Hindawi

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Volume 2020, Article ID 1510969, 23 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1510969

Review Article
On the Recent Trends in Expansive Soil Stabilization
Using Calcium-Based Stabilizer Materials (CSMs):
A Comprehensive Review

Fazal-E- Jalal ,1,2 Yongfu Xu ,1,2,3 Babak Jamhiri ,1 and Shazim Ali Memon 4

1
State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
2
Department of Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
3
Wentian College of Hohai University, Ma’anshan 243000, China
4
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan 010000, Kazakhstan

Correspondence should be addressed to Yongfu Xu; yongfuxu@sjtu.edu.cn and Shazim Ali Memon; shazim.memon@nu.edu.kz

Received 15 October 2019; Revised 12 December 2019; Accepted 27 January 2020; Published 9 March 2020

Guest Editor: Andrea Graziani

Copyright © 2020 Fazal-E- Jalal et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Calcium-based stabilizer materials (CSMs) exhibit pozzolanic properties which improve the properties of clayey soils by hy-
dration, cation exchange, flocculation, pozzolanic reaction, and carbonation. In this comprehensive review, comprising over past
three decades from 1990 to 2019, a mechanistic literature of expansive soil stabilization by incorporating CSMs is presented by
reviewing 183 published research articles. The advantages and disadvantages of CSMs as the ground stabilizing agent are
succinctly presented, and the major outcomes of physicochemical effects on soil properties are discussed in detail. After blending
with CSM, the main and interaction effects on soil properties with focus on chemical processes such as X-ray fluorescence, X-ray
diffraction analyses, and microstructure interaction by using scanning electron microscopy and thermogravimetric analysis have
been reviewed in light of findings of past researchers. This work will help geotechnical engineers to opt for suitable CSM in the field
of geoenvironmental engineering in committing to sustainable construction of civil engineering structures over expansive soils.

1. Introduction Stabilization of soil may be expensive, but it decreases the

overall construction cost of buildings and road subgrades
The behavior of fine-grained soils is largely governed by [9]. In order to improve the behavior of expansive soils,
moisture content variations. Upon interaction with water, geotechnical engineers seek help from soil science and
the clay particles in such soils are primarily responsible for geology. The first modern use of soil stabilization was
the expansive nature and hence called “expansive” or introduced in 1904 in the USA [10]. Brashad [10]
“swelling” soils [1]. Among others, the main clay minerals in explained the phenomenon of clay expansion due to water
expansive soils include illite, kaolinite, and montmorillonite considering the various interlayer cations in 1950. Petry
(further on referred to as Mt). Owing to the hydrophilic and Little [10] investigated the stabilization of expansive
nature and high dispersivity of the clay minerals, they cause soils by evaluating the effectiveness of traditional calcium-
high risk to the civil engineering foundations, to landslides based stabilizer materials (CSMs) in their state-of-the-
triggering [2], and to the road subgrades [3] especially before practice stabilization during 1940 and 2001. Simons [11]
bituminous coating as soil improvement additives or cold discussed the microstructural processes, chemical inter-
mixtures [4–7]. For practical implications in engineering, actions, and the waste reuse and sustainability in an at-
the treatment of expansive soils is imperative. The me- tempt to modify expansive soil properties. In yet another
chanical and chemical soil stabilization improves the en- study, Behnood [12] reviewed the comparison of calcium
gineering characteristics of the problematic soils [8]. (Ca) based and non-Ca-based stabilizers with detailed
2 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

discussions on techniques and challenges in soil modi- the particle face is known as “particle edge.” Diffuse double
fication. According to Godenzoni [13], the cementing layers are produced around particle faces with the attached
materials (CMs) are produced by the most conventional water called “double-layer water.” The water other than
stabilizing materials, that is, lime, cement, and their mixes the diffuse double layers is shown by the “equilibrium
along with other pozzolanic materials. Today, a detailed solution.”
literature is available, and a worldwide research on ex- The role of diffused double layer theory comes into play
pansive soil stabilization using a wide array of classical while evaluating the expansivity of clay minerals. Accord-
and emergent materials is still in progress [14–22]. Al- ingly, the repulsive and attractive forces generated by
though well-documented studies on the use of numerous physicochemical effects are quantified on the particle scale
stabilizers are available, to these authors’, knowledge, no level [26]. This theory is applicable to smectite particles
study made between 1990 and 2019 that explains the main present in monovalent electrolytes with lesser concentration.
and interaction effects of CSMs on the expansive soils, has The thickness of the double layer is shown in the following
been found. Also, the standardization for various addi- “Poisson–Boltzmann equation”:
tives is unavailable in the field of geotechnical engineering
􏽳��������
which leads to geoenvironmental issues and affects the 1 Dk T
environment. This comprehensive review serves three � , (1)
K 8πη0 ε2 V2
main objectives on the following subjects: (1) gain insights
about the history, mechanism, damages associated, and
prevalence of expansive soils over last 30 years, (2) review where 1/K � DL, i.e., thickness of double layer (cm),
the practice of efficacious stabilization using Ca-based D � dielectric constant, k � Boltzmann constant � 1.38 ∗
stabilizer materials for civil engineering structures and 10− 23 J/K, η0 � bulk solution of the electrolyte concentration
road pavements, and (3) serve a guideline for researchers (ions/cm3), ε � unit electronic charge (esu), T � absolute
and practitioners to select materials under the domain of temperature (K), and v � cation valence. Note that DL is
this study. directly proportional to the cation exchange capacity (CEC)
and specific surface area (SSA) of clay minerals and has
2. Fundamental Knowledge about pronounced effect on these entities [27–29].
Stabilization of Expansive Soils The clay minerals belong to “phyllosilicates” family
and carry a net residual negative charge. The mechanism
2.1. Mechanism. Improvement in properties of an ex- of clay modification by calcium-rich stabilizers involves
pansive or problematic soil means increase in the com- dissociation of higher calcium content into calcium ions
pressive strength and permeability, reduction in plasticity that react with both silica and alumina leading to the ion
and compressibility, and improvement in durability of exchange, flocculation, and pozzolanic reactions. This
these soils. More concisely, “soil stabilization” is mainly process is expressed in equations (2)–(5). Also, the Cal-
the addition of chemical admixtures to soil which results ifornia bearing ratio (CBR) is increased, and the forma-
in chemical improvement [23]. Swelling in expansive soils tion of two main components takes place, calcium silicate
deals mainly with prevalence of type and amount of pore hydrates (C-S-H) gel, represented by chemical formula
spaces and their interaction with water. The phenomenon [5Ca2SiO4: 6H2O], and calcium aluminate hydrate (C-A-
of swelling may comprise over a relatively long time H) gel, with chemical formula [Ca5Si5Al (OH)O17·5H2O].
ranging between 5 to 8 years during early service life of As shown in equations (4) and (5), it is due to this
foundations and pavements [24]. Figure 1 illustrates the pozzolanic reaction that soil durability is largely improved
pore spaces between the unit layers of clays, also known as [30]. It is also notable that, in some cases, calcium alu-
interlayer space, which represent the “microporosity,” minate silicate hydrate (C-A-S-H) may form which also
whereas pore spaces between adjacent particles or ag- adds to the soil strength. The pozzolanic reactions occur in
gregates, called the interparticle pores or interaggregate a highly alkaline environment gradually dissolving the
pore spaces, respectively, represent the “macroporosity” aluminosilicates which also contributes to the long-term
in the compacted smectite particles. The water present in strength gain [31]. The presence of clay mineral type and
both these regions differ in terms of their physical states. calcium (Ca2+) ions governs the effectiveness of these
Swelling takes place when the water enters into the in- reactions. The volumetric stability of the soil matrix is
terlayers. Petry and Little [10] outlined the empirical enhanced as Ca2+ tends to replace monovalent Na+ or H+
methods to determine the volume change resulted from ions. Production of C-S-H and C-A-H gels in this way is
swelling in expansive soils. called “polymerization process” [32, 33]:
Figure 2 depicts the process of water entry inside clay
plates at extended microlevel. The “clay particle” represents 280 cal/g ⟶ CaO
CaO + H2 O �������������������→ Ca(OH)2 (2)
an interconnected stack of clay layers with a maximum
four layers of crystalline water. The “clay aggregates” are Ca(OH)2 ⟶ Ca2+ + 2(OH)− (3)
the assembly of “clay particles” forming unit of a compacted
clay double structure. The portion of the clay particle Ca2+ + 2(OH)− + SiO2 ⟶ C − S − H (4)
surface parallel to that of “clay layers” is called the “particle
face.” However, the part of the clay particle surface normal to Ca2+ + 2(OH)− + Al2 O3 ⟶ C − A − H (5)
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 3

Microporosity between the

layers (interlayer porosity)

Basal spacing

Interlayer water and Interlayer

exchangeable cations distance

Unit layer
Macroporosity
Macroporosity
between the particles between the aggregates
Figure 1: Effect of water entry on micro- and macroplates of compacted smectite with classification of “microporosity” and “macro-
porosity,” reproduced with permission from [12].

