PG Level Credits: 3 (2+1)

Course Code: EXT-505

Title: CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT
WHY THIS COURSE?
Competent and skilful extension professionals are not naturally born. Their capacities
need to be improved primarily at three different levels:
1. Pre-servicecapacitydevelopment-Undergraduationandpost-graduationstudies
2. Induction capacity development-Just before job entry
3. In-service capacity development-During job
If undergone appropriately, pre-service studies help extension professionals to
mainly acquire knowledge related to development. However, they are not fully ready
for development work with required attitude and skills needed by an organization.
Properly planned and organized induction / in-service capacity building programmes
help them to use development concepts, apply methods, exhibit attitude and skills
required for development work at different levels. In short, the essence of this course is
to make you understand these notions and help you to think up, manage, put into
practice and evaluate capacity development programmes.
AIMOFTHISCOURSE
❖ To understand the concepts of training, capacity building, capacity development
and human resource development in the context of roles and responsibilities of
extension professionals
❖ To discuss capacity development- approaches, strategies, needs assessment
and methods / tolls
❖ To help you devise, organize, implement and evaluate capacity development
programmes
The course is organized as follows:
N Blocks Units
o
1 Introduction 1.CapacityDevelopment-AnOverview
to 2.CapacityDevelopment-ApproachesandStrategies
Capacity 3.Planningand Organization of Capacity Development
Development Programme
2 Capacity 1.CapacityDevelopmentNeedsAssessment-AnOverview
Development 2.CapacityDevelopmentNeedsAssessmentMethods
Needs
Assessment
3 Capacity 1.CapacityDevelopmentInstitutions
Development
Institutions 2.CapacityDevelopmentProjectFormulation
and
Management
4 Capacity 1.CapacityDevelopmentMethodsandTools
Development 2.Evaluation
Process and 3.ImpactAssessment
HRD 4.HumanResourceDevelopment

LEARNINGOUTCOMES
After successful completion of this course, the students are expected to be able to:
- Differentiate between training, capacity building, capacity development and
human resource development
- Explain different levels of capacities, needs assessment approaches & methods,
capacity development methods & tools
- Formulate, implement and evaluate need based capacity development
programmes
BLOCK1: INTRODUCTION TO CAPACITYDEVELOPMENT
Unit1: Capacity Development-An Overview
Training, capacity building, capacity development and HRD-Meaning and
differences; Need and principles of capacity development; Types and levels of
capacities- Institutional capacities (include the rules, regulations and practices that set
the overarching contextual environment), Organisational capacities (how various actors
come together to perform given tasks), Individual capacities (technical, functional and
leadership skills). Types of capacity building - Based on structure (structured, semi-
structured &unstructured), Based on context (orientation, induction and refresher), and
other categories (online, Webinar, distance etc.). Components of capacity
development; Capacity development cycle
Unit2: Capacity Development-Approaches and Strategies
Capacity Development Dilemma- Theory versus Practice, Trainee versus Task,
Structured versus Unstructured, Generic and Specific; Approaches in Capacity
Development - Informative approach, Participatory approach, Experimental
approach/ Experiential, Performance based approach; Capacity Development
Strategies-Academic strategy, Laboratory strategy, Activity strategy, Action strategy,
Personal development strategy, Organizational development strategy.

Unit3: Planning and Organization of Capacity Development Programmes

Steps in Designing and Planning of Capacity Development - Step 1. Select the
participants, Step 2. Determine the participants’ needs, Step 3. Formulate goal and
objectives, Step 4. Outline the content,
Step5.Developinstructionalactivities,Step6.Preparethedesign,Step 7 Prepare evaluation
form, Step 8. Determine follow-up activities; Organizing capacity development
programme; Operational arrangements at different stages- Before the programme,
During the programme, Middle of the programme, At the end of the programme, After
the programme, Follow up; Stakeholders’ responsibilities
BLOCK2: CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT NEEDS ASSESSMENT
Unit1: Planning and Organization of Capacity Development Programmes
Concept of Need Assessment; Approaches in Need Analysis- Performance Analysis,
Task Analysis, Competency Study; Needs Survey
Unit2: Capacity Development Needs Assessment Methods
Data Collection Methods in Identifying Needs - Rational Methods (Observation,
Informal
talks,Complaints,Comparison,Analysisofreport,Opinionpoll,Buzzsession,Analysisof
the new programme), Empirical Methods ( Job analysis, Performance evaluation,
Checklist or Questionnaire Method, Tests, Critical Incident Technique, Card Sort
Method, Focus Group Discussion, Interview, SWOT Analysis); Information and Skills
required in Need Analysis; Identification of Needs through Task Analysis - Task
identification, Task Analysis, Gap Analysis
BLOCK3: CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTIONS AND MANAGEMENT
Unit1: Capacity Development Institutions
Capacity Developer (Trainer): Meaning and concept; Types of Capacity
Developers(regular, ad-hoc, part time, guest and consultants); Roles of Capacity
Developer (explainer, clarifier, supporter, confronter, role model, linker, motivator,
translator/interpreter, change agent);Good Capacity Developer–Qualities, skills and
roles Qualities, Skills (Intrapersonal & Inter personal), Roles (Manager, Strategist, Task
Analyst, Media Specialist,
InstructionalWriter,Marketer,Facilitator,Instructor,Counsellor,TransferAgent,
Evaluator); Capacity Development Centres and Locations; Organisation’s Role in
Capacity Development
Unit2: Capacity Development Project Formulation
Project Proposal: Concept and Meaning; Steps in Project Formulation- Review of past
proposals, Consulting experts, consultants, and previous organizers, Review past
project evaluation reports, Interact with the prospective beneficiaries; Format for
Writing Project Proposal (LFA)
BLOCK4: CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS AND HRD
Unit1: Capacity Development Methods and Tools
Capacity Development Methods –Lecture, Discussion, Syndicate, Seminars,
Conference, Symposium, Role Play, Case study, Programmed Instruction, T-
group/Laboratory methods; Factors Determining Selection of Methods - Capacity
development objectives, subject matter, categories of participants, and the available
resources like time, location, budget; Capacity Development Aids.
Unit2: Evaluation
Capacity Development Programme Evaluation - Meaning & Importance; Purpose of
Evaluation; Principles of Evaluation; Types of Evaluation – Formative, Summative,
Kirkpatrick's four levels of evaluation; Process of Evaluation- Evaluation at the
beginning, Evaluation during the programme, Evaluation at the end; Use of evaluation
findings; Statistical Tools for evaluation.

Unit3: Impact Assessment

Impact Assessment- Meaning, Need, Features, Benefits, Concepts; Indicators for
Impact Assessment - Direct indicators, Indirect or proxy indicators, Quantitative
indicators, Qualitative indicators, Result chain/ hierarchy of indicators; Methods of
Impact Evaluation- Learning retention of participants (KOSA), Impact on the job
performance, Impact on organizational effectiveness, Impact on stakeholder’s
competency.
Unit4: Human Resource Development
HRD: Meaning, Importance and Benefits; Types of HRD Systems & Sub-systems
Career system (Manpower planning, Recruitment, Career planning, Succession
planning, Retention), Work system (Role analysis, Role efficacy, Performance plan,
Performance feedback and guidance, Performance appraisal, Promotion, Job rotation,
Reward), Development system (Induction, Training, Job enrichment, Self-learning
mechanisms, Potential appraisal, Succession development, Counseling, Mentor
system), Self-renewal system (Survey, Action research, Organizational development
interventions), Culture system ( Vision, mission and goals, Values, Communication, Get
together and celebrations, Task force, Small groups); Components of HRD System -
Performance Appraisal, Potential Appraisal, Task System, Development System,
Socialization System, Governance; Functions of HRD-Organisational Development,
Career Development, Capacity Development.
PRACTICALS
1. Capacity development needs assessment exercise
2. Capacity development project formulation exercise
3. Planningorganizingandconductinganextensioncapacitydevelopmentprogramme
➢ Designing a programme
➢ Writing learning objectives
➢ Developing objectives in to curriculum
➢ Training plan
➢ Organizing capacity development work shop
➢ Evaluation with pre & post training tests
4. Trainingmethods–Practicingeachmethodmentionedincontentsasgroupexercise
TEACHINGMETHODS/ACTIVITIES
- Lecture
- Assignment (Reading/Writing)
- Student’s Book/Publication Review
- Student presentation
- Groupwork
- Case Analysis
- Guest Lectures
- Review of training manuals and training evaluation studies
- Short attachments to a nearby training institute.

BLOCK1: INTRODUCTION TO CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT

Unit1: Capacity Development - An Overview
Training, capacity building, capacity development and HRD-Meaning and
differences; Need and principles of capacity development; Types and levels of
capacities- Institutional capacities (include the rules, regulations and practices that set
the overarching contextual environment), Organisational capacities (how various actors
come together to perform given tasks), Individual capacities (technical, functional and
leadership skills). Types of capacity building - Based on structure (structured, semi-
structured &unstructured), Based on context (orientation, induction and refresher), and
other categories (online, Webinar, distance etc.). Components of capacity
development; Capacity development cycle
Unit2: Capacity Development-Approaches and Strategies
Capacity Development Dilemma- Theory versus Practice, Trainee versus Task,
Structured versus Unstructured, Generic and Specific; Approaches in Capacity
Development - Informative approach, Participatory approach, Experimental
approach/ Experiential, Performance based approach; Capacity Development
Strategies-Academic strategy, Laboratory strategy, Activity strategy, Action strategy,
Personal development strategy, Organizational development strategy.

Unit3: Planning and Organization of Capacity Development Programmes

Steps in Designing and Planning of Capacity Development - Step 1. Select the
participants, Step 2. Determine the participants’ needs, Step 3. Formulate goal and
objectives, Step 4. Outline the content, Step5. Develop instructional activities, Step6.
Prepare the design, Step 7 Prepare evaluation form, Step 8. Determine follow-up
activities; Organizing capacity development programme; Operational arrangements
at different stages- Before the programme, During the programme, Middle of the
programme, At the end of the programme, After the programme, Follow up;
Stakeholders’ responsibilities

BLOCK1: INTRODUCTION TO CAPACITYDEVELOPMENT

Unit1: Capacity Development - An Overview
Training, capacity building, capacity development and HRD-Meaning and
differences; Need and principles of capacity development; Types and levels of
capacities- Institutional capacities (include the rules, regulations and practices that set
the overarching contextual environment), Organisational capacities (how various actors
come together to perform given tasks), Individual capacities (technical, functional and
leadership skills). Types of capacity building - Based on structure (structured, semi-
structured &unstructured), Based on context (orientation, induction and refresher), and
other categories (online, Webinar, distance etc.). Components of capacity
development; Capacity development cycle

Training: Meaning and Concept

Meaning of Training
An essential feature of training of development professionals is a common
understanding of what ‘training’ and ‘training and development’ mean. Let us examine
the meaning of training given by different experts.
Training is ‘organization’s efforts to improve an individual’s ability to perform ajob
or organizational role’ - Dunn and Stephens
Training is the process of transforming and receiving information related to
problem solving - Jack Halloran.
Training is an organized procedure by which people learn knowledge and/ or
skills for a definite purpose-Dale S. Beach
Training is concerned with providing an individual with the opportunity to learn
what he or she needs in order to do their job more effectively-Megginson and Pedler
Training is telling plus showing, plus supervising until the desired change is
achieved in the skill, attitude or behaviour - S.C Saxena
Training is a systematic development of the knowledge, skills and attributes
required by employee to programme adequately on a given task of job - Abiodum
Outcomes of Training
An analysis of different definitions of training reveals that:
• Training is a systematic learning process
• Training is a communication process
• Training and education are not the same
• Training results in knowledge, skill, practice and behaviour changes
• Training improves productivity of development professionals
• Training helps to achieve developmental goals.

Deb has summed up the training definition with the following three conclusions.
1. Training is a systematic and planned process to improve the knowledge,
skills and attitude of employees.
2. Training provides a learning experience to employees to develop their
abilities and improve job performance.
3. Training helps an organization with human resource planning by making
available competent and motivated personnel.
Therefore, training is a learning process of the acquisition of new skills, attitudes,and
knowledge in the context of preparing for entry into a vocation or improving one’s
productivity in an organization or enterprises.
Training Vs. Capacity Development
Prasad et al., (2015) reviewed a vast literature on training and capacity
development. They articulated capacity development as a concept that extends the term
capacity building to encompass all aspects of creating and sustaining capacity growth
over time. Capacity development involves learning and various types of training, along
with continuous efforts to develop institutions, political awareness, financial resources,
technology systems and the wider social and cultural enabling environment. Capacity
building is much more than training and includes the following (UNDP, 2009):
a) Human Resource Development: The process of equipping individuals with the
understanding, skills and access to information, knowledge and trainingthat enables
them to perform effectively.
b) Organizational Development: The elaboration of functional concepts, structures,
processes and procedures, not only within the organizations, but also the
relationships between different factors, approaches and sectors (public, private,
community).
c) Institutional, Legal and Policy Framework: Making legal and regulatorychanges,
strategies and enabling organizations, institutions, agencies andthe people at all
levels and in all sectors to enhance their capabilities.
Capacity development is fundamentally about change and
transformation - at individual, organisational, sectoral and societal levels with
long-term investments. Training as an important part of the capacity
development initiative and experience shows that capacity development
cannot be confined to training although this has often been the case in the past
(ADB, 2009; SIDA, 2000).
Types of Capacities
According to UNESCO (2013), four types of capacities are required:
a) Institutional capacities (include the rules, regulations and practices that set the
overarching contextual environment to achieve development).
b) Organisational capacities (how various actors come together to perform given
tasks in the process of development).
c) Individual capacities (technical, functional and leadership skills required by
development professionals).
d) Knowledge base (creation, absorption and diffusion of information and expertise
towards effective development solution).
FAO’s corporate strategy on capacity development (FAO, 2012) talks about
functional and technical capacities across 3 levels: individuals, organisations and
enabling environment:
1. Individual Level: The individual level relates to knowledge, skills (technical and
managerial) and attitudes that can be addressed through facilitation, training
and competency development.
2. Organizational Level: The organisational level relates to public, privateand civil
society organisations and networks of organisations in terms of:
• Strategic management functions, structures and relationships;
 • Operational capacity (processes, systems, procedures, sanctions,incentives
and values;
• Human and financial resources (policies, deployment and
performance);
• Knowledge and information resources; and
• Infrastructure.
3. Enabling Policy Level: The enabling environment level relates to political
commitment and vision; policy, legal, regulatory and economic frameworks;
national public sector budget allocations and processes; governance and power
structures; incentives and social norms.
Some of the following functional capacities as identified by FAO are required at all
these three levels:
a) Policy and normative capacity: Capacities to formulate and implement
policies and lead policy reform
b) Knowledge capacity: Capacities to access, generate, manage and exchange
information and knowledge
c) Partnering Capacity: Capacities to engage in networks, alliances and
partnerships
d) Implementation Capacity: Management capacities to implement and
deliver programmes and projects, from planning to monitoring, and
evaluation.
The focus of this course MDV-110 is on training and development. As a
development professional you undergo training individually and may also
impart training to individual stakeholders of development. You need to
possess or acquire the above functional capacities, especially at individual
level, in order to be an effective development professional.
Aims of Training
All training programmes are conducted with specific aim and objectives in mind,
because lot of resources are invested. Customarily, training means investment in human
resources to enable them to perform effectively and efficiently.
The main aims of training are outlined below.
i) To improve the performance so that (s) he can contribute to development goals
and objectives.
ii) To facilitate the overall growth of the development professional, so that (s)he is
empowered.
iii) To enable development professional to geared up of a planned change andhis or
her role in the organization.
iv) To develop specific skill and competencies as per the need of thedevelopment
 organisation.
v) To enable the development professional to contribute over a certain benchmark.
The objectives of training are to provide the skills, knowledge and attitudes
necessary to undertake required job efficiently by the development workers. The
objectives of training are also to increase productivity, improve quality of work;
improve knowledge, skill, attitude understanding; enhance the use of tools and
machines; reduce waste, accidents and overhead costs; and eliminate obsolete skills,
technologies, methods, and capital management etc.
Training Philosophy
The training philosophy of a development organization expresses the degree of
importance it attaches to training and capacity development of its human resources.
The development organization with training philosophy realizes that the human
resources are the key to development of any organization and organizational efficiency
can be improved though effective training, which can enhance the skill and
competencies of their employees. They understand that although it is difficult to
calculate the return on investment in training, yet, they believe that the tangible and
intangible benefits of training will more than justify the cost involved in training.
Some of the philosophies of training are given below.
• Development organizations should have a clear long-term view of the knowledge,
attitude, and skill levels of competencies that their employees need.
• Training should be relevant and based on the need.
• Training should not be stereotyped and static.
• Training should be problem based with a mix of theory and practical application,
so that trainees are not bored.
• It should be action oriented that stresses that training exists to get employees into
action.
• Training should be related to the performance of an employee. A performance-
related training philosophy specifically emphasizes on performance and
competence of the trainees.
• Training should be a continuous process and should not be a one-time affair.
• The training organisations should use various training methodology and aids in
the training programme.
Need for Training
Training is an inevitable necessity for any development organization. The need for
training arises because of the reasons that follow.
1. The efficacy of development organization depends directly on how well its
employees are trained. The newly recruited development professionals require
induction training before they take up development work. Experienced and
 already servicing development professionals require in- service training to take up
emerging and re-emerging challenges in development.
2. Training is necessary to help and promote development professionals to prepare
for advancement, to overcome difficulties in their present job, to prevent
obsolescence, and to build morale by demonstrating interest in them.
3. Training has been a successful method of reducing waste and increasing quality.
4. Training enhances knowledge skill and attitude of the people working in
development organizations. According to Freedman and Yarbrough, people
welcome training when they believe that the outcomes of their work would
improve if they were to operate more skilfully and that training can provide those
skills.
Pani (2015) summarized the need and importance of training as follows:
• Increasing productivity
• Improving quality
• Helping to fulfil future needs
• Improving organizational climate, health and safety
• Prevention of obsolesce
• Personal growth

Principles of Training
Training can produce good result and become effective, if it is based on the
principles of training that follow.
I. The Principle of Goal Setting: The training should be based on goals. If there is
no goal or overall objective, the training effort will be wasted. The objectives of
the training should be behavioural change in nature.
II. Principle of Individuality: In any development organization, different
individual performs different works based on their specialty and individual
education. Therefore, there is a possibility that trainees would respond
differently to the same training. Further requirement also varies from person to
person depending on their characteristics, personal commitment, and their level
of maturity. Therefore, conditions and opportunities need to be created so that
each employee can learn specific job skills and competencies.
III. The Principle of Practice: If development professional does not get the
opportunity to practice what they learn during training, then the entire effort and
resources invested in the training are wasted. Therefore, scope of practice must
be there for improving the performance through practice.
IV. The Principles of Feedback: Feedback is an important principle of training. No
matter how successful the training is in meeting objectives, its effect will decline
 with time, if reinforcement is not provided in the workplace on a regular and
consistent basis. Such reinforcement should be the function of the higher and
middle level development functionaries. Further training needs to be conducted
based on feedback.
V. The Principle of Progression: Training should be imparted in a progressive
manner from simple too difficult in a rationale and logical flow. It must address
the basic skill requirements in the beginning and gradually move to more
complex skill and competency requirements.
VI. The Principle of Variation: The training should not be repetitious and it should
be based on training needs. If it is repetitious then the trainees will lose interest
in it. It is nothing but wastage of resources and time.
Types of Training
The types of training can be broadly categorized into following heads:
A. Based on structure
• Structured training
• Semi-structured training
• Unstructured training

B. Based on context
• Orientation training
• Induction training
• Refresher training
C. Other categories of training
• Direct contact and distance training
• Formal and non formal training
• Centralized and dispersed organization of training

A. Based on Structure
The three main categories of training based on structure are as follows.

I. Structured Training: The structured training programme is most commonly

used by the formal education system. In the structured training programme, the
structure of the training programme is designed by the training institution,
considering its relevance to the type of trainees. The programmes are properly
structured and covered within the stipulated time period. These training
programmes are planned well in advance by convening an expert group meeting
held by the training coordinator of an institution.
In a few cases, the pre-designed training programmes are discussed with
 the trainees after registration and their needs are incorporated into the final
training programme. In other words, the training schedule is reformulated
before the training progress. Some new topics are adopted and some are deleted
in the final training schedule. Likewise, the guest faculty list also changes
accordingly, based on the topic selected in the final list.
II. Semi-structured Training: The semi-structured training programmes are
formulated by keeping in view that the training curriculum may be changed to
suit the needs of the trainees during the course of a training programme. In such
a training programme, it is assumed that the trainees may not react immediately
after the registration. He, or she, reacts only when the training gets momentum.
However, if the method of the training process is not efficient enough, it may
create confusion among trainees during the training programme.
III. Unstructured Training: In unstructured training programmes, trainees
themselves structure the training programme schedule with the trainer. In this
type of training programme, the trainer has to work hard and plays a critical role
for the effective implementation of the training programme. Here, the objective
of the programme must be clear both to the trainers as well as to the trainees.
Remember that unstructured training programmes can be organized only for a
group that has a manageable size.

B. Based on Context
Training is contextualized when it is based on the experience of the clientele who
needs training. Broadly, it comprises the following types.
I. Orientation Training: Provides general information about the organizational
structure, service rules, code of conduct, various facilities provided by the
organization, etc. After going through this training, the employees became fully
aware of the whole system of the organization.
II. Induction Training: Is the training about the work that is to be performed by the
employee. It is more professional and completely job oriented as compared to
orientation training. It instructs the employees their duties and responsibilities,
and shows how to perform them. Its objective is to prepare the employee to
perform job effectively and efficiently.
III. Refresher Training: These trainings are conducted from time to time to keep the
employee continuously updated in their professional knowledge and skills.
Since scientific advancements and developments are very fast, it is essential for
successful organizations to keep their employee informed and trained in such
developments. It ultimately helps organizations to increase their productivity
and to improve the quality of output.
 C. Other Types of Training
I. Direct Contact and Distance Training: In direct contact training programs,
trainers and learners work one on one. This limits the number of participants in
a program. The direct contact trainings are on campus training or classroom
training. Distance training can respond more realistically on the needs of large
numbers of trainees, and, with the introduction of new technologies, is becoming
increasingly important. Distance training can reach participants wherever they
are and spread new information widely.
Distance training also has the advantage of letting workers learn at their
own pace, and greatly enhances the ability of different organizations to
collaborate in the development and delivery of training programmes. The rapid
spread of electronic technologies such as video, closed circuit and responsive
television, and rapid data processing for virtually instantaneous feedback has
made distance learning highly attractive. Multimedia methods are, now days,
used for the successful conduction of distance training.
Distance training of all kinds starts by combining the training needs of a
particular group and preparing relevant curricula for meeting these needs. Later
steps include: preparing a series of modules to be used by an individual or small
groups of participants as progressively advanced learning experiences;
preparing ways of reviewing the progress of participants and giving feedback to
them on what they have been able to learn well, and where they need to improve
further; supplementing cognitive learning with other methods; and reviewing
the final learning outcome.
II. Formal and Non-Formal Training: Formal training takes place in a classroom
situation with strict structured time and curriculum schedule. Formal training
system was traditionally the most visible and recognised system in the labour
market. By utilising a formal training syllabus one can tell precisely what he /she
is going to learn and how he or she is going to advance. As an alternative to
training in formal programs at a particular place or in a program set at a distance
with a fixed syllabus, training can be planned and conducted through various
non formal modalities. Through action-research programs, for instance,
participants can learn many things in a planned way if, during or after their
participation in the action, tutoring and supervision and also regular evaluation
and feedback based on their experiences are provided.
In the non formal modalities, the emphasis is on conscious, guided
experiences. Many innovative devices are used to convert routine experiences
into learning opportunities and also to create new experiences from which
 participants can learn. Plans are carefully made to ensure graded experiences
and guidance. The mix of action and of learning from it can be adjusted to an
organization’s needs. For instance, if increased staff capacity has been decided
upon as a major outcome, the number of participants with little experience in the
planned action can be high, and many more opportunities can be included in the
program for reviewing experiences and re-planning the program to ensure
maximum learning. The non-formal training avoids the rigidities of the
classroom and is conducted in an open environment.
III. Centralized and Dispersed Organization of Training: Training modalities can
also be differentiated along organizational lines. In a simple centralized model,
for instance, one institute is formally charged with planning programs, staffing,
and funding them, ensuring their conformity to standards and, often, selecting
participants. This pattern still predominates in developing countries with just
sufficient training resources for one or two central institutes. The central institute
in this design initiates, guides and supports all aspects of training, and the other
units, subsidiary to it, carry out its plans.
At the other extreme are networks of largely autonomous training units,
each responsible for its own training plans and programs and for linking with
other units as needed or desired. What and how participants learn in a chosen
field then depends, also, on the dispersed model, on which unit they have joined.
In developing countries mixed models are increasingly becoming
common, in which a central institute sets frames of training, such as priority for
training objectives, general guidelines for methodologies and materials to be
used, and quantitative parameters for participants, time, and costs. Subsidiary
units do the detailed planning, staffing, and management, and contribute
actively to formulating and revising system-wide frameworks.

