collection routes very rarely are firmly established. On the contrary, a
common practice is to leave the decision for the route to the discretion of
the driver. Therefore, it is not unusual for a truck to arrive at the disposal
site only partially loaded due to inefficient routing.
Usually, after it has been loaded to capacity of the collection route has
been covered, the loaded collection vehicle is driven directly to the disposal
site. In some cases, an indirect route is taken to the disposal site in order to
have an opportunity to discharge a part of, or even the entire, load for use
as animal feed or for recovery (salvage) of materials that have some
monetary value.
Resource Recovery:
In this discussion, the term “resource recovery” is applied to the
reclamation of resources (materials) discarded as wastes, and to the
institutional arrangements leading to resource recovery (e.g., scavenging,
governmentally or industrially operated enterprises). Scavenging is
recovery of materials by entities not sanctioned officially by the
government.
The following three factors generally contribute to the practice of resource
recovery in DCs:
1. Materials and Energy Conservation:
Shortage of raw materials essential to local industries, lack of affordability
or production capacity for items that can be remedied by recovery of
useable materials from wastes, and shortage or expense of energy.
2. Economics:
Underdeveloped economy of the country.
3. Conservation of Soil Resources:
Local soils that are of poor quality or are being rapidly deprived to organic
matter. Two of the beneficial characteristics that make resource recovery
an advisable policy for developing countries are that it generally catalyzes
the development of organized, systematic waste management and that it
reduces the amount of wastes requiring disposal.
In addition, resource recovery provides a livelihood for a relatively large
number of individuals in the lower economic sector. Finally, some of the
revenue obtained from the sale of the materials can be used to defray a
part of the cost of waste management, if the system is properly planned
implemented, and administered.
1. Materials and Energy Conservation
Most DCs are lacking in one or more of the primary (raw) materials (e.g.,
iron ore, bauxite, or petroleum) which are important for economic
development. The importance and relevance of this situation is that if a
satisfactory substitute cannot be found, the complete depletion of a raw
material marks the termination of all manufacturing and usage based upon
that material.
Furthermore, even though potential substitutes may exist, the may lack an
important property or characteristic. For example, they may not be as
durable, or they may not possess suitable thermal properties. Even a
suitable substitute is subject to eventual depletion. For example, plastics
are manufactured primarily from depletable fossil fuels.
In many cases, the establishment of a resource recovery program can
postpone depletion or contribute to industrialized development by supplying
secondary materials to existing or new manufacturing industries. Materials
that can be (and are) recovered from solid waste and recycled into primary
manufacturing industries include some of those listed in Table 5.1, namely
paper, metals (especially aluminum and steel cans), and plastics.

Energy recovery can be practiced using one of two methods. One method
is to recover and recycle materials that can be substituted for those that
require a substantial amount of energy to process and manufacture into
consumer products (i.e., energy-intensive material). The second method is
to convert the chemical energy of waste into a usable form (e.g., through
bio-gasification, thermal conversion, etc.)
2. Economics:
The economy plays a key role in all aspects of resource recovery. Since
the economic situation in most DCs leaves them with little capital for the
importation of primary (raw) materials, one alternative is to conserve
primary materials by recovering and recycling materials manufactured from
them.
This approach is worth consideration and implementation despite some
reports that indicate that recycling a material would be more costly than
importing it. Careful analysis of such reports shows that in most DCs, the
findings and conclusions are based on questionable assumptions and on a
short-term outlook rather than on a long-term horizon.
3. Conservation of Soil Resources:
The majority of developing countries have a strong dependence on
agriculture for subsistence as well as economic growth. Consequently,
conservation and restoration of soil quality and maintenance of soil
productivity are important concerns.
Two of the main causes of loss in the quality, and therefore productivity, of
soil are erosion and inadequate organic matter content. Erosion removes
the top, productive layers of the soil and leaves an exposed layer that is
basically devoid of plant nutrients. In addition, the structure of the exposed
layer is such that it impedes plant growth and is resistant to tilling.
The organic matter in the soil provides plant nutrients and imparts a wide
range of well- known, desirable characteristics to soil. However, since
organic matter is transformed continually when cultivated, it must be
periodically replenished.
The organic matter in solid waste, after having been adequately recovered
and converted, can serve as a replacement for the lost organic matter in
soil. Putrescible material such as food preparation residues and market
waste, which are prevalent in the solid waste of most DCs as indicated in
Table 1, are readily convertible to soil amendment (through composing/or
example), although this is not a common practice in DCs.
Implementation of Resource Recovery:
Resource recovery from solid waste can be implemented at two levels:
Level 1:
Manual recovery by individuals (scavengers) prior to collection, to
treatment, or to disposal of the solid waste.
Level 2:
A combination of manual and mechanized recovery conducted on a
relatively large scale and according to a governmentally sanctioned plan of
operation.
The term “scavenging” usually is applied to the first of the two levels of
recovery. The second level is typically termed, “conventional resource
recovery”.
Scavenging:
Level 1:
Scavenging is well established in DCs. In fact, it is so well entrenched that
attempts made to abolish the practice in a few DCs have been met with
strong resistance. Some scavengers are referred to as “itinerant” because
they roam the streets looking for items that can be re-used. Other
scavengers limit their activities to the collection of one or two materials
(e.g., paper, metal objects).