Macro structure Clay aggregate

Clay aggregate Crystalline water Clay layer
Clay particle

Equlibrium
solution

Particle face
Particle edge
Macro voids, filled with air Double-layer water
at higher matric suctions
Figure 2: Compacted clay structure depicting the process of water entry inside clay plates at the extended microlevel, adapted from [25].

2.2. Identification and Characterization. It is essential to limits contribute very least statistical significance to esti-
quantify the amount of swell pressure (Ps) exerted by mation of Ps as evidenced by conducting tests on 38
expansive soil upon water uptake. Expansive soils below the samples obtained from database of material parameters.
ground surface level extending to a depth of approximately “Free Swell Index” (FSI), a measure of FS, is the increase in
1.5 meters are more susceptible to swelling pressure in the soil volume without any external constraints when sub-
particular zone called “active zone depth.” However, the merged in water. “Ps” is defined as the pressure exerted by
region beyond the active zone depth is termed as “zone of clay when it absorbs water in a confined space. “Activity”
constant volume” experiencing lesser volume change with (A), the ratio of plasticity index (PI) to the percent of clay
moisture entry [28]. The susceptibility of such soils to fraction, represents the water holding capacity of clay soil
volumetric swelling makes them highly unsuitable for use and is function of type and amount of clay mineral. Activity
in supporting foundations. Shi et al. [29] presented the of Mt (commonly greater than 4) is highest than for ka-
common methods to evaluate the swell intensity, i.e., free olinite and illite. The FS and Ps [28, 36] are calculated using
swell (FS) [34] and Ps, which were determined using simple oedometer in accordance with ASTM standards [37].
tests such as Atterberg limits (liquid limit (LL), plastic limit Moreover, to determine the Ps, the zero swell test and
(PL), and shrinkage limit (SL)), contents of colloids, and oedometer test methods are preferable because of their ease
activity (A) value of clay. The LL, PL, and SL are index and simple procedure [38, 39]. For a variety of expansive
properties used for classification of fine-grained soils and soils in Egypt, it was revealed by Mehmood et al. [40] that,
determine the mechanical behavior, i.e., shear strength, for highly plastic clays with activity between 0.8 and 1.5, the
compressibility, and swell potential [27]. According to the swell potential parameters were calculated using the fol-
experimental study by Cantillo et al. [35], the Atterberg lowing equations:
4 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Ps � 0.1266(3.6 × activity)3.47 , (6) 3. Damages Caused by Expansive Soils in

Superstructures and Infrastructures
activity � 0.2783(FS)0.288 . (7)
The damage of expansive soils to lightly loaded civil engi-
The identification and characterization of expansive soils neering structures (pathways, highways, boundary walls, one
are presented in numerous studies during the annals of to three storied buildings, water, and sanitation pipelines
history. In Table 1, the expansive soils have been classified below the ground surface) is more significant due to large
based on swell tests, Atterberg limits, free swell ratio, swelling pressure. The swelling phenomenon is complex and
dominant clay type, suction, and absorption capability. hazardous in nature, with Ps sometimes approaching to
Unlike the studies in the 70’s and 80’s, the classifications lifting up the foundation of structures and pavements,
suggested in 2000 and onwards witnessed a marked dif- causing partial damage or entire destruction and monetary
ference. For instance, according to the China Ministry of losses [52–54]. It has been established that almost 33% of
Construction (CMC 2004) classification, the expansive soils total land in Sudan, 20% land area each in Indonesia and
having a PI less than 15% are low expansive, whereas those India, more than 12% of the Syrian land, and 6% land of
exceeding 40% are high expansive soils. The latest classifi- China comprise arid regions with presence of expansive soils
cation methods take into account the important soil suction and/or black cotton soils [23, 41, 55–58]. The annual eco-
parameter, dominance of clay mineral, and absorption nomic loss due to construction on expansive soils exceeds
ability of the clay-rich soils in order to improve categorizing approximately nine billion US $ in USA [59], one billion
the expansive soils to a higher degree of accuracy [45, 46]. USA $ in China [60], and USA $ 0.5 billion in the UK [36]. In
According to latest classification based on index properties, another study by Simons [11] and Zhao et al. [61], in USA,
it is alluded that clay soils with LL greater than 40%, lying between 1970 and 2000, the total annual building loss due to
above the A-line on Casagrande’s plasticity chart and expansive soil damages increased by 140% with cost of
containing more than 5% Mt content, are known as swelling damages reaching USA $4.7 billion. Also, 25% of all homes
soils [38, 44, 47]. in the USA were affected by the expansive soil damages [41].
In many cases, for example, in parts of USA and Aus-
tralia, the maintenance cost of roads built on expansive soils
2.3. Basic Clay Minerals. The swelling of expansive soils is exceeds the cost of construction [1, 2, 11]. Dafalla and
mainly attributed with the presence of clay minerals such as Shamrani [62] noted that if preliminary geotechnical in-
illite, kaolinite, and Mt [48, 49] whose mineralogical vestigation of expansive soils in subgrades of pavements is
properties are listed in Table 2. The order of their expansivity not carried out prior to construction, it may lead to im-
is Mt > kaolinite > illite. Mt is combination of silica tetra- proper drainage and premature structural failures. Puppala
hedrons and alumina octahedral linked via weak Van der and Pedarla [63] stressed the need of utilizing ecofriendly
Waal’s forces. It has high liquid limit (up to 900%) and SSA and economical waste materials such as bagasse ash, which
(850 g/cm2) values [15]. The Mt carries (1) permanent offers high strength and more durability, to build subgrades
negative charge over the surface, which is function of iso- over expansive soils [64–67]. These swelling soils are also
morphous substitution of magnesium and iron ions [50], present in the Middle East and Gulf countries including
and (2) positive charge distributed on the edges, which is Pakistan, Iran, India, Oman, and Saudi Arabia that largely
function of pH of the soil [36]. Kaolinite is the least ex- affects the lightly loaded civil engineering structures [40, 68].
pansive among the three clay minerals due to presence of Figure 3 shows an overview of the damage to buildings,
fixed K+ ions. Illite has an expansion index ranging between roads, and embankments across different countries.
Mt and kaolinite, while its structure resembles with that of If the expansive soils are not dealt properly, the cracks
Mt. Illite has also fixed potassium ions between the interlayer may propagate wider and deeper due to rapid moisture exit,
spaces which decrease its expansiveness. as shown in Figure 4. The cracks are minimized and localized
When water interacts with the clay minerals, Nelson when blending with CSM (calcium carbide residue, in this
et al. [47] argues that an intermolecular bonding develops case) is done. The integrity of sample is also significantly
due to the dipolar nature of water which causes ion hy- increased by using a higher dose of prescribed stabilizer mix.
dration and adsorption of water on surfaces of clay particles However, the damage associated with the expansive soils is
by virtue of four simultaneous mechanisms including hy- countless, widespread, and inevitable. Therefore, more
drogen bonding, cation hydration, osmosis, and dipole at- studies are required to further explore the complex cracking
traction. However, according to Labib and Nashed [51] and mechanism in order to gain a real insight about their un-
Akgün et al. [39], the stress equilibrium inside the clay-water known hazardous behavior.
mix is disturbed due to presence of H+ and OH− in water
because the clay particles carry negative edge charge and 4. Ca-Based Stabilizers in Limelight
positive surface charge, which is responsible for the “ex-
pansive” movement. The magnitude of this movement is 4.1. Stabilization of Expansive Soils Using CSM. The search
sometimes several degrees higher, and the theory of con- for state-of-the-art potential stabilizing materials to deal
solidation, moisture content, and suction-based techniques with the problematic soils is always in progress. The reasons
are used to predict the resulting movement [23]. which draw the attention of geotechnical engineers to
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 5