Essential Requirements of Training

Whatever may the type of training, the following are the essential requirements
in training instructional plan
• Title
• About Training / Background
• Learning Outcomes
• Dates and Duration
• Target Learners
• Trainees Requirements
• Instructional Material and Training Aids
• Logistics
• Contents – Topics, methods, trainers etc.
 • Feedback

Components of Training
The important components of training are:
i) Goal
ii) Motivation
iii) Opportunity to learn
iv) Opportunity to practice, and
v) Follow up
vi) Re-training.
They are illustrated in the diagram below.
Components of Training
1) Goal: A training programme must have a goal. The goal can further be subdivided into
objectives. The objectives of the training will indicate what types of subjects and
training methods and technologies to be used in the training programme.
2) Motivation: A participant’s motivation is a key element in a successful training
programme. Trainees must be willing to invest time and energy to develop
themselves. Motivated employees actively pursue learning to improve their skills and
competencies for improving their overall performance. Appropriate incentives like
training allowances and training link promotion will enhance the motivation of
employees for training.
3) Opportunity to Learn: Organizations must provide the opportunity to learn to its
employees. Without the opportunity to learn, employees cannot improve their
knowledge and skill and may not be able to contribute significantly to the
organization’s productivity.
4) Opportunity to Practice: Employees must be provided with opportunity to tryout their
new knowledge and skill at their workplace. For example, a person trained in
computer accountancy, if given the job of maintaining files instead, will not only lose
interest, but also will not have an opportunity to practice his/her skill. A conducive
environment at the workplace allows employees to apply new knowledge and skills
and further develop and refine them.
5) Follow up: No training programme is complete without a follow up. Follow upsprovide
an opportunity to the trainers to do away with difficulties that the trainees may
experience.
6) Re-training: after the follow up period, the training organization will identify the gaps
in training. The trainer will then conduct re-training in these gaps so that the trainees
are fully empowered to execute the skills that they have been trained in.
 Components of Training

Goal

Motivation
Retraining

Components of
Training

Opportunity to
Follow up
Learn

Opportunity to
Practice

Training Cycle
Training cycle is an important aspect of training. It is defined as a series of steps
or stages that comprise a complete training programme. Training cycle consists of five
phases which are narrated below.
1) Training Needs Assessment (TNA)
2) Training Plan Development (TPD)
3) Design of Training Programme (DTP)
4) Training Programme Implementation (TPI)
5) Training Monitoring and Evaluation (TME)

Phase I: Training Needs Assessment (TNA)

In the first phase – the Training Needs Assessment (TNA) phase – the training
needs are assessed at six levels of aggregation, namely:
1) Individual
2) Group
3) Organizational
4) State
 5) Regional
6) National
A number of methods for training needs assessment are available for different
levels of aggregation. Two critical parameters usually circumscribe the training needs
assessment (TNA) exercise. The first is the national priorities, laid down by policy-
makers and planners. The training needs have to be assessed within the ambit of
national priorities and programmes. The second is trainees felt needs for training. It is
essential to realize the trainees felt needs for training.

Phase II: Training Plan Development (TPD)

After assessment of training needs (Phase I), appropriate training plans are
required to be developed in the second phase. A training plan is a manpower document
developed on the basis of assessed training needs. It takes into account the existing
manpower stock, projects manpower needs for future and quantifies the training
requirements. On the basis of assessed training needs for each category of personnel to
be trained, it indicates the dates, duration, subject and the institution for training.
A training plan can be (a) short term, (b) long-term, or both. While an Annual
Training Plan is an essential requirement of sound training management, it is desirable
that training plans are developed in, say, a 5 year framework. The singular advantage
of developing training plans in a 5-year frameworks is that management will have a
reduced task of undertaking an annual review only, enabling it to devote more time to
other aspects of training management, which will enhance the value of training.
A Training Plan can be:
• Territorial - National/State/District
• Sectoral - Agriculture, health, education
• Project-related - a comprehensive agricultural development project, whichcuts
across several sectors
• Special plan - Training of new recruits to development work
• Combination of above

Phase III: Design of Training Programme (DTP)

In the third place, appropriate training programmes are required to be designed
after training needs assessment (Phase I) and in accordance with the developed training
plans (Phase II). Before undertaking the design of training programmes, however, it is
essential to select an appropriate training institution for training.
The starting point in the design of a training programme is a statement of its
objectives. The objectives should be stated clearly and in simple, straight forward
language. The use of jargon should be scrupulously avoided. The objectives, not more
than four or five in number, should clearly state the knowledge, skills, attitudes and
attributes (KSAAs), the trainee will acquire after the training and how will it be useful
to the trainee in his job performance. The statement of objectives should enable the
trainees to have a clear idea about the relevance of training programme to his training
needs.
The next step is the determination of an appropriate mix of various skills required
by development personnel. Broadly, three types of skills are required namely: i)
technical, (ii) human, and (iii) conceptual skills.
The mix of these skills will be different for different levels of participants. Weights
can be attached to different skills for determination of mix.
Appropriate curriculum can be developed by following the ‘Concentric Circles
Approach to Curriculum’. Under this approach there are three concentric circles:
• The inner circle (priority 1) of what must be known
• The middle circle (Priority 2) of what should be known, and
• The outer circle (priority 3) of what could be known.
It is imperative that the curriculum concentrates upon the inner circle of what
must be known and does not drift to the outer circle of what could be known, as it very
often happens in practice.
The selection of an appropriate training method is the next step in the design of a
training programme. An array of training methods is available suited to different
training objectives and to different levels of personnel. As a general rule, a mix of
training methods is preferable to only one training method, and the entire programme
must have a problem-solving practical orientation. Practical assignments and providing
adequate opportunities to trainees for interaction will enhance the utility of and
receptivity of training.

Phase IV: Training Programme Implementation (TPI)

In the fourth phase, the training programmes are required to be implemented,
after training needs assessment (Phase I), development of training Plans (Phase II), and
design of training programmes (Phase III).
Phase IV has two aspects:
• Training Infrastructure, and
• Actual Implementation of Training Programmes.
In its turn, the training infrastructure has also two aspects, namely (a) a network
of training institutions and for a meeting different training requirement of different
levels of personnel, and (b) models and management of training institutions.
The actual implementation of training programmes is the responsibility of training
institutions, or more precisely, the Course Directors. Many training programmes
struggle due to poor implementation which usually reflects lack of or inadequate
preparation. Use of checklist and alertness to respond to an emergency (like non-
appearance of a resource person in time) can prevent occurrence of many avoidable
mishaps. A wise word of counsel is not to take anything for granted and to personally
ensure that things are in order.

Phase V: Training Monitoring and Evaluation (TME)

In the last fifth-phase, training is required to be monitored and evaluated, after
training needs assessment (Phase I), development of training plans (Phase II), design of
training programmes (Phase III) and implementation of training programmes (Phase
IV).
Training monitoring is relatively of greater practical importance than training
evaluation. Training monitoring should take place through well-developed training
monitoring indices like number of training courses planned and held every month,
number of seats planned and utilized, and State-wise allocation of seats and their
utilization.
Training monitoring is required to be undertaken at different levels of training
implementation – from fortnightly training sessions (FTSs)/ monthly workshops
(MWs) to national training courses (NTCs). The training monitoring indices will also
differ from level to level. These indices should be regularly brought to the notice of top
management so that it can intervene to correct a situation.
Different types of training evaluations are available like evaluation for planning,
process evaluation, terminal evaluation, impact evaluation and outsider evaluation. It
is necessary to keep ambitions modest in training evaluations. A two-party evaluation
of training by trainers and trainees followed by an annual review by the top
management can considerably enhance the usefulness of training courses.
The training cycle is presented in the figure below for your comprehension.

DESIGN IMPLEMENT
TRAINING TRAINING
PROGRAMME PROGRAMME
TRAINING CYCLE
Features of Good Training
Some of the features of good training are briefly discussed below.
i) Motivation is basic to good training. A good trainer must start his work by
creating a feeling of need or want in the trainee, since the actual willingness and
desire to learn come from within the person. Basic needs, wants, desire, motives,
incentives, or urges have been classified, broadly, in four ways,below.
a) The desire for security – economic, social, psychological and spiritualsecurity.
b) The desire for new experience – adventure, new interests, new ideas,new friends
and new ways of doing things.
c) The desire for affection and response – companionship, gregariousness and social
mindedness; the need for a feeling of belonging.
d) The desire for recognition – status, prestige, achievement and beinglooked up
to. These are all powerful motivating forces for learning.
ii) Good training requires specific and clearly defined objectives. The different
aspects of the training objectivities, namely the persons to be trained, the
behavioural changes to be developed in them, the content or subject – matter to
which the behaviour is related and the real situation in which the changes are to
take place must be clearly spelled out in the training objectives.
iii) Good training must accomplish certain kinds of educational changes in
relation to the subject matter learned. These may be changes in knowledge, or
things known; changes in skills; changes in attitudes or feelings for or ability to
do things, including mental skills and manual or physical skills:points of view,
etc., including changes in interests, and changes inunderstanding.
iv) Good training requires effective learning situations which include five major
elements: teacher; learner; subject matter; teaching aids, and; facilities, or
environment
v) Good training should provide an effective learning experience to the trainees.
vi) Good training requires, usually, a combination of training techniques.
Training could involve appropriate as oral, visual, audio – visual and hands on
practices.
vii) Training should be challenging and satisfying. To be challenging, the subject
matter must be presented in the form of problems for which the trainees should
be encouraged to find solutions. Appropriate and timely recognition should be
given to the trainees ’achievements. Fear and ridicule have no place in the training
process and their use in a training programme is usuallyan adverse reflection on
the ability of the trainer.
Unit 2: Capacity Development-Approaches and Strategies
Capacity Development Dilemma- Theory versus Practice, Trainee versus Task,
Structured versus Unstructured, Generic and Specific; Approaches in Capacity
Development - Informative approach, Participatory approach, Experimental
approach/ Experiential, Performance based approach; Capacity Development
Strategies-Academic strategy, Laboratory strategy, Activity strategy, Action strategy,
Personal development strategy, Organizational development strategy.
Capacity Development Dilemma
It is understood that whatever be the emphasis of training programme, every
training programme may be confronted with certain dilemma. Some of these dilemmas
are as follows
i) Theory versus Practice: It is a fact that training in social sciences will differ from
training in natural sciences, and the theory and practical components to be covered
in both these categories of training programmes will differ from one another.
Therefore, theory and practice combination in all training programmes has to be
judiciously balanced. For the accomplishment of training objectives, maintaining
a balance between theory and practice is very essential. Too much theory will
make the training programme monotonous and similarly too much practical will
not be helpful for theoretical and conceptual clarity acquisition among trainees.
ii) Trainee versus Task: Another dilemma is whether to put focus on the trainee, or,
on the task that he or she has to perform during training. As Chowdhary says,
"When there are several compulsions and pragmatic considerations, there is a
tendency to highlight the task components in the training programme schedule".
This dichotomy between trainee and task will determine the approaches and
strategies, and accordingly training has to follow during the training programme.
iii) Structured versus Unstructured: The third dilemma is whether the training
programme will be a structured or unstructured one. If it is structured, then the
timing, budget, and curriculum are strictly accommodated. The sequencing and
systematic coherence enable the training organizers to achieve training goal within
the allotted time. In comparison to these, the unstructured programme is more
accommodative and allows greater freedom to both the trainees as well as training.
However, the demerit of the unstructured programme is that it may lead to
inconsequential achievable. Therefore, sometimes the training organizers are
caught in dilemma as to which is better. The contextualization is very important
here (Please refer Unit 1 of this Block for more details on structured / unstructured
training).
iv) Generic and Specific: Sometimes the training organizer gets struck of with
generic and specificity of the training. The specific programme may not be
handled by all types of training institutions or training organizations. Example:
The generic programme like training technology may be handled by any training
organisations. However, the specific training programme on various sectors such
 as health, education, urban development, rural development etc. cannot be
handled by all types of training organisations

