P R O V I D I N G P R A C T I C E - O R I E N T E D I N F O R M AT I O N T O F P E s A N D A L L I E D P R O F E S S I O N A L S

FIRE PROTECTION

Spring 2000 Issue No. 6

ALSO:

10 CONSIDER THE
FIREFIGHTER IN
BUILDING AND
FIRE PROTECTION
SYSTEMS DESIGN

29 RISK-BASED
FIRE-ENGINEERED
ALTERNATIVE FOR
NURSING HOMES

36 LARGE EDDY SIM-

COORDINATION
ULATIONS OF
with the
FIRE SERVICE
FIRES

ur 50th A
go
nn
Celebratin

iversary

SFPE
 FIRE PROTECTION

Fire Protection Engineering (ISSN 1524-900X) is pub-

lished quarterly by the Society of Fire Protection
Engineers (SFPE). The mission of Fire Protection
Engineering is to advance the practice of fire protection
engineering and to raise its visibility by providing infor-
contents SPRING 2000

mation to fire protection engineers and allied profes-

sionals. The opinions and positions stated are the 10
authors’ and do not necessarily reflect those of SFPE. COVER STORY
Editorial Advisory Board CONSIDER THE FIREFIGHTER IN BUILDING AND FIRE PROTECTION
Carl F. Baldassarra, P.E., Schirmer Engineering SYSTEM DESIGN
Corporation Critical factors to consider when designing fire protection systems to facilitate
Don Bathurst, P.E. firefighters use.
Russell P. Fleming, P.E., National Fire Sprinkler James Knox Lathrop
Association
Douglas P. Forsman, Oklahoma State University
Morgan J. Hurley, P.E., Society of Fire Protection
3 VIEWPOINT
Engineers How the Boston Fire Department works together with fire protection
William E. Koffel, P.E., Koffel Associates engineers to resolve difficult situations.
Jane I. Lataille, P.E., HSB Industrial Risk Insurers Deputy Chief Joseph M. Fleming and Paul M. Donga, P.E.
Margaret Law, M.B.E., Arup Fire
4 DEVELOPMENT OF A STANDARDIZED FIRE SERVICE
Ronald K. Mengel, Pittway Systems Technology Group
Warren G. Stocker, Jr., Safeway Inc.
INTERFACE FOR FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS
Many fire departments seldom use the features of fire alarm systems
Beth Tubbs, P.E., International Conference of Building
Officials because of varying displays and controls, but help may be on the way.
Richard W. Bukowski, P.E., FSFPE
Regional Editors
U.S. H EARTLAND 23 WHAT USERS WANT FIRE MODEL DEVELOPERS TO
John W. McCormick, P.E., Code Consultants, Inc.
U.S. M ID -ATLANTIC
ADDRESS
Robert F. Gagnon, P.E., Gagnon Engineering, Inc. A study sheds light on issues that potential users consider important for
U.S. N EW E NGLAND a new computer model.
Robert G. Sawyer, III, University of New Haven J.K. Richardson,P.Eng., L.R. Richardson, J.R. Mehaffey, Ph.D., and
U.S. S OUTHEAST C.A. Richardson
Jeffrey Harrington, P.E., The Harrington Group, Inc.
U.S. W EST C OAST 29 A RISK-BASED FIRE-ENGINEERED ALTERNATIVE
Scott Todd, Gage-Babcock & Associates, Inc. SOLUTION FOR NURSING HOMES
A SIA A performance-based design using residential sprinklers and smoke detec-
Peter Bressington, P.Eng., Arup Fire tors in a New Zealand nursing home in lieu of code requirements for self-
A USTRALIA closers and fire doors to the rooms receives fire safety approval.
Richard Custer, Custer Powell, Inc.
Tony Parkes, and Carol Caldwell, P.E.
C ANADA
J. Kenneth Richardson, P.Eng., Ken Richardson Fire
Technologies, Inc.
36 LARGE EDDY SIMULATIONS OF FIRES
A National Institute of Standards and Technology computer simulation
N EW Z EALAND
Carol Caldwell, P.E., Caldwell Consulting technique of fire dynamics.
U NITED K INGDOM Howard R. Baum, Ph.D.
Dr. Louise Jackman, Loss Prevention Council
44 CAREER CENTER
Publishing Advisory Board
Bruce Larcomb, P.E., BOCA International
46 LITERATURE
Douglas J. Rollman, Gage-Babcock & Associates
George E. Toth, Rolf Jensen & Associates 48 SFPE RESOURCES
Personnel
P UBLISHER 52 FROM THE TECHNICAL DIRECTOR
Kathleen H. Almand, P.E., Executive Director, SFPE America Burning -- Recommissioned.
T ECHNICAL E DITOR Morgan J. Hurley, P.E.
Morgan J. Hurley, P.E., Technical Director, SFPE
M ANAGING E DITOR
Angela Vannucci, Penton Custom Media
A RT D IRECTORS Subscription and address change correspondence should be sent to: Society of Fire Protection Engineers,
Pat Lang, Walt Wagner Suite 1225 West, 7315 Wisconsin Avenue, Bethesda, MD 20814 USA. Tel: 301.718.2910. Fax: 301.718.2242.
E-mail: sfpehqtrs@sfpe.org.
Penton Custom Media ur 50th A
go Copyright © 2000, Society of Fire Protection Engineers. All rights reserved.
nn
Celebratin

iversary

Fire Protection Engineering 1

SFPE
SFPE
viewpoint

What Does the Fire Department Expect?