Table 1: Various classification and characterization criteria available in the literature for expansive soils using basic geotechnical tests.
#1 on the basis of swelling [41]
Swell pressure
Swell potential Total expansion Degree of expansion
US customary (tsf ) SI units (kPa) Metric units (kg/cm2)
0–1.5 0–10 <2.05 <196 <2 Low
1.5–5 10–20 2.05–4.1 196–392 2–4 Medium
5–25 20–35 4.1–7.2 392–687 4–7 High
>25 >35 >7.2 >687 >7 Very high
#2 on the basis of Atterberg limits [42]
Linear shrinkage Shrinkage index PI LL SL Expansivity index
0–8% <25% <18% <35% <14% Low
8–13% 25–35% 18–25% 35–45% 12–14% Medium
13–18% 35–50% 25–35% 45–60% 10–12% High
>18% >50% >35% >60% <10% Very high
#3 on basis of free swell ratio (FSR) [43]
FSR Soil expansivity Clay type Dominant clay mineral
<1 Negligible Nonswelling Kaolinite
1–5 Low Swelling and nonswelling Kaolinite and montmorillonite
1.5–2 Moderate Swelling Montmorillonite
2–4 High Swelling Montmorillonite
>4 Very high Swelling Montmorillonite
#4 on the basis of liquid limit (LL)
LL Classification
0–20% No swell
20–35% Low swell
35–50% Medium swell
50–70% High swell
70–90% Very high swell
#5 U.S. Army Waterways Experiment Station (WES 1983)
Classification of potential swell Swell potential (%) LL (%) PI (%) Soil suction (kPa)
Low <0.5 <50 <25 <160
Marginal 0.5–1.5 50–60 25–35 160–430
High >1.5 >60 >35 >430
#6 China Ministry of Construction (CMC 2004) [44]
Standard absorption M.C (%) PI (%) Free swell value (%) Swell potential class
<2.5 <15 <40 Nonexpansive
2.5–4.8 15–28 40–60 Low
4.8–6.8 28–40 60–90 Medium
>6.8 >40 >90 High

Table 2: Mineralogical properties of basic clay minerals (kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite).
Interlayer bond/ Isomorphous Shrink- CEC
Clay mineral Structure LL (%) K (m/s)
intensity substitution swell (meq/100 g)
Alternating sheets
of silica tetrahedron
Kaolinite (1 : 1 clay Alumina
Hydrogen, strong Low Very low 3–15 30–75 10− 5–10− 7
mineral) Silica
and alumina
octahedral sheets
Illite (2 : 1 clay Alternating sheets
of alumina
K-ion, moderate Moderate Low 10–40 60–120 10− 6–10− 8
mineral)
octahedral sheets
Silica

Montmorillonite Alumina Van der Waal, Very Up to

High 29–150 10− 7–10− 9
(2 : 1 clay mineral) Silica very weak high 900
between two
silica tetrahedrons
6 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Ground heave at Al Kod, Oman King Abdul Aziz road, Saudi Arabia

Swell pressure causes diagonal cracking in Uplifting of flexible pavement due

2-storey building to expansive soil

Cantonment area in Kohat city, Pakistan Slope failure in Texas, USA

The wall is recorded to repeatedly Expansive soils cause slope failure
crack after reconstruction of embankment
Figure 3: Expansive soil damage to civil engineering infrastructure across Oman, KSA, Pakistan, and USA (with some changes for
comparison purpose) [62, 69–71].

>30 ≈20 ≈10 ≈5 <5

cracks cracks cracks cracks cracks

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Figure 4: Morphology of cracks in expansive soil (LL � 77.6%, PI � 40.7%, MDD � 1.47 g/cm3, and OMC � 28%) after blending with several
mixtures of calcium carbide residue (CCR) and rice husk (RHA) and cured for 28 days [72].

employ CSM are as follows: (1) the replacement with coarse [74]. The stabilizing materials with Ca2+ lower down the Ps
grained materials may be uneconomical because the ex- by two mechanisms: (1) by stabilizing the structure of clay
pansive soil layers are extended deep and in irregular pat- particles using cation exchange and (2) by increasing the
tern, (2) the presence of Ca2+ ions speeds up the pozzolanic concentration of cations held between soil within water and
reactions [63] and tends to decrease the Ps, (3) it is a hot thus depleting the double layer thickness [72].
topic and is widely practiced in field nowadays, (4) the
prewetting technique among other takes higher time (several
years) for soils with low hydraulic conductivity [73], and (5) 4.2. Characteristics of CSM. A large number of CSMs, for
recycling gains environmental and economic benefits by instance, lime, cement, fly ash (FA), ground-granulated blast
reducing the usage of natural resources which leads to furnace slag (GGBS), bagasse ash (BA), cement kiln dust
development of low-emission and low-energy technologies (CKD), rice husk ash (RHA), silica fume [64], steel slag (SS),
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 7

Table 3: Summary of oxide composition of traditional Ca-based stabilizer materials (CSMs) from previous studies.
Popular Ca-based stabilizers CaO (C) SiO2 (S) Al2O3 (A) SO3 Fe2O3 MgO K2O TiO2 LOI Gs LL (%)
Hydrated lime [84] 70.9 1.20 0.70 — 0.10 0.50 0.10 0.10 26.1 2.32
Extinct lime [85] 83.3 2.50 1.50 2.50 2.00 0.50 — — — — —
Lime [86] 45.0 12.0 1.20 0.00 0.50 0.70 0.80 — 40.0 — —
Lime sludge [87] 48.0 6.50 1.15 — 1.20 — — — — — —
Cement [88] 44.7 27.4 13.1 3.96 3.30 1.19 1.14 — 4.01 — —
Cement [89] 65.2 20.4 4.10 3.20 4.50 0.59 — — — —
Cement [90] 63.0 20.0 6.00 2.00 3.00 — 1.00 — — — —
CKD [91] 63.9 11.9 9.90 0.00 3.40 1.70 0.10 — 4.70 2.80
FA [92] 1.60 54.4 28.6 — 3.20 1.40 1.70 1.80 5.00 2.15 32
FA [93] 2.40 58.5 27.8 0.03 8.10 0.70 0.01 — 2.10 — —
FA [94] 6.70 55.6 26.4 — 3.90 0.60 2.10 1.00 3.68 2.13 46
FA [95] 1.60 54.4 28.6 — 3.20 1.40 1.70 1.80 5.00 2.15 32
FA [96] 48.9 19.9 9.30 7.30 5.70 3.70 0.50 — 3.01 — —
Class C FA [97] 29.1 31.9 17.5 2.0 5.10 — — — 1.00 2.6 NP
Class F FA [98] 14.3 41.3 16.3 0.70 6.30 4.70 2.60 — 0.10 2.53 NP
GGBS [99] 34.0 34.3 17.9 1.64 1.00 6.02 0.64 — 2.66 — —
GGBS [100] 44.9 29.2 13.8 — 5.50 6.20 1.00 2.10 — 2.84 40
Steel slag [100] 25.8 16.4 2.40 — 26.0 10.0 — 0.80 — — —
BA [91] 11.7 47.8 10.2 — 5.70 2.80 2.60 0.80 16.1 — —
BA [95] 3.20 57.1 29.7 0.02 2.75 — — 1.13 — — —
BA [101] 4.30 67.8 6.90 — 3.84 — — — — — —
Coal waste ash (CWA) [102] 2.30 55.7 23.3 — 3.40 0.90 3.50 1.20 38.7 1.94 —
GSA [93] 10.9 33.4 6.8 6.40 2.16 4.72 25.4 — — — —
GSA [103] 15.5 23.9 8.9 5.7 5.2 6.9 22.9 1.02 — — —
LOI: loss on ignition; Gs: specific gravity; NP: nonplastic; —, “no available data.”