Approaches in Capacity Development

Training organizations follow various approaches depending on the factors like
needs identified, trainees' background, subject matter to be covered etc. These are
discussed below for your understanding.
i) Informative approach: This approach provides information to the trainees on
various subjects. For example, development professionals working in health sector
need information about the performance and functioning of various health
programmes. The trainees might not have current information about specific
aspects such as infant mortality, maternal mortality, death rates etc. This
information has to be procured from various sources, such as Health Information
Bureaus or the Census of India and provided to trainees. Various teaching
methods, such as conventional black board or power point presentations can be
used. The trainer can also use other interesting and innovative methods of
imparting information though various teaching aids.
ii) Participatory approach: In the participatory approach, the trainees act as
facilitators and, instead of following a one-sided lecturing approach, they involve
trainees in the process of teaching and learning. In this process, the trainer also
learns from the trainees and teaching and learning becomes a two-way process.
The participatory approach empowers the trainees and the trainer, equally. The
participatory approach is considered as a democratic way of training and followed
by most of the development organizations involved in the training at the
grassroots.
iii) Experimental approach: The experimental approach emphasizes situations in
which the trainees will eventually operate. In this approach, both the trainers as
well as the trainees jointly formulate the objectives and methodologies of training
programme. Here, the trainers primarily serve as facilitators, catalysts, or resource
persons. This method applies more effectively to those who have some field
experiences.
iv) Performance based approach: In the performance-based approach, the goal of the
training programme is measured by the attainment of a given level of proficiency.
The performance-based training approach is developed by Elan in 1971. It is
mostly task or skill centred, and can be applied to nonformal education and
extension education.
Capacity Development Strategies
Broadly, there are six training strategies.
i) The academic strategy
ii) The laboratory strategy
iii) The activity strategy
iv) The action strategy
v) The personal development strategy
vi) The organizational development strategy
i) The Academic Strategy
The academic orientation strategy gives pride of place to transmitting content
and increasing conceptual understanding. Its characteristic methods are lectures,
seminars, and individual reading and preparation. The goals are incorporated first in a
syllabus, which will be covered, and assessed through examinations which will test the
students' recall of the content and ability to apply them under simulated conditions.
This type of orientation makes two assumptions.
1) First, content and understanding can be passed on effectively by those who
know viz., Faculty, Researchers to those who are unaware.
2) Second, participants are capable of translating abstract generalizations into
improvements in their performance in concrete situations.
Universities need not be concerned about the second assumption. But the
academic orientation is not confined to academic institutions. It is commonly used in
many training activities, that is, where specific improvements are expected to take place
on the job and in the organization. Many aspects of teachers training, for instance, offer
examples of academic training for action goals. In fact, it would not be an exaggeration
to say that the academic strategy tends to be generally preferred in the training world.
Programme directors have to be argued out of it. It comes naturally, apparently, and is
used until something else takes its place.
The attractions of academic strategy approach include:
• The special status accorded to the educated person, irrespective of
accomplishment
• The neatness and orderliness of the syllabus; and,
• More basically, to the assured control that such orientation gives to the trainer.
ii) The Laboratory Strategy
The laboratory orientation strategy has enjoyed prominence and respect for
centuries in a variety of disciplines, since it provides an opportunity to gain insights
and skills from direct experience and manipulation of a limited number of elements
under controlled conditions. It is real to that limited extent, and thus, can also provide
sufficient distance from real life to permit both freedom to experiment and safety to
learn from the consequences of trial. It is through laboratory training that the student of
medicine discovers the wonders of human anatomy, such as when a bacteriologist
develops first-hand familiarity with pathogens, or, when a budding physicist discovers
subtle applications of the law of gravity.
The concept of the laboratory has found wider use in recent years, for example
in language laboratories. Here, we are particularly interested in training laboratories for
personal and organizational development. The laboratory strategy can be used for
improving skills of social interaction that are essential for development professionals,
managers, supervisors, trainers, community workers, and a host of others who need to
influence the quality of human interaction and human relationships in the work
environment. For this purpose, laboratory orientation gives weight to considerations of
process, not content: how things are done or not done, rather than what is accomplished.
This orientation is used to experience, and then to understand through this experience,
how different people think, act, and react; how leadership and other roles are performed
in a group; how people become involved in a task or reject involvement. The training
laboratory is, therefore, concerned with human relations and organizational behaviour.
Two assumptions underlie the laboratory orientation.
1) The first is that it is useful and possible to help people examine their inner
reality, their psychological reality, in order to better understand the sources of their
behaviour and that of others and to become aware that these are important factors in
actual performance on the job.
2) The second assumption is that people are able to transfer laboratory
experience and learning to actual life situations, including other learning and work
situations.
The Activity Strategy
The activity orientation strategy emphasizes the practice of a particular skill. Its
primary objective is to improve individual performance on a specific job. The most
elementary version of this orientation is to 'try, try and try again,' until the participant
can do the job. Skilled practitioners, particularly if they possess the inclinations and
skills of a trainer, can greatly help this unstructured process along.
Examples: Apprenticeship, understudy, and internship under international aid
schemes.
The advantage of leaving the learning process unaided and unsystematic is the
opportunity for exploration that it affords participants, whereby they can 'get the feel
of the job', given sufficient time. Since this orientation puts training 'on the job', it avoids
the problems of transfer from training back to the job. Finally, it makes lighter demands
on the work organization than other orientations. Two assumptions underlie the
activity orientation.
1) The first is that the skill required by the organization is within the ability of
the participants to do the particular job, and at the same time to pick up the manner in
which the surrounding organization operates. A variant on the first assumption is that
participants can conceptualize their activities for themselves sufficiently to deal with
any additional needs on the job.
2) The second assumption is that production and training can be combined rather
simply. These are assumptions that may have been generally useful some time ago.
Now they are useful for fewer and fewer jobs. Job requirements are, in fact, changing
so rapidly and to such an extent that limited job training necessitates repeated
retraining. The activity orientation leaves to chance questions of individual motivation
and of collaboration between two or more people. The assumption that production and
training can be readily combined is also no longer useful. Production goals tend to
crowd out training goals, so that often this orientation ends in all work and no training.
On jobs that require very little skill this may not matter. But the number of such
unskilled jobs declines sharply as an economy develops. Finally, the activity orientation
puts participants in danger of learning outdated or faulty methods of work. In the
rapidly increasing number of jobs for which speed, precision, and adaptability are
required, the activity orientation is de facto of little value and may be detrimental.
The limitations of the activity orientation have been be labored because it is quite
common. Many of the numerous production-cum-training centers in India, for instance,
actually institutionalize its confusion. Though apparently logical, the combination of
production and training in practice is so difficult as to border on the impossible. When
a center concentrates on production, as many do to satisfy their evaluators' itch for
concreteness, training becomes very costly. Often, it is also ineffective because skilled
workers, instead of being allowed to instruct and supervise, are put on direct
production to augment the monthly production record. At the same time, a center’s
training function allows organizers to avoid responsibility for inefficiencies in
production or other aspects of management.
Institutions that include field placements in their training programme often
encounter a variant of the activity orientation and its limitations. Training placement
often yields nothing beyond sheet activity. The participants are kept busy with a motley
assortment of tasks that permanent staff members assign. Or, they are ignored,
hopefully to 'make their own way'. Neither method constitutes training.
Updated versions of the activity orientation avoid some of these pitfalls, but
never all. As used by an increasing number of systematic training programs, in trade
schools for instance, it is based on rigorous detailed analyses of a particular skill. The
skill is practiced in parts, often with the use of simple aids. When participants have
gained specific standards of accuracy and speed in the parts, they practice the parts
together and attain accuracy and speed in the operation as a whole. In this method,
training time is greatly curtailed and wastes, for example of spoiled materials, reduced.
However, a 'feel for the job' is not acquired even by this procedure, nor is a capacity for
further learning, should conditions change. These must come on the job, over time, or
they will not come at all.
iii) The Action Strategy
The action orientation strategy is akin to the activity orientation. It does for the
organization as a whole a group, city, or other social system - what the activity strategy
does for individuals. The training component of work camps and many other
community action programs is based on this orientation. Its emphasis on action rests on
the same assumptions and runs the same dangers for an organization that the activity
orientation does for individuals. Its focus, too, is on process, not content. Its emphasis
on the practical can become so strong that the training purpose gets lost. In the absence
of renewal through training, action soon fails, in terms of quality. It becomes
discontinuous, and in many cases, ceases. If action is called for above all or else, as in
disaster relief or in digging a common village well, these limitations need not concern
us here. But if an action program is chosen as a training orientation, then action by itself
is not enough. It ensures neither sound practice nor the understanding or working
procedures required for further development.
The massive Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
programme for rural community development has been beset with dilemmas that can
be traced to an increasing reliance on an action orientation. With heavy pressure for
concrete results, in terms of seed distributed, wells dug, roads and schools constructed,
and the like, the program became all action by officials; in this shift, the underlying
purpose of stimulating participation, initiative, and collaboration by villagers is not
adequate. Thus, the officials are caught in a vicious circle where secondary goals have
been met only at the cost of primary ones.
The Personal Development Strategy
The personal development orientation strategy completes the range of
orientations that aim to train an individual. This orientation gives weight to both job
requirements and the processes by which these requirements are met. It consists
basically of providing participants with alternating opportunities. During part of the
programme participants work on tasks and problems similar to those faced on the job.
In between they analyze and explain the factors underlying the experiences they have
undergone, and the points of view with which they approached them. This orientation
does not lead merely to improvements limited to a specific job or situation, but to a
widening and deepening of the participants' competence in understanding and dealing
with many situations. What to think is considered less important than how to think.
Action and discussion methods of training are characteristic of these orientations which
are field training, simulation methods, and the discussion of incidents and cases.
 The personal development orientation rests on two sets of assumptions.
1) One set states that participants are already sufficiently familiar with work
situations to deal with any new job content or other details expected to be required.
They will be able and eager to secure for themselves any additional knowledge that
they feel they need. They are also already adept at analyzing their experiences and
generalizing from them for the future. This assumption suggests that the personal
development strategy is most appropriate for training professional personnel, and that
it will become widely appropriate for India also, as education spreads and improves
and as more and more jobs call for the kind of self-awareness that this orientation
fosters.
2) The second set of assumptions is common to all individual orientations. It
states that individuals will have the support of their organizations in putting their
training to use. To leave the organizational factor to chance, leads to many heartaches
and much waste. This happens when competent, well-trained individuals cannot use
their training because their organizations will not give them sufficient elbowroom to
change their behaviour. Sometimes, individuals may be able to create a little elbowroom
and thus, do their jobs more effectively and with greater satisfaction than before. But
the effect is limited to their immediate surroundings. They are tolerated, no more. The
wider organization remains unaffected and, should they quit the organization, their
innovations fade away.
iv) The Organizational Development Strategy
The organization development orientation strategy goes beyond the personal
development orientation in just one respect: organizational change is its explicit, central
focus and a change in individuals through training is just one means for organizational
change. This orientation requires the closest collaboration between the training
institution and the work organization. The institution plays a consulting role prior to
executing the core parts of the required training and again after returned of participants
to their jobs.
To begin with, this orientation addresses the question: what does the
organization need to learn to achieve a particular change? It next assesses the training
needs in detail and relates them to other requirements of change. The organization,
then, uses training to ensure that competency that the change can be effected. This
orientation directly guides the selection of individuals for training and for jobs upon
their return. Beyond accomplishing an immediate, discrete change, it has the more
general and lasting aim of developing the organization's own training function.
Basically, this is not a matter of setting up or not setting up a training department.
Rather, it is a matter of fostering an attitude and allocating resources so that staff is
trained further through the organization's normal operations. The aim is to achieve, in
the organization, a pervasive sense of continuous development and a heightened
receptivity and readiness for change.
The first of two assumptions underlying the organization development
orientation is analogous to, the first underlying the personal development orientation,
namely, attention to organizational needs and to the processes by which they can be
met will induce participants to acquire any additional knowledge needed and to
enhance their ability to conceptualize developments for the future. The second
assumption also covers parallel ground, but in reverse. The personal development
orientation assumes that organizational change will follow individual learning. This is
not necessarily so. The organization development orientation assumes that the
individual will change as the organization changes and change, too, in line with
organizational requirements.
The organizational development orientation can incorporate two provisions to
minimize discrepancies between individual and organizational interests.
1) One is prior involvement of individuals in organizational changes that will
affect them and to give them opportunities to contribute toward shaping these changes.
2) The second is to openly acknowledge that such discrepancies may occur and
may lead to some shifting of staff within the organization, and, if all else fails, to some
loss of staff.
A training system oriented to organizational development must clarify these
issues and insist that the organization resolve them before it embarks upon a training
program. To the many rapidly expanding organizations in a developing country such
as India, the training system can point out that they are in a favourable position for
providing trained staff with opportunities to change to jobs elsewhere in the
organization that promise continued personal satisfaction.
The use of an organizational development orientation is so new that a series of
six examples in ascending order of complexity may help you visualize it. The common
simple mathematical extrapolations of staff need at various levels to cope with new or
expanding activities are only the bare beginnings of this kind of orientation.
i) Selecting participants in pairs or threes who work side by side or in functional
interrelationship in an organization is a simple attempt at an organizational
development strategy. The Small Industry Extension Training (SIET) Institute,
Hyderabad, has tried to do this in its regular three-month industrial management
and area development courses. It is a rough-and-ready rule, because two or three
trained people from any level in the organization may not, in fact, be the minimum
concentration required. When the basic idea is not understood by the organization,
the two or three candidates they nominate for training may not in fact work
sufficiently closely together to provide the necessary support on the job.
ii) SIET Institute used this type of orientation on a large scale when it recruited sixty
potential entrepreneurs from one small town for a succession of four 10 day
courses in entrepreneurial motivation. The majority of these participants formed
themselves into an entrepreneur's association which showed tangible results
within three years, in terms of industrial units started and new investments.
iii) To stimulate industrial development in a district, a largely rural area with a
population of 1.5 million, the Institute decided to concentrate training in two or
three district towns and offer them a sequence of training events and services. In
the first stage, it strove to create a broad base of interest. It proceeded by placing
in local factories, for in-plant fieldwork, groups of participants in one of SIET
Institute's regular courses. The faculties supervising the fieldwork were
simultaneously able to organize and run weekend courses for sixty or so local
entrepreneurs and managers. The second stage consisted of short entrepreneurial
motivation courses, again, for sixty or so local people, organized locally. Of these
sixty people some promising participants were selected for stage three, a
succession of regular management training courses at SIET Institute.
iv) In its three-tier management programs, the India Institute of Management,
Ahmedabad (IIMA), has attempted to take into account the hierarchical
relationships in organizations and the support of changes needed from the chief
executive downward. Each program has three stages, and participating
organizations have to be represented in all three. The first (six weeks) is for one or
two members of middle management; the second (one week) is for a member of
senior management; the last (three days) is for the top executive. The stages
overlap. The idea is that each participant will be more effective after training by
having the support of at least two others at different levels of the organization.
v) A more intensive three tier program is run by the South India Textile Research
Association (SITRA) for individual textile mills. Primarily for supervisory
training, the program includes training also for two higher levels (managers and
managing agents) and the level immediately below (Jobbers). Short special courses
and other in-service activities are also arranged for clerical and administrative
staff. Training at each level is largely based on feedback about existing practices
and suggestions for the next lower level in the organization. Each unit program is
limited to twenty participants and lasts four weeks, excluding follow-up services.
The Ahmedabad Textile Industry's Research Association (ATIRA) has another
unit program. Financed by four mills and lasting several years, the program aims
at training all line supervisors in these mills and ensuring adequate organizational
support for them. The program has grown out of collaborative action research
projects designed to elicit training and job requirements.
vi) The Institute of Rural Health and Family Planning (IRHFP) at Gandhigram in
southern India bases its training on service activities started at least one year in
advance of any new training program. These activities, concentrated in six
community development blocks, are designed to involve the people themselves in
planning and implementing health programs in their communities. Health
leaders, elected by the people, form a village health committee that gradually takes
responsibility for more and more health activities. The Institute's service staffs
perform as staff members of the official government health centres at the block
level. The Primary Health Centre working staffs participates in the program and
evaluates its effectiveness.
In time, official health workers from other areas and other states have come for
training in the methods of work developed. Opportunities for developing similar skills
are provided through field assignments in the operating blocks. A trainer is assigned as
liaison with the staff in each block and assumes responsibility for field activities for the
participants.
Each of these examples of an organizational development orientation to training
embodies the attempt to take care of the needs that actually arise in carrying out specific
changes. This is achieved through planning in advance and flexibility in operation, and
is painstaking, hard work. It delays the start of training and demands expensive staff
time, not just once, but continuously. Onward work is necessary to keep abreast of
developments and to pare to the minimum the numbers of participants and time
requirements of training. But, as in construction, so in training, this type of investment
pays. It is wise to build extra strength into a program initially, then pare down, rather
than skimp at the outset. Once the program is under way, tighter specifications can
greatly reduce the cost of mobilizing, advancing, and sustaining an organization in
development.
High cost is not likely to be the main obstacle to the wider application of the
organization-development orientation to training. Properly carried out, it is cheaper in
terms of results than the present costs of haphazard training for which organizations
find money. Two difficulties figure more prominently than costs. One that confronts all
careful planning is the reluctance of many executives to commit themselves and their
organizations to a definite course of action over a lengthy period. Uncertainties seem to
loom too large, and estimates are not worth the paper on which they are written. Much
of this hesitation cannot be logically justified. Vagueness clouds the fringes, not the
massive core of calculations. Perhaps a more serious difficulty underlies this hesitation,
namely, the threat that careful planning and action may unveil the loopholes guarded
by senior executives. As a result of detailed studies of operations and requirements,
strategic factors of resources become more widely known and discussed. Exclusive
guardianship of information has often been an important tool for senior executives in
sustaining their power or a company its competitive position.
The selection of an appropriate orientation depends on a number of factors. One
is the training goals. Once the organization has clarified its training goals, quite possibly
through consultation with a training system, it can settle on the orientation which
promises best to gain them. For example, the goal of developing individuals with
sufficient skills to be able to perform more effectively on their jobs cannot be
accomplished by an academic orientation to training. For that goal an activity or
personal development orientation is more appropriate. The activity orientation is
appropriate when the job calls for limited skill and is not likely to change much in the
near future. The personal development orientation is more appropriate if the job is
complex and changing. When the main emphasis is on changes in the total organization,
it is necessary to use the organizational development orientation.
Unit3: Planning and Organization of Capacity Development Programmes
Steps in Designing and Planning of Capacity Development - Step 1. Select the
participants, Step 2. Determine the participants’ needs, Step 3. Formulate goal and
objectives, Step 4. Outline the content, Step5. Develop instructional activities, Step6.
Prepare the design, Step 7 Prepare evaluation form, Step 8. Determine follow-up
activities; Organizing capacity development programme; Operational arrangements
at different stages- Before the programme, During the programme, Middle of the
programme, At the end of the programme, After the programme, Follow up;
Stakeholders’ responsibilities

Designing and Planning of Training

A training design is a blueprint of a training event. It is a detailed plan of what
you will do, why you will be doing it, and the best way to reach your training objectives.
The following is an eight-step model for designing an effective training event that meets
the needs of participants and trainers alike.
Step 1: Selection of the participants
Step 2: Determine the participants' needs
Step 3: Formulate training goal and objectives
Step 4: Outline the training content.
Step 5: Develop instructional activities
Step 6: Prepare the training design
Step 7: Prepare a participant's evaluation form
Step 8: Determine follow-up activities
Step 1: Selection of the participants
Before selecting the participants for training, the organisers of the training
programme have to introspect about following fundamental questions:
• What are the specific benefits and outcomes of the training?
• Why should a person attend this training?
• Why should a development organisation depute its functionaries to participate?
 Once these fundamental questions are answered, the categories of participants for
the training programme have to be decided. Example some of some target groups for a
development training programme are: district level officers, field level officials, NGO's,
etc. Here, you have to make clear target segmentation and, accordingly, approach the
target group for participation. Sometimes integrated approach with various types of
participants can also be chosen. Selection of participants is a key consideration for
training programme.

Step 2: Determine the participants' needs

The specific training needs of the participants will influence the development of
learning objectives and guide the choice of activities and training strategies. The more
we know about participants, the greater the likelihood that we design a training event
that will be meaningful to them. There are several ways to find out about the training
needs and expectations of the participants. Conduct the needs assessment early enough
to use the information that you collect in designing your training programme.
Step 3: Formulate training goal and objectives
After assessing the needs and expectations of the participants, you are ready to
define the goals and objectives for the training. A training goal should be broad with
details like who will be affected, and the behavioural changes that will ensue as a result
of training. Objectives should be more precise, specifying a path for achieving the
programme goals. They should state, as specifically as possible, the training result that
you are trying to achieve, including what will change, who will change, under what
conditions, and to what extent.
The examples of goal and objective for a farmers training programme are given
below.
Goal: Training to increase knowledge of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI)
cultivation among groundwater / bore well irrigation farmers in Mahabubnagar
district of Andhra Pradesh.
Objective: By the end of the training, participants would be able to utilize the water use
efficiency in SRI cultivation.
When developing your objectives, ask yourself what you want participants to
know and to do after learning and any actions you would like them to take. Follow the
steps, below:
1) List the ways you would like training to benefit the participants - designed
outcomes.
2) Write down those outcomes as objectives, keeping in mind that participants want
practical, usable knowledge.
 3) Check your objectivities from the perspectives of the training participants. Will
these objectivities meet their needs? Will these help you meet your training
goal(s)?
4) Set training priorities. Rank objectives according to their importance. Recognize
that you may not be able to address all of them during one training session.
Remember to develop both, overall objectives (for the entire training session), and
separate objectives for each segment and/ or day of the training. Present these
objectives to participants at the start of each training segment.

Step 4: Outline the training content.

Most trainings are divided into three key segments: introduction, learning core
component, and the wrap - up and evaluation segment.
• Introduction: the introduction establishes a positive learning environment. The
opening activities should stimulate interest and enthusiasm in the training and
reduce anxiety among participants. It is important to build some content in the
introduction, so that participants experience these activities as meaningful.
Nevertheless, the development of group rapport cannot be rushed, so make sure
to allow time for participants to become comfortable with one another.
• Learning core component: This is the body of the programme, participants
engage in activities designed to accomplish the training objectivities; concepts
and ideas are taught and explained; resources are shared; and, training strategies
and skills are demonstrated, practiced and discussed. To be most effective,
activities should keenly involve participants in acquiring knowledge or
practicing skills.
• Wrap - up and evaluation segment: This segment should help bridge the gap
between training and training implementation and promote a positive feeling of
closure. Highlight essential learnings, summarize central concepts and themes,
and describe the next step. Participants should also have an opportunity to ask
questions, discuss concerns and provide feedback to the trainers. Finally, it is
helpful to review the group expectations, and identify resources to help satisfy
those expectations that have not been met.
Step 5: Develop instructional activities
The development of training design consists of organizing learning activities, so
that outcomes identified by the objectivities are achieved. Make sure that activities flow
logically from one to the next. As you develop activities, select training strategies that
are most likely to help you to meet your objectivities.
Example: Skill development is best achieved through modelling, practice, and feedback,
while information acquisition can be achieved through group discussion.
 Keep in mind that people learn in a variety of ways: some learn best by listening,
others by reading, and most by doing. An effective training design incorporates a
variety of training strategies, taking in to account: participants learning style; principles
of adult learning; group size; prior experience and education level; type of skill of
information to be presented and; trainers' style.
Example: Some strategies that promote active learning include brainstorming, small
group work, simulations, role playing, and case studies.

Step 6: Prepare the training design

Create a written document that provides a detailed plan of the training sessions,
including your goals and objectives; the sequence of specific learning activities and the
time allotted to cover during each activity; and, consider the trainer who will be
responsible for the activity - take into account the skill, expertise, training style, comfort
level with the subject, etc..
Step 7: Prepare a participant's evaluation form
The purpose of evaluation is to determine the extent to which the training
achieved its objectives and to identify what adjustment, if any, needs to be made to the
training design or to follow-up process. The following are some issues to address
through evaluation forms.
• Did the participant acquire the knowledge and skills that training was supposed
to provide?
• Were the trainers knowledgeable about training content?
• Were the activities interesting and effective?
• Was the training format appreciated?
• Are more trainings on this or related topics needed?
During training, the participants should complete an evaluation form at the end
of each day and summary evaluation at the end of the training programme.
Step 8: Determine follow-up activities
Without follow-up, the benefits of training may quickly be forgotten or never
used. Follow-up activity provides the continued support and feedback necessary for
successful implementation of new ideas and practices. To be effective, followup should
be planned as you develop your training design, and should include a range of
opportunities for participants to reflect on both the content that they learned during the
training, and the process of implementation. The number of steps may vary in different
programmes. But essentially all of them are critical in planning and organizing a
training programme. These steps are discussed in the above section with a macro level
perspective on designing and planning a training programme. Unit 4 in this block
discuss designing and planning a training programme with a micro level perspective
with an example.
Organisation of Training
The training organisers have to take care of many operational arrangements at
different stages of organisation of training programme.
They include:

1) Before the training programme

2) During the training programme
3) Middle of the training programme
4) At the end of the training programme
5) After the training programme
6) Follow up

1) Before the training programme

The training organisers have to carefully look after following aspects before the
training programme.
• Check the materials: A list of background materials required for conducting a
training course has to be prepared and ready before the training programme. To
ensure availability of all the material during a training programme, the course
director should check all the course materials as per list prepared before the
commencement of the course. The background materials needed to be
photocopied and distributed to the participants at the time of registration along
with the introductory concept of the training programme.
• Receiving and lodging of trainees: On arrival of the trainees at the training
institution, they should be welcomed and the caretaker of the hostel should allot
rooms to the trainees. It should be ensured that all the accessories in hostel rooms
are in working order and that hostel rooms have been cleaned properly.
• Arrangement for registration: One day before the course begins, it should be
ensured that the registration forms and course materials are ready. A person
should be assigned with the duty of registering the participants and to make
registration forms and course bag / folder, etc. available at the training venue.
As soon as the trainees arrive at the training hall, they should be requested to
complete their registration forms. The course folder or bag that contains a copy
of the course programme, a notebook, and a pen should be handed over to the
trainees after their registration. They should also be given TA/DA forms along
with the registration form and be advised to submit them as early as possible.
• Boarding arrangements: One day before the start of the training programme, it
 should be ensured that all the food articles have been purchased for preparation
and that good food is served to the trainees. It should be ensured that tea / food
are available to the trainees well in time
• Meeting of trainers / faculty: A day before the commencement of a training
programme, a meeting of the faculty members should be held to ensure all the
arrangements have been made by the faculty members for the programme. If
something before the commencement of a training programme is still lacking,
efforts must be made to complete it.

2. During the training programme

The following steps needed to be taken during the conduction of the training
programme.
• Inauguration of training programme: The course inauguration should be done on
the day of commencement of the training. All the arrangements for tea, water,
registration, etc., should be completed before the inauguration of the course. It is
necessary that the copies of the course programme / syllabus, etc., are available to
the trainees before inauguration. The dignitary, who has to inaugurate the course,
should be reminded of the time of the course inauguration. The inaugural session
should not be very long. The ideal time is 60 to 90 minutes. After inauguration, the
1st session should develop a mutual understating among the trainers and trainees.
Besides formal introductions, each trainee should be asked to talk about his roles,
responsibilities, duties, and specific activities, as well as his expectations of the
training. The programme director should also explain the training methodology.
The training programme to be conducted and expectations from the trainees must
be spelt out. It is also advisable that the information about their specific training
needs/ problems/ expectation should be collected in writing so that the training
is focused on these issues.
➢ Pre-test: The pre-test, with relevant questions should be conducted before
the inaugural session. This is essential to identify the training needs of the
trainees.
➢ Training expectations assessment: Trainees should be asked about their
specific training expectations during inaugural session so that the
arrangements could be made to fulfil them.
➢ Ice-breaking sessions/ opening sessions: An exercise on role and
responsibilities of trainees should be conducted. This helps in developing
rapport between trainees and trainers.
3. Middle of the training programme
 During the middle of the training programme the following actions need to be
taken.
• Contingency planning: when things do not go as per plan, it is useful to be
prepared regarding the following aspects.
➢ Power backup: Electricity supply is not always regular or there may be
scheduled power cuts. To ensure uninterrupted programme delivery, make
arrangements for alternative power supply, such as a generator.
➢ Guest speakers: Experience shows that, often the invited speakers are not
able to come to deliver their lecture / talk or request for change in date /
time of their sessions. Keep a standby speaker ready to take the session, or
engage the trainees in a relevant and fruitful training activity
➢ Equipment: Sometimes, the equipment - slide projector, overhead
projector, video cameras / VCR and computer, etc. - go out of order during
a training programme. To run a training programme smoothly, it is
essential that alternative arrangements for additional equipment should be
made available well in advance.
• Prompt action: Whenever there is a problem in the classroom or hostel, prompt
action should be taken by the course director to put things in order. This facilitates
trust and goodwill among trainees about the training organizers and the institute.
Prompt action by the course director will also enhance the interest and motivation
of the trainees in training activities.
• Timely information: It is essential that the trainees are informed about the course
activities well in advance. For this purpose, a copy of the course design (day-to-
day programme) should be supplied to the trainees at the time of registration,
along with a copy of the course content. In case there is some change in the course
activities, the trainees should be informed immediately about it.
• Arrangement for lunch, tea, and drinking water: Lunch, tea, and drinking water
should be made available to the trainees in right time, otherwise trainees are
distracted from their training activities. Things like this may seem simple, but they
have a high impact on the overall effectiveness of a training programme.
• Professional image building: Trainees should feel that they have really arrived at
a place / institution, where they will definitely learn something new. To building
this type of professional image, the following points are of great significance.
➢ The trainers should prepare their lectures/ conduct a training programme
with high quality / standards. For this purpose, new innovations / research
finding, related to the subject of the training course should be included.
➢ The subject taught in a training course should be applicable in field / work
situation and should also be directly related with the job / work of trainees.
 ➢ If the trainees have queries or demand additional information, the
concerned course faculty / staff should immediately supply the required
information to trainees.
➢ A cordial relationship between trainees and trainers contributes a lot in
conducting a quality training programme. For developing this relationship,
a trainee should not be considered as a subordinate. The trainers should
also make it possible to meet trainees in hostel in evening hours. If possible,
some cultural programmes should be arranged in the hostel in the evening
hours at least once in a week. Experience has shown that this helps in
developing a cordial relationship between trainees and trainers and,
indirect learning by trainees is also enhanced.
➢ During meetings with the trainees in hostel, informal feedback about the
quality of the training programme should also be taken from the trainees.
Efforts should be made to incorporate their suggestions.
➢ Materials required for planning, practice, and presentation sessions, should
be made available well in time.
• Course certificates: The certificates to be given to the trainees at the end of the
course should be ready and signed by the head of the institute or authorized
persons well in time.
• Group photographs: An arrangement for a group photograph should be made
after inaugural session.
• Timelines: The library sessions, video films show and field visits / study tours
and all the course activities / deliberations should be conducted as per plan.
• Handouts: Handout of the lectures delivered to the trainees should be supplied
well in time.
• Monitoring of the course activities: Monitoring is the process of keeping a watch
over the implementation of any programme/ activity to ensure that the things
are moving as per the plan. If not, corrective measures should be taken
immediately. The steps that follow should be taken to monitor a training
programme properly.
➢ Informal feedback from the trainees, should be obtained about the course,
during the tea break sessions and informal interaction sessions.
➢ At the end of the day, the trainees should be asked how they felt about the
training during the day. Did they get some useful information /
knowledge / skill during the day? They should also be asked if they have
suggestions for improvement.
➢ Recall / review sessions should be conducted daily, or, on alternate days
in short duration courses, and weekly, in long duration courses.
4. At the end of the training programme
At the end of the programme course director has to take care of following aspects.
• Back home application: On the last day of the course, a two-hour session should
be devoted to make plans by the trainees about how they are going to apply the
learning from the training in their work situation. The help and support of the
faculty members should be provided for making these plans.
• Posttest: Posttest should be conducted on the last day of the course to know the
extent of learning by the trainees. The questions in the post test should be only
from the content covered during the course.
• Training evaluation: The course evaluation forms should be delivered and
distributed among the trainees on the last day of the course. This is essential to
know the overall effectiveness of the course and to get the suggestions given by
the trainees for improvements in future.
• Concluding session: All arrangements, like relieving letters of the participants,
course certificates, etc., should be made well in time for the concluding sessions
of the course. The transport arrangements for dropping trainees at bus stand /
railway station / airport should be checked. A valedictory address to the trainees
need to arranged and head of the institution and donor agency's representative
must be invited, who can get a feedback from the trainees about the training
programme.
• Return journey: Return journey tickets should be booked or arranged for the
trainees well in time.
5. After the training programme
Training is a continuous process which ends when an objective has been
achieved. It never ends with a workshop of a few days or a single training programme.
Rather, it continues with follow-up trainings with participants. After a training
programme, there are four important tasks to be conducted:
a) Preparation of training programme evaluation report on the basis of trainee
response
b) Report of the training programme director
c) Settlement of accounts, and
d) Follow-up programmes.
6. Follow up
Follow-up is one of the important but totally neglected aspects of training. The
follow-up of a training programme can be defined as the activities that identify the
utility of the programme in job performance, the reasons for non - utilization of new
skills or knowledge acquired during the training, and providing help and reinforcement
for the application of the new learning, as well as an assessment of future training
requirements.
• Importance of follow-up: One of the weakest links in the entire training
management is follow-up. Most of the trainers and training organizations
conduct evaluation of the training as soon as the programme is over. However,
they fail to follow-up the training programme due to various reasons. This
defeats the very purpose of training, as we may not know whether trainees
actually practice or implement what they have learnt. A follow-up of a
programme is essential for the reasons that follow.
➢ Training programmes involve a lot of money, and a follow-up identifies
the actual impact on individual job performance and the organization's
productivity, which is essential to justify the continuance of the
programme in future.
➢ The feedback about the utility of programme from the trainees after they
resume their job and their experimentation with new knowledge and
skills is essential to validate the impact of the programme.
➢ Sometimes the trainees may not be interested in the programme and fail
to perceive its relevance during the training. However, they may realize
its importance and relevance when they are back on the job.
➢ The feedback from the participants will greatly help in making suitable
changes in the contents and methodology of the programme.
• Objectives of follow-up
➢ To identify the extent of utilization of newly acquired knowledge,
attitudes, and practices on the actual job situation by the trainees.
➢ To find out the problems and reasons for poor transfer of learning in their
work situation.
➢ To help the participants to keep up their motivation level through
reinforcement and by providing new learning materials
➢ To provide feedback to the trainers and training organizations about the
impact of the training on the actual job situation so as to make necessary
changes in the training programme.
➢ To assess the future training needs of the clients.
➢ To help the trainees to share their experiences, ideas, and to develop a
professional network among themselves.
• Timing of follow-up: When to start the follow-up and how much timelapse
should be allowed between the training programme and the start of follow-up
will depend upon a number of factors such as:
➢ The availability of training facilities to the trainees to practice the new
 learning
➢ Overall organizational climate of the trainees.
In the case of farmers' training, for example, the season and climate have to be
taken into account. However, it will be reasonable to allow two to six months before a
follow-up is made. This will provide sufficient time for the trainees to practice what
they have learnt. If the follow-up done after a long gap, it might not be possible to
correctly assess the impact of the training due to the influence of extraneous variables.
The objectives of the training programme will also have to be taken into account in
determining the time at which the follow-up should be done. If the follow-up
programme is unduly delayed, it may not provide reliable data from the trainees.