A ll fire departments perform a mul-
titude of tasks while carrying out
their mission of protecting life and
design team utilized computerized fire
modeling to justify the granting of the
appeal. The BFD required that a report
report from an FPE that the level of
safety in the building is “acceptable”.
Often there are interim, and expensive,
property. Most are internally handled be submitted by a disinterested third- measures that are required to reach this
by fire departments in an expeditious party FPE to “peer-review” the appeal level of safety. Measures that would be
and efficient manner. Occasionally, proposal. This peer review approach opposed by the building owner when
however, every fire department will could also be utilized for evaluating the code official required them are
face a problematic situation that will code equivalency proposals and appli- acceptable if required by an FPE.
overwhelm their capabilities to address cations of new technologies. An example involved a situation
or rectify the situation at hand. where the BFD was asked to allow a
Increasingly, fire departments are seek- Conflicting Condition Example fund-raiser in a “run-down” theater.
ing solutions to these problems by The architect designing the renova-
working with the fire protection engi- At times the code official will face a tions acknowledged that the existing
neering profession. Through experi- situation where both the code official building did not meet the codes and
ence, the Boston Fire Department and a building owner will each be con- wanted to know what interim mea-
(BFD) has classified these situations vinced that their interpretation of a cer- sures could be put in place to make
into three broad categories: tain code section is correct. Usually, the the building safe enough to hold the
1. Unknown conditions. building owner will appeal the official’s fund-raiser. The BFD asked the archi-
2. Conflicting conditions. interpretation to a legally mandated tect why the building department was
3. Imminent danger conditions. board, which could leave a building in requested to review, yet not design,
an unsafe condition for a period of time. the building renovation plans but the
Unknown Condition Example The BFD believes that there is a fire department was expected to
solution. If both the code official and design and review a “fire plan”. It was
Many times code officials are building owner agree, the owner suggested that the owner follow the
requested to review building or fire would hire an FPE to review all the same process that was used for the
code appeals seeking variances or pertinent information relative to the building renovation plans, i.e., hire a
exemptions of code requirements interpretation at hand and prepare a qualified individual to develop a safe
which affect the safety of occupants or report clearly stating the FPE’s position plan and the BFD would review the
firefighters. Many times an appeal is on the disputed issue. The code official plan. The BFD does not understand
based on conditions that are case-and and building owner would also agree why so many fire departments accept
site-specific and it is unknown what to implement the recommendations of the role, and the liability, of consul-
impact the appeal will have on life the FPE to ensure a safe building. tant, in matters like these.
safety. In lieu of conformance to pre- For example, a major retailer of home There is a fourth reason the fire ser-
scriptive code requirements, building and building supplies and the BFD dis- vice will continue to work closely with
owners often propose an alternative agreed on the application of code- the fire protection engineering profes-
design utilizing performance-based required sprinkler protection concern- sion: employment. More and more fire
design methodologies which a code ing rack storage of different commodi- departments are directly hiring their
official may not be trained to analyze. ties. The parties involved in the dispute own FPE’s. While important for all fire
When this occurs, the BFD requires agreed to abide by the recommenda- departments, this is particularly impor-
that a disinterested third-party fire pro- tions of a disinterested third-party FPE. tant for fire departments involved with
tection engineer (FPE) prepare a plan review. The BFD believes that
report at the building owner’s expense Imminent Danger Condition Example encouraging the use of FPE’s creates
that analyzes the adequacy of the an environment with increased flexibil-
design’s assumptions, fire scenarios, Perhaps the most difficult decision ity and safety by increasing the
and conclusions for ensuring life safety. that any code official faces is to discov- amount of rationality used in the deci-
For example, a restaurant in a high- er a building that has serious code vio- sion-making process.
rise building sought a variance from a lations, but its occupancy makes it very
prescriptive code requirement for a difficult to close down. Usually the
third exit stairway based on the pro- code official feels that he/she has only Deputy Chief Joseph M. Fleming
posed occupant load of the space. The two options. Evacuate the building, or Fire Marshal
alternative design proposed utilizing live with the situation pending correc- Boston Fire Department
the two existing exits with additional tion of the violation. The BFD pursues and
fire protection features such as detec- a third path. The evacuation of the Paul M. Donga, P.E.
tion, suppression, and smoke control building will be ordered, but re-occu- Fire Protection Engineer
systems in lieu of the third exit. The pancy will be allowed based on a Boston Fire Department

S PRING 2000 Fire Protection Engineering 3

 Development of a Standardized
Fire Service Interface for

FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS

9
N
Hazard
Paragraph 3-12.6.5.1 requires a fire
8 command center,
“... near a building entrance or other
location approved by the authority
7
having jurisdiction. The fire com-
mand center shall provide a commu-
6 nications center for the arriving fire
department and shall provide for the
Fire _ 4th Floor North West Corner Zone 1 22:13
600
control and display of the status of
1800 6 5 4 5
7 3
500
400
detection, alarm, and communica-
900 2700
8 2 300 tions systems.
9 1 200
0 3600 10 0 100 4 ... Operating controls for use by the
0
fire department shall be clearly
Area (sq ft) Visibility (ft) Temp (C)
marked.”
3
In light of these requirements, it is
disconcerting that many fire depart-
2 ments report seldom using the provid-
ed features because every system
(from different manufacturers or even
1 different systems from the same manu-
facturer) has a different interface.
Displays and controls are not consis-
Prototype of a standard Fire BACKGROUND tent, and there is no time to study the
Service Interface in a nine-story manuals. To address these issues, the
building.
T he National Fire Alarm Code1 in
paragraph 1-5.7.1 requires that,
“Where required, the location of an
National Fire Alarm Code, Technical
Correlating Committee established a
task group to develop proposals for a
By Richard W. Bukowski, P.E.,
FSFPE operated initiating device shall be standard interface for the 2002 Code
visibly indicated by building, floor, cycle (the author chairs that task
fire zone, or other approved subdivi- group). NIST’s Building and Fire
sion, by annunciation, printout, or Research Laboratory (BFRL) estab-
other approved means.” lished a cooperative research project
Paragraph 1-5.7.1.1 states, through the National Electrical
“The primary purpose of fire alarm Manufacturers’ Association (NEMA)
system annunciation is to enable and the major fire alarm panel manu-
responding personnel to identify the facturers to develop the technical basis
location of a fire quickly and accu- for these proposals. This article
rately and to indicate the status of describes the work done to date and
emergency equipment or fire safety planned activities that should lead to
functions that might affect the safety an interface that addresses the needs
of occupants in a fire situation.” of the fire service.