sewage sludge ash (SSA), palm oil fuel ash (POFA), fuel oil 5. Effect on Geotechnical Properties with
fly ash (FOFA), groundnut shell ash (GSA) [12, 34, 75–78], Emphasis on Chemical Processes and
are employed in geotechnical engineering. Some “nano-
Microstructure Interaction
materials” rich in Ca content [79] also act as CSM, and Sabat
[80] suggested these could be used for strength enhance- 5.1. Main Effect of Lime Stabilization. Lime stabilization
ment, plasticity reduction, and limiting swell and shrinkage improves the geotechnical properties by changing the mi-
strains. Also, the mixture of cement, emulsion, and water crostructure and fabric of expansive clays [112] through four
forms evolutive materials such as cold recycled mixtures important reactions [113], i.e., (1) cation exchange, (2)
(CRMs), which are responsible for the long-term properties flocculation-agglomeration, (3) carbonation, and (4) poz-
in the pavement construction [81–83]. zolanic reaction. It is mainly due to the flocculation-ag-
The different CSMs with chemical compositions deter- glomeration reaction that the geotechnical properties of high
mined using X-ray fluorescence (XRF) are listed in Table 3. plasticity clay soils are improved. Because of flocculation, the
The widely used CSMs are lime (CaO≈40-50% and 70-80%), PI and FSI lower down, whereas compression strength and
cement (≈40-50% and 60-70%), FA (<10% and 30%–50%), permeability go up [23, 114–116]. Figure 5 shows that, with
GGBS (≈30–50%), and BA (<5% and 10-20%). The avail- lime treatment, the PI reduces by six times the original and
ability of surplus Ca2+ tends to replace the monovalent so- transforms from CH to ML showing the efficacy of lime
dium or hydrogen ions rapidly especially in a high pH stabilization. The presence of kaolinite, illite, and Mt affects
environment, which gives a higher volumetric stability to the final stabilization and highly governs the stabilizer
expansive soils through ion exchange. This leads to the characteristics, such as dosage methodology, strength gain,
flocculation reaction, which in turn improves the physical and engineering conditions, and curing condition effect [23].
mechanical behavior of the soil and increases the soil strength. The period of curing is an important parameter in
However, calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is produced due achieving long-term compressive (qu) and split tensile
to carbonation of lime which is a source of weakness due to strength (qt), as the pozzolanic reaction progresses to-
its plastic nature which increases the plasticity of expansive wards completion [54, 63, 117]. The strength gain with 4%
soils [23]. Modarres and Nosoudy [87] stated that CaCO3 lime and curing at 28 days for quartz, kaolinite, and Mt
formation is related to presence of excess lime and the were recorded as 330%, 230%, and 130%, respectively, in
unavailability of the reactive SiO2 and Al2O3. contrast to samples with 4% lime and tested after one day
The advantages and disadvantages of CSMs are briefly curing [118]. Increased curing duration is an effective
summarized in Table 4, which serves as a guide to deal with approach in reducing the swell potential of expansive soils
CSM stabilization of expansive clays, on-site commercially treated with lime. At same water content in the modified
and in the laboratory for research. compaction test, an increase of 133% in UCS is observed
8 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Table 4: Summary of advantages and disadvantages of calcium-based stabilizer materials (CSMs).

Stabilizer Advantages Disadvantages
(i) The release of deleterious substances
(i) Long-term strength is achieved as a result
contaminate the underground water. The
of pozzolanic reaction which is time-
“ultimate” strength gain reaches several
dependent and lasts for longer duration.
years.
(ii) These cause adverse environmental and
(ii) Lime-treated soils undergo immediate
economic concerns by vast CO2 emissions.
modification resulting in a relatively denser
At early modification stages, lime makes the
microstructure and higher strength.
soil less dense.
(iii) In viewpoint of economy, usually small (iii) The variation in site conditions with
Ca based materials (CSMs): lime
amount of material is required as compared those simulated in a laboratory often leads to
[12, 104–106], cement [107], FA [12, 24], SF
with non-CSMs. marginal errors.
[108], GGBS [109], BA [76, 110], CCR [72],
(iv) The rate of strength gain is much higher (iv) The brittle failure is undesirable with
POFA [111], GSA [93]
and faster in soil stabilized using cement. respect to structural stability.
(v) The PI reduction by lime is the highest for
problematic Mt. Alternatively, using (v) The effect of lime modification in clays
quicklime due to its elevated reaction containing quartz is almost negligible due to
temperature enables stabilization in cold the increased period of curing is essential.
regions.
(vi) The most commonly used materials (vi) Class F fly ash contains low calcium and
comprising aluminosilicates include GGBS thus requires an activator in order to be used
and fly ash. as the stabilizer material.

60 The SEM micrographs in Figure 6 show a variety of samples

were stabilized with 8% lime and (20% pozzolan + 8% lime)
50 blend, respectively, and upon 7 days curing, the particles of
e

clay soils become coarser at microlevel. The 8% lime

in

e
in
”l

”l
“U

“A treatment contains coarse soil matrix, illustrated in Area 3,

H
Plasticity index (PI)

40
O

and is attributed to plasticity reduction.

R
O
CH

30
It is important to determine how efficient lime acts when
it is used as a potential CSM. The suitability of lime in silica-
rich soils, soil containing gypsum, sulfate-rich soils, and
L

20
O

MH OR OH Fe2O3-rich soils is briefly discussed. In order to analyze the

R
O
CL

efficacy of lime as the stabilizer material, the ratio between

10
7 ML OR OL lime: silica, lime: alumina, and lime: (silica + alumina), for
4 CL-ML
the poststabilization samples, must be greater. The over
0
0 10 1620 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 dosage of lime is more indicative in SiO2-rich soils, where
Liquid limit (LL) the formation of highly porous silica gel takes place. So, the
Untreated clayey soil strength is substantially undermined due to cementation as
The clayey soil treated with lime alone (A1-swaidani et al. 2016) the excess gel is porous and has a high water holding ca-
pacity. Therefore, it contributes to an overall strength loss
Figure 5: The main and interaction effects of lime in comparison
with untreated soil, on Casagrande’s plasticity chart (with some
and results in higher plasticity and swell potential. In their
modifications in the original figure) [112]. study on soils containing gypsum, lime treatment of 3% was
found as optimum for strength requirement, and thereafter,
the effect reversed [121]. In addition, Shi [122] stated that, for
for cement-treated samples cured from 7 days to 28 days SO4-rich soils, the unavailability of hydrated CaO makes
[119]. Ali and Zulfiqar [114] remarked that this behavior is lime a weaker choice too. A variety of soils with large
due to the replacement of hydrated lime Ca(OH)2 with contents of Fe2O3 and lime exhibits poor dispersibility, and
quicklime CaO at earlier days, which in turn intensifies the particle-to-particle bonding is improved, which aids in
the pozzolanic reaction. This observation was also restraining both the FS and Ps [115]. Thus, it can be inferred
depicted from their test results. that lime stabilization of expansive soils ranging from low to
According to Idris and El-Zahhar [120], the micro- high characterization mainly depends on type of clay
structural properties (surface features, size, and shape) of the minerals and environment of lime-soil reactions.
sampled particles of lime stabilized soil are highly dependent
on the curing period. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
determines the effect of stabilizer treatment on morpho- 5.2. Main Effect of Cement and Interaction Effect with Lime.
logical structure with magnifications at micrometer scale. The ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is the “key material” to
Also, by the virtue of chemical analysis, SEM assists in housing and infrastructure worldwide which is also
evaluating the calcium localization on clay particles [118]. employed in soft ground stabilization. But its use is
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 9

SEM micrographs

Untreated clayey soil paste 8% lime-treated clayey soil paste 20% natural pozzolana and 8% lime-treated
(7 days cured) (7 days cured) clayey soil paste (7 days cured)
Figure 6: Microstructural comparison of clay soil paste cured at 7 days (untreated sample, treated with 8% lime, treated with 20%
pozzolan + 8% lime) (modified after [54]).

3500 350
Cement (million ton)

300
3000 250
Cement production (×106 tons)

200
2500 150
100
2000
50
0
1500

Saudi Arabia
China
India
EU
US
Brazil

South Korea
Indonesia
Russia Federation
Japan

Mexico

France
Canada
Argentina
South Africa
UK
Turkey

Germany
Italy
1000

500

0 Country
1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
(a) (b)

Figure 7: Global annual cement production: (a) between 1925–2009 [124]; (b) in different countries [125].

somehow restrained since global warming and rapidly The effect of cement alone on the geotechnical properties
changing climate are challenging global issues of today’s and engineering characteristics is reviewed first. Cement
world [22, 123]. Figure 7 indicates the global annual cement modifies the physical properties of certain waste materials
production between 1925 and 2009 and the cement pro- (e.g., marble industrial waste and bottom ash) and decreases
duction in various countries with China taking the lead as it their toxicity level [128–130]. The plasticity and swell indices
plans to construct 40 billion square meters of floor space lower down, thereby increasing the shear strength param-
until 2036. eters and permeability characteristics. Based on results from
Cement stabilization is specifically recommended and past literature, it is illustrated from Figure 8 that, up to 10%
significantly increases the cohesion, strength, and durability addition of cement and lime each, both Ps and FS values are
of coarse-graded mixtures having a low PI [126]. Zaimoglu reduced considerably. The Ps is necessary to evaluate the
[127] refrained the use of cement owing to its high cost and nature of problem associated with expansive problems. So,
hazardous nature. Cement and lime stabilization are more or in order to study the effect of stabilizers on Ps, almost all
less identical in yielding results with respect to mechanism of curves record to follow similar declining trend, from 500 to
modification since the formation of C-S-H and C-A-H takes 700 kPa, for untreated soil to 170 to 300 kPa, for both lime
place in both cases which form cementitious links with the and cement (10% dosage each), with the least amount of
untreated clay particles. Lime and cement have their own variance between lime and cement [71]. The significant
benefits and ill effects regarding the viewpoint of stabilizing reduction in maximum Ps is observed in the data of
materials. Vijayvergiya and Ghazzallay in contrast to almost identical
10 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

800 35

700 30

600
25
500
Swell pressure (kPa)

20

Free swell (%)

400
15
300
10
200
5
100

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Stabilizer content (%) Stabilizer content (%)
–100 –5