• Components of a follow-up system: An effective follow-up system will have the

following components.
➢ An analysis of utility of the programme.
➢ Identification of the reasons for non- adoption of newly acquired skills
and knowledge.
➢ Reinforcement of the motivation and skills of the participants through
• Post-training contact through a regular newsletter, journal and other
literature
• Refresher courses
• Personal contact
➢ Support for the adoption of newly acquired skills is provided through
• Clarification of doubts, and solving technical problems arising out of
transfer of learning • Making arrangements for the availability of
equipment, materials needed for transfer of learning
• Providing constructive feedback
➢ Encouraging interaction among the trainees through
• Formation of alumni association
• Development of e- mailing list, for network among the trainees
• Informal meetings
Guide Sheet and Stake Holders Training Responsibilities
Preparation of a guide sheet and chart of stakeholders responsibilities are two
other important aspects of organisation of training programme. Effectiveness oftraining
programme depends on how seriously you follow the guide sheet. This guide sheet
organizes various activities that are important for organizing a training programme
effectively.
 Guide Sheet
Sl. Activity Time of Actual Date
No. Action of Action
I) Pre-Training (In Advance)

1) Intimation for nomination of trainees 30-45 days

2) Preparation of folder 30 days

3) Second reminder for the nominationsalong with 20-25 days

folders

4) Confirmation of the nominationsalong with 15 days

the folder to the individual participant
5) Preparation of daily programme 7 days

6) Fixing up the guest speakers andintimation to 10 days

the guest speakers

7) Getting sanctioned the budget 15 days

8) Ordering for the bags, plastic folders, note 15 days

pads, pens, booksand film roll
9) Preparation of registration formspre- 5 day
evaluation and speaker evaluation sheets.
10) Keeping ready the honorariumreceipts 1 day
11) Planning for field visits 10 days

II) During the Training

12) Collection of lecture notes andpreparation of 7 days

reading material
13) Reminding guest speakers andarranging One day in
transport advance
14) Supply of TA forms 3rd day
15) Arrangement for group photo 5th day
16) Preparation of certificates 5th day
17) Preparation of post-evaluation andcourse- Last but one
evaluation sheets day
18) Arrangements for valedictory Last but one
day
III) Post Training
19) Settlement of Accounts Within One
week
20) Submitting course report Within One
 week
21) Contact with participants Within two
weeks
22) Follow-up visits to assess applicationof Within One
training in back home situation year
23) Using the feedback for designing thecourse
when organized next time -

Stakeholders in Training and their Responsibilities

In any training programme, along with the participants and the training team,
the training agency and the participating organizations are among the key stakeholders.
If the funding for the programme has been provided by a donor agency, it too becomes
a stakeholder, depending on the nature of its involvement in the training. The following
table provides an overview of key functions or responsibilities of these stakeholders

Participants • Participate and contribute to all training activities.

• Set out personal learning objectives and direct efforts to
realize them.
• Extend support to the training team in achieving the
programme objectives and maintain a learning
environment.
• Assist co-participants in realizing their learning
objectives.
OrganizationsWork • Assist the training agency in identifying training needs
of their nominees.
• Select appropriate participants in accordance with the
criteria and requirements set out by the training agency.
• Communicate expectations from the programme to their
nominees and the training agency.
• Keep in regular contact with the training agency to secure
information on the progress and performance of their
nominees, especially if it is a long term programme.
• Provide appropriate opportunities and support to their
participants to facilitate the transfer of training to the
field situation.
• Maintain the performance or actions of their nominees
after the training programme and provide necessary
 datato the training agency.

Training Institution • Provides an environment that is conducive to learning,

including physical facilities.
• Ensures effective coordination between the trainers and
the support staff associated with the delivery of the
programme.
• Maintains contacts with the sponsoring agencies,
especially in a long term programme, and keeps it
informed of the progress and performance of its
nominees.
• Maintains consistency between what it advocates in the
programme and what it practices in its own functioning.
• Assists in the professional growth and development of
the training staff. · Maintains the training team; keeps
pace with the developments in the field of training.
• Appraisal of work on a regular basis.
Trainers • Shoulder the responsibility of the training delivery.

Funding or Donor • Ensure the availability of funding well in advance.

agencies • Have a watch that funds are used in accordance with the
declared objectives and agreed plan of action.
• Ensure quality of training.
BLOCK2: CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT NEEDS ASSESSMENT
Unit1: Planning and Organization of Capacity Development Programmes
Concept of Need Assessment; Approaches in Need Analysis- Performance Analysis,
Task Analysis, Competency Study; Needs Survey
Unit2: Capacity Development Needs Assessment Methods
Data Collection Methods in Identifying Needs - Rational Methods (Observation,
Informal talks,Complaints,Comparison,Analysisofreport,Opinionpoll,Buzzsession,An
alysisof the new programme), Empirical Methods ( Job analysis, Performance
evaluation, Checklist or Questionnaire Method, Tests, Critical Incident Technique, Card
Sort Method, Focus Group Discussion, Interview, SWOT Analysis); Information and
Skills required in Need Analysis; Identification of Needs through Task Analysis -
Task identification, Task Analysis, Gap Analysis

Unit1: Planning and Organization of Capacity Development Programmes

Concept of Need Assessment; Approaches in Need Analysis- Performance Analysis,
Task Analysis, Competency Study; Needs Survey
Concept of Training Needs Assessment
In 1987, Butler and Butler reported that there are different levels of people in-
volved in development process, each of them with diverse interests and goals, that it
makes the task of need assessment complex and vitally important. Various experts
defined training needs in different ways. Some of them are presented here for your
understanding.
• Training need is the discrepancy between what is and what ought to be. Once
identified, needs are placed in order of priority - Alkin.
• Training needs assessment is "the systematic identification of the needs and
 problems of a specific target group" - Smith et.al.
• Training needs assessment is the systematic effort that we make to gatheropinions
and ideas from a variety of sources on performance problems or new systems and
technologies - Allison Rossett
• Identification of training needs is the method of determining if a training need
exists and if it does, what training is required to fill the gap - T. Deb.
• The need is not a want or desire. A need is defined as a gap that exists between
'what is' and 'what should be' - Ohio State University School of Public Health.

REQIURED PERFORMANCE

ACTUAL PERFORMANCE

Therefore, training needs assessment basic purpose is to identify these gaps and
determine if the problem can be solved by training.

Approaches in Need Analysis-

Four major approaches for identification of training needs have been proposed by
different authors. A brief description of each approach is given below (Rummler, 1987).
A. Performance Analysis
This approach deals with determination of the performance context of the training.For
example, the development manager in charge of human resource developmenthas to find
the answer to the question like ‘what training will improve the job performance of
village level development workers (VLWs)’? To find the answerto this question, one has
to understand how the VLWs affect the performance ofa development organization at the
village level and study their job performance.The elements of job performance of VLWs
and the methods to improve them have to be worked out. Data has to be gathered
through methods like interview,observation, and case studies to answer the following
questions:
 i) What is the actual job performance of VLWs ?
ii) What is the expected job performance of VLWs?
iii) What is the gap between actual and expected job performance of VLWs?
iv) What are the reasons for gap in job performance?
v) To what extent can training bridge the gap in job performance?
Based on the findings, we can design training programmes to improve the
performance.
Advantages of performance analysis
1. Through this method one can link between knowledge and skill requirements
with job performance.
2. One can prioritize training needs and evaluate the impact of training needson
job performance.
Disadvantages of performance analysis
1. It is costly, takes time, and requires skill.
B. Task Analysis
Task analysis is an effective and widely used approach for determining training
needs. The training given through this method must be linked to training needsand
task performance. In this approach, the development manager in charge of human
resource development has to find an answer to the question ‘What training do the VLWs
require?’. Since the training has to be based upon the job/task performance of the
VLWs, there is a need to analyze their tasks. Therefore, thisapproach requires a detailed
analysis of tasks performed by different individuals. The data has to be collected
through methods like interviews, case study, and observation methods.
Advantages of task Analysis
1. A clear-cut identification of tasks, knowledge, and skills needed to perform
various tasks.
2. The impact of training can be linked to the performance of the task, which will be
related to the overall productivity of the employees.
Disadvantages of task analysis
1. It is a time consuming and costly method.
2. This approach does not take into account other factors related to job
performance in an environment.
C. Competency Study
Training needs assessment through a competency study is now a preferred method.
In this approach, the development manager in charge of human resource development
has to find an answer to the question, ‘what are the different qualities needed for an
efficient VLW, and how do we train the VLW in these competencies?’ The help of
experts will be sought in identifying competencies.
 Therefore, data collection to identify training need in this approach will involve
discussion with experts.
Advantages of competency studies
1 This method is relatively inexpensive and fast.
Disadvantages of competency studies
1 Sometimes, it will not be possible to relate the competencies and skill
requirements with job output and organizational performance.
D. Training Needs Survey
The identification of training needs with surveys is frequently used. Training
needs are assessed based upon the opinion of those who are being interviewed.Hence,
the development manager in charge of human resource has to find answer to the
question, ‘what training is needed for VLWs?’ The opinion of VLWs, supervisors, or
clients will be sought to identify training needs. Data will be collected through mailed
questionnaire, interviews, as well as small group meetings.
Advantages of training need survey
1 This method is fast and inexpensive.
2 A large number of people can participate in identifying training needs.
Disadvantages of training need survey
1 The results of analysis may lack precision as they are based upon the opinionsof
respondents.
Unit2: Capacity Development Needs Assessment Methods
Data Collection Methods in Identifying Needs - Rational Methods (Observation,
Informal talks,Complaints,Comparison,Analysisofreport,Opinionpoll,Buzzsession,An
alysisof the new programme), Empirical Methods ( Job analysis, Performance
evaluation, Checklist or Questionnaire Method, Tests, Critical Incident Technique, Card
Sort Method, Focus Group Discussion, Interview, SWOT Analysis); Information and
Skills required in Need Analysis; Identification of Needs through Task Analysis -
Task identification, Task Analysis, Gap Analysis
Capacity Development Needs Assessment Methods
Singh (1996) has classified different data collection methods that are used to
identify training needs into two broad categories namely:
• Rational methods
• Empirical methods
The rational methods are those, while appearing to be logical as a way of
determining the training needs, do not necessarily involve the collection of factualdata by
objective means. On the other hand, the empirical method involves thecollection of data
by objective means. The methods falling under each category are listed below for your
comprehension.
A. Rational Methods
1. Observation: Training needs is based on observation made by specialistsor experts
from normal organizational life.
2. Informal Talks: Clues and indications gathered through informal talks areused to
identify training needs.
3. Complaints: Formal and informal complaints give an idea of the performance
problems where training is indicated.
4. Comparison: On the basis of fixed performance criteria of effectiveness,
comparison and judgments are made between two groups. The differencesbetween
the two groups form the basis for training needs.
5. Analysis of Reports: Annual performance records become the basis in deciding
training needs.
6. Opinion Poll: Potential training areas can be identified by conducting opinion
polls among the perspective clients of the training.
7. Buzz Session: By pooling suggestions expressed by the different buzz groups, one
can identify training needs of a group of employees.
8. Analysis of the new programme: Identify the requirements that have beenarising
from the implementation of a new programme which indicate the areas of training.
B. Empirical Methods
1. Job Analysis: Identifying and recording critical information about the functions
and operations involved in the performance of a job, and analyzingthe extent to which
the tasks that are accomplished can be potential trainingneeds.
2. Performance Evaluation: The performance of employees is evaluated andtraining
needs are arrived at.
3. Checklist or Questionnaire Method: The training needs are assessed basedupon the
opinion of the employees, subordinate superiors and peers who respond to a well-
developed questionnaire or checklist.
4. Tests: Tests are developed to measure knowledge, skill, and the attitude of
employees, and the test scores are used to identify training needs.
5. Critical Incident Technique: Employees are asked to recall critical incidents in their
career in the last one or two years when they found themselves practically ineffective
in their job performance.
6. Card Sort Method: Cards containing potential training needs are provided to
employees, who are asked to arrange these cards in the order of importance. Based
on the sorting carried by a selected sample of employees, training needs are
identified.
7. Focus Group Discussion: Focus group discussion can be held with prospective
clients who will provide inputs for training programme.
8. Interview: The training organizer can conduct interviews to identifying training
needs.
9. SWOT Analysis: The employees list out their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats regarding their job. Training objectives are designed to maximize their
strengths and opportunities; and to minimize their weaknesses and threats
Information and Skills required in Need Analysis
The information and skills required for training need analysis are discussed below.
Information
1. Data about current performance
• The current level of production and productivity
• Work environment and personnel policies.
2. Information about developmental needs
• New technologies which would replace the old
• Government policies and initiatives.
3. The organization’s plans, new proposed programmes, activities
• Organization’s short term, medium term and long-term planning.
• Any proposed activities or on-going activities of the organisations.
Skills
i) Process Skills
• Process skills are related to setting goals, developing plans, reviewing, and
evaluating the process of identifying training needs.
ii) Relationship Skills
• Relationship skills are needed to build and maintain helpful relationships
with a group of people whose needs are being identified.This involves abilities
related to supporting, listening, questioning andshowing empathy.
iii) Content Skills
• Content skill deals with the capacity to collect, analyze, and interpretdata as well
as the ability to draw sensible implications from them.
Identification of Needs through Task Analysis
i) Needs identification by development managers: This is identification of training
needs by top management in the organization as per policy, current and future work
plans, deficiencies identified etc. It should not take place ata late stage in planning
cycle. It is important to be watchful and able to identify training needs well in
advance by development managers / human resource department in the
organization.
ii) Self-assessment by individuals: This is based on self-appraisal and
identification of deficiencies by individual development professionals working
in the organization.
iii) Systemic investigation: Careful development managers or self-assessment by
individuals also may not be able to identify training needs in some situations. A
systematic assessment of training needs through training audits, need
identification surveys, job / task analysis, competency mapping etc may help in
identifying the gaps.
iv) Structured assessment: Organizations training policies, staff appraisals, systems
and procedures also help in identifying training needs in a structured way.
v) Peer review: External peer review of current work and future plans of the
development organization help in identifying training needs. This may happen
sometimes as a hidden objective. This will be effective if the management
consider seriously the opinions of individuals.

BLOCK3: CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTIONS AND MANAGEMENT

Unit 1: Capacity Development Institutions
Capacity Developer (Trainer): Meaning and concept; Types of Capacity
Developers(regular, ad-hoc, part time, guest and consultants); Roles of Capacity
Developer (explainer, clarifier, supporter, confronter, role model, linker, motivator,
translator/interpreter, change agent);Good Capacity Developer–Qualities, skills and
roles Qualities, Skills (Intrapersonal & Inter personal), Roles (Manager, Strategist, Task
Analyst, Media Specialist, Instructional Writer, Marketer, Facilitator, Instructor,
Counsellor, Transfer Agent, Evaluator); Capacity Development Centres and Locations;
Organisation’s Role in Capacity Development
Unit2: Capacity Development Project Formulation
Project Proposal: Concept and Meaning; Steps in Project Formulation- Review of past
proposals, Consulting experts, consultants, and previous organizers, Review past
project evaluation reports, Interact with the prospective beneficiaries; Format for
Writing Project Proposal (LFA)
Unit 1: Capacity Development Institutions
Capacity Developer (Trainer): Meaning and concept; Types of Capacity
Developers(regular, ad-hoc, part time, guest and consultants); Roles of Capacity
Developer (explainer, clarifier, supporter, confronter, role model, linker, motivator,
translator/interpreter, change agent);Good Capacity Developer–Qualities, skills and
roles Qualities, Skills (Intrapersonal & Inter personal), Roles (Manager, Strategist, Task
Analyst, Media Specialist, Instructional Writer, Marketer, Facilitator, Instructor,
Counsellor, Transfer Agent, Evaluator); Capacity Development Centres and Locations;
Organisation’s Role in Capacity Development