4 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 FIRE SERVICE NEEDS location from which to direct opera-
tions, the incident commander may
The first step was to determine the Elevators Fan want to be free to go to where he/she
information needs of the fire service. can best view ongoing operations. If
This was done by arranging meetings the attack is largely exterior, that may
with representative groups of fire ser- be outside the building, across the
vice officers who have incident com- street, or wherever one can see what is
mand experience. These meetings happening. Thus, the system should be
were structured like “focus groups” compatible with wireless technologies.
and were arranged by the International Smoke Detector Sprinkler
Association of Fire Chiefs (IAFC) at DEVELOPING A CONCEPT
regional and national conferences.
The participants were asked to Germany and Sweden have adopted
address three questions: standard fire service interfaces for fire
• What do they want to know? alarm systems. These are hardware
• When do they want to know it? specifications that detail the specific
• How can the information be pre- Heat Detector Exhaust switches and lights to be used, and
sented to be most useful? Sample Standard Icons each manufacturer produces a panel
The first two were closely linked that looks and works identically to
because fire service information needs incurs liability to the department and interface with their system. We decid-
differ with time, but most relate to the has firefighter safety implications. ed not to follow this approach
most effective allocation of (usually • DURING THE INCIDENT: The because it can limit innovation and the
limited) resources. The observations most important information (in order) ability to adapt to specific situations.
from these meetings were: is (1) location and rate of spread of Also, U.S. manufacturers prefer a more
• AT DISPATCH: The most important smoke/gas and of fire, (2) conditions general specification that can be
item is to provide some metric for the relative to the “2 and 2” regulation, implemented in innovative ways that
likelihood that the alarm is genuine – measures of operational effectiveness become competitive opportunities to
particularly when it derives from a sin- and safety of crews, (3) potential ben- compete in the marketplace.
gle device. Perhaps a three level metric efits or dangers of ventilation. Rather, we decided to develop a
(low, moderate, and high confidence) The “how can the information be “look and feel” based on standard
would be enough. The basis for assess- presented” was less clear. Concerns icons and functions similar to the user
ing confidence is currently unclear but were expressed about graphical dis- interface of personal computers. PC
may involve heuristic algorithms based plays of building layout and fire loca- software uses numerous standard icons
on sensors keeping history data and tion that do not clearly relate landmarks for common functions such as file
reacting to excursions from that histo- since most firefighters are unfamiliar open, save, print; cut, copy, or paste;
ry. There is significant concern among with any building. Thus “how to get to and dragging a file to the trash can
the fire service over liability for dam- the fire” must give clear orientation, deletes it. By defining standard icons
age they cause by forced entry when e.g., from stairwells or other points of for fire alarm system components and
an incident turns out to be false. They entry. There seemed to be consensus functions of interest to the fire service,
would also like information they could that they did not want information dis- it is possible to produce an interface
use to decide what resources are played in which no immediate actions that is intuitive to use, even if imple-
required. For small fires growing slow- are required (concerns about “informa- mented in different ways.
ly, a single unit may be enough. For a tion overload”) but some indication that The icons, their meaning, and how
fast-growing major incident, additional all is right may be reassuring. users access information and functions
units dispatched early can be of great There is “traditional wisdom” that associated with them would be stan-
help in minimizing losses and assuring firefighters need large controls that can dardized in the National Fire Alarm
firefighter safety. be operated while wearing gloves. Code (NFPA 72). However, these could
• AT ARRIVAL: (of first due units) When queried specifically about this, be implemented in many ways such as
The most important information (in the fire service groups indicated that graphical displays over hard buttons,
order) is (1) the location of the fire gloves are not a problem for operating labels on hard buttons with lights, or
within the building, (2) the location of controls unless the controls are outside on touch screens. Features such as
occupants, (3) how to get to the fire, in the winter. When controls are local display only, wireless transmis-
(4) a safe location to stage, location of inside, they remove their gloves. sion nearby or off site, local control
standpipes, and other points of interest The ability to obtain status informa- functions, and nonemergency status
(hazardous materials, locked areas), tion in vehicles en route, in a mobile displays could be included as optional
(5) how fast is the fire growing, command post, or even fire depart- functions allowing individual manufac-
Temp/CO/O2 conditions to determine ment headquarters was of interest. turers to be innovative and local
2
if the OSHA “2 and 2” conditions have Further, since the main point of entry authorities to require features that
been met, since violating this rule to the building is not always the best meet their needs.

6 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

FIRE ALARM ICONS sent. Extracting data on ambient tem- indicates that additional information is
peratures, background smoke, status of available and is displayed in the text
An initial set of icons was devel- elevators, or pressures in stairways window by pressing (clicking) the
oped from icons used for similar pur- during normal building operations may icon. This information is displayed as
poses in Japan and from standard sym- be of interest to test the system func- text, and data is displayed on gages.
bols for engineering drawings from tion or to verify that areas are as yet Fire service apparatus use dial and bar
NFPA 170 (see sidebar on page 6). unaffected during a response. While gages (e.g., pump panels on engines),
Like most aspects of this project, these these would be optional system so firefighters are accustomed to read-
icons are subject to change if the fire arrangements, the system design and ing such gages. These gages typically
service thinks they are not meaningful operation need to allow for them. If show normal operating ranges for
or if industry thinks they would be dif- nonemergency status information were rapid status assessment.
ficult to implement. Mostly they repre- provided, then functions would not The prototype incorporates building
sent a starting point from which the need to be active (in alarm) for infor- graphics in two other windows – one
concepts can be presented. mation to be available, and this needs for a plan view of the floor of origin
Several constraints on the icons to be communicated to the fire service and one for a building elevation. With
were initially identified. First, the icons in an unambiguous way. respect to these graphics, the industry
need to represent three states – func- A final issue is the provision of spe- complains that they have frequent
tion not present, function present but cific control functions. The fire service problems obtaining accurate drawings
not active (no additional information performs some systems control as part and in maintaining correct information
available), and function present and of their incident management. These as buildings are remodeled. The fire
active (more information is available). currently include manual use of the service reported current graphical dis-
Thus, simply having an icon shown or emergency voice communication sys- plays are inadequate for their purpos-
not shown is insufficient. tem, alarm silence and reset, signal es. We attempted to address both of
Most people are unaware that fire acknowledge, and a few others. The these problems by suggesting the use
alarm systems have few universal fire service groups interviewed identi- of diagrams rather than drawings. The
functions. There are systems with no fied interest in very limited manual diagrams would show the information
automatic detectors, being activated ventilation control to exhaust the top needed by the fire service without the
only by manual devices or primarily of stairways. There may be more. details they don’t need (the main
provided for supervising sprinkler sys- Generally, the fire service feels that source of problems for the industry).
tems. There are fire alarm systems they would like to see all information The diagrams relate important loca-
with no local indicating appliances and interaction with the building rout- tions to stairways and compass direc-
(bells or horns) that primarily notify ed through the interface panel to pro- tions, with details such as room num-
people at a remote location. Thus, it is vide a consistent means of providing bers relegated to the text messages
important to be able to differentiate such interactions. produced by point-addressable
functions not present and functions devices. Initial examination with the
present but not active. DEVELOPING A PROTOTYPE fire service indicates that this meets
Three states could be shown by the their needs and will minimize prob-
use of color, but we were cautioned Applying the concepts discussed lems for industry.
by the fire service that firefighters may above to the fire service needs
be color blind so this was considered derived from the initial focus groups, INCIDENT MANAGEMENT
inadvisable. Thus we decided to use we began to develop ideas for a fire INFORMATION
the logic that if a function is present service interface prototype that could
but not active the icon would be pre- be used to test concepts and refine Currently, fire alarm systems (other
3
sented with a diagonal slash as is ideas. The prototype would incorpo- than Proprietary systems) report only
done with traffic signs. Icons are not rate features and arrangements that that an alarm has sounded at a proper-
present for functions not provided. would be part of any proposed stan- ty. Annunciator panels located at the
Active functions are indicated by the dard and demonstrate optional protected property display the number
icon being displayed. Another approaches that could be utilized in of zones or devices in alarm and their
approach would be to use a flashing any specific product. location(s) within the building.
icon for an active function and a The interface should be useable on Incident commanders reported that
steady icon for inactive, but flashing a range of fire panel sizes from small they generally use the information on
indicators have another meaning on systems with only a few zones to large zone or devices in alarm to estimate
fire alarm panels. systems with thousands of addressable the area of the building involved in
A related issue is whether the sys- devices. Thus, the prototype was laid fire or smoke. For the older zoned
tem would provide information in out with an icon display section and a systems, multiple detectors installed
nonemergency conditions. For exam- separate text display section, similar to on a floor or subdivision of a floor
ple, systems might allow the fire ser- current small systems that have a row report an alarm within the zone but
vice to query the status of devices or of programmable buttons and a four- not which device or how many
systems when there are no alarms pre- or five-line text display. An active icon devices in the zone are in alarm. Thus