Cement Lime Cement Lime

Komornik and David (1969) Komornik and David (1969) Komornik and David (1969) Komornik and David (1969)
Vijayvergiya and Ghazzalay (1973) Vijayvergiya and Ghazzalay (1973) Vijayvergiya and Ghazzalay (1973) Vijayvergiya and Ghazzalay (1973)
Nayak and Chirisstensen (1974) Nayak and Chirisstensen (1974) Nayak and Chirisstensen (1974) Nayak and Chirisstensen (1974)
Al-rawas and A.W. Hago (2005) Al-rawas and A.W. Hago (2005) Al-rawas and A.W. Hago (2005) Al-rawas and A.W. Hago (2005)
Turkoz and Tuson (2011) Turkoz and Tuson (2011) Turkoz and Tuson (2011) Turkoz and Tuson (2011)

Figure 8: Main effect of both cement and lime on the plot of swelling pressure and free swell, from past literature.

values reported by Turkoz and Tuson [131], when consid- cement alone treatment [116]. The PI decreases by 60%, and
ering the initial and final Ps values on each curve. On the the Ps drops by 82% when (5% lime + 3% cement) blend is
contrary, the treatment of lime and cement within range of 2 used to modify medium expansive soil extracted from depth
to 10% dosage level indicates that FS curves experience wide [71]. The Ps value is recorded to decrease from 249 kPa for
variance. The trend shown by Komornik and David is most untreated soil to 45 kPa for (5% lime + 3% cement) blend.
significant, witnessing almost 6 times reduction among Their combined effect on geotechnical properties is also
untreated and highest dosage values, in contrast to results summarized succinctly in Table 5.
obtained by Turkoz and Tuson which changes from 20% to Recently, it is found that recycled cement can be yielded
merely 15%. Moreover, the remaining three curves for lime by burning old OPC pastes at elevated temperatures of 450°C
and cement are seen to follow a similar trend which illus- (RC-450), which will lower down the CO2 emission by 94%,
trates an intermediate effect on the reduction of FS values. attaining an equivalent strength of OPC. It is obvious from
Lastly, it can be seen in Figure 8 that the stabilization surface morphology studies by SEM that CO2 is reduced by
mechanism of lime and cement for each specified treatment (1) formation of calcium carboaluminate and (2) C-S-H gels
resembles each other, with cement proving to be more ef- containing calcite, as both are evidenced in the SEM mi-
fective in terms of minimizing the swell. Note that, by using crographs in Figures 9(a) and 9(b), and in the EDX analyses
9% lime alone, the Ps becomes zero and the effect on in Figures 9(c) and 9(d), respectively. In the plots between
plasticity value is almost the same as recorded for the case of energy on abscissa and counts on ordinate, the peaks for only
lime-cement mix [132]. calcite, silica, and alumina are shown with almost no traces
The CKD is fine-grained powder-like dust material of other problematic clay minerals [94, 144]. Figures 9(a)
obtained as a by-product from the manufacturing of cement and 9(b) also reveal the formation of portlandite and
[133]. It contains traces of reactive CaO and alkaline ettringite with a honey-combed structure in the micrograph
compounds and is therefore highly fine to be used as the of OPC being transformed into a denser structure with
effective soil stabilizing agent. However, the properties of newly formed carboaluminate at 4 μm magnification level. It
CKD largely differ depending upon the manufacturing plant, is therefore to say that RC-450 (1) is richer in calcium
cement kiln type, and the characteristics of raw materials carbonate amount, (2) has densely arranged nanoparticles,
employed in cement production [12, 134, 135]. Its pro- and (3) has no portlandite content. Kolias et al. [99] de-
duction is estimated to be approximately 30 million tons per lineated that tobermorite formation leads to a denser and
year, across the globe, of which 80% causes an environ- stable soil structure.
mental threat and is not safely disposed [97]. Many re- The thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) measures change
searchers have suggested its use as potential stabilizer for in mass of a material as a function of either temperature or
clayey soils. The (volcanic ash + 20% CKD) stabilizer mix time and is capable to quantify phase compositions in
will yield a significant improvement in mechanical prop- ettringite, portlandite, gehlenite, and calcite [145]. The re-
erties [136] and pronounced increase in CBR values (above sults of TGA in Figure 9(e) show that CO2 fixation (that is to
80%); therefore, Yu et al. [91] found it suitable for the combat the challenge of global warming [146]) in case of RC-
construction of economical building units and small-scale 450 is low (75%) in contrast with that of a higher value for
roadways. OPC (87%) at same temperature. The trend of reducing
In terms of the final stabilization effects, the interaction weight loss with temperature thus signals a low CO2 fixation
effect of cement with lime is more efficacious than lime or value for RC-450. This shows the significant effect of recycled
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 11

Table 5: A succinct list of research conducted on Ca-based stabilizer materials for different expansive soils across the world.
Expansive soil properties Stabilizer
Location of
LL PL PI MDD OMC Optimum Properties improved
expansive soil Gs Activity USCS Type
(%) (%) (%) (kN/m3) (%) amount
5% L + 3% C.
Other studies:
2% L + 1% C
[94]
Lime (L), Ps↓ � 249 to 45 kPa
Oman, Al- 4% L + 30% red
2.80 50 29.5 20.5 1.03 MH 17.5 21 cement (C), PI↓ � 20 to 8%
Khoud [71] mud [137]
pozzolan (P) Ps↓ � by 840%
8% L + 4% C
[71]
8% L + 20% P
[84]
Fly ash (F),
LL↓, PI↓, PL↑ UCS
China, Hefei, sand (S), 10% F + 8%
2.71 42.8 22 20.8 — MH 17.3 18.9 ↑ � 345 to 900 kPa (with
Anhui [138] basalt fiber S + 0.4% B
0.4% Ba fibers)
(B)
Lime (L) and 5, 10, 15, and
USA, Idabel, Shrinkage↓ � maximum
— 79 25 54 1.30 CH — — Class C fly 20% [54]
Oklahoma [121] at 20% lime
ash (CFA) L and CFA each
India, Calcutta 20% mixture of UCS↑ � 270 to 450 kPa
Fly ash (F)
(80% BC + 20% F and G [121] (28 days curing)
2.66 78 45 33 3 CH — — and GGBS
Na-bentonite) (F:G 70 : Addition of 1%
(G)
[95] 30) + 1% L Lime: 270 to 875 kPa
25% B (modest
Bagasse ash effect on MDD↓, swelling↓
Australia,
2.65 86 37 49 1.66 CH 12.65 36.5 (B) and lime strength) UCS↑ (0–25% BA + lime
Queensland [68]
(L) 10%B + 10% L mix)
[95]
4-6 % B
Bagasse ash B: swelling↓, UCS↑
8–10% M [140]
Pakistan, Kohat (B) and till 5% B, MDD5%↑
2.71 43 41 22 0.6 CL 18.1 14.9 Combined effect:
city, KPK [139] marble dust M: swelling↓, UCS↑
8% B + 16% lime
(M) [68] At 10% M, MDD4%↑
sludge [139]
UCS↑ (strength of cured
India, Dadri
sample > uncured
(100% Dadri fly ash 10–15% [141]
2.71 412 60 352 3.5 CH 12.6 41.0 samples)
bentonite) Dadri and lime (L) (with 3% L)
Ps � ↓(as F and L content
[96]
increases)
Models developed which
Ps versus ω,
China, Guangxi needs to be validated due
2.73 77 34 43 — CH 17.2 — MDD —
province [14] to lack of experimental
relation
results
12% P and L
Portland PI:↓, methylane blue
Algeria, S-H each. (lime is a
— 84 33 51 1.98 CH 19.7 19.43 cement (P) values↑, CBR↓, shear
clay, M’sila [142] much better
and lime (L) strength↑
option)
With coal: less effect on
Coal ash (C)
Iran, taleghan properties
— 47 21 26 <1 CL 16.4 18.0 and hydrated 9% C + 6% HL
city [87] coal + h. lime, UCS↑
lime (HL)
PI↓, CBR↑
Sewage
Taiwan, taipei 8% admixture
— 30 20 10 >1 CL 16.6 16.8 sludge ash (S) CBR↑, UCS↑, PI↓
[137] (S:L 4 : 1)
and lime (L)
10% F (F: SiO2 is
Ps↓ (50% to 70%),
Sudan, 54%, alumina
2.64 76 24 52 1.3 CH 1.49 26.0 Fly ash (F) at 25% F, Ps↓ (90%),
Khartoum [123] 34%, CaO is
UCS↑ (almost 100%)
3.6%)
Brazil, curitiba UCS (by 75%)
2.71 53 32 21 <1 MH 13.8 28.5 Lime (L) 9% L
city [143] Porosity↓, MDD↑
Dolomite L
Increase in pH↑
Spain, Granada Lime (L), (effective as
69 48 21 1.4 CH 15.7 40 Increase in CO3↑
[21] steel slag (S) commercial L) S:
UCS↑, plasticity↓
also good
↑ represents an increase; ↓ represents a decrease, in the corresponding property.
12 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