Capacity Development Institutions

Trainer: Meaning, Types and Functions
Trainer plays an important role in the training. Trainers are not only friend,
philosopher and guide of trainees, but also are architects of training programmes.
According to Paul Chaudhary “a trainer is any person whose resources contributeto the
learning and growth of one or more than one persons”. It is very important,therefore, to
have a professionally qualified trainer, as his qualities and qualifications will highly
influence the training and learning process.
Types of Trainers
Following are five types of trainers in a training institution:
i) Regular Staff: These are regular employees of a training institution and carry out
training programmes regularly. Generally, they are the coordinators of various
training programmes, taking into account their expertise in thesubject.
ii) Ad hoc Staff: Their appointment is ad hoc in nature and they are appointedfor the
purpose of handling additional workloads.
 iii) Part-time Staff: They are appointed to handle specific assignments. Their
appointment is temporary.
iv) Guest Faculty: The guest faculties are invited by the training institutionsto take
classes on various specialized areas in which the regular staffs of the training
institutions do not have adequate knowledge and skill. The guest faculties are
hired from specialized institutions and are paid honorariums for their trainings,
which is usually a fixed amount. Moreover,supplementing the guest faculty with
the regular faculty reduces the monotony in the training programme.
v) Consultants: Training institutions appoint consultants to help the regularfaculty
in the preparation and organization of training programmes. Besides,they also help
the regular faculties in the preparation of background documents for training and
smooth conduction of training sessions by keeping contact with the guest faculty.
They are paid a consolidated amount.
Roles of Trainers
The role of a trainer has many facets, and some of the important ones are given
below for your comprehension:
i) The trainer is an explainer
ii) The trainer is a clarifier
iii) The trainer is a supporter
iv) The trainer is a confronter
v) The trainer is a role model
vi) The trainer is a linker
vii) The trainer is a motivator
viii) The trainer is a translator/interpreter
ix) Trainer as change agent
i) Explainer
At the outset, the role of a trainer must be of an explainer. He, or she, must
explain the goal, objectives, and practices of the training programme clearly to the
trainees. While doing that he, or she, must promote participation and involvement of
trainees. It is said that change is best achieved through communication and
involvement. To benefit all, or most, of the participants, the trainer must value
participatory training management. The trainer must not adoptan authoritarian way, but
needs to follow a democratic way of training management.
ii) Clarifier
The trainer as a clarifier clarifies the doubts of the trainees. Sometimes, the trainees
cannot immediately express their expectation from the training. When an individual
trainee, or, a group of trainees, is bogged down and uncertain about how to proceed
with group work or an individual assignment, then, the trainer could help them and
clarify. One who fails to clarify the doubts may lose the confidence of trainees.
iii) Supporter
The training group supports the trainees and clear their difficulties. Trainees
sometimes feel shy about expressing their views for fear of a “negative halo effect”, or
they feel that they may be considered incompetent by their fellow trainees. Here, the
duty of a trainer is to act as a supporter and a friend to the trainees. In other words, the
trainer must see the trainee as a friend.
iv) Confronter
The trainer must be a confronter. Confrontations are statements or questions that
encourage self-examination. According to Friedman and Yarbrough “a trainer must
work with an apparent paradox. On the one hand, they must accept the participants as
they are. On the other hand, they must confront them, that is, challenge them to grow”.
v) Role model
The trainer should be a role model for the trainees. S/he must be friendly with
trainees, freely express deficiencies, and get feedback from the trainees and amendhimself
or herself. Trainers must try to overcome their deficiencies by holding free and frank
discussion with the trainees.
vi) Linker
The trainer establishes links with the trainees and the resource persons, both
inside and outside the training institution for the effective launching of training
programme. Besides, a trainer also establishes links among the trainees. The ability to
effectively establish links is a hallmark and a required skill of a trainer.
vii) Motivator
The trainer as a motivator creates enthusiasm among the trainees to attentively
undergo the training programme. Regardless of what the session is about, the trainer
must always try to encourage the participants to listen. The trainer can talk to the group
before the session starts to identify their needs. If this cannot bedone, the trainer should
plan a few minutes discussion with the trainees at the beginning of the session to find
their needs and link the session to those needs.
viii) Translator or Interpreter
During the process of training, a trainer performs the role of an interpreter or a
translator. S/he translates the views expressed by the trainees in a regional or local
language. Some trainees lack the ability to communicate in a common language and
express their views in their local language. In this situation, the trainer can translate the
trainee’s view to the group. In a multilingual country like India, the role of a trainer as
a translator or interpreter is quite significant.
ix) Change agent
The trainer as a change agent views his or her role as that of preparing the traineesfor
change, so that he or she is able to cope with the internal as well as externalchange.
Trainers in their capacity as change agents are concerned with the well- being and
progress of the trainees and their organisation. The change agent, in the extreme sense,
is concerned with people and people-related knowledge, skillsand values, than with task-
related aspects.
Good Trainer: Qualities, Skills, and Roles
A. Qualities Required for Good Trainers
Good trainers should:
i) Believe in and have a passion for what they are teaching.
ii) Know their material well.
iii) Use lots of metaphors explaining the materials.
iv) Be willing to share their personal experiences with the topic.
v) Have a good sense of humor about the subject.
vi) Talk to, not at, or down to, the people in the class.
vii) Not get caught up with one person’s issues in the class.
viii) Keep the class moving at a fast pace without losing anyone.
ix) Respect everyone in the class.
x) Involve trainees in group activities.
xi) Appreciate the interventions made by the trainees.
B. Skills Required for a Good Trainer
A trainer is incomplete without the possession of the trainer skills. The following
intra-personal and inter-personal skills are required for a trainer.
a) Intra-personal skills are required to improve the knowledge base of thetrainer
as well as being a means for continuous improvement of the self asan effective
trainer. This helps the trainer in language skills, different waysof communicating
with their trainees, and thoroughly involved in the training programmes.
Intrapersonal communication needs intellect as wellas physical and emotional
involvement. Some of the attributes of intra- personal skills of a trainer are given
below.
• Thinks
• Reads
• Analyses
• Innovates
• Nurtures
• Encourages
• Reviews
b) Inter-personal skills are the skills required for better communication with the
participants. This involves active listening, better management of the
interruptions, tolerating and encouraging different views. This helps the trainer
 to better manage the conflicts and increase participations among trainees and
colleagues, which ultimately help in increased productivity and better
workplace environment. Some of the attributes of interpersonalskill are given
below.
• Talks audibly
• Relates
• Accommodates
• Inspires
• Notices
• Entertains
• Responds
C. Functions of a Good Trainer
The trainer is the medium to inspire participants to actively participate in the
learning process. The trainer introduces a topic to the trainees and communicates the
details of subject or skills by selecting methods which directly involve them. A trainer
may be an expert in subjects or having good communication skills and is someone who
understands group dynamics in training sessions that involve participants with
diverse backgrounds. When a trainer with a holistic approachcan continue to reach out
to participants throughout the training program, then, definitely a training program
will be a happy training experience for the trainees; and there will be a sense of
accomplishment at the end of the day for the traineras well as of the trainees. Therefore,
the main functions of a good trainer may besummarized in the manner given below.
• Manager of Training and Development: Planning, organizing, staffing,
controlling training and development projects, and linking training and
development with other organizational units.
• Strategist: Developing long range plans in order to accomplish training and
development missions.
• Task Analyst: Identifying activities, tasks, sub-tasks, and human resourceand
support requirements that may be necessary to attain specific resultsin a job
or organizations.
• Media Specialist: Selecting the right software for programmes, for example,
audio visual, computer, and other hardware-based technologiesfor training.
• Instructional Writer: Developing good training materials.
• Marketer: Selling training and development viewpoints, learning packages,
programs, and services to target audiences.
• Facilitator: Facilitating the act of translating learning into practice.
• Instructor: Presenting information and directing structured learning
experiences so that individuals learn.
• Counsellor: Helping individuals to enhance their personnel competenciesand
 plan development and career actions.
• Transfer Agent: Helping individuals apply new learning to their tasks.
• Evaluator: Identifying the extent of the impact of a program, service or
product and calculate the Return on Investment.
Capacity Development Centers and Locations
Training Centers and Training Location
Training institutions should take care of the needs of the trainers as well as of
trainees. An atmosphere conducive to learning makes the training process effective. The
training organisers of an organisation should ensure that the trainingis planned in such a
way that it achieves its objectives and is also cost-effective.The training requirements in
the organisation should be summarized in a trainingproposal. The training center must
acquire new technologies and use e-training facilities for making the training
programme stimulating. There are, of course, many more factors to be considered than
just the knowledge requirements. Therefore, the role of a training organisation is crucial
for successful formulationand implementation of various training programmes.
Training Location
Training programmes may be conducted in-house, within an organisation’s
premises. Some organisations have fully equipped training centers. Some take their
participants to tourist locations, away from the training place. This may increase the
interests of the participants, but it involves extra time and money. Therefore, sometimes
donor agencies sponsoring training programmes keenly search for location of training
institution.
Some factors which help the trainer and the organisation to decide on the location
are given below:
i) Number of participants
ii) Size of training room
iii) Suitable chairs and tables
iv) Lighting
v) Background noise
vi) Access
vii) Facilities
viii) Acoustics
ix) Air conditioning
x) Power outlets
xi) Availability of training aids
xii) Public address system
xiii) Storage area
Unit 2 : Capacity Development Project Formulation
Project Proposal: Concept and Meaning; Steps in Project Formulation- Review of past
proposals, Consulting experts, consultants, and previous organizers, Review past
project evaluation reports, Interact with the prospective beneficiaries; Format for
Writing Project Proposal (LFA)

Project Proposal
Project Proposal: Concept and Meaning

According to Connor, Bronner, and Delaney, “A proposal is a request for action.

Its purpose is to persuade decision makers that a need exists for action and that the
action described in the document is the best response to that need”.
According ITTO, “A project proposal is a detailed description of a series of
activities aimed at solving a certain problem. The proposal should contain a detailed
explanation of the:
• Justification of the project
• Activities and implementation time line
• Methodology, and
• Human, material and financial resources required.
According to one group of experts “A project is a time-bound intervention
consisting of a set of planned and interrelated activities executed to bring about a
beneficial change. It has a start and a finish, involves a multidisciplinary team
collaborating to implement activities within constraints of cost, time and quality and
has a scope of work that is unique and subject to uncertainty”.

Steps In Training Project Formulation

The formulation of a good training project proposal is not an easy task. It requires
a lot of exercise on the part of proposal formulator both before and during the
preparation of training project proposal. Before writing a training project proposal, the
training organizer, or institution has to take care of following pre-training project
formulation aspects.
1) Review of Past Training Project Proposals: A group that is involved in the
formulation of a training project proposal needs to evaluate similar types of
training programmes organized by its own institution or other similar type of
institutions. This will give an idea about the strengths and weaknesses of an
implemented training project. Accordingly, the training proposal could be
formulated.
2) Consulting Experts, Consultants, and Previous Training Organizers: A person
or group formulating a training proposal could consult an expert in the area of
training and even can appoint a consultant who could be helpful in the preparation
of the training proposal. It is always better to consult a person who has already
organized similar types of training programmes which are being attempted.
3) Review Past Training Project Evaluation Reports: Before formulating a training
proposal, it is advisable to go through the training report prepared by a similar
type of training institutions. The training report, besides providing the training
curriculum, will give details about the methodology, evaluation, and impact
assessment strategy.
4) Interact with the Prospective Beneficiaries: Training organizers have to interact
with the prospective beneficiaries and assess their need for training. It would be
better if the organizers could also interact with those who have already received a
similar type of training.
5) Check Statistical Data/ Report: The data regarding a previous training status from
various documents must be collected so that an appropriate training strategy is
formulated.
6) Hold Focus Group Discussion: It is always better that the person who prepares a
training proposal undertakes a focus group discussion with the beneficiaries or the
prospective trainees. If it is a training programme for grassroots level
representatives e.g., Panchayati Raj institutions, then the training organizer could
conduct a focus group discussion with the Panchayati Raj institution
representatives and functionaries, and assess their training needs.
Format For Writing Training Project Proposal
After completing the ground work, the writing of a project proposal will begin.
Here, we will mention the important components of a training project proposal.
1) Title Page: The training proposal must start with a title page. The title page needs
to clearly spell out the title of the project proposal, the name of the sponsoring
agency and the institution submitting the project proposal, and the address of the
institution from where the proposal originates.
2) Abstract: Many training project peer group evaluators may not have the time to
read the entire project proposal. Therefore, it is prudent to give an abstract. The
abstract needs to include the following aspects.

i) The problem statement

ii) The project objectives
iii) Implementing organisations
iv) Key project activities
 v) Findings
vi) Total project budget
3) Introduction: Briefly introduce the topic for training, and why the training in the
areas is deemed necessary. Introduction must be brief and to the point focusing on
the topic on which training programme is being proposed.
4) Problem Statement: The project formulator must clearly give some background of
the problem which the project is trying to solve in order to make a case for the
project. It also needs to clearly mention the needs of the target group which the
project is attempting to address through training. Some of the essential points to
be taken into consideration while writing problem statement are mentioned in the
box below.
Problem Analysis
• Describe the key problem identified and its causes and effects.
• Delineate how these problems affect the target group.
• Explain how addressing the causes will lead to the eradication of the key
problem.
• The description should be clear, concise and convincing.
5) Project Goal & Objectives: After delineating the statement of the problem, the
second aspect to be covered in the training proposal is to clearly state the goal and
objectives. The goal is the general aim of the project, while objectives are the core
problems\ issues the project is trying to address to achieve the goal. Remember
that there is one goal and more than one objective. A detail regarding the
precautions to be taken while preparing training objectives is given in the box
below.
Training Objectives Formulation
The training objectives of a particular training programme are the statement of
desired end product to be achieved through training programme. The statement
should clearly spell out the type of changes, or desired end product, when they will
be attained, and finally, how will they be measured to determine the level of success.

Essential features of Training Objectives.

• A training objective must be: Well defined
• Based on training needs of the trainees
• Directly related to job of the trainees
• Specific and precise
 • Able to define a change that is measurable
• Able to identify and enlist criteria against which success can be measured
or judged
• Clearly specifying end-results
• Achievable in its stipulated time
In nutshell training objective must be ‘SMART’
S – Simple
M– Measurable
A – Attainable
R – Realistic
T – Time-bound
The purpose of a training objective is to:
• Create awareness
• Impart knowledge
• Change attitude
• Generate skills
ABCD in determining the training objective, make a start with:
A – Audience who are to be trained
B – Behaviour, i.e., type of change you expect in the trainee’s behaviour
C – Condition, i.e., under which conditions you expect this change to occur
D – Degree, i.e., how much change you expect.
6) Project Output: The training project output should describe the services or
products which the training organizers intend to deliver to the beneficiaries. The
results are more detailed and can be in measurable terms.It should be remembered
that the results should address the main causes ofthe problem that the target group
faces. The following are key points to betaken into consideration while formulating
outputs.
➢ It should clearly relate to the objectives and should be stated in such away that
these can be measured in quantity, time, and space.
➢ It should be achievable with the available resources.
➢ It should not be confused with activities.
7) Target Group: The project proposal needs to clearly define the target groupand show
how they will benefit from the training programme. The project should give clear
details of the designation, caste, and age; the gender breaks up of the target group
which will be covered in training. If possible,a list of categories of participants may
be given as an annexure in the proposal.
8) Training Curriculum Setting: After deciding on the target audience, itwill be easy
 for the training organizers to set the curriculum. The following two approaches are
generally followed while framing a training curriculum.
a. Restrict Content to a Specific Group: Is there certain content that should be
restricted to a specific group of participants? For example,if you are developing a
company orientation training program, you may want to develop certain training
modules specific for managersand supervisors, and other modules for front line
workers. You may also need to divide the modules based on roles, e.g., a different
modulefor the accounting department.
b. Open to a General Audience: Is there some content that everyone inthe company
(and perhaps external clients and stakeholders) would benefit from? Typically
this content is the foundational content that covers training to common
competencies within the larger group.
Before developing a training curriculum it will be beneficial if a smallgroup
of experts in the core areas of training is called, and the curriculum is developed
with their help. If possible, one internal meeting of the faculty may be called before
the curriculum is finalized.It is always better to formulate the training curriculum
after conductinga Training Needs Assessment.
8) Project Implementation Plan: The training project implementation plan must
describe activities and resources allocation in as much detail as possible. The time
and place of project implementation must be clearly mentioned. It should also
specify the experts and other institutions who will be involved during the
process of conducting the project activities. The implementation plan may be
divided into the following two key elements.
9) The Activity Plan: The activity plan must clearly include information about the
activities to be conducted by the project. The activities must be down from the
specific objectives and outputs formulated for the project. They should be stated in
such a way that they precisely describethe actions or tasks to be undertaken by the
training organizer. It will be better if activities are further broken into tasks.
Activities shouldindicate what will be done to transform inputs into outputs.
Some of the guidelines for the formulation of appropriate activities follow.
1) It should examine each output listed in the training plan.
2) Formulate the complete set of activities required for achieving the
stated objectives.
3) Always verify that the formulated set of activities is sufficient for
achieving the stated training project output.
4) Check the available set of inputs necessary for the implementation of
formulated activities.
B) Resource Plan: The resource plan must clearly provide information
 regarding resources required for the project. International project donors
expect contributions from the project applicant organization. In this case,the
training organizer should clearly mention the organization’s contribution in
the project budget.
Broadly, the resources may include instructional materials, hardware, software and
personnel.
1) Instructional Materials: Training manual, handouts, models,
transparencies, flow charts, white boards, white sheets, reference guides etc.
2) Hardware and Software: Computer, video cameras, multimedia setup,
overhead projector, power point presentation, etc.
3) Personnel: Training consultants, resource persons, training assistants, and
other support staff required during the training programme.
Customarily, the budget for a training proposal includes expenditures on following
broad headings.
1) Payment to training coordinators
2) Payment to training Associate/Assistant
3) Payment to consultant trainers
4) Payment to resource persons
5) Per diem / TA/DA of the participant
6) Cost of training materials/modules
7) Charges of training hall (if available with the organization )
8) Charges of board / lodging of the participants
9) Cost of stationary/software/hardware
10) Miscellaneous charges (postage, photocopying, etc.)
11) Monitoring and Evaluation: The project should clearly outline the monitoring
mechanism. It will have to spell out the methods to be used formonitoring and
evaluating of training project.
12) Reporting: The reporting mechanism to be used by the training organisermust
be clearly stated in the training project. Generally, the mid-term evaluation and
end-term evaluation are done. Moreover, as far as monitoring is concerned, the
monthly progress reports need to be sent to the donor agency to inform them
about the progress of the project.
13) Management and Personnel: A brief description about the managementof the
project and personnel to be involved should be given.
BLOCK4: CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT PROCESS AND HRD
Unit1: Capacity Development Methods and Tools
Capacity Development Methods –Lecture, Discussion, Syndicate, Seminars,
Conference, Symposium, Role Play, Case study, Programmed Instruction, T-
group/Laboratory methods; Factors Determining Selection of Methods - Capacity
development objectives, subject matter, categories of participants, and the available
resources like time, location, budget; Capacity Development Aids.
Unit2: Evaluation
Capacity Development Programme Evaluation - Meaning & Importance; Purpose of
Evaluation; Principles of Evaluation; Types of Evaluation – Formative, Summative,
Kirkpatrick's four levels of evaluation; Process of Evaluation- Evaluation at the
beginning, Evaluation during the programme, Evaluation at the end; Use of evaluation
findings; Statistical Tools for evaluation.

Unit3: Impact Assessment

Impact Assessment- Meaning, Need, Features, Benefits, Concepts; Indicators for
Impact Assessment - Direct indicators, Indirect or proxy indicators, Quantitative
indicators, Qualitative indicators, Result chain/ hierarchy of indicators; Methods of
Impact Evaluation- Learning retention of participants (KOSA), Impact on the job
performance, Impact on organizational effectiveness, Impact on stakeholder’s
competency.
Unit4: Human Resource Development
HRD: Meaning, Importance and Benefits; Types of HRD Systems & Sub-systems
Career system (Manpower planning, Recruitment, Career planning, Succession
planning, Retention), Work system (Role analysis, Role efficacy, Performance plan,
Performance feedback and guidance, Performance appraisal, Promotion, Job rotation,
Reward), Development system (Induction, Training, Job enrichment, Self-learning
mechanisms, Potential appraisal, Succession development, Counseling, Mentor
system), Self-renewal system (Survey, Action research, Organizational development
interventions), Culture system ( Vision, mission and goals, Values, Communication, Get
together and celebrations, Task force, Small groups); Components of HRD System -
Performance Appraisal, Potential Appraisal, Task System, Development System,
Socialization System, Governance; Functions of HRD-Organisational Development,
Career Development, Capacity Development.

Unit1: Capacity Development Methods and Tools

Capacity Development Methods –Lecture, Discussion, Syndicate, Seminars,
Conference, Symposium, Role Play, Case study, Programmed Instruction, T-
group/Laboratory methods; Factors Determining Selection of Methods - Capacity
development objectives, subject matter, categories of participants, and the available
resources like time, location, budget; Capacity Development Aids.

Capacity Development Methods and Tools

Capacity Development Methods

Organizations and trainers the world over have intensively explored ways and
means to improve training methods. A trainer may use a range of training methods to
provide variety in the delivery of training, sustain the interest of participants, and
maintain the momentum of the training process. There are several training methods
and no single method is inherently better than the other. Hence, a combination of
methods is used, depending on the subject, time, resources, and type of participants.
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
• Explain the factors that determine selection of training methods.
• Discuss various training methods.
• Describe various types of training aids.

Training Methods
As in the teaching, in training programmes the trainers use different training
methods, including the lecture method. There are a number of training methods which
have different contextual applications. Some of the methods are discussed below.
➢ Lecture
All of you might have been taught by the lecture method when you were at
school / college. This is the classical methods of training. From ancient times, gurus
and the sanyasis have used this method to teach their disciples. In this methodology,
the trainer delivers lectures on various aspects of a subject that he wants the trainees
to learn. He may also lecture about the uses, the merits, and demerits of the subject. A
lecture is a method of describing conceptual knowledge.
The trainer or the faculty plays the active role, while the trainees play a passive
one. The trainees are assumed to be a homogenous group.

Advantages
1) A formal lecture helps in the building up of theoretical knowledge whichcan be
used as a base for the participative training sessions and learning ofmotor or verbal
skills.
2) It is direct. The learner learns the material directly from the instructor. Hence,
there is less time consumed in search for the knowledge and also less distortion.
3) One important advantage of the lecture method is that a relatively large number
of people can be instructed at one time. There is no other methodthat can be used
to instruct 50-100, or more, trainees.
4) A lecture can deal with more facts, principles, and concepts in a shorter time than
it would take to teach the same material in a conference, case study, or other group
method.
5) If teaching resources are scarce, then the lecture method is the best.
Disadvantages
1) The most obvious disadvantage of the method is that there is a minimumof active
involvement of the trainees. This, consequently, leads to less motivation.
Moreover, the monologue may become dull after some time.Therefore, the lecture
method cannot be used to teach skills which may require hands on practice.
2) It has a limited value in promoting behavioural or attitudinal changes. It is very
difficult to convince anyone by merely talking to them; attitudes changewhen people
convince themselves. Participative methods are better for such purposes.
3) The main disadvantage of the lecture comes from the fact that it is one way
communication. Therefore, there is little opportunity to clarify meaning, to check
on whether or not the trainees really understand what is being presented.
4) There is little scope for practice, reinforcement, or knowledge of results.
5) It has limited usefulness in teaching employees who cannot grasp verbal
presentations.
➢ Discussion Method
This is an intensive participation-oriented methodology. The learning through this
methodology is through discussions on a subject. Discussions involve the exchange of
ideas between the trainees and trainers and, also, among the trainees themselves. It is a
dynamic methodology. There is a possibility of participation by each and every member
of the group. The participants who actively participate are trying to contribute to the
ongoing discussion which may be an individualized one or a group discussion. Both
methods are useful, but group discussions are more systematic and forceful in making
the trainees learn more and more. In the discussion method, trainees can assume
different roles such as a chairperson, a reporter, etc., and this makes the discussion
methods livelier. The participants are encouraged to express and exchange their ideas
with others. The learning process is made simple and suits the mature adult minds. The
participants bring out their real life and actual experiences during the discussion. These
are useful for the other participants and for the trainer, too. The solutions and decisions
made after the discussions can be useful in practical life. It should be understood by the
trainees that discussion in a training situation is not a debate, a talk, or an argument. It
is purpose oriented and focused on a specific topic.
Advantages of the discussion method
1) It is a participation-oriented method and goes very well with the trainees
irrespective of their age and designation.
2) In discussions, there is an exchange of ideas and experiences among participants.
Therefore, synergy takes place and powerful ideas and solutions emerge.
3) It is a self learning methodology, and participants need not depend solelyupon the
trainers for learning. The learning is spontaneous and almost automatic.
4) The trainees get on-the-spot feedback from the co-trainees about their opinions
and experiences.
Disadvantages
1) It is time consuming because, sometimes, everyone wants to add to the discussion.
2) Often, the discussions are side tracked from the main objective.
3) Some trainees may dominate the discussion, while others are silent throughout a
discussion.
4) The outcome and decisions of discussions may be controversial and thereare no
solutions even after prolonged individual or group discussions.
➢ Syndicate Method
The Administrative Staff College at Henley–on–Thames and at Hyderabad have
contributed to this method. The Staff Colleges in India and abroad follow the syndicate
method in their training and allied programmes. It is a widely known and popular
method applicable to all groups of trainees, especially in giving training to supervisors,
managers, and executives.
In this method, the trainees are divided into sub groups, called as syndicates and
each syndicate has to work on various subjects. The syndicates discuss the issues related
to the subject and prepare a report. A syndicate can be formed for any topic. The topic
could be one that involves all the departments in an organization, and the members of
the syndicate are selected from a cross-section of organizations. The syndicate has to
complete the task assigned within a specified date and time.
The nominations of office bearers of these syndicates are by rotation, and so,
everyone gets a chance. In some cases, resource persons and facilitators are appointed
to keep in touch with the group and to motivate them to achieve the assigned task.
Expert lectures and guidance are arranged from external resources wherever necessary.
A trainer provides each syndicate with a carefully prepared document stating the
issues and problems to be discussed by the syndicate. This is the base paper for the
discussion. The papers prepared by the syndicates are circulated among all the
syndicates for evaluation, critical remarks and suggestions.
Towards the end of the session, each syndicate presents their paper in a final form
and this is followed by elaborate discussions with the groups. The chairperson of each
syndicate presents the paper, and the other syndicate members answer the queries and
doubts of the other trainees in the group.
Advantages of the syndicate method
1. All the participants are actively involved in the syndicate sessions.
2. It cultivates leadership qualities since the leadership roles – president, secretary,
etc. - are filled by rotation.
3. It is a self-learning and development process because each of the syndicate
members comes out with his knowledge, experiences, and skills.
4. Generally, the issue is discussed in detail and the trainees look at the problemfrom
many angles – production, marketing, finance, personnel, etc.
5. The syndicates are formed for certain definite purpose. The group’s cohesiveness
is enhanced along with competitiveness and conflicting interests. The existence
 of the syndicate is for some fixed duration and there is consistent interaction and
understanding between trainees.
Disadvantages of the syndicate method
1. If the syndicate consists of members with wider interests and views, there may
be disagreements on the issue till the end.
2. The syndicates should be carefully structured by the trainer. Hurriedly
structured syndicates do not contribute anything.
3. There is no guarantee that every member of a syndicate will participate in the
process of learning. The participation of members may be lopsided.
➢ Seminars
Seminars are short term training programmes arranged for a few days – a day or
two or maximum three days. Seminars are convened to have in-depth discussion on a
subject from various viewpoints. In seminars, there are presentations of papers by
various authors followed by discussions, questions, and answers. Trainees participate
in discussions that broaden their knowledge and outlook. At the end of the session, the
participants can come out with recommendations.
Advantages of seminars
1. This method helps participants to obtain the views, opinions, research finding,
etc. of the experts through the papers presented by them. The method is faster
than gathering knowledge by reading books and holding discussions.
2. Some seminars are forceful and thought provoking. They enable the participants
to see different points of view, attitudes, and opinions.
3. In seminars, the trainees are given the opportunity to listen to experts from
different fields who share their views on specific issues.
Disadvantages of seminars
1. If the audience for the seminar is too big, Individual attention, as in training
situations, is not possible.
2. Many seminars have just become rituals without anyone giving much thought to
the issues. As a result, no purpose is achieved by convening seminars. Interactions
between participants are very limited.
➢ Conference
Conferences are suited to executives and senior officers who are dealing with a
complex problem which requires contributions from senior officers for a resolution. The
issues and the subject matters of the conference are intimated to the delegates and
participants well in advance, and they prepare the papers and related materials for the
conference. The delegates present the papers and explain the various aspects of the
problem. At the end of the conference, suggestions and recommendations are made,
based on the deliberations and discussions. All the members in a conference are
expected to have more or less equal knowledge.
Advantages of conferences
This method suits bigger groups and participants benefit from listening to senior
speakers. They are induced to think over the problems, issues and solutions.
Disadvantages of conferences
The disadvantage of this method is that it is less participatory and the trainees are
inactive during the programmes. It is difficult to determine whether the trainees learnt
anything or not.
➢ Symposium
Symposium is a Greek word and it denotes ‘a drinking party’ or ‘a feast’. In earlier
times, scholars engaged in philosophical and scientific discussions that were a feast for
the intelligent. In a symposium, a particular subject is discussed widely and deeply from
the viewpoint of several well-versed authors. The speakers are of approximately equal
ability, to avoid one speaker dominating the meeting. The participation of the trainees
is more rigorous and learning more thorough.
Advantages of a symposium
The main advantage of this method is the active thinking and participation by
participants.
Disadvantages of a symposium
The disadvantage is that a lot of controversy and confusion in thinking may result
in futile endeavour.
➢ Role Play
The role play technique is highly participative. Every trainee is involved and
absorbed in the session. In this method, some of the trainees assume the role of various
characters and enact real life situations, as is done in a drama form. After the acting is
over, there is discussion about the roles and functions; strong and weak points; merits
and demerits of the situation; commissions and omissions of the characters; applications
and criticisms of the roles; causes of the situations; decisions and solutions about the
happenings and the final conclusions.
The role play technique is based on human interactions, individual and group,
behavioural and psychodynamics, communication process, perception differences,
imagination, creative abilities and judgment. The role play session should be carefully
designed by the trainer. The trainer should not overdo or exaggerate in the role play.
a) Why Role Play?
i) To promote understanding about the situation;
ii) To develop empathy; and
iii) Self perception is useful in helping individuals develop the art of interpersonal
relationship.
 The role play may cover the ordinary issues such as
a) difference in receiving a trainee warmly with a smile and handshake and in
receiving a trainee without such warm gestures;
b) covering decision making situation, like a business meeting about the short fall in
sales involving characters such as a general manager, sales manager, production
manager, financial manager, etc.; or
c) about a sensitive problem regarding persistent tardiness of an employee by a
manager.