S PRING 2000 Fire Protection Engineering 7

 they cannot provide much additional with door opening, nor so low was to NEXT STEPS
detail. However, with point-address- allow smoke infiltration.
able devices that industry sources Some of the information needed by Currently, we have an interactive
report represent about 70% of new the fire service is not available from prototype suitable for testing concepts
installations, each device alarm is indi- the fire safety systems themselves, but with fire service people representing
vidually identified. Since each detector may exist in other building systems. end-users. More “focus group” sessions
has an associated protected area Thus, the fire service interface should will be scheduled, and the prototype
[under NFPA 72, for smoke detectors be capable of obtaining and displaying will be refined. The National Fire
2
this is not more than 84m (900 sq ft)], such information. Building energy Alarm Code task group has a number
it is possible to determine the area of management systems often have room of people who have expressed interest
the building with smoke levels in occupancy monitors that can identify in participation, but needs more fire
excess of activation levels or, for heat the location of building occupants. service input. Suitable representatives
detectors, the area with temperatures Elevator systems also know which cars will be recruited from participants in
in excess of the alarm threshold. are occupied, and some systems know the focus groups and meetings sched-
Further, point-addressable detectors how many people are in those cars. uled to begin the process of develop-
could provide real-time data that Other building systems may have ing proposals for the 2002 Code cycle.
could be transmitted to the fire service useful information as well. By imple- Manufacturers are being kept
in the form of temperatures or visibili- menting a common protocol commu- informed of progress through the
ty distances through smoke. Such nications gateway it is possible to NEMA 3SB section by technical briefin-
information could be used to assess share such information among systems gs twice a year at their meetings. They
risk to lives and property and, there- without giving up control or incurring all have representatives on the NFAC
fore, to make informed decisions on liability. One such approach that task group, and they will participate in
allocation of resources to mitigate allows fire alarm and HVAC systems that process as well. The task group
these risks. to communicate is BACnet. Originally proposals will be published by the
Of course, point-addressable devices developed and standardized as an NFPA for public comment in the Spring
identify the exact location of the HVAC-industry protocol, BACnet has of 2001. The task group is open to any
device in alarm, and they will also recently been embraced by the fire interested party; more information can
identify every device on the system. It alarm industry, and most of the be obtained by contacting the author.
is usually assumed that the first systems manufacturers now offer For more information on this NIST
devices in alarm are the closest to the BACnet gateways. project or to view the complete work-
point of fire origin, but this is not Much of the fire service information ing set of proposed icons, the reader
always true. However, where analog needs from nonfire systems involves can visit the Building and Fire
devices are arranged to report condi- status information. HVAC and elevator Research Laboratory Web site at
tions such as temperatures or smoke systems have emergency operating http://fire.nist.gov/panel/.
levels in real time, such data can be modes related to fire. The incident
used to decide where suppression commander would like to know if the
REFERENCES
activities are needed to mitigate haz- HVAC system is operating properly in
ards to people and property. Further, smoke management mode and if the
1. NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code,
such data can be used to assess haz- elevators are in Phase I or II recall. National Fire Protection Association,
ards to firefighters, knowing the limits There are operational and safety impli- Quincy, MA, 1996.
of their protective equipment. cations in learning from energy man-
2. OSHA promulgated a regulation for fire-
Informed decisions on safe staging agement systems whether high-voltage
fighting that establishes environmental
areas and crew rotation can improve systems that might present a shock criteria which, when exceeded, require
operational efficiency and safety. hazard to hose teams have been shut that no fewer than two firefighters may
Other building systems and compo- down or whether lighting systems are make entry for firefighting or rescue
nents have specific roles to play dur- still operational. only when no fewer than two firefighters
ing a fire emergency. The fire service Another category of information in full protective gear are available at the
needs to know that these systems and need concerns building features pro- fire scene to provide assistance if needed.
components are performing without vided for fire service use. This may be 3. In the 1996 edition of NFPA 72, a
providing so much information that it internal firefighter communication, Proprietary Supervising Station Fire Alarm
is distracting from the primary job at location of hazardous materials or System is defined as one that “... serves
hand. Thus, the fire service interface secure areas, propositioned equipment contiguous and non-contiguous properties,
would provide assurance that the sys- such as air bottles, special extinguish- under one ownership, from a proprietary
tem or component is performing with- ing agents, or aids for evacuating dis- supervising station located at the protected
in its design envelope but also be abled occupants. Such information property, at which trained, competent per-
sonnel are in constant attendance.”
capable of providing more detail on may be permanent or may change
request. An example is stairwell pres- with time, but is more likely to be Richard Bukowski, P.E., is with the
surization systems producing pressures accessible to the fire service if integrat- National Institute of Fire Standards
that are not so high as to interfere ed into their interface system. and Technology.

8 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 CONSIDER in Building and
Fire Protection

THE System Design

By James Knox Lathrop

FIREFIGHTER F ire protection engineers need to under-

stand some of the problems faced by
firefighters with fire protection systems
during an emergency. For some engineers,
especially those that are, or were, in the fire
service, this is second nature. For others, it
may take a little extra work. Unfortunately,
it is not at all unusual to find fire protection