SEM micrographs Thermogravimetric analysis results
100

90

Weight (%)
80
Higher CO2
70 fixation in RC-450°C paste

60

50
200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (°C)
OPC paste
RC-450°C paste
(a) (e)

EDX analysis 
EDX position (d) 50 50
O O
40 40

30 Si 30
Ca
Counts

Counts
Ca
C Si
20 C Al 20

10 Ca 10
EDX position (c)
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Energy (KeV) Energy (KeV)
(b) (c) (d)

Figure 9: Comparison of SEM micrographs and TGA along with EDX analysis on specified locations for OPC and recycled cement (RC)
450°C (modified after [129]).

cement at an elevated temperature on the microstructure of Fly ash is a geopolymer, i.e., a cementitious additive
expansive clay soil. So, cement proves to be more efficacious capable of reacting with H2O in the presence of alkaline
in controlling swell potential, and it is obvious that the activators [96]. Activation of FA prior to stabilization
mechanism of cement and lime stabilization of soils follows using different activators (such as NaOH, Na2SO4, and
a similar pattern and yields identical results. K2SO4) is necessary for their performance. In order to
elevate the pH environment, generally 1% CaO is in-
corporated in the industrial wastes for initiating the
5.3. Main Effect of Fly Ash and Interaction with Lime and chemical reaction. The cementitious nature lacks because
Cement. Fly ash (FA) controls the swell potential in ex- the CaO content in FA is less than 10% although the Al2O3
pansive soils [24, 137] and is classified into several types and SiO2 contents are generally high. Therefore, lime,
based on the source of extraction and nature of pozzolanic cement, or GGBS are incorporated to enhance the poz-
behavior. The ASTM categorizes the noncrystalline FA into zolanic behavior of FA [149].
Class N, Class F, and Class C [71], represented here as NFA, Of all ASTM types of FA, the CFA proves to significantly
FFA, and CFA, respectively. One advantage inherent to FA is improve the expansivity. This results in decreasing perme-
its pozzolanic nature. CFA is obtained when subbituminous ability, PI, FS, and Ps of soft clays [12, 95, 150]. The ce-
coal is burnt in plants, while generating electricity [129]. This mentation in expansive clays stabilized with lime, lime-FA,
form of CFA is being considered as an additive with high- and OPC is associated with formation, setting, and inter-
calcium fly ash (HCFA) in conjunction with other catalytic growth of gelatinous reaction products (such as crystalline,
binders and a waste material rich in silica-alumina to de- hydrous calcium silicates, and aluminates). Figure 10
velop a new cold mixture for asphalt binders and emulsion highlights the particulate characteristics of four types of
mixtures in pavement design and practice [147]. In India pozzolan. The environmental scanning electron microscopy
alone, as of 2005, according to Dahale [97] the total pro- (ESEM) is an advanced form of SEM [151]. It is shown in
duction of FA reached 75M tons/year, 92% of which would Figure 10 that trass pozzolan (T) has the capability to absorb
go useless in contrast with findings of He et al. [129] for the large amount of water in contrast to tuff pozzolan (A)
western countries, stating the effective utilization of 70% of exhibiting roundish and rough surface which witnesses a
total FA produced. In the Table 3, Kate reported the FA with lower water uptake, owing to their mineral shape, size, and
CaO approximately equals to 49% [96]. It can be observed orientation. The subsequent increase in angularities of
from the table that all FA types have silica + alumina + iron pozzolan K (sharp edged, split-like grains, more even, and
oxide content exceeding 80% and is therefore defined as dense structural surface) and P (sharp-edged, split-like
“pozzolan”, according to ASTM [148]. grains, glassy-like, and even more even and dense surface)
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 13

Trass pozzolan (T) Tuff pozzolan (A)

Roundish, edge-rich grain
Roundish, rough SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3
habitus. More coarse grains
surface 66% + 12% + 3% 73% + 12% + 2%

(a) (b)

Pumice pozzolan (K) Sharp-edged, split-like grains Pumice pozzolan (P)

SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 Glass-like, very even, and more SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3
Sharp-edged, split-like grains dense surface
59% + 17% + 5% 65% + 16% + 4%
More even and dense surface

(c) (d)

Figure 10: Environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) images of various types of pozzolans providing an insight to particulate
characteristics (reproduced from research study by [121] with some modifications).

(Figures 10(c) and 10(d), respectively) also leads to reduced increasing OMC whereas accounts for a reduction in MDD
water penetration [121]. in the presence of sand, which acts as the filler material to
In addition, the indirect tensile strength of specimen improve compaction characteristics due to capillary bridge.
stabilized with FA can be calculated, which is helpful for soils Also, by keeping FA content constant and increasing the
subjected to traffic load, differential temperature, and/or amount of sand, the results were inversed. In terms of
nonuniform settlement, and an equation is employed on the strength characteristics evaluation, a highest UCS value is
basis of which a correlation (25% FA treatment) has been attained with an addition of 10% FA and 8% sand in the
developed to determine the Brazilian tensile strength (BTS), expansive soil sample, which is attributed to C-S-H gel and
using the unconfined compression strength (UCS) value, in AFt phase formation because of FA hydration and thus
equation (8) [152]. For a given value of LL, the PI can be significantly improving cohesion between clayey particles.
directly evaluated using correlation suggested in equation The CFA has been used in conjunction with cement and
(9) and can further be used to determine BTS from the waste gypsum [97], and the maximum UCS is achieved at 28
derived equation (10), after original equations by past days (0.36 MPa to 3.49 MPa) with strength reporting to be
researchers: decreased by 36% at 56 days. While dealing with coal ash, the
probable chromium (Cr) and lead [97] concentration is to be
BTS � 0.026 × UCS1.116 , (8)
kept in limits [154]. According to Kolias et al. [99], the FA
increases the tobermorite formation which enhances the
PI � 0.11 × LL2 , (9) strength, while further addition of cement provides im-
proved setting and hardening. The mixture of cement-FA
BTS � 0.0012 × PI0.558 . (10) yields high early and final strength for treated soils. The FA
less than 50% is optimum and. achieves the highest UCS and
The main and interaction effects of FA are briefly dis- shear strength values. However, the strength drops beyond
cussed. According to Kommu et al. [153], the FA aids in this threshold.
14 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

Table 6: Comparison of lime-activated GGBS (LAS) and lime-activated Portland cement (LPC), in perspective of stabilization.
Soaked in Na2SO4 for 120 days C-S-H formation C-S-H formation Compressive strength
LAS∼LPC-treated clay
(durability check) (before soaking) (after soaking) (start till soaking)
LAS-treated clays No cracks, more durable More Less Steady drop (775 kPa to 625 kPa)
LPC-treated clays Extensive cracks, less durable Less More Sharp loss in strength gain (after 28 days)
LAS: lightweight alkali-activated GGBS; LPC: lightweight Portland cement.