b) Types of Role Play

Role play can be broadly classified into three categories.
i) Structured / Rehearsed Role Play.
ii) Unstructured / Spontaneous Role Play.
iii) Controlled and directed Role Play.
i) Rehearsed / Structured / Schemed Role Play: without any scripts, the participants
are told in advance about what action, attitude and behavioureach character should
act out. It is a lively visual aid used to portray varyingsituations in the work field.
ii) Unstructured / Spontaneous Role Play: participants are involved in therole play
without any brief or preparation. They act out according to theirmind, attitudes,
and styles. In many situations, the organization or departmental culture in which
the trainees work reflects in their speech, gestures, and action. Even the trainers
are curious to know about the outcome of this type of role play. It is a democratic
type of role play.
iii) Controlled and Directed Role Play: The trainer gives directions to the participants
of role play along with the script. The characters have no choice or freedom except
to act according to the wishes of the trainers. They have to memorize the script and
present it before the audience. It is an effective tool for the trainer to present to the
audience what he wants to say and the topics which he wants to cover.
Advantages of Role Play
i) The trainees have a feel of a real work life situation. The role play bridges the gap
between theory and practice.
ii) Trainees have opportunities to develop skills in communication,
interpersonal relationships, decision making, observation, etc., through this
methodology.
iii) Since it is an active methodology, and can be utilized by trainers during apost
lunch session when the trainees feel drowsy and dull. This methodology
relieves the monotony and dullness of the participants in hearing continuous
 lectures, or doing continuous practical exercises.
iv) Spontaneous role play helps the trainees to think and analyze the situation
independently and logically.
v) There are many constructive criticisms and suggestion which serve as aneye
opener for other participants and trainers.
Disadvantages of Role Play
The main disadvantage of role play is that it is time consuming and well
experienced trainers are needed to conduct role play sessions.
➢ Case Study
This method has been introduced by the Harvard Business School and widely used
by many of the management institutes in India and abroad. Indian Institute of
Management, Ahmadabad and Asian Institute of Management, Manila are the institutes
that have adopted and extensively used the case study method. The case study
methodology, when utilized, develops the analytical and decision making skills of the
participants. The group processes e.g. positive meaningful interactions, two-way
communication, give and take policy; mutual adjustments are observed spontaneously
during the case study method.
The case that is under study could be about a success or a failure of an
organization. The study is supported by adequate data and incidents. The case could be
prepared on a single event or it may be about interrelated functions of some
departments.
Some training experts divided case studies into the following two major headings.
i. Cases which require diagnosis by the trainees.
ii. Cases which require solutions to certain problems.
Normally the trainees have to diagnose, as well as, provide solutions to the
problems.
Some authors classify the cases under the following four types.
i. The narrative type, which gives the details of the situation and the problems.
ii. The story type, which gives the case in a story form.
iii. The document type, collected from various files and documents.
iv. The hybrid type, the mixture of one or two types or all the combination of
above-mentioned types of cases.
While conducting the case study method, observations from the trainees are also
posted.
Advantages
i) It is a lively and interesting method. It keeps the participant vibrant and
encourages participation in the learning process.
ii) It develops the thinking, analyzing, and problem solving skills of theparticipants.
iii) It relieves monotony of listening to continuous faculty lectures.
iv) Since cases are made out of real life situations, it helps the participants tosolve the
problems by applying the learning gained during training.
v) Relationship building skills are developed, co-operation and understanding is
found among the trainees while diagnosing and solving the problems.

Disadvantages
i. It is a time consuming and may be cumbersome at times.
ii. Lack of provision of adequate data and incidents may dilute the case study
method.
iii. There is a shortage of appropriate cases.
iv. If the case studies are lengthy, the participants may lose their concentration.
v. It requires skill on the part of trainer.
➢ Programmed Instruction (P.I)
This methodology helps the trainees to learn on their own and at their own pace.
It is an innovative teaching method, introduced in recent years. Programmed learning
is a self-instructional learning and the course material is prepared or programmed in
steps. The subject matter to be learnt is divided into small steps and the order or
sequence to be followed by trainees is given. The trainees start learning from simple
steps and progress towards more complex steps / instructions. The program is
structured in such a way that the trainees will be able to know the results or correctness
of his learning then and there. The answers are provided at the end of each step or
programme. When a trainee commits errors, feedback on errors is provided. Each
learner is able to work and learn according to his own speed, the programmes are
released in the form of books, brochures, audio and video cassette, exercises etc. The
people who design the programmes are called as programmers.

Advantages
i) This method enables the trainees to learn at their own speed and convenience.
They can study the programmes and learn at home. It is a self-learning
methodology.
ii) A large number of people can learn through the programmed learning method
without any geographical or distance barriers. Large amounts of information can
be given in this method.
iii) The infrastructural facilities such as a well-developed faculty, class room, and
audio-visual aids are not needed.
iv) This method is highly elastic and flexible. The same programme can be used for
many batches of trainees, year after year, and it is easier to introducemodifications in
 the programmes.
v) The trainees get the psychological satisfaction due to immediate feedback, self-
pacing, and individualized learning.

Disadvantages
i) Writing the programme is tedious, time consuming, and needs greater care,
concern, and analysis.
ii) Learning through this method requires strong motivation on the part of thetrainees
to learn, but many trainees, especially workers and office goers, may not have
enough time and motivation for self-learning.
iii) It is a highly structured routine methodology. Some people may resent directed
learning.
Factors Determining Selection of Training Methods
In the previous section, we discussed about the methods of training. Now, let us
discuss the factors that influence training methods selection. Broadly, the factors
influencing training methods selection are:
• Training objectives
• Subject matter
• Categories of participants, and
• Resource availability
• Time
• Location
• Budget
• Other considerations

Training objectives
If the purpose of training is to help the trainees to acquire new skills, it isnecessary
to choose training methods that will help in acquiring and practicing the skills, along
with providing positive and negative feedbackabout achievement of the objective. The
appropriate methods include thepoints that follow.
➢ Demonstration
➢ Role play
➢ Video tapes
➢ Structured exercise
➢ Workshop
If the purpose of training is to change attitudes, i.e., to help the trainees to acquire
new values, opinions, and benefits, the methods that follow will be useful.
➢ Role play
 ➢ Case study
➢ Demonstration
➢ Field visit
➢ Film and video tapes
➢ Structured games and exercises
➢ Instrumented exercises
Subject Matter
The subject matter or contents have a bearing on the choice of training method.
For example, if the contents of the training are related to theoretical or conceptual
clarity, then it would be necessary to choose methods such as lecture, audio and video
tapes, and reading assignments. Again, if the subject matter has got only one right
answer which needs minimum debate, training method such as lecture, audio, or
videotape will be sufficient. However, if subject matter includes a debatable outcome,
then training methods, such as group discussion, workshops, and case study method,
are relevant.
The choice of training method will also depend upon whether the training is
intended to develop a general or specific level of knowledge and skill. For example,
development of a general level knowledge on pest control may involve methods like
lectures, videos, and discussion. However, development of a specific level skill and
knowledge on integrated pest management, for example, may include the use of field
level demonstrations along with on-the-job work experience.
Categories of Participants
A training method may vary according to the participants, learning style, their
experience, and the size of the group
a) Learning Styles: The following four different categories of learners need
different types of orientation.
i) The accommodators like self- discovery methods, independent study,
clinical experience, practical exercises, and interviewing.
ii) The divergers will be interested in group activities, brain storming, role
play, simulation, debate, and discussion methods.
iii) The assimilators prefer theoretical analysis, lecture, conceptual papers, and
abstract problem solving.
iv) The convergers choice consists of methods such as demonstrations,
problem based learning, laboratory, and practical exercises.
b) Learners’ Experience- An understanding of participants’ educational level,
age, and level of involvement in fieldwork will help in choosing training
methods. Participants with postgraduate qualifications may not be averse to
the lecture method of self study through reading, for clarification of higher level
 concepts. However, if the participants have only school level education and are
involved in fieldwork, the appropriate training methods would be
demonstration and on-the-job training.
c) Size of Group - The size of the trainee group is one of the most important
factors in deciding the training method. For example, if one has to use the
simulation method, a minimum number of eight to ten participants will be
required. A reasonable rule of thumb for optimum number of participants
required for use of different training methods is given in Table-1.
Table-1: Training Methods and Optimum Number of Participants Needed
Sl. No Training Methods No. of participants
1 Lecture 10-40
2 Group discussion 3-10
3 Case study 3-20
4 Role play 5-15
5 Field visits 5-25
6 Seminars and syndicate 15-40
7 Demonstration 5-15
8 Simulation method 8-20
9 Structured experience 8-20
10 Instrumented exercise 8-15

Resource Availability
Availability of adequate resources to conduct a training programme must be
considered while choosing training methods. The following questions should be
answered before the selection of methods.
i) Do the trainers have adequate skills on the methods being contemplated?
ii) Do you have financial provision to employ external resource persons?
iii) What are the facilities available with regard to use of demonstration, audio– visual
aids, and other electronic media?
iv) Does the location of training give scope for conducting simulation methods?
v) What about the availability of commercial audio and video materials related to the
subject matter of training in the market?
vi) Do you have enough financial resources and time to develop new resources?
Time
In many cases, the participants have a limited number of days to be spent for the
purpose of training. As a result, the trainers are forced to cover a number of topics
within a short period available for training, which has an effect on the selection of
training method. For example, the concept of motivation can be dealt through lecture
method within one hour. However, to teach motivation through experimental exercises
requires a minimum of six to eight hours. The optimum time needed to handle different
training methods is given in Table-2.
Table-2: Time needed for using different Training Methods
Sl. Training Methods Time needed (in hours)
No
1 Lecture 0.5 to 1.0
2 Seminar and syndicate 1.5 to 2.0
3 Demonstrations 0.5 to 1.0
4 Use of instrumented 1.5 to 2.0
exercise
5 Group discussion 1.0 to 1.5
6 Case study 1.5 to 2.0
7 Simulation method 1.5 to 2.5
8 Structured experiences 1.5 to 2.0
Location
The location of the training programme has a definite bearing on the choice of
training methods. Most training is held indoors with classroom facilities. However, the
field-based training programmes may limit the use of facilities which are easily
available in the classroom. Further, if the location of the training is far away from the
training organization, it will be difficult to make use of those training facilities available
within training organization.
Budget
If funds are not a constraint, one can choose a method appropriate to learning
objectives. However, if sufficient funds are not available, one has to be content with the
best alternative method, which will fit into budget provisions. Who will bear the
training cost? Whether it is borne by the participants or by the training organization will
also play a role in the choice of training methods. Participants who bear the expenses of
the entire programme are likely to come with higher level of motivation and
expectations. Such participants are likely to anticipate some visible results or impact
through the programme, on their job performance. Those participants whose training
cost is borne by the training organization and are sent for training as a ritual or a routine
matter, and they may not have a sufficiently high level of motivation for learning.
Participatory training methodologies will be effective for this group of participants to
enhance their motivation and participation.
 Besides these factors, there are also other considerations which the trainer has to
take into account while choosing methods of training.
Other Considerations
The selection of training method will also depend upon the decision of training to
provide opportunities for practice, involvement and feedback. The scope of training
methods with regard to involvement, opportunities, and feedback is given in Table-3.
Table-3: Trainees’ Involvement, Participation and Feedback under Different Methods
of Training
Sr. Training methods Level of trainee’s Opportunity for Feedback
involvement practice
1 Reading assignment Very low Very low Very low
2 Lecture Low Very low Low
3 Seminars and Medium Low Medium
syndicate
4 Demonstration High Low Medium
5 Use of instrumented High Low High
exercise
6 Group Medium Low High
discussion
7 Case study High Medium High
8 Simulation methods High High High
(role play in basket
exercise and business
games)
9 Structural Very High High High
experiences
10 T. Group/ laboratory Very High Very High Very High
method
11 On-the-job/ Field Very High Very High Very High
training
Training Aids
The effectiveness of a trainer is determined by the degree and diversity of skill he
or she has in communicating with the trainees. The trainer uses various aids to make
his teaching and training effective. The training aids are supportive to learning. They
should be carefully and selectively used and contextualized in order to make teaching
learning effective. Nowadays, visual and audio-visual aids are extensively used in
training programmes. Visual and audio aids offer the trainers unique opportunities to
increase the effectiveness and clarity of ideas expressed to trainees. There is a saying
that “the best way to a man’s heart is through his stomach but the best way to his brain
is through his eyes and ears”. Therefore, use of visual and audio-visual aids in teaching
and training programmes cannot be ignored.
For the proper selection of visual and audio-visual aids, the following points are
important to be kept in mind.
1 Decide what you want to say.
2 How important are visual and audio-visual aids for what you want to say.
3 Outline the subject matter, point by point.
4 Use visual and audio-visual aids prudently to delineate those points.
5 Keep audio-visual aids ready before delivering the lecture.
The main principles in selecting visual and audio-visual aids are given below.
i) Who is your audience? The following considerations have to be made while
dealing with the nature of trainees:
a) Age level of the trainees.
b) Educational background of the trainees.
c) Experience of the trainees.
d) Inquisitiveness of the trainees.
e) Knowledge level of the trainees.
ii) The aid must be easy to see. The size of visual and audio-visual must beof standard
size and not too small. Besides, it must be placed in such a manner, so that it is
visible to the entire audience. The trainees need to be seated in a way that the
presentation is easily viewed.
iii) Easily Understandable: The ideas expressed through the visual and audiovisual
aids should be easily understandable by the trainees. The diagrams and pictures
used in the visual must be clear and understandable.
iv) Easy to Handle: The trainer must be trained in handling the audio-visualaids. Big
and bulky teaching aids can be awkward to handle and difficultto transport.
v) Explain One Idea at a Time: The visual and audio-visual aids used in explaining
a subject matter, need to cover a single idea at a time. There may be more than one
idea in a topic but a visual or audio-visual appearing in the screen must try to explain
only one idea at a time. For various ideas,more than one visual aid may be used.
vi) Attractive and Clean: To be effective, visual aids should be neat, clean and colorful.
Unit2: Evaluation
Capacity Development Programme Evaluation - Meaning & Importance; Purpose of
Evaluation; Principles of Evaluation; Types of Evaluation – Formative, Summative,
Kirkpatrick's four levels of evaluation; Process of Evaluation- Evaluation at the
beginning, Evaluation during the programme, Evaluation at the end; Use of evaluation
findings; Statistical Tools for evaluation.

Capacity Development Programme Evaluation

Evaluation of training refers to the process of examining the effectiveness of the
training program in terms of the benefits to the trainees and to the organization, or
company. According to Deb, “Training evaluation is the application of systematic
methods to periodically and objectively assess the effectiveness of training in achieving
expected results, their impacts, both intended and unintended, continued relevant and
alternative or more cost-effective ways of achieving expected results.”
i) What to evaluate in a training evaluation?
According to Watson (1979), the following five areas of a training programme
merit evaluation.
• Reactions: Trainees’ reactions to all facets of the learning experienceitself.
• Learning: Changes in attitude, knowledge, and skills of the trainees.
• Job Behaviour: How and to what extent trainees behave differentlybecause of the
training; how they have applied what was taught on the job.
• Organizational Impact: How changes in trainees affect the functions of their
organizations.
• Additional Outcomes: Results or by products of the training not identified or
assessed by the other four areas, such as the social value of training, its effect on
trainees’ self-concept, its relation to trainees’personal goals, and other such issues.
ii) Why conduct training evaluation?
Evaluation of training would answer the following four questions i.e., what did
participants say about the training in general? what knowledge, skills, or attitudes were
learned? did the training create visible behavioural changes? and did the training pay
off?
It is also a process of collecting outcomes to determine if the training program was
effective. A proper plan is to be made beforehand: how to collect various information
or data, from whom the information has to be collected, what type of data has to be
collected and when. Training evaluation determines whether the candidates are able to
implement their learning in their respective workplaces, or in their regular work
routines.
Evaluation of training addresses the methodology, how one determines, whether
the goals or objectives were met and the impact that the training had on actual
performance on the job or in the community. There is no single blueprint for training
evaluation.
Purpose of Training Evaluation
After imparting training or conducting a training we would like to know the
following.
• The effectiveness of training, to see if it works. If so, what is it supposed todo? Change
behaviour? Shape attitudes? Improve job performance? Reduce defects? Achieve
targets? Enhance quality?
• How efficient is the training programme? How much time does the training
consume? Can it be shortened? Can we manage with on-the-job training or can we
completely eliminate training by substituting job aids instead?
• How much will it cost? Is it worth it? What are we trying to find out? Forwhom?
When given a range of options, decisions must be made about the focus of any
particular evaluation. Patton (1997) suggests three distinct categories and recommends
that evaluation should have a primary purpose, based on choosing just one of the
following categories
• To judge merit or worth
• To improve programmes
• To generate knowledge.
This is explained in tabular form below
Three Primary Uses of Evaluation Findings
Uses Examples
Judge merit or Summative evaluation Accountability Audits Quality
worth Control Cost-benefit decisions Decide aprogrammes’ future
Accreditation/licensing
Improve Formative evaluation Identify strengths/ weaknesses
programmes Continuous improvement Quality enhancement Being a
learning organisation Manage more effectively Adapt a
model locally
Generate Generalizations about effectiveness Extrapolate principles
knowledge about what works Theory building Synthesize patterns
across programmes Scholarlypublishing Policy making
 Generally, training courses are evaluated using standard tools that have been
formalized through instruments such as feedback formats, questionnaires, verbal or
presentation, etc., so that one can consistently evaluate courses against the same
standards. The evaluation results are used to make decisions regarding the course
design, development, implementation and impact. Considering the uses given by
Patton (1997), evaluation of training is nothing but assessing indicators in order to
quantify or measure. The results of training evaluation can be used for the purposes
outlined below.
i) Enhanced accountability and cost effectiveness for training initiatives which might
result in an increase in resources.
ii) Improved effectiveness -are the initiatives producing the results for whichthey were
intended?
iii) Improved efficiency -are the initiatives producing the results for whichthey were
intended with a minimum waste of resources?
iv) Greater credibility for the training staff to include information to accomplishthe results
effectively and efficiently.
v) Stronger commitment by the management for approval of quality of
organizational training.
vi) Formal corrective feedback system for developing strengths and weakness of the
trainees.
vii) Management to decide whether to send prospective recruits to future training
initiatives.
viii) Availability of data for researchers in the field of institutional development and
training designers interested in training research.
ix) Availability of justification or scope for sponsoring future trainings.
x) Increase in knowledge and expertise for the training initiative designer in the
direction of designing result-oriented training initiative.
xi) Feedbacks during evaluation make the participants to recapture the definedobjectives
and give a thought process for linking it to learning outcomes.
xii) The evaluation results are also used by the organization in personnel
development programme such as promotion, etc.