10 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

systems that are very difficult for fire- cases. An example of this may be the say that the lack of preplanning is the
fighters in the field to interface with. exit enclosure in a building. With a fire department’s problem and that
This may become critical to the fire- two-hour fire-resistance rating no they should do their jobs. However,
fighter who is working under stress longer being specified, can the fire- that does not change the fact that
during fire conditions and does not fighter count on the exit stair landing many fire departments lack effective
have the time to learn or to recall how as a safe area to initiate fire attack? preplans. Others have a very difficult
a sophisticated fire protection or This article begins with some of those time keeping preplans or in-service
mechanical system works, or to even issues that apply with prescriptive inspections current. This applies to all
find important system components. codes and then goes further with those types of fire departments, but is espe-
that are likely to develop or become cially true of volunteer departments
PERFORMANCE-BASED more problematic with performance- that have a difficult time attracting and
VERSUS PRESCRIPTIVE based designs. maintaining volunteers. Also, many
CODES of the intricacies of some building
FIRE DEPARTMENT systems will easily be forgotten even
During code development discus- PREPLANNING with frequent refreshers. Trying to
sions regarding performance-based make all shifts intimately familiar with
design over the last several years, one Much of what will be discussed in every building in the first due area is
aspect that was not frequently dis- this article can be argued against with time-consuming and simply not
cussed was the role of the fire service. a very simple “That’s why the fire realistic.
Recently, this has begun to be departments have preplans.” (Although
addressed and has revealed that not truly a “prefire plan,” or “pre-emer- SPRINKLER DESIGN
everyone was considering the same gency plan,” most fire departments
thing when discussing the involvement simply refer to them as “preplans.”). Automatic sprinkler systems are
of the fire service in building and fire Firefighters should visit buildings, relied upon to provide a minimum
protection system design. Is it the role especially those in their first due area, level of fire safety for many buildings.
the fire service may play in providing to become familiar with the building The effectiveness of sprinkler systems
input in developing the design? Is it and fire protection systems in the is reduced when the fire department is
the role of the fire service in making building. These visits should result in not able to quickly locate key sprin-
the design effective (e.g., there is a fire “preplans” on how to handle fire inci- kler system components or the system
station across the street, therefore dents in each building. However, pre- is so complicated that it takes too long
response will be less than two min- planning does not replace the need for to figure out how the system works.
utes)? Or is it the poor, out-of-district fire protection engineers to consider
firefighter who, at three in the morn- the firefighter. Keep sprinkler system layout
ing, after two other working fires that Even with the best preplanning, simple.
night, has to figure out how to deal what happens when the first due com- Sometimes it appears that the goal of
with the smoke control system? pany is not first in or, worse yet, is not some sprinkler system designers is to
In reality, considering the fire ser- coming at all due to another fire? make the systems a challenge to figure
vice is not new. However, as this arti- Second or third due companies and out, such that it takes anyone not
cle will point out, this is going to be maybe even second alarm companies familiar with the system, including the
affected, sometimes for better, some- may be familiar with the building, but fire department personnel, an inordi-
times for worse, by performance-based they will not have the same intimate nate amount of time to determine what
design. How often has a building knowledge of it. What if the battalion is going on. The author just recently
owner or designer said “We don’t need or district chief is from another district stood in a fire pump room with anoth-
to do that; the fire station is right across or is new to the district? er fire protection engineer, and it took
the street”? In the past, the authority An incident was described to the over ten minutes to decipher the sys-
having jurisdiction did not need to author where a very sophisticated tem. That was without the pressure of
give a detailed explanation, other than emergency power system was overrid- an ongoing emergency. This apparently
“the Code requires it” (although more den by a battalion chief covering from is not just the opinion of the author. A
explanation would have been helpful). another district. The emergency power recent article by Russ Fleming, Vice-
Such simple explanations will not be system was critical to the performance- President of Engineering for the
possible with performance-based based fire protection design of the National Fire Sprinkler Association
design. However, many of these issues structure. The first due chiefs were ends with: “Most of all we must seek
do arise even with prescriptive codes. aware of this; the covering chief was simplicity. Simple wet-pipe systems
Also performance-based designs will not. should be used whenever possible,
lose the “similar” or “typical” arrange- Many fire departments have poor or and sprinkler and valve design should
ment that firefighters rely on in many no preplanning programs. Some may be kept simple, as well.”1

S PRING 2000 Fire Protection Engineering 11

 Properly locate and identify sprin- that the main sprinkler valve was at place a fire department siamese con-
kler valves with the firefighter in the roof level up in the smoke. The nection. Where is the nearest fire
mind. valve was difficult to close because it hydrant? Where is the fire apparatus
NFPA 13 Standard for the Installation had to be closed by a chain which going to come from most of the time?
of Sprinkler Systems requires valve iden- jumped off the wheel when it was What does the landscape architect
tification. Some valves may be properly used. Was it really necessary to locate have planned? Or if there is no land-
identified when the system is first the main sprinkler valve at the roof scape architect, where is the owner
installed; however, over the life of the level where smoke would obscure it likely to plant bushes? How will snow
building, signage is often lost or and a chain was needed to close it? or other weather conditions affect
becomes misleading, or inadequate. It Probably not, but it apparently was access to the fire department connec-
would be better if the systems were done by someone not thinking of the tion for the sprinkler system? Should a
designed so that the location of the needs of the fire department or any- freestanding connection be used? But
valves and their function are obvious one else that needed to work on the most important, the fire department
regardless of signage, although sinage system, for that matter. should be contacted regarding fire
would be beneficial. Fire protection department connection locations.
engineers should consider whether it When planning sprinkler risers Some smaller fire departments may
be obvious to someone who may have and siamese locations, take the fire- need assistance in determining an
some training on sprinkler systems but fighter into consideration. appropriate location. The designer can
was not involved in the design. While it When not familiar with a building, assist by taking into consideration the
might cost a little more to arrange it that many firefighters will look for the fire above questions. Most larger fire
way, the cost of water damage caused department connection as an indicator departments will know exactly where
by water flow while it takes the fire of where the sprinkler riser may be. they want the connection.
When it is not nearby, valuable time An example of a recently encoun-
can be lost. However, this must be bal- tered problem, a situation involved fire
The needs of the anced with a need to carefully analyze
where the fire department connection
department connections for buildings
in a prison. The designer specified the
firefighter must always should be located. NFPA 13 requires fire department connections in the
that the location be approved, which “usual place” – i.e., without regard to
be considered in means acceptable to the authority hav- fire department needs, but which
ing jurisdiction. Unfortunately, the involved the shortest amount of pipe –
planning and design. authority having jurisdiction is not nec- i.e., the cheapest way. The fire depart-
essarily the fire department. It should ment was given a courtesy review of
be a requirement that the fire depart- the plans and noted the amount of
department an extra five or ten minutes ment approve the location, not just the hose that would have to be laid inside
to shut down the system could com- authority having jurisdiction. Examples of the compound to hook up to the
pensate for the added cost. The conse- where the authority having jurisdiction connections. Fortunately, prison offi-
quences could be worse if the valve is not the fire department are building cials were supportive of the fire
was closed and should have been open officials, state fire marshal offices, and department’s concern since they did
and could not be found fast enough. local fire marshal offices that are inde- not want large quantities of hose with-
Recently, hidden control valves were a pendent of the fire department. This in the compound. Revisions were
possible factor in a fatal residential does not mean that these types of made so that the fire department con-
2
high-rise fire in New York City . If the authorities having jurisdiction never nection location for each building was
valves were not hidden, in-service check with the fire department. Many standardized on the end of each build-
inspections may have found the closed do; but by NFPA 13, they are not ing closest to the fire hydrant. In fact,
valves. Proper supervision of the valves required to. It is not at all uncommon the private fire service mains and fire
could also reduce this problem. to find fire department connections hydrants were rearranged so that every
A fire protection engineer serving as behind bushes, on the back of the building had a fire hydrant, and it was
a firefighter in a large U.S. city provid- building with no vehicle access, too located near the end of the building
ed another example. Recently, during high, or in some cases on another most convenient to the approach of
a fire in a large home improvement building. Again, the argument against the fire apparatus. By doing this, very
store, he was assigned to locate the locating fire department connections in little hose would be required within
main sprinkler valve and shut down obvious locations will be aesthetics the secure compound. This reduced
the sprinkler system, as the fire had and some added cost. But if the fire security concerns for the prison
been extinguished. He undoubtedly department were considered from the administration and reduced time for
got this task since the officer knew he very beginning of the design, some of the fire department to connect to the
was a fire protection engineer. the added cost and aesthetic problems sprinkler system, as well as increased
Unfortunately, the building still had could be avoided. the overall level of safety.
extensive smoke in the upper layer of There are several questions to Another consideration with regard to
the building. It was finally discovered answer when determining where to fire department connections for sprin-