5.4. Main Effect of GGBS and Interaction Effect with Lime and prices and/or unavailability of lime in some places, the
Cement. The ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) is GGBS-FA mix binder is cost-effective and significantly re-
a prominent industrial waste that helps in giving long-term duces the burden on environment [161].
strength to problematic soils [155, 156], and sometimes, it is
also used as a replacement of cement due to its high ce-
mentitious nature. Unlike lime, the GGBS is far more ef- 5.5. Main Effect of Bagasse Ash and Interaction Effect with
ficacious to stabilize the sulfate bearing soils. Much has been Lime and Cement. The bagasse ash is a waste in the form of
learnt about the physical, mechanical, and hydraulic be- agricultural byproducts which is obtained from sugarcane
havior of clayey soils stabilized using GGBS and their ac- industry. The juice extracted from sugarcane forms a mass
tivation with lightweight alkalis (lightweight alkali-activated resembling fiber called “bagasse.” When bagasse is burnt, an
GGBS (LAS)). As shown in Table 6, use of this particular ash is produced in the form of fine residue, with coarse-
CSM experiences no cracks visible to naked eye when dipped grained structure and lower Gs value than that of soil, termed
in sodium sulfate solution for four months, thereby yielding as “bagasse ash [95].” The BA is a serious issue and is usually
a higher compressive strength [157, 158]. It can also be dumped without any economic value. Being rich in SiO2
observed that C-S-H formation before soaking in case of content, it is used as a pozzolanic material because the
LAS-treated clays is in more quantity than that of LPC- amount of alumina, silica, and calcium oxide exceeds 70%.
treated clays, and after soaking, it is vice versa. The LAS- ASTM defines such materials as Class N or Class F pozzolan,
treated clays are more durable and experience fewer number while if the accumulated percentage exceeds 50%, then it is
of cracks when dipped in sodium sulfate solution for 120 categorized as Class C pozzolan [149]. In addition, it has
days, in contrast with LPC-treated clays which are less been confirmed from leaching tests on expansive soil sta-
durable and witness more cracks. bilized with bagasse ash that it is suitable for stabilization of
The role of GGBS, alone and in combination with FA and road subgrades owing to its nonhazardous nature [162, 163].
lime, in affecting the engineering characteristics is of vital The addition of BA reduces the PI, swell, alkalinity of soil
importance to soil engineers, practitioners, and scientists. matrix, and cation exchange value while increases the
According to Sivapullaiah [159], the slags with a larger CaCO3 content and the total soluble solids [3].
amount of Ca2+ ions (such as in the case of GGBS) than Na2+ The improvement mechanism of BA is identical to the
ions, such as Cu slags, tend to minimize swell potential more chemical reaction involved in cement stabilization. The clay
effectively. It suggests that suitability of stabilizer is highly reacts with lime and BA resulting in flocculation and the
dependent on its chemical composition. In addition, Sharma cation exchange phenomenon that is a “short-term reac-
and Sivapullaiah [95] and Jiang et al. [160] employed GGBS tion.” Then, the formation of C-S-H and C-A-H gels takes
for investigating effects on expansive soils to control the place, due to the pozzolanic reaction, giving “long-term
uncontrollable swelling, mainly occurring in sulfate-rich strength” to the soils [164, 165]. However, the strength gain
soils upon CaO or cement addition, concluding that GGBS is and durability are quite low when BA is used alone for
a suitable material for pavement stabilization, owing to its purpose of stabilization. However, it effectively lowers the
high wear resistance. The use of GGBS in combination with PI, FS, and Ps values [68]. The UCS of high expansive soil,
lime and RHA (20%, 5%, and 10%, respectively) is effective, when treated with 0.5% BA + 6.25% lime mix and cured for
as plasticity reduces drastically by 67% and the strength three days, witnessed a dramatic increase of almost 96% as
increases by 95% in contrast to that of virgin soil [98]. compared to when no lime treatment was done. Similarly,
Moreover, considering the wide variation in properties of for the same dosage levels of stabilizer contents cured for 28
GGBS and FA, for instance, the deficiency of CaO in FA and days, the percentage increase in strength was about 150%,
the excess of CaO in GGBS make their “interaction effect” as reflecting the effectiveness of curing in the strength gain
superadvantageous, in terms of treating expansive soil. With process [166]. The MDD drops, and the OMC rises when
using almost 10% steel slag, the MDD is expected to rise and (8% BA + 16% lime sludge) mix is incorporated in expansive
the UCS also increases by 50%. However, beyond this soil (LL � 60%, PI � 28%, Ps � 128 kN/m2) [167]. In Fig-
amount, the strength loss is reported at a much slower rate. ure 11, the increase in RHA from 0 to 7.5% indicates a
Also, the reduction of 70% in PI is recorded at 30% steel slag gradual increase in the UCS and later drops when further
content. Moreover, by using 20% optimum blend of GGBS increased up to 12.5%. The trend of CDA is almost similar to
and FA for stabilization of high plastic clays along with 1% that of SCBA. In contrast, following the same pattern, RHA
lime, the test results indicate reduction in LL and PI, whereas experiences a sharp rate of strength gain and strength loss.
shrinkage limit, MDD, UCS, and amount of C-S-H gel Therefore, it can be concluded that BA is a less effective
produced are significantly increased. Despite high cement stabilizer and its performance is highly improved when lime
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 15

2.5

21

UCS (g/cc)
1.5

0.5

0
0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5
Percentage replacement of soil with ash
RHA
SCBA
CDA
Figure 11: Stabilization of subgrade soil in India using indigenous nonplastic materials such as rice husk ash (RHA), sugarcane bagasse ash
(SCBA), and cow dung ash (CDA). The in situ soil (depth of 1.5 m–2.5 m was intermediate plastic clay (figure taken from [168]).

is added to it, and the curing period is increased up to 28 avoid polluting the environment [93]. Addition of GSA to
days. black cotton soil (LL � 83.36% and PI � 89.32%) significantly
improved the compaction and strength characteristics.
However, it cannot be used as standalone stabilizer for road
5.6. Efficacy of Other Eco-Friendly Stabilizer Materials. construction owing to the smaller value of CBR after sta-
The extent of other CSMs cannot comprehensively be bilization [175]. Venkatraman et al. [176] concluded from
enclosed in one research paper; however, few eminent his study on the settlement behavior of clayey soil using the
materials are presented in this section, for instance, calcium plate load test that the GSA stabilization enhances the ul-
carbon residue (CCR), groundnut shell ash (GSA), and timate bearing capacity. GSA and cement increased the
sewage sludge ash (SSA). optimum moisture content [177] whereas slightly decreased
When acetylene is burnt, calcium carbon residue (CCR) the dry density as well as the modulus of elasticity of soil. The
is produced. It is deleterious in nature but rich in lime [138] (2% GSA + 0.1% cement) blend may be used as a feasible
content; therefore, it can be used to modify the properties of alternative in pavement construction and for stabilizing soil
expansive soils [169]. The stabilization with CCR achieves where load is emplaced [103]. The GSA with dosage levels
better results than with lime from the viewpoint of economy increased from 4% to 6% was applied to low plasticity clay
and environment [170]. Horpibulsuk categorized the and a rise of 15% in UCS at 7 days was recorded, which fell
strength development of CCR-stabilized soils into three short of standard requirement for stabilization of base
zones, namely, active, inert, and deterioration zones. Only materials [178]. Behnood [12] enumerated that 8% GSA is
the first two zones are beneficial with respect to strength helpful in mitigating the swell by effectively lowering down
improvement. In the first zone (i.e., CCR less than 7%), the the PI value.
natural pozzolanic material is sufficient for the pozzolanic SSA resembles FA in terms of cementitious nature has a
reaction. Hence, the FA is not required to further improve higher percentage of Ca2+ in SSA (8%) than in FA (3 to 5%)
the strength. But, in the inert zone (i.e., CCR between 7% [162] and acts as an efficient stabilizer. Sewage sludge
and 11%), the strength gain is achieved by adding FA which blended with coal fly ash (CFA) can lower the availability of
helps in densification and speeding up the pozzolanic re- heavy metals such as Cu, Zn, and Cd in the sludge [179].
action [78]. Moreover, Somna et al. [171] utilized CCR-RHA Behnood [12] outlined that SSA effectively modifies the
mix and recorded 22% increase in the UCS upon curing properties of CL soil by increasing their UCS, CBR, cohe-
from 28 days to 180 days. These materials are also employed sion, and shear strength while reducing the swelling and
for yielding high strength concrete in construction. In ad- angle of internal friction [180]. The UCS of specimens was
dition, BA and CCR are mixed in combination for making improved 3–7 times by using incinerated sewage sludge ash
the stabilized mix more ductile. In the stabilization of soft (ISSA) and cement. Also, the swelling behavior was reduced
Bangkok clay, the pozzolanic reaction intensified as the by 10–60%, and the improvement in the CBR values was up
amorphous Si from BA was dissolved in alkaline environ- to 30 times [181]. 8% SSA + lime can change untreated
ment and reacted with the CCR [172]. With 8% CCR expansive from weak subgrade soil to better subgrade soil in
treatment, for no BA content and with 9% BA after 36 days road construction [137].
curing, the change in UCS was as high as 400% [173].
Ground nuts are grown in abundance in different re-
6. Discussion
gions of the world approximately 20,000,000 hectares per
annum [174]. The use of GSA, a form of agricultural waste, is It has been evolved to this day that the evaluation of
useful in waste management. It needs to be safely disposed to stabilization of expansive soils is well documented in a
16 Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