Principles o f Training Evaluation

By now, you have learned that evaluation of training is the process of establishing
a worth or value, merit or excellence of the training. Criteria should be based on training
objectives, its relevance, reliability, practicality and classification. Criteria should
include reactions, learning (knowledge, attitudes and skill), results and return on
investment (ROI).
To achieve the desired results, evaluation has to be based on sound principles that
include the following.
i. Clarity
The trainer or evaluator must be clear about the purpose of evaluation in order to
set the standards and criteria of evaluation. Moreover, he or she must be clear about
various objectives of training programme both generalas well as specific objectives.
ii. Objectivity
All objectives should be evaluated. The evaluation should be fair, free from any
type of bias or subjectivity. Objectivity is the characteristic of agood trainer. Objectivity
requires
• Measurable standards of assessment
• Designing valid and reliable research instruments
• Detailed analysis and interpretation of data in order to validate necessity of
evaluation.
iii. Reliability
Subjective analysis of evaluation data cannot produce reliable results. The
instruments used in evaluation must be reliable and should not deviate and should
ensure certainty as far as following key points are concerned.
• Irrespective of the method used to gather the data
• When repeated by the same trainer again
• When interpreted by any other person
Normally, a good trainer uses more than one method of data gathering and data
interpretation in order to achieve reliable results. Therefore, the evaluation instrument
must ensure reliability.
iv. Feasible
The evaluation must be feasible. Following should be checked for feasibility
• Is it cost effective? Is it spending more on evaluation than the returns on training?
• Is your methodology practical? Do you have the human/other resources and
time for executing the suggested methodology?
• Is the data useful? It is possible that a lot of time/money is spent on generating
evaluation data without knowing, or being unable to put the data to any use,
whatsoever. Therefore, it is important to collect data which are useful only for
evaluation purpose.
v. Evaluation Design to be custom-made
 The design and approach to evaluation has to be custom-made to suit specific
training levels and standards. General inference drawn from one evaluation design may
not identify strengths and weaknesses of training meant for different set of objectives.
vi. Evaluation must emphasize on process and not end product
Evaluation is a process, but not an end product of training. As a process, it has to
be continuous. The trainees’ reaction at the end of the course evaluation especially when
it gives conclusive and quantitative ratings such as “M” Excellent, “N” good, “O”
average and “P” not good, cannot guide trainers for subsequent improvements in a
programme. Therefore, evaluation has to commence before the actual training activity,
and continue during the process of training.

Types o f Training Evaluation

In general, training evaluation is categorized in two types: formative and
summative evaluation. The evaluation is objective oriented. Besides, evaluators often
talk about four different types of evaluations: formative, process, outcome, and impact.
However, formative and process category can be clubbed together as a formative
category, as it is largely monitoring activity. Similarly, outcome and impact can be put
together in the summative category which is referred to as final assessment. Let us
discuss them one by one.
Formative Evaluation
A formative evaluation is usually conducted in the first part or phase of a program
and addresses questions about implementation and ongoing planning. This includes
giving and receiving verbal feedback also. Formative evaluations are useful for various
purposes.
It answers questions like, “Are the goals and objectives suitable for the targeted
audience?” “Are the methods and materials appropriate to the event?” “Can the event
be easily replicated?”
Formative evaluation furnishes information for program developers and
implementers. It helps in programme planning and implementation activities in terms
of: (1) target population, (2) programme organization, and (3) programme location and
timing.
For example:
a) This process may help in identifying problems at the initial stage so that
the programme can be improved or corrected.
b) During process of formative evaluation, the trainer can understand the
c) usefulness of different emerging outcomes based on which programme
management can be improved.
d) Formative evaluation provides an opportunity to collect baseline data or
 benchmarks for future summative (or, “impact”) evaluations.
The main objective of formative evaluation is to give importance to available
strengths and try to convert weakness to strength. Some of the steps to conduct
formative evaluation are:
a) Review the training material with a few trainees;
b) Hold group discussions with trainees to get feedback;
c) Use the material in a situation similar to that of an actual training
programme and see how it works;
d) Observe the behaviour of the trainees;
e) Conduct a pre-test on trainees.
Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluations assess programme outcomes or impacts, to determine the
relationship of different factors to outcomes: like the formative evaluations, some
information used in summative evaluation is collected during the early phase of a
programme (e.g., baseline data, test scores).
Through outcome evaluation, data is collected to measure the ability of the trained
participants to do a job at the end of training, and what they actually are going to do
back on the job or in their community due to the changes in their behaviour as a result
of the training received by them.
Summative evaluation answers the main question that is “What happened to the
knowledge, attitudes, and behaviours of the intended population?” Summative
evaluation takes place at the end of the training programme.
Some of the methods of conducting summative evaluation are:
a) Ask opinion of trainees about the training programme;
b) Conduct a post-test on trainees;
c) Ask the trainees how they will put to use, all that they have learnt, in their
workplace.
d) Measure the changes that has occurred because of training.
Kirkpatrick’s Evaluation Model
Donald Kirkpatrick in 1959 developed four levels of evaluation. The four levels of
training evaluation model were later redefined and updated in Kirkpatrick’s 1998 book,
called ‘Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels’.
The four levels represent a series of steps to evaluate training programs and are
now considered an industry standard in personnel departments of Human Resources
Development wings, and by training communities. Each level is important and has an
impact on the next level. As one moves from one level to the next, the process becomes
more difficult and time consuming, but it also provides more valuable information.
The four levels of Kirkpatrick’s (KP) evaluation model essentially measure
 • Reaction of trainees – what they thought and felt about the training
• Learning - the resulting increase in knowledge or capability
• Behaviour - extent of behaviour and capability improvement and
implementation/application
• Results - the effects on the business or environment resulting from the
trainee’s performance.
All these measures are recommended for full and meaningful evaluation of
learning in organizations, although their application broadly increases in complexity
and cost, through the levels from level 1 to 4. The various levels of evaluation as
envisaged by Kirkpatrick evaluation model follow.
Level 1: Evaluation at this stage measures how the participant reacts immediatelyafter the
completion of the training program in which he has participated. It is observed
that a positive and favourable reaction from a few key persons in the group
influences the future of a program. In fact a less favourable reaction affectsthe
motivation to learn among the participants. A negative reaction could greatly
reduce the scope for conducting further training programs. This evaluation is
made to know attitude and opinion of the trainees about various aspects of the
training, viz., boarding, lodging, timetable, trainees’ behaviour, classroom
coursecontent, etc.
Level 2: At this level, a simple standardized questionnaire on the subject of training is
administered before and after the programs as a part of the evaluationprocess.
This helps in assessing the degree of improvement/ change in knowledge,skills
and attitude of trainees as a result of training.
Level 3: In this phase, the evaluation is done to know the extent to which the trainees
applied the learning and changed their behaviour. Generally, this type of
evaluation is done after 3 to 4 months, to assess the performance of the trainees.
Level 4: At this level, the final impact results are taken into consideration. The final
results can be in the form of increased production, improved quality, decreased
costs, increased sales, reduced turnover, and higher profits. It is the acid test.
The Kirkpatrick model is given in a tabular form below.
Level Evaluation Evaluation Examples of Relevance
type (what is description and evaluation and
measured) characteristics tools and practicability
methods
 1 Reaction Reaction ‘Happy sheets’, Quick and
evaluation is how feedback forms. very easy to
the delegates felt Verbal reaction, obtain. Not
about the training post-training expensive to
or learning surveys or gather or to
experience. questionnaires. analyze.
2 Learning Learning Typically, Relatively
evaluation is the assessments or simple to set
measurement of tests before and up; clear-cut
the increase in after the training. for
knowledge - Interview or quantifiable
before and after. observation can skills.
also be used. Less easy for
complex
learning.
3 Behaviou Behaviour Observation and Measurement
r evaluation is the interview over of behaviour
extent of applied time are required change
learning back on to assess change, typically
the job - relevance of requires
implementation. change, and cooperation
sustainability of and skill of
change. line-
managers.
4 Results Results Measures are Individually
evaluation is the already in place not difficult;
effect on the via normal unlike whole
business or management organization.
environment by systems and Process must
the trainee. reporting - the attribute clear
challenge is to accountabiliti
relate to the es.
trainee.

Process of Training Evaluation

An evaluation basically asks the questions: was the training worthwhile? And how
can it be made meaningful in the future? In this section, we will examine the following
processes/ methods of evaluation.
i) Evaluation at the beginning of the training.
ii) Evaluation during the training of the participants.
iii) Evaluation at the end of the training by participants and staff.
 iv) Use of evaluation findings.
The indicators that are included in the evaluation by participants, staff, or outside
evaluators are the performance of the trainers, the effectiveness of the training
programme content, the perceptions of participants on benefits, and the attainment of
the performance objectives.
Evaluation at the Beginning
The learner’s skills and knowledge are assessed at the beginning of the training
program and termed, entry test. During the start of training, candidates generally
perceive it as a waste of resources because most of the time candidates are unaware of
the objectives and learning outcomes of the program. Once aware, they are asked to give
their opinions on the methods used and whether those methods conform to the
candidates’ preferences and learning style.
The purpose of this evaluation is to determine the level of knowledge and skills of
the trainees before the training. This will help in making the trainees aware of their state
of knowledge and areas where they are lacking, guide the trainers in planning the
training program and evaluating the gain made, and sensitize participants to key
concepts. It also helps the trainer to focus on objectives. And finally, it serves as a
benchmark for the final test.
It is particularly important to reassure the trainees that this test is in no way meant
to reflect on their capability or to categorize them according to some competence level.
It may be advisable to give an objective type test, correct and return the test scripts, but
not to do grading or marking on the scripts. Oral tests may also be given in instruments
identification and use.
Evaluation during the Training
This evaluation is conducted when the instruction starts. It usually consists of
short tests at regular intervals. The evaluation during the training is for both the trainer
and the participant to know how well they are doing. This helps to improve the learning
process and learning principles (e.g., adult learning). Some of the key principles of this
type of evaluation are given below.
• The evaluation should be specific rather than abstract.
• Evaluation feedback is the trainer’s best control over the learning process.
• Adult professionals want to know how well they are doing.
• Adults like to be evaluated if they take part and see the importance of the
evaluation.
• When adults take part in the measurements, it adds to the learning process.
• Adults benefit from such evaluations if they can relate it to the specific
objectives of the course.
This evaluation takes place during classroom lectures, discussions, tests, class
problems and demonstrations. Brief examples of these types of evaluation are questions
and answers.
The purpose of this evaluation is to obtain responses to specific questions. For
example, in a course of micro-level planning for rural development, the trainer may ask
the following questions in the class.
• What kinds of tools are used for Participatory Rural Appraisal survey?
• True/false questions on procedures for conducting a Participatory Rural
Appraisal survey.
Again, evaluation at this stage is to provide the participant the feedback about his
progress as well as information to the trainer for improving the training activity. The
evaluation during the training will make the teaching-learning process participatory
and learner friendly.
Evaluation at the end of the Training
The evaluation at the end of the training can help to identify:
i) The trainees’ reactions to the course and the learning experience.
ii) The learning or changes in attitudes, knowledge and skills of the
participants.
iii) The participants’ evaluation of the performance of the staff.
This evaluation cannot ascertain the impact on job behaviour. It can only evaluate
what was learned. The evaluation forms need not be excessively long. Short forms with
specific questions often provide more usable information. This evaluation will broadly
cover the aspects, below.
a) Participants’ Reactions

Participants’ reactions to the training programme are included in an evaluation

form developed for the purpose. Sample form given below may be used by the
participants for evaluation of programme objectives and subject matter.
Evaluation Form for Participants
Name of the Course: ..................................................... Duration .......................
Sl. Description Rating
No.
A Objectives Very To Some Not At All
Much Extent
1 Learned new ideas that
would help me in my job
2 Gained an up-dated matter
knowledge on the subject
3 Helped me in solving some
field problems
 4 Broadened my contacts
with fellow officers
5 Learned much through
exchange of information and
ideas
6 Helped me perform my
work more effectively
B Subject matter Yes To Some No
Extent
1 Practical
2 Provided useful new
information
3 Was too general
4 Was too complex

5 Was valuable for practical

application
6 Was too theoretical

7 Was at an elementary level

8 Related to my needs and

interests
C Please write a paragraph suggesting specific measures for
improvement of this course.

The results of these evaluations can be biased by the trainer. Therefore, it is

recommended that someone else who is not involved in the course needs to administer
this evaluation.
e) Exit Test
Where an entry test was given, an exit test can be used to ascertain what learning
actually took place. Some training institutions are using the exit test very effectively.
These tests are developed around the objectives of the training programme. For
example, a sample of test question can be used related to
• facts participants need to know
• key concepts and principles
• techniques, i.e., skills, methods, and procedures
• processes and where, when, and how to use them
• professional attitudes or values needed by participants.
 The exit test need not be too long. The purpose is to assess behaviour and
knowledge.
This test could also include practical exercises where actual field skills are
demonstrated. Often, a practical exercise precedes the final written test.
f) Sample Interview
In addition to the final test, some trainers select a 10 per cent random sample of
participants for an intensive face-to-face personal interview. This is time consuming but
can yield some useful information. Again, this should cover
• the reactions of the participants to the total training programme
• the learning that took place
• the relevance of the learning to the participant’s job
• the performance of the trainers.
g) Evaluation of the Trainers by the Participants
Trainers also need to know how well they have performed. Various evaluation
forms can be developed. Without this evaluation, a trainer may not know the areas in
which improvement is required. An alternative method is to have one’s peers evaluate
his training approach. One trainer evaluation form is given below for your
understanding.

Participants’ Evaluation of Trainer Rating scale for evaluation of Trainer by

Trainees
S Item Description Poor Fair Good Excellent
N
1 Knew his subject matter
2 Presented ideas clearly
3 Provided ample time for questions
4 Related theory to practical situations
5 Used a good variety of training
methods and aids
6 Provided useful handouts
7 Provided clear instructions
8 Listened to participants
 9 Showed concern for participant’s
needs
10 Related ideas to my (Participant’s)
job related issues
11 Had enthusiasm
12 Presented all the topics in a proper
sequence

Staff Evaluation of the Training Programme

The evaluation of a training programme by the staff of a training organization is
followed by some training organizations. A practice followed by one training institute
is to schedule a one to two day staff evaluation upon the completion of a given training
programme. This is useful in that it identifies weaknesses and recommends solutions.
The results from the other evaluations can be used for this staff evaluation. Focus is
given on the planning, the objectives of the training programme, the content, training
methods, and results.
Use of Evaluation Findings
Sometimes evaluations done but the results are not adequately utilized.
Evaluation should never be done as a formal procedure. The purpose of evaluating a
training programme is to determine its value or to identify ways for its improvements.

The three major uses of the findings of evaluations are for improving the training
programme, improving the institute’s training programme and promoting the value of
the training.
a) Improving the Quality of the Training Programme
The results of the evaluation should help the training organizers make decision
regarding several key questions.
• Was adequate time spent in planning the training?
• Did it meet its objectives?
• Were the training methods and aids adequate?
• Were the needs and interests of participants met?
• Was there adequate balance between field exercises and class room
presentations?
• Was the duration of the course adequate?
• How can the course be improved?
b) Training Institute
The training institute is interested in improving its programme. Training
programme evaluations can provide useful information about how to do this. Some
questions which evaluations can help to answer are given below.
• Were the facilities for this training programme adequate?
• Is there a growing demand for the programme?
• Should the training programme be continued? Revised? Cancelled?
• What was the performance level of various trainers?
• Was the budget for the training programme adequate?
• If needed, when should the training programme be scheduled?
• Was there adequate support staff for the training programme?
c) Promotion of Training
Evaluation reports are useful for promoting and sharing information about
training programme. Reports can be sent to the following.
• Organizations that send trainees
• Sponsors of the training
Evaluation by participants, staff or outside evaluators includes the performance of
the trainers, the effectiveness of the training program content, the perceptions of
participants, of benefits, and the attainment of the performance objectives. The
participant’s evaluation of different aspects of training and a course evaluation form are
given below for your comprehension.

Participants Training Evaluation Form

Name ............................................... Address ..................................................

Present Position .............................. Place ......................................................

Discipline Background ................... Date ........................................................

Years at Present Position ....................................................................................

A. Physical Facilities for Training Program (Put a ‘√’ in appropriate box)

Types Very Satisfactory Needs Poor No
Good improvement response

Classrooms

Housing
Food arrangement

Transportation

Lab equipment

B. Training Equipment/Supplies
Types Very Satisfactory Needs Poor No
Good improvement response
Class teaching
Equipment
Field equipment
DTP/duplication
Handouts
Provided
Video CDs/tapes

C. Training/Teaching Methods
Types Very Satisfactory Needs Poor No
Good improvement response

Lectures
Discussion
Team reports
Team planning
Schedule of
Events
Objectives of
Trainers
Participation of
Trainees in
Discussion
Field Exercise

D. Quality of Subject or Discipline Training (Please include subjects/topics that

 are taught) For example
Types Very Satisfactory Needs Poor No
Good improvement response
Demographic
Studies
Statistical
Methods
Environmental
Studies
Economics
ofFarm
Operations
Extension and
Rural
Sociology

E. Quality of Training
Types Very Satisfactory Needs Poor No
Good improvement response
Learning field
method
Focus on
understanding
of other
disciplines
Team building
Lectures
Field studies

F. Attitudes of Trainers
Types Very Satisfactory Needs Poor No
Good improvement response
Towards trainees
Towards other
disciplines
 Participation of
trainees in
discussion
Listening to views
of trainees
Flexibility in
modifying format
and activities
Understanding of
trainees’ needs
Understanding of
focused areas
Ability to
communicate
Flexibility
Interest in subject
matter

G. Relevance of Training
Types Very Satisfactory Needs Poor No
Good improvement response
To present job
To professional
development
To my interest and
felt needs

H. Would you recommend such Training for

Types Yes No Undecided
Other officers with a similar position to
yours
Other persons working in the Dept./
Unit/Project/Organization

I. Please write one paragraph about how this training has been useful to you.
J. Suggest specific ways for the improvement of the training.

Statistical Tools for Evaluation of Training

The training coordinator may take the help of a statistician for the evaluation of a
training programme. For example, it may be used to see the difference between pre and
post test result of the trainees. The statistical analysis may be conducted internally or
contracted out to external consultants if the trainees are large in number. Depending
upon how complex the design is, how much data collection is required, or what the
organizational requirements are, the statistical analysis may be made and stored on a
standard spreadsheet application or relational database.
Participants’ responses on any of the tools can be coded and entered into a
spreadsheet or a standard statistical package for analysis. The way, in which, the
participants’ responses are entered depends on the response alternatives and format of
the software to be used.
Before any calculation is performed, it is imperative to check the data for errors. It
should be ensured that all numbers are in the correct column after coding. This can be
done simply by printing the spreadsheet of data, highlighting every other column with
a marker and systematically examining the columns.
Simple calculations that are most useful and can be easily computed by
spreadsheet application include: Frequency, Percentage, Mean, Mode, Median, Range,
Variance, Standard deviation
Sometimes, advanced spread sheets to calculate t-tests, correlations, regressions,
etc can also be used. These analyses sometimes require a minimum number of
participants or certain assumption levels which must be met by the data. If it is not met,
the results may be inaccurate.
In these sessions, you read about the evaluation matrix and statistical tools to be
used in the evaluation of training, now answer the question given in Check Your
Progress-3.
Check Your Progress 3
Note:
a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
1) What are the statistical tools to be used in the evaluation of training?
......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................

......................................................................................................................
Unit3: Impact Assessment
Impact Assessment- Meaning, Need, Features, Benefits, Concepts; Indicators for
Impact Assessment - Direct indicators, Indirect or proxy indicators, Quantitative
indicators, Qualitative indicators, Result chain/ hierarchy of indicators; Methods of
Impact Evaluation- Learning retention of participants (KOSA), Impact on the job
performance, Impact on organizational effectiveness, Impact on stakeholder’s
competency.