12 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

kler and standpipe systems is the types of threads in use. It is imperative asked about the fire alarm system,
potential for using freestanding fire to determine local threads before they requested a remote weather-resis-
department connections (fire depart- installing couplings for fire department tant annunciator outside, adjacent to
ment connections not mounted to the connections. Also, the type of cap on the fire department sprinkler connec-
building but usually out near the the connection is important. With tion. Their logic was that during the
street). Falling glass in high-rise build- extensive vandalism to these connec- day when staffing was low, the first
ings is a serious problem for firefight- tions, some fire departments are using crew could connect to the sprinkler
ers. Although most of the experience caps that provide security. It is impor- system and determine the alarm loca-
with falling glass shards has been in tant that these be standardized. tion at the same time, saving both time
nonsprinklered or partially sprinklered and, in this case, manpower.
buildings, this does not mean that it FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS
could not occur during fires in sprin- Arrange and identify fire alarm
klered buildings. Also, there is at least Modern fire alarm systems can great- zones so that the firefighter can
3
one case that NFPA investigated where ly improve life safety. But these same understand them quickly.
a firefighter was killed due to a wall systems can be designed to be either With regard to annunciators, two
collapse while working at a fire depart- very firefighter-friendly or decidedly additional issues are often a problem
ment connection. A freestanding con- unfriendly. Here is one area where for fire departments: zoning and iden-
nection may not be needed, and in fact working with the fire department, or at tification of zones. Zones sometimes
may be undesirable in some situations least having an understanding of their appear to be created in buildings for
(freezing, corrosion, and vandalism are concerns, can have a significant bene- the convenience of the fire alarm
some undesirable aspects), however, fit to building fire safety. Trying to pre- installer or designer. However, these
they should still be considered. Prisons dict what the fire department wants is people are not the ones that are called
again are another good example of almost impossible. One example is the upon to fight a hostile fire in the
where freestanding connections location of fire alarm controls and building. Zones should be established
installed outside the fence lines could annunciators. that are logical to someone that might
be a benefit. Keeping hose lines, fire have little or no familiarity with the
7
department vehicles, and firefighters Locate control and annunciator building. The NFPA Life Safety Code
outside the fence line improves fire- panels where they will best serve has a useful provision that allows fire
fighter safety and prison security. the firefighter. alarm zoning to coincide with sprin-
4
Admittedly, it is not always going to At least one model building code kler zones, even though NFPA 13 and
be possible to put the fire department requires that in high-rise buildings, fire NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm Code
connection in a convenient location alarm controls be located in a one-hour have different area requirements. The
and at the same time have it near the rated room. Many chief officers would Life Safety Code also allows both of
risers. Many designers strive for an rather have such equipment in the these systems to be zoned to coincide
efficient and cost-effective system. lobby. This does not make the require-
Sacrificing some short term cost-effec- ment wrong; It just points out that not
tiveness for more efficiency and user- all fire departments operate in the
friendliness may be more advisable, same manner. Therefore, the fire alarm Fire alarm design should
and in the long run may be more cost designer needs to confer with the fire
effective. department first. Fortunately, all three
be logical to people with
4,5,6
major model building codes in the little familiarity of the building.
Assure fire department connec- United States do require that for high-
tions are compatible with fire rise buildings the central control station
department threads. with fire alarm controls be in a location
It is amazing that, to this day, approved by the Fire Department. with the smoke compartment require-
threads in fire department connections NFPA 101, the Life Safety Code, requires ments of healthcare facilities. This
(the siamese for sprinklers and stand- that such controls be at “a convenient makes finding the alarm zone much
pipes, as well as for fire department location acceptable to the authority hav- easier. This kind of forethought on the
7
hoses on standpipe systems) are occa- ing jurisdiction.” If the authority having part of the fire protection engineer can
sionally incompatible with the threads jurisdiction is not the local fire depart- save precious time during an emer-
of the fire department hoses. One of ment, the designer could be missing gency as well as get firefighting equip-
the important lessons learned from the important input for a user-friendly ment back in service quicker from
major conflagrations of the last century design. false or nuisance alarms.
was the need for standard fire depart- An example from a small town with The identification of zones can be a
ment hose connections. NFPA 1963, a combination paid-volunteer fire big problem, especially in smaller
Standard for Fire Hose Connections, department can be used to illustrate buildings that use “simpler systems.”
provides for standard fire hose this point. A new building protected Here the zones are only identified by
threads. Although there have been by automatic sprinklers was being a light on the panel or a number.
improvements, there are still numerous built. When the fire department was Determining where in the building the