series of diverse philosophies laid down, wherein a variety structure [122] and (2) increase in calcium to silica ratio.
of CSM have been employed for stabilizing low to high According to Dash and Hussain [115], these studies are in
range expansive soils. However, one significant short- good agreement with those observed for microstructural
coming associated with the use of CSM is the increased behavior of expansive soils. Thus, lime stabilization is fea-
brittleness; therefore, several stabilized elements are in- sible for SiO2-rich soils, soils having gypsum, and the soils
corporated to overcome this problem [173]. The two containing iron with varying optimum percentage of lime
prominent and conventional CSMs, lime and cement, for each, depending on presence of respective ingredient.
witness brittle failure in the modified soil matrix system. However, in SO4-rich soils, the use of lime is not recom-
Lime stabilization is commonly and widely used for road mended since there is no hydrated calcium oxide available.
pavements. According to findings of Bell [117] and Because when in absence of sulfates, the CEC of the soil
Mukhtar et al. [118], the optimum percentage of lime (for greatly depends on its negatively charged particles [182].
pH � 12.4) ranges between 4% and 8%, depending upon Thus, it can be inferred that lime stabilization of expansive
the soil conditions and type of soil. However, if used in soils is mainly function of environment of lime-soil reactions
excess that is 6% and more, Tran et al. [119] emphasized and type of clay minerals.
that lime treatment may undergo significant reduction in For cement versus lime stabilization, it is often mis-
compressive and shear strength (of up to 30%, or even interpreted that both stabilizers are identical in yielding
more) because of requirement of large amount of water results in terms of C-S-H and C-A-H formation, but cement
and higher initial porosity. As a result, the unconsumed proves to be a relatively better choice. Few common char-
hydrated lime becomes unreactive in the strength gain acteristics related to the cement stabilization are briefly
process [120]. Cement provides the highest strength discussed. Cement assists in minimizing the toxicity level
among other CSMs, whereas lime containing excess of free from certain wastes, for instance, agricultural or industrial
lime is suitable for materials with PI > 10% as the free lime waste, and causes reduction in PI and swell potential.
reacts with clay particles to reduce the plasticity. Lime Generally, 10% cement is considered as optimum for
cement blends are usually limited to stabilize materials treating medium to high expansive soils, whereas the var-
with PI < 10%. The strength achieved depends on amount iation in improvement widely varies when it is used between
of stabilizing agent incorporated and the type of material 2–10% because of varying soil type, weathering effects, and
treated. However, excessive cement may be detrimental period of curing. Cement is not used for soils with PI higher
for the subgrade performance as it could form semibrittle than 30%. Therefore, lime is usually added to the soil prior to
materials [13]. cement mixing for workability. Cement reduces swell more
The results of XRD and XRF of lime-treated soils effectively than lime does. It can be inferred that (i) the rate
revealed the significant mineralogical changes upon treat- of decrease for both FS and Ps with the addition of 2%
ment. The long-term strength is improved when curing is cement is significant. An increase up to 12% cement causes
done, and the strength increase upon treatment of 4% lime uniform and gradual reduction in Ps and a relatively non-
in low swelling clays (i.e., kaolinite) is the highest in uniform but a gradual decrease in FS. Also, the modification
comparison to the lowest strength for the case of high mechanism of cement and lime is more or less similar
swelling clay minerals (e.g., Mt). This is associated with the because C-S-H and C-A-H gels formation leads to ce-
replacement of calcium hydroxide with calcium oxide at the mentitious links with the untreated expansive soil particles
early stages of lime mixing with the soil. According to particularly containing organic matter. [183] A general in-
Behnood [12], soil stabilization with lime in the regions creasing trend is observed in UCS values with higher CKD
exposed to severe weathering is less effective (at low lime content along with the curing time for problematic soil (with
content) because the beneficial effect of lime stabilization in a potential for a time-dependent increase in strength). So,
reducing the swell potential of lime-treated soil is reduced in strength increases with more curing. Therefore, further
this condition. However, for many other scenarios, lime studies on longer curing times and possibly increased CKD
stabilization of expansive soils is still regarded as an effective contents are required. CKD, volcanic ash, and their mixes
approach to minimize the swelling potential. According to are helpful in reducing cost of construction of small-scale
Dafalla et al. [104], when laminated clay is stabilized using houses and pavements, in terms of strength and durability
lime, the PI value reduces more effectively for soils con- aspects [171]. It is important to mention here that blend of
taining calcic Mt or sodic Mt than clays with kaolinite. 5% lime and 3% cement will effectively reduce the PI by 60%
However, Al-Rawas [71] argue that lime modification may and Ps by 82%. Thus, cement is more efficacious in con-
be unsuitable for soils with content of Mt in excess of 40%, trolling swell potential although the mechanism behind
which is having 8% as the optimum lime dosage level. It is stabilizing soils by cement and lime follows a similar pattern
explained by the notion that, with increase in Mt percentage and results in general.
in the clay fraction, a simultaneous increase in volumetric Fly ash less than 50% is suffice for increasing the OMC
strain is also accompanied, depicting the effect of miner- and reducing the MDD in expansive soils, thereby achieving
alogical properties of expansive clay on long-term charac- higher UCS and shear strength values. But a successful
teristics of chemical stabilizer materials. The microstructural treatment requires an alkali activator due to the inherent
characteristics indicate that PI is significantly increased with lack of calcium oxide (less than 10%) in FA. It is said that 1%
8% lime due to [50] formation of C-S-H and C-A-H gels lime is suited for compensation, but the rate of increase of
[117], which fill the pores in clays with discontinuous OMC and MDD is still important. While modifying the
Advances in Materials Science and Engineering 17

capacity against expansion, FA is also proven to increase the (2) Along with the microstructure effects, the rate of
strength of expansive soils, such as adding 10%. But an hydration and pozzolanic reactions in the poly-
optimized dosage for a joint application, for example, both merization process and cementation play a major
increasing UCS while reducing expansion is still open for role in the required duration and condition of soil
further investigation leading to introduction of multipur- curing. Before soil stabilization with the selected
pose FAs. To this end, modified FAs, such as CFA, FA-sand- CSM, an optimum dosage and methodology of
marble dust, and variety of similar materials are incorpo- practical application on the host soil should be
rated to reduce the PI, FS, and Ps of soils as feasible mixtures characterized.
in practice as, for example, in flexible pavement where both (3) In accordance with the past literature, Table 5 is
strength and expansion are significant. created with the knowledge of the variety of ex-
The ground-granulated blast furnace slag is another pansive soils across the globe using different CSMs in
highly cementitious one, and it also needs an activator, order to quantify the main and interaction effects of
generally with lightweight alkali. GGBS lacks binder leading the type of stabilizers in terms of the applicable host
to a more CaO presence compared with lime which due to soil, optimum CSM dosage incorporated, and the
less cementitious nature has less CaO content. As a result, associated improved properties.
both GGBS and lime are used in conjunction, and it is
(4) Despite cement being the widely used CSM, con-
established that 20% GGBS and 1% lime will effectively
sidering the expenses and challenge of CO2 emission
reduce LL and PI and increase the MDD, UCS, and C-S-H
and associated toxicity levels in treated soils, lime
formation. The ground basic oxygen furnace slag (GBOFS)
alongside other pozzolans (FA, BA, GGBS, CCR,
performs better than the GGBS. In a study by Goodarzi and
GSA, and SSA in order of their practical efficiency) is
Salimi [109], 10% GBOFS is sufficient to eliminate disper-
more beneficial option for stabilizing expansive soils.
sion in soil, whereas a greater percentage of GGBS (i.e.,
20–25%) is required for achieving the same impact. It is In addition, this study identifies research needs for future
attributed to the lower activity (crystalline nature) of GGBS including energy perspectives with respect to sustainable
in contrast to that of GBOFS. One associated shortcoming is local construction and developing a satisfactory protocol
that the ultimate improvement in engineering properties explaining the stabilization mechanisms. The search for
requires still a higher percentage (15–20%) of GBOFS along choosing environmentally friendly biomaterials and nu-
with increased curing time [12]. merous waste materials is still under investigation and is
Owing to its nonhazardous nature and suitability for needed to maintain global sustainability standards.
road subgrades, bagasse ash alone used for stabilizing soil
affects the durability. The improvement mechanism of BA
resembles with that of cement stabilization. For better re-
Conflicts of Interest
sults, lime should be added to the BA. It is observed that The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
0.6% BA and 6.25% lime will increase the strength by 96%
after curing for three days, suggesting that curing plays a
major role. Indicating the fact that BA is a less effective Acknowledgments
stabilizer, its performance is highly improved when lime is
The key project of the National Natural Science Foundation
added to it with increased curing.
of China (Grant no. 41630633) is acknowledged for the fi-
nancial support. The authors would like thank Professor
7. Conclusions and Recommendations Shui Long Shen for his motivation in writing this manuscript
and Engr. Aminul Haque and Engr. Farjad Iqbal for their
This study reviews the trends in stabilization of low to high valuable comments in finalizing this review article. The
expansive soils with Ca-based materials (CSMs). The in- authors also wish to thank the esteemed referees for pro-
fluence of the effectively proven CSMs on the engineering, viding insightful suggestions to improve this manuscript.
geotechnical, and microstructural properties of expansive
soils used in soil stabilization has been evaluated. In addi-
tion, the recent studies stressing the use of more environ- References
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