Impact Assessment
Impact assessment of training assesses the extent to which the learning process has
made a difference in some targeted area, such as in the development of the production
process, or at a community level, or targeted groups, or beneficiaries of an intervention
project. The basic organizing principle of any good assessment of a training intervention
is to ask the question: what would have happened in the absence of the training
intervention? What would have been the development levels of particular organization,
communities, groups, households, and individuals, or target level without the training
intervention? Evaluation involves an analysis of cause and effect in order to identify
impacts that can be traced back to the training interventions.
Before discussing impact assessment, let us learn some of the concepts related to
impact assessment. These concepts follow.
Benchmark: A benchmark is a point of real reference for measuring change in
performance vis-à-vis agreed targets. It is intended to indicate where one is at a given
point in a process so that change can be measured and progress evaluated at later stages.
Defining a benchmark requires that we identify the relevant indicators against which
we want to assess progress. Because progress is a subjective concept - it depends on
what direction we want to move in - it is important to ensure that such indicators are
relevant to all stakeholders or participants in the exercise.
Inputs: An input is a contribution to a development intervention (e.g., a project,
programme or policy) which is intended to steer the process of this intervention towards
a specified goal. Inputs can be material and non-material, including human resources
(staffing), physical and/or monetary resources as well as ideas, knowledge, skill,
information, and training.
Outputs: Outputs are the products or results from specified inputs. For example,
a typical output in a capacity building intervention could be a series of training
workshops.
Outcomes: Outcomes are the consequences of specified outputs. For example, a
typical outcome of a series of training workshops (a capacity building output) should
be that workshop participants are familiar with the set of skills that were communicated
during these workshops.
Impact: An impact is the wider consequence of a given set of actions or processes.
Impacts can be experienced at the individual or the organizational level, are often multi-
dimensional and can be intended or unintended. Attempts can be made to monitor
impacts using a qualitative and quantitative baseline and accompanying indicators.
Impact Assessment: In general, impact assessment consists of measuring
outcomes. More specifically, it is the measurement of short- or medium-term
developmental changes resulting from an intervention or input.
Impact Assessment of Training:Meaning, Features and Benefits
Impact Assessment of Training
It is a process of measuring resultant outcomes or developmental changes
consequent upon a training initiative. According to Stig Kjeldsen, “training impact
assessment is concerned with the impact training can have on job performance and the
influence the assessments can have on strengthening training programmes and
services.” According to one definition “training impact assessment is a tool that gathers
and organizes information so that sound conclusions can be drawn and decisions can
be made about what needs to be done in the workplace to enhance the impact of training
on day-to-day work behaviours and attitude.”
Features of Impact Assessment of Trainings
Some of the features of impact assessment are given below.
• Impact assessment usually takes a long time and costs a lot of money; itfocuses on
assessing whether or not the objectives are achieved.
• Impacts occur through an accumulation of outcomes.
• Impact assessment takes longer time than outcome evaluation.
• The focus is on changes that have occurred in key indicators which are used to
 gauge the levels of problem occurrence.
• Impact assessment is meant to answer the question, “How did the traininghelp to
handle the issue, or affect the problem, as a result of the learningprocess?”
• Impact evaluation tries to measure whether or not training has affected the initial
problem identified.
• Findings are used as inputs in programme development and fund raising for
training delivery programmes.
• Training might not be wholly responsible for achieving the target or bringingabout the
desired change.
Benefits of Impact Assessment of Trainings
Some of the benefits of impact assessment on training are as follows:
• It provides indicators of knowledge, attitude and skill transfer from the classroom
to the workplace.
• It provides vital information that can be used to identify positive outcomes of
training in the workplace.
• It improves training design and delivery.
• It implements workplace practices that can enhance the impact of training.
Indicators for Training Impact Assessment
An indicator is a measure that is used to demonstrate changes in a situation, or the
progress in, or results of an activity, project, or programme. In other words, indicators
• are measures used to demonstrate changes over time?
• point to the results
• are essential instruments for monitoring and evaluation.
In general, an indicator is a measure; for example, Output (Total Output in Tons),
or, the cost of produce per unit of irrigation water supplied (Rupees/cubic meter of
water). Different types of indicators are given below.
i) Direct indicators correspond precisely to results at any performance level. For
example, a training programme is meant for increasing irrigation efficiency
through effective canal operation plan. In this case the numberof field engineers or
farmer leaders of various irrigation projects who received this technique from a
training are direct measures of output; thenumber of irrigation projects in which
such canal operation plans are implemented is a direct measure of training
intervention outcome; and anincrease in efficiency confirmed in so many (number
or per cent) irrigationprojects is a direct measure of training intervention impact.
ii) Indirect or “proxy” indicators are used to demonstrate the change or results where
direct measures are not feasible. Some objectives, particularly impact objectives, are
difficult to monitor. It is often necessary to select indirect or proxy indicators that
may be easier for evaluators to measure. For example, the case for more qualitative
 subjects, like behavioural change, living conditions, good governance, etc. Some
objectives of analysis canbe measured directly quantitatively, but it is too sensitive
to do so, for example level of income or, in the context of an HIV/AIDS
intervention,safe sex, etc. In these cases indirect indicators or proxy indicators are
used.
The use of an indirect indicator can be more cost effective than the use ofa direct
one. As such, indirect indicators are typical management tools. Generally,
managers are not looking for scientifically reliable data but for management
information. An indirect indicator may very well represent the right balance
between the level of reliability of information and the efforts needed to obtain the
data.
iii) Quantitative indicators are expressed on a percentage or share basis, or,in terms of
rate of change or ratio. For example, reduction in infant mortality and maternal
mortality are quantitative indicators of health.
iv) Qualitative indicators can be defined as people’s judgments and perceptions
about a subject. For example: the number of people, or, per cent of people, that
have adopted farm mechanization in a village after rece iving training, is a
quantitative indicator. The confidence that those people have in farm machinery
as instruments of economic improvement is a qualitative indicator. Note that
quality of life indicators, such as those that measure changes in a community
programme on health, education, or employment, are often confused with
qualitative indicators, as they both refer to quality. In fact, either qualitative or
quantitative indicators can measure health, education, or any other subject.
v) Result chain: the result chain gives the hierarchy of indicators affected by an
intervention. In Table-1, an example of hierarchy of indicators for a health
education campaign is shown.
Table 1: Hierarchy of indicators for a health education campaign
Definitions of Indicators and Result Example of hierarchy of
Chains indicators for a health education
campaign
Impact indicators: Long-term results Reduction in morbidity and
Measure the quality and quantity of mortality.
long-term results generated by
programme outputs (e.g., measurable
change in quality of life, reduced
incidence of diseases, increased income
for women, reduced mortality).
Outcome indicators: Medium-term Proportion of target population
results Measure the intermediate results that meets prescribed standards
generated by programme outputs. They of behaviour.
 often correspond to any change in Number of people whose
people’s behaviour as a result of behaviour changed
programme, e.g., training intervention
for the use of septic latrine through water
and sanitation programme in rural area.
Output indicators: Short-term results Number of people whose
Measure the quantity, quality, and opinions change. Number of people
timeliness of the programme— goods who learn the facts.
or services — that are the result of a
training/ awareness campaign/
activity/project/ programme.
Process indicators: Measure the Number who acquired the skill of
progress of activities in a vaccination within the s p e c i f i e
programme/project and the way these d t r a i n i n g period. Number of
are carried out (for example, referring to people amongst the participants
thedegree of participation). who do not know how to
administer a vaccine
Input indicators: Measure the quantity, Percentage of participants felt the
quality, and timeliness of resources — training has increased their
human, financial and material, required skill. Number of
technological, and information — participants who have undergone
provided for a training intervention training
activity/ project/programme.
Methods of Training Impact Assessment
Training impact assessment can be conducted through various methods. A few
important methods of training impact evaluation are discussed below.
Training Impact Assessment in the Field
For a practical training, impact assessment on personnel who have undertaken
training on any aspect delivered by a training providing organization (TPO) are
assessed on the following aspects.
i) Learning retention of trained personnel (knowledge, skills and attitudes).
ii) Training impact on the trainees’ job performance.
iii) Training impact on organizational effectiveness.
iv) Impact on the market or environment or stakeholder’s competency.
It should be highly participatory in nature, consulting stakeholders or consumers
at the national, regional, council, ward and community levels across all areas of
operation need to be involved in the process for assessing the impact of training of a
particular trainee trained by the training organization. The design of training impact
evaluation, which is to be undertaken in reality, should be within a relatively short time
and with affordable resources. The findings should focus the comprehensive analysis of
the final goal.
On-the-Job Evaluations
The most important and the most difficult evaluation is the follow-up of
participants on-the-job. Though time-consuming, this is the only way to judge if there
is an impact on job performance. Several ways of doing this are mentioned below.
i) Visit to Work Sites
Each training providing organization (TPO) needs to develop a network or data
base of personnel who have undergone training (participants). Each year, selected staff
can visit participants for discussions about the value of the course that they have
completed. Alternatively, a group of participants can be invited to TPOs for discussion.
This type of face-to-face contact not only builds up a good relationship with TPOs, but
can yield some useful information.
ii) Surveys
About 4-6 months after completion of training programmes by the trainees, a brief
questionnaire could be sent to the participants with specific questions about the training
programme. The questionnaire may include the following.
i) Specifically how has the training course helped you in your work?
ii) What activities in the training programme helped you most?
iii) What part of the training programme would you eliminate?
iv) What should be added to the training programme?
v) Was there adequate focus on practical exercises?
vi) Was too much time given to theory?
vii) Would you recommend that your colleagues should take thisprogramme? If
not, why not?
viii) The participant may be assured confidentiality of his response andthe option
of not signing his replies.
iii) Meeting with Supervisors
The immediate supervisors of the participants might provide some useful
information about the value of the training programme. In addition, they can provide
some idea of other training needs of their staff. Therefore conducting a survey on
supervisors would be more helpful. Discussion meetings with the senior officers or
supervisors could be held at TPOs separately from those of the participants. This would
be useful where a critical mass of participants have been trained. For example,
conversations with executive engineers can indicate that they often have a good idea of
how useful the training was for their staff.
iv) Special Meetings
TPOs may organise an alumni day, once a year. Personnel who had undergone
same or similar training may be invited to come and give seminars. This is useful but
there is the possibility that the members may not say much about how courses could be
improved. These special meetings are more costly but can be useful too.
v) Comparison of Trained and Untrained Personnel
The evaluator can also frame questions that pertain to the ability and efficiency
levels of trained and untrained personnel or perform comparisons with a control group.
Unit4: Human Resource Development
HRD: Meaning, Importance and Benefits; Types of HRD Systems & Sub-systems
Career system (Manpower planning, Recruitment, Career planning, Succession
planning, Retention), Work system (Role analysis, Role efficacy, Performance plan,
Performance feedback and guidance, Performance appraisal, Promotion, Job rotation,
Reward), Development system (Induction, Training, Job enrichment, Self-learning
mechanisms, Potential appraisal, Succession development, Counseling, Mentor
system), Self-renewal system (Survey, Action research, Organizational development
interventions), Culture system ( Vision, mission and goals, Values, Communication, Get
together and celebrations, Task force, Small groups); Components of HRD System -
Performance Appraisal, Potential Appraisal, Task System, Development System,
Socialization System, Governance; Functions of HRD-Organisational Development,
Career Development, Capacity Development.

Human Resource Development

HRD: Meaning, Importance and Benefits
Meaning of HRD
HRD believes in the limitless potential of human beings. According to T.V. Rao,
HRD is a process of helping people to acquire competencies. In an organisational
context, HRD is a process by which the employees of an organisation are helped in a
continuous and planned way to:
• Acquire and sharpen the capabilities required to perform various functions
associated with their present and expected future roles.
• Develop general capabilities as individuals and discover and exploit their inner
potential for their own and organisational development, as the growth of an
individual is directly related to the growth of the organisation.
• Develop an organisational culture in which supervisor-subordinate relationship,
teamwork and collaboration among sub-units are strong and contribute to the
professional well-being, motivation and pride of the employees.
Some of the important definitions of HRD are given below:
• HRD is the integrated use of training and development, career development, and
organisational development to improve individual and organisational
effectiveness.
• HRD is the study and practice of increasing the learning capacity of individuals,
groups, and organisations through development and applications of learning
based intervention for the purpose of optimizing human and organisation growth
 and effectiveness.
• HRD develops available manpower through suitable methods such as training,
promotions, transfers and opportunities for career development. It is a systematic
approach to deal with issues related to individual employees, teams and an
organisation.
Importance of HRD
There are number of reasons for the increased attention being given to HR by
senior level management. Most experts cite declining productivity and an increasingly
competitive work environment as the two most significant trends that have increased
attention in HRD functions in organisations. Other reasons for the increase in attention
in HRD are: increased laws and regulations; the proliferation of lawsuits related to HR;
changes in work force characteristics; and, a poor fit between work force knowledge,
skills and abilities, and job requirements. An important HRD processes is to bind
together the organisational values and beliefs which contribute to the organisational
stability over the years.
HRD is needed by any organisation that wants to be dynamic, growth-oriented, or
wants to succeed in a fast-changing environment. Organisations can become dynamic
and grow through the efforts and competencies of their human resources. Personnel
policies can keep the morale and motivation of employee high, but these efforts are not
enough to make the organisation dynamic and take it in new directions.
Employee capabilities must be continuously acquired, sharpened, and used. For
this purpose, an enabling organisational culture is essential. When employees take
initiatives, risks, experiment, innovate, and make things happen, the organisation may
be said to have an enabling culture. This increases its capabilities for stability and
renewal.
Benefits of HRD
Human capital is the most previous wealth which plays an important role in the
development of an organization. HRD is a systematic process of building the capacities
of individuals and groups to acquire new competencies and improve their efficiency for
the realization of organisational goal. According to Robert Rouda and Kusy, HRD helps
in acquiring knowledge, developing competencies and skills and adopting behaviours
that improve performance in job. No one in a senior management position would
disagree with the assertion that people are an organization’s most important asset. Yet,
the reality in most organisations is that their people remain undervalued, under trained,
and underutilized. With the rate of change that organisation are facing, they need to
implement a successful business strategy to face this challenge. Hence, they need to
ensure that they have right people at the right place capable of delivering the job. An
organization’s human resource development department acts as a catalyst in several
organisational processes that aim to make its organisation active, profitable, and alive.
It helps to develop the entire human resources available in the organisation to its full
potential. It should aim at maximising effectiveness of an employee at both individual
and organizational level.
Without continuous development of competencies in people, an organisation is
not likely to achieve its goal. Competent and motivated employees are essential for
organisational survival, growth, and excellence. HR intervention is required even in
organisations which have reached the ultimate level of success to maintain that level,
since these organisations operate in environments that keep changing, a condition that
requires employees to have new competencies.
Human resource development is needed by any organisation that is interested in:
• Stabilising
• Growing
• Diversifying
• Organisational Renewal
• Improving systems and services
• Changing and becoming more dynamic
• Playing leadership roles
HRD Systems and Subsystems
HRD Systems
The goal of HRD is to improve the performance of the organization by maximizing
the efficiency and performance of its people. Human resource development is a system
of developing continuously and in a planned way the competencies of individual
employees, dyadic groups, teams, and the total organisation to achieve organisational
objectives. HRD functions are carried out through its systems and sub systems.
Goals of HRD Systems
The goals of HRD systems are to develop:
• The capabilities of each employee as an individual.
• The capabilities of each individual in relation to his or her present role.
• The capabilities of each employee in relation to his or her expected futurerole(s).
• The dyadic relationship between each employee and his or her supervisor.
• The team spirit and functioning in every organisational unit (department,
group, etc.).
• Collaboration among different units of the organisation.
• The organization’s overall health and self-renewing capabilities which, in turn,
 increase the enabling capabilities of individuals, dyads, teams, and the entire
organisation.
The human resource development may consider beneficial form the stand point of
an individual in the organisation or the organization as a whole. The individual and his
role are important units for some purposes, while for others, groups, departments and
the entire organisation are more relevant units. The concept of development should,
therefore, cover all such possible units.

• Fig 1: HRD Goals

Facilitating Enhancing productivity

organizational and quality
effectiveness

Goals of Human
Resource Development

Integrating people into Promoting individual

business growth and development

•
Development, both human as well as organizational in this sense becomes a
massive effort. While training may play the major role in designing and monitoring
development efforts in the organisation, other parts of the organisation have to share in
such an effort. In fact, the people, or the groups for whom the efforts of development
are made, are also partners in this process of development. The four partners or agents
of development can be identified as: (a) the person, (b) the immediate boss of the person,
(c) the human resource management department, and (d) the organisation.
‘’

Types of HRD Systems

HRD has five major systems and each of the systems has sub systems as elaborated
below. The first three systems such as career system, work system and development
system are individual and team oriented, while the fourth and the fifth systems such as
self renewal system and culture systems are organisation based.
i) Career system: as an HRD system, the career system ensures attraction and
retention of human resources through the following sub systems.
 • Manpower planning
• Recruitment
• Career planning
• Succession planning
• Retention
ii) Work system: work-planning system ensures that the attracted and retained
human resources are utilized in the best possible way to obtain organisational
objectives. Following are the sub systems of the work planning system.
• Role analysis
• Role efficacy
• Performance plan
• Performance feedback and guidance
• Performance appraisal
• Promotion
• Job rotation
• Reward
iii) Development system: The environmental situation and the business scenario are
fast changing. The human resources within the organisation have to rise to the
occasion, and change accordingly if the organisation wants to stay in business. The
development system ensures that the retained (career system) and utilized (work
system) human resources are also continuously developed so that they are in a
position to meet emerging needs. Following are some of the developmental sub
systems of HRD that make sure that those human resources in the organisation are
continuously developed.
• Induction
• Training
• Job enrichment
• Self-learning mechanisms
• Potential appraisal
• Succession development
• Counselling
• Mentor system
iv) Self-renewal system: Sometimes it may not be required to develop individuals
and teams in the organisations, but there is a need to renew and rejuvenate the
organisation itself. Following are some of the sub-systems that can be utilized to
renew the organisation.
• Survey
• Action research
• Organisational Development interventions
 • Organisational Retreats
v) Culture system: Building a desired culture is of paramount importance in today’s
changed business scenario. It is the work culture that will give a sense of direction,
purpose, togetherness, and teamwork. It is to be noted that whether an
organisation wants it or not, over time, habitual ways of doing things (culture) will
emerge. If not planned carefully and built systematically such traits may not help
the business. They may, instead, become stumbling blocks. Hence, it is very
important to have cultural practices that facilitate business. Some culture building
sub systems are given below.
• Vision, mission and goals
• Values
• Communication
• Get together and celebrations
• Task force
• Small groups
Pareek and Rao (1975) outlined a philosophy for the new HRD system. They
outlined 14 principles to be kept in mind in designing the HRD System. These principles
deal with both the purpose of HRD systems and the process of their implementation.
Some of these principles are outlined below.
1) HRD systems should help the organization to increase enabling capabilities. The
capabilities outlined in their report include: development of human resources in
all aspects, organisational health, improvements in problem solving capabilities,
diagnostic skills, capabilities to support all the othersystems in the company, etc.
2) HRD systems should help individuals to recognize their potential and help them to
contribute their best in various organisational roles they are expectedto perform.
3) HRD systems should help maximize individual autonomy through increased
responsibility.
4) HRD systems should facilitate decentralization through delegation and shared
responsibility.
5) HRD systems should facilitate participative decision making.
6) HRD system should attempt to balance the current organisational culturealong
with changing culture.
7) There should be a continuous review and renewal of the function.
Components of HRD System
Some of the components of HRD systems are outlined below.
i) Performance Appraisal: performance appraisal is an important tool to know
where an employee stands regarding his own job in the organisation.
Performance analysis is a method to identify the effectiveness of an employee
in the role for which he is recruited. The main objectives of performance
 appraisal are either for evaluation (judgmental) or developmental (helping).
The evaluation objectives are generally to providefeedback to employees about
their performance and decide on the rewards,promotions, placements, etc. The
developmental objectives are for identifying the strengths and weaknesses of
employees and to take necessary actions through training programmes,
counselling, coaching, career planning, and provide motivation for better
performance in future.
Sometimes the performance appraisal becomes controversial topic among the
employees. Therefore there are certain steps to be taken by the HRD managers to reduce
the controversies. The following steps reduce controversies
• clear role analysis for each employee
• objectivity in measuring job performance
• determination of reward based on performance
• providing opportunities for the employees to perform
• proper guidance and leadership in the team
• periodic evaluation and feedback for improvements.
ii) Potential Appraisal: The challenge for HRD is to develop effective ways to
appraise the potential of employees. A few organisations have been
experimenting with the use of an assessment centre for potential appraisal.
iii) Task System: More attention needs to be given to the task system in the
organisation. Many organisations have realised that HRD needs to have close
links with the primary tasks of the organisation. A few challenges are worth
noting.
• Creation of a vision and sharing that vision across the organisation is important.
HRD can facilitate future search and visioning to meet the growing challenges of
competition – local, as well as global. The linkage of HRD with strategic planning in
some organisations indicates this need. HRD should be prepared to meet the need.
Equally important is sharing of the vision amongst the employees. This may be a
powerful source of socialization, in developing a distinct identity for the
organisation and a sense of pride in its employees.
• Organisational roles are also a comparatively neglected aspect of HRD. Although
several organisations have attempted role analysis, in some cases these have been
akin to job descriptions. Designing of role needs a more comprehensive approach.
A role can integrate the individual employee with the organisation, and enhance
employee motivation.
iv) Development System: training is the most widely used and, yet, highly
neglected system. In many cases training has become a ritual, with huge
investments and very little positive pay-offs. Therefore, training poses a big
 challenge to HRD. This would imply higher budgetary allocations for training,
stronger collaboration between the training system and the organisation.
Coaching and mentoring are powerful tools for the development of employees,
Develop-ing managers, as good coaches (counsellors) and mentors is a
challenge.
v) Socialization System: the role of HRD in vision sharing has already been
mentioned as necessary for the socialization of employees. Two potential
aspects of socialization are culture and rewards. Organisations should
celebrate the quality and spirit of HRD. Artefacts, symbols, and ways of
celebrating transitions are important. For example, entry, advancement,
movement, and exit of individual employees, and even post-retirement are
important events in an employee’s life. There are examples of some
organisations celebrating the achievement of high targets, employees’
birthdays/marriages, how the chief executives relate to a large number of
employees, and so on. All this constitutes culture. Similarly, the management
of organisational processes such as goal setting, communication, decision
making, and the management of mistakes or failures, etc. creates the climate.
During the current decade the main challenge before organisations is to create
an enabling culture and climate, and keep this as an important HRD goal.
Reward management is another challenging area. This potential tool of
socialization and motivation needs everybody’s attention. What do we want to
reinforce in individuals and in teams? What is valued by individuals and teams
as rewards? Who should reward and in what way? Such questions would need
a great deal of homework in terms of investigations and research. Designing a
reward system based on performance is necessary.
vi) Governance: participation is another important aspect of HRD. The need to
involve employees in several aspects of organisational life is necessary. A few
organisations are experimenting with employees’ participation in the equity of
the company. Employees’ participation in the management of residential
colonies and other facilities needs consideration; several attempts have been
made in employees’ participation in work related matters.
The main challenge before HRD during the current decade is to restore the
spirit of HRD and not get caught in just the formal mechanisms; to forge
stronger links with, and to participate in strategic organisational tasks; to
develop problem solving competencies in the organisation, and; to humanise
work and working life. Young, competent HRD facilitators need the support of
the top management in meeting these challenges.
Functions of HRD
The core function of the HRD system is that of development of human beings. The
concept of development should cover not only the individual but other units in the
organisation, too. In addition to developing the individual, attention needs to be given
to the development of stronger dyads, i.e., two-person groups of the employee and his
boss. Such dyads are the basic work units in an organisation. Besides, several groups
like committees, task groups, etc., also require attention. Development of such groups
should be from the point of view of increasing collaboration amongst people working
in the organisation, thus making for effective decision-making. Finally, the entire
department and the entire organisation also should be covered by development. Their
development would involve developing a climate conducive for their effectiveness,
developing self- renewing mechanisms in the organisations so that they are able to
adjust and develop relevant processes which contribute to their effectiveness.
HRD has three main functions
• Organisational Development
• Career Development
• Training and Development

Organisational Development (OD)

OD is the process of improving an organisation’s effectiveness and member’s well-
being through the application of behavioural science concepts. HRD plays the role of a
change agent. OD emphasizes both macro and micro-organisational changes: macro
changes are intended to ultimately improve the effectiveness of the organisation as a
whole, whereas micro changes are directed at individuals, small groups, and teams. For
example, many organisations have sought to improve organisational effectiveness by
introducing employee involvement programmes that require fundamental changes in
work expectations, reward systems, and reporting procedures. The role of the HRD
professionals involved in an OD intervention is generally to function as change agents.
Facilitating change often requires consulting with and advising line managers on
strategies that can be used to effect the desired change.
An organisation should be concerned not only with its growth, but with its health,
too. It needs to diagnose its problems from time-to-time and take steps to develop new
competencies to cope with the various problems and challenges it would be facing.
This can be done through action research and training that is concerned with the
development of competencies through effective teams to diagnose the problems and
initiate the process of collaborative work to deal with such problems. In organisation
development (OD), the focus is on developing process competency to increase
organisational effectiveness. OD aims at maintaining profiles of organisational health,
monitoring organisational health, assisting sick departments, helping interested units
and departments in self-renewal, conflict management, the creation of strong teams,
and so on, and establishing processes that build a climate that promotes enabling
capabilities in the organisation.

Career Development
Career development is the on-going process by which individuals’ progress is
facilitated through a series of changes until they achieve their personal level of
maximum achievement. Human resource development becomes effective when it is
linked to the career planning of all individuals in an organisation. HRD interventions
do not merely focus on developing competencies among individuals for their present
jobs but, also, to their future jobs.
Career means progress through life, particularly advancement in profession.
Career in an organisational context, may be defined as a sequence of positions occupied
by an individual during the course of his organisational life. Career planning is the
systematic process by which an individual selects his career goals and the path to
achieve these goals.
Career development represents the entire sequence of activities and events related
to an individual’s career. Career development encompasses the period of acquiring
educational qualifications and certifications, career path, self-actualization as an
individual, shifting of careers, and career growth.
Career development is important not just for individuals, but for the organisation,
too. In order for it to effectively harness its human resources, it has career development,
hence is an exercise ensuring enhancement of employees’ capacity and capabilities, not
only for the personal betterment of the employees but also to ensure the meeting of
current and future needs of the organisation. Career development is an ongoing process
and requires a sense of continued commitment from both the employees and the top
managers of an organisation. The process of career development has, hence, to be
carried on a shared basis.
Setting goals and milestones that are based around well-defined objectives is
integral to any career development plan. In today’s fast moving and constantly shifting
business and external environment, goal setting tends to be more medium term. A
career development plan needs to be flexible enough to account for crisis situations,
mid-career blues, relocation possibilities, career shifts, and other exigencies.
Career development calls for innate professionalism, a sharp-edged focus, a keen
learning temperament, intent to gain new skills and certifications as desired.
There is a strong relationship between career development and training and
development activities. An organisation’s training and development plans can help
individual employees in career planning and development.

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WEBSITES
TAP-
TropicalAgriculturePlatformforCapacityDevelopmenthttps://www.tapipedia.org/
FAO-FAO Capacity Developmenthttp://www.fao.org/capacity-
development/en/GFRAS- Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services http://www.g-
fras.org/en/AESA-Agricultural Extension in South Asia
http://www.aesanetwork.org/