S PRING 2000 Fire Protection Engineering 15

 number corresponds may be difficult. buildings must have a fire safety direc- good references, most are guides or
Originally there may have been a tor on duty within the facility 24 hours recommendations. As a result, there is
piece of paper with a legend, but that a day. This person must be certified little consistency between systems.
may be either gone, out of date, or and be familiar with all the fire protec- Both Ford and Colt demonstrated the
faded. Building or tenant space reno- tion features within the building. This advantages of interchangeable parts. In
vations can make the legend inaccu- fire safety director mandate recognizes fire protection, there are advantages of
rate. Zone identification should be the problem with building/systems consistency between systems of the
simple and be able to withstand possi- complexity, and few fire departments same type. Although it can be argued
have this benefit. Again, when design- that each smoke control system is
ing fire alarm control panels, remem- unique to the building, there are many
ber the firefighter that will have to items that could be standardized to
With many systems, it is interface with it. Make it obvious how make it easier for the firefighter to use.
the various functions work and label One example that was recently debat-
very easy for the firefighter
the panel with clear instructions. ed at the 1999 ICC hearings in Costa
8
to make simple mistakes A former county fire department fire Mesa, California, involves the color of
protection engineer provided informa- indicator lights on the smoke control
that result in big problems. tion about an instance where the panel. When does one use green, yel-
design of a graphic annunciator for a low, red, etc.? Does green mean nor-
seven-story building was far too com- mal or does green mean open? This
plicated to expect responding firefight- may not be important on an individual
ble renovations. For example: “third ers to interpret the annunciator effec- project since the designer and the
floor east wing,” rather than “XYZ tively. The nomenclature used to building owner know what it means.
Company.” XYZ may move, but east is describe the zones was logical to the A firefighter may have a dozen smoke
east, and rarely does the third floor engineer and the systems designer, but control systems in his/her first due
move. It may be beneficial to indicate was essentially meaningless to a fire- area and they all are different, consis-
north if compass directions are used. fighter since it did not relate well to tency could be very important. And if
As noted earlier, first due companies the firefighter’s perception of the the first due company is not the first
may be aware of where north is, but building layout. The zones were not arriving, they will have to learn the
they might not be first in. Also, wind- sufficiently descriptive of the building legend very quickly. Here is where
ing roads can easily confuse one’s and did not reflect the sprinkler system standards would be very beneficial.
“internal” compass. zone boundaries, fire pump location, However, when performance-based
Markings for the annunciator must or the location of the fire command codes are used, a standard may not be
be durable. Sometimes annunciators station. Integrated into the graphic followed.
appear to have been prepared by a panel was an overwhelming smoke In general, smoke control systems
fire alarm contractor who used disap- control graphic. The graphic was very tend to be too complicated and sus-
pearing ink to indicate the zones. The impressive from an engineering per- ceptible to adjustment by unqualified
light may be on but it tells nothing as spective but was not at all user-friendly. people. With many systems, it is very
to the location of the fire. easy for the firefighter to make simple
SMOKE CONTROL SYSTEMS mistakes that result in big problems. It
Keep controls and annunciators is not uncommon to hear firefighters
simple and consistent. Smoke control systems are used to say that the first thing you do with a
Another problem for firefighters is limit the spread of smoke beyond the smoke control system is disable it. It is
the difference in fire alarm control area or floor of fire origin. Each smoke not very beneficial to design a system,
panels. Even with extensive preplan- control system is designed for a specific spend the money to install it, have it
ning, the numerous fire alarm systems building. Therefore, of all the systems part of a fire safety plan, and have the
in any company’s first due area (and in the area of fire protection for build- very people that respond to the emer-
don’t forget, the first due company ings, smoke control systems could easi- gency not use it (or worse, abuse it)
might not be there) combined with the ly be nominated for the one that could because it is too complicated.
fact that almost no two fire alarm con- cause the most problem for fire-fighters.
trol panels operate the same create a PERFORMANCE-BASED CODES
nightmare for firefighters. One saving Make smoke control systems AND STANDARDS
factor is that the more complex the understandable to those that must
system is, the larger the building and use them – the firefighters. The day of performance-based
the greater chance that there is some- The lack of consistency with these codes and standards is here (or rapidly
one there 24 hours a day. Hopefully, systems and the resulting dangers that approaching depending upon how
that person is well trained on the could result are significant. Probably you look at it). Almost every publica-
operation of the fire alarm system. In the biggest contributor to this problem tion dealing with fire and building
fact, at least one major city in the is the lack of standards that can be ref- safety standards has recently had arti-
United States does require that larger erenced. Although there are several cles discussing performance-based

16 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 codes and standards. To some people, use of a federal fire department in the tion-based designs, it could be even
this is long overdue; to others, it is a evaluation of a building. In this case, more of a problem if travel distances
disaster waiting to happen; to still oth- there is more control on the existence are increased in performance-based
ers, it is another way of doing “equiva- of the fire station. However, many of designs.
lencies”. The merit, or lack thereof, of the questions above would still need Many of these buildings have “stan-
performance-based codes and stan- to be addressed. dard” fire alarm systems, sprinkler sys-
dards is not within the scope of this Earlier, this article discussed prob- tems, standpipe systems, exits, emer-
paper. However, the possible effect on lems with systems based on prescrip- gency lighting, etc. One of the issues
the firefighter doing his or her job is. tive codes and standards with regard mentioned earlier is that the fire ser-
There are already some to user-friendliness. Performance-based vice takes many actions based on “typ-
architects/engineers wanting to use the codes and standards will magnify ical” scenarios. This may just be based
fire department as part of the design. almost everything discussed before on an individual’s experience or on
In other words, “we don’t have to put (sometimes for better, sometimes for more rigorous standard operating pro-
XYZ in the building because the fire worse). This is not intended to be a cedures or a combination of the two.
station is only two blocks away.” This doomsday type of warning. But it is If nonstandard systems are used,the
can generate numerous problems intended to alert fire protection engi- impact should be considered.
depending on what the XYZ is. There neers to the fact that the needs of the If a “performance-based” high-rise
are so many questions that must be fire service must be a factor in perfor- building was constructed with one-
answered. What if that station is empty mance-based designs. hour rated (or even nonrated) exit
due to any number of reasons (anoth- Up to this point, many of the “per- stair enclosures, protection is still nec-
er fire, training, repairs, inspection formance-based” designs that have essary for firefighters that are using the
duty, etc.) at the time of a fire? What if been described in various journals and stair to attack the fire. (Note: The need
an out-of-district company is in the discussed at various conferences have for fire-rated exit enclosures was
station during a major emergency? One really been a performance-based specifically addressed during the
major U.S. city takes less-busy compa- approach to address one or two issues Report on Proposals and the Report on
nies and puts them in busier stations a in an otherwise prescriptive-based Comments for the 2000 edition of the
7
couple of times a week to keep up design. Some may refer to this as “per- Life Safety Code, the committee
their skills. They are not in familiar ter- formance-based equivalencies.” This removed any specified minimum fire-
ritory at that time. What if response may address the need to reduce struc- resistance rating for exit enclosures in
patterns are temporarily changed due tural fire resistance, increase travel dis- the performance-based option). A
to street work? What if the station is tance, reduce the number of exits, and model may have shown that all the
closed (some may remember the ’70s similar issues. With these types of civilians got out of the building fine. If
when numerous fire stations were issues, there is little impact on the fire the design uses only one exit stair, it
closed during severe municipal budget service. Note that this author did not might be necessary for people to exit
cuts, and this issue continues to this say no impact, since there can be the building while the fire department
day)? It would be interesting to see a some. For example, if there are fewer is trying to gain access.
major building shut down or have to exits or longer travel distances, fire- One of the problems discussed earli-
make major renovations because the fighter access must be considered. The er dealt with smoke control systems.
city council closed a fire station. (This paths that civilians use to get out are One of the reasons that smoke control
might be a new approach to keep sta- the same paths that firefighters must systems can be so difficult for the fire
tions open – have at least one perfor- use in most cases to get in. Standpipe service is that there really is no “stan-
mance-based design building in each connections are usually required at dard” design. But, many system
district based on fire department exits. Longer travel distances would designs have been guided by stan-
response.) What if the fire department impact fire department operations dards. Many features required in the
in general is delayed due to weather, since the distance from standpipe con- installation standards today are based
numerous calls, or other reason? What nections might also be longer. If the on experience (usually bad experi-
if permanent street closures or design stays with connections at the ence), and much of this cannot be
rearrangements alter response pat- exits, there could be significant prob- modeled using the tools available
terns? These and more must all be lems with the amount of hose a fire- today. Or if it can be modeled, it will
answered satisfactorily before any such fighter will have to carry as well as put also be necessary to consider the
consideration can be given. There may in service. With standpipe connections effect on the fire service.
be cases where it is warranted, but in at the horizontal exits or exit stairs,
the opinion of the author, they will be firefighters have an area of protection SOME FINAL THOUGHTS
relatively rare and not for any signifi- to make connections and prepare the
cant fire protection feature. hose for water. Locating connections It is not the intent of this paper to
A fire protection engineer for a out on the floor could decrease the be critical of performance-based codes
major U.S. Government agency related protection afforded to firefighters set- and standards or to criticize anybody’s
one example of using the fire depart- ting up the hose lines. Although this specific design. However, as perfor-
ment in this manner. This involved the can be an issue with some prescrip- mance-based designs become more