Generally, scavengers have an arrangement with a “middle-man”. The
middle-man is an individual who : 1) has the contacts with the end-users; 2)
can package and sell the quantities of materials desired by users; and 3)
provides the scavengers with compensation and perhaps a collection
vehicle (e.g., a cart or tricycle). In some locations, the solid waste collection
crew conducts its collection activities as well as some scavenging of
materials.
Generally, the family and social backgrounds of scavengers are such that
scavenging is the only option available to them to earn a living. In many
cases, scavengers have two choices-scavenge or starve. The work of a
scavenger is arduous and has little reward.
Scavengers can work up to 12 hours each day in order to earn money
sufficient only to survive. In addition, scavengers often live at or in the
vicinity of the final disposal site, (dump site) under unhealthy conditions.
Acceptance of scavenging by modern society varies from complete
rejection to indifference. However, in most developing countries,
scavenging is an important element in the economic survival of a number of
industries (e.g., pulp and paper mills). Despite its detraction, plausible
reasons exist for allowance and maintenance of scavenging.
Based on some studies conducted by the authors, scavenging should not
be banned without providing alternative means of supporting the displaced
scavengers and without taking the necessary steps to avoid, or at-least
reduce, any adverse impacts on industrial activity and the economy.
Mechanized Resource Recovery:
Level 2:
Complex, mechanically-intensive resource recovering facilities require a
well- trained work force and sophisticated control systems, requirements
that generally do not conform to the situation in DCs. Thus, it is
disconcerting and unfortunate to observe the trend among some of the
larger cities in developing countries that are attempting to implement
complex resource recovering technologies.
These technologies are usually transplants from industrialized countries;
that is, they are direct transfers of technology. Unfortunately, these directly
transferred technologies generally cannot succeed without modifications
based on the waste characteristics of DCs, extensive maintenance
programs, and ready access to capital for spare parts, among other
requisites.
Examples of some directly-transferred technologies include incineration
system, refuse- derived fuel systems, and in-vessel compositing. The
degree of success of incineration systems is highly dependent on the dry,
combustible content of the solid waste. Such content is fatally low in many
developing countries, where the waste has a high moisture content, and
supplemental fuel would be requires to sustain combustion.
Hopes for successful imple¬mentation of complex, highly mechanized
systems for compositing almost inevitably are dashed by the failure of the
composite system to perform adequately (due to low yields and high
operating costs) and by unrealistic expectations with regard to markets and
prices for the finished composite.
Some of the more important conclusions that can be drawn from the record
of unsuccessful attempts at direct transfer of resource recovery technology
to developing countries are the following:
1. Complex and maintenance-intensive resource recovery operations
generally are not feasible in developing countries (at least until the level of
expertise and waste characteristics indicate that more complex
technological solutions are worthy of consideration).
2. Waste reduction, source separation, recycling, and the use of processes
which use a combination of manual and minimal mechanical segregation
are feasible approaches.
3. The capacity and willingness to pay for the construction, operation, and
maintenance of a particular technology should be among the first issues
addressed when considering implementation of a complex resource
recovery system.
Final Disposition:
Most municipal solid wastes generated in developing countries are
disposed in open dumps. Most of the open dumps lack of the proper
equipment and trained personnel necessary for conducting the operation in
a manner such that the public health and the environment are protected.
There are very few modern sanitary landfills in developing countries, and
most of them “sanitary” only in name.
Since few resources usually are devoted to final disposal, the operation of
the dump sites simply consists of discharging the wastes-and spreading
them upon the land in a uncontrolled fashion and without modern
construction methods (e.g. small working face, bottom liner and leachate
control system, and landfill gas control system).
Costs:
The poor and inadequate management of municipal solid wastes in
developing countries leads to relatively high costs for the services provided.
It has been demonstrated that the costs associated with waste
management can account for as much as 30% to 50% of the entire
municipal budget.
In addition, in some cases, it is apparent that the management of solid
waste is frequently used to meet political objectives. For example, a
substantial labour force for waste management beyond the size that
normally would be required may be approved to gain political favour.
Since the monetary expenditure for providing the service involved in waste
management is high, the municipality generally must subsidize a large
percentage of the cost. Waste generators seldom pay service fees.
Finally, key reasons for the inordinately high cost of solid waste
management in developing countries are lacking a shortage of trained
personnel and the absence of adequate and comprehensive planning.
________________________________________
Project Report # 16. Disposal of Hazardous Wastes:
Important sources of commercial hazardous waste as:
(i) Hospital injections or anatomic waste, sharp, chemicals, like solvents or
liquid developed, expired unused and contaminated drugs or other
vaccines,
(ii) Industry – Typices treatment methods and
(a) Chemical and physical treatment methods – emulous separation
distillation, detoxification, naturalization.
(b) Thermal Treatment includes physiolysis and incineration pyrolysis is
applied seldom. The main advantage is the ruler smell volume of gas which
has to be cleaned the disadvantage is that the sepase time the
decomposition gas and vapours is so experience that the surplus proceed
do us. Compete the effort the gas is used as fuel gas sot that in most case
direct combust ion is prepared.
(c) Dumping is the only method of disposal when the substance cannot be
destroyed by incineration. Dumping is carried out by ground level dumping
or underground reposition sealing system is must the largest is to avoid the
penetrate on of rain water in to the deep and the pollution of ground water
by leach it plants C peeling combined with minaret drainage layers and
mineral selling layers and melance at surface and bar.
________________________________________
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