18 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 prevalent, fire protection engineers er all variables, and remember the per- REFERENCES
should become more aware of the son that has to use the system during
needs of the fire service. Not all fire- an emergency. 1. “Improving Sprinkler System
fighters are going to be able to spend With regard to performance-based Performance,” NFPA Journal, Vol.93, No.
countless hours studying a design. design, getting the people out is the 4, July/August 1999, pp. 24 & 108.
Even if they could, they will not usual- first part of the battle, and the firefight- 2. “What Went Wrong,” NFPA Journal, Vol.
ly have the opportunity to stay con- er might be present long after initial 93, No. 3, May/June 1999, pp. 84-88.
stantly refreshed on it. The firefighter, evacuation. Lessons of the past must 3. “Wall Collapse Kills Captain,” Fire
assigned to the closest station may be not be forgotten because a model Command Vol. 43, No. 6, June 1976,
transferred tomorrow or might be at demonstrates that the minimum re- pp 28.
another call when the building you are quired egress time is provided. There
4. Uniform Building Code, International
working on needs the fire department. is almost no part of building fire safety Conference of Building Officials,
Remember, the engineer worked on that can be altered without some Whittier, CA, 1997, Par. 403.6.1.
the project, usually from the begin- impact, good or bad, on the firefighter
5. Building Officials and Code
ning, and therefore it all makes sense in the building.
Administrators, International, Country
to him or her. The firefighter might be When all is said and done, engi-
Club Hills, IL, 1999.
arriving at three in the morning, not neers should put themselves in the
having been in the building for shoes of a person that was not at all 6. Standard Building Code, Southern
months (maybe years), and is expect- part of the planning and design meet- Building Code Congress International,
Birmingham, AL, 1999.
ed to make rational decisions with the ings and needs to make decisions
systems. Don’t count out the firefight- under great stress. 7. NFPA 101, Life Safety Code, National Fire
er. If the engineer does, the system Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 1999.
may be shut down, overridden, or James Lathrop is with Koffel Associates, 8. 1999 Proposed Changes to the
worse – misused. and is a member of the Niantic (CT) International Fire Code F508-99, F510-99,
One of the best ways to help is to Fire Department, where he is currently F511-99, F516-99.
keep it simple, keep it logical, consid- a Captain.

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20 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 What Users Want

Fire Model Developers

to Address
By J.K. Richardson, P.Eng.,
L.R. Richardson, J.R. Mehaffey, Ph.D.,
and C.A. Richardson

T here is a growing trend in fire pro-

tection design towards the use of
computer models to determine the
effects of fire in various scenarios. The
appeal of such models is obvious – a
properly validated and calibrated
model can reduce the need for costly
experimental tests, can be a tool in
making design decisions, and can be
used by investigators to reconstruct
fire scenarios. Since developing a com-
puter model requires a sizable invest-
ment of resources, it is in the interest
of model developers to consider the
needs of the model’s potential users
throughout the development process.
This article discusses some of the
issues that potential model users con-
sider important for the release of a
new computer model, based on a sur-
vey by Forintek Canada Corporation
(FCC). A primary issue being investi-
gated was the acceptability of fire
models for regulatory approval. The
results obtained are considered to have
broader relevance to models besides
the one considered in the survey.
Forintek has been developing com-
puter-based models for the past
decade. This article presents an
overview of the results of a study that

S PRING 2000 Fire Protection Engineering 23

 diversity of backgrounds as results that appear to have been pro-
possible. duced from a “black box”. An invest-
The potential users were ment in educating potential users is
asked about: likely to be worthwhile; however,
• the degree of accep- since the evidence shows that fire
tance they thought the models in general and fire resistance
model would have in the models in particular, are likely to find
user community, acceptance in the target user commu-
• how they thought nity. Ninety-two percent of the poten-
WALL2D needed to be val- tial users interviewed believed that fire
idated in order to be a models are useful, and 77% believed
useful tool, and that fire-resistance models are useful.
• how they expected It was felt that FCC’s WALL2D model
such a model to be docu- would be especially useful if it incor-
mented. porated the ability to measure the fire
WALL2D Results Assuming that the group resistance of assemblies with a greater
identified above constitutes the most variety of wall membrane materials.
likely users of models such as This comment reminds developers of
WALL2D, then the results of FCC’s fire models that any model is more
interview project provide a good indi- useful if it allows users to set the para-
FCC commissioned to investigate the cation of the expectations that the user meters to represent the conditions of a
expectations of a target group of community has of fire models in gen- fire scenario, rather than having these
potential users of FCC’s WALL2D eral. Designers of all types of fire mod- parameters hard-coded.
model. WALL2D is a 2-dimensional els can benefit from the conclusions of
computer model for predicting heat this project. VALIDATION OF FIRE MODELS
transfer through nonload-bearing
wood-stud walls protected by gypsum FAMILIARITY WITH AND A second set of questions in the
board. Using this model results in the ACCEPTANCE OF FIRE MODELS FCC project was used to determine
assessment of fire-resistance of such what level and type of validation was
assemblies. The opinions of a group of The interview results revealed that necessary for users to accept the
potential model users were gathered there is a moderately high degree of results of WALL2D’s modeling as suffi-
through a series of in-person and tele- awareness in the potential user com- ciently representative of fire conditions
phone interviews. That group included: munity of the use of models of fire in actual wall assemblies. At the time
• consultants – fire safety engineers phenomena: sixty-nine percent of the of the project, the theory underlying
and architects, subjects interviewed had some experi- WALL2D had been discussed in papers
• regulatory officials – building and ence using fire models. Some used published in peer-reviewed journals.
fire, simple algorithms from handbooks, Such journals also published compar-
• fire researchers, while others used more complex com- isons between the results provided by
• codes and standards developers, puter programs to model phenomena WALL2D and the results of full-scale
• insurance inspectors, like smoke movement or people fire-resistance tests. Sixty-two percent
• university professors who could movement. Fewer interviewees had of the interviewees found that level of
use or teach fire models, and used modeling techniques to calculate validation to be acceptable, while 30%,
• representatives of professional fire resistance, but there was frequent a sizable number, felt that further vali-
societies that might review models. agreement that fire-resistance models dation was necessary. Furthermore,
The group of 13 potential users was are needed. While there is a demand 75% of the regulators who were inter-
balanced between subjects who were for such models, developers must bear viewed were unwilling to consider the
recent graduates and more experi- in mind that nearly a third of the model sufficiently validated. Many of
enced practitioners, frequent users of potential users (and half of the regula- the interviewees recommended that
models and inexperienced users, tors) had no experience using fire the model be reviewed and approved
Canada-and U.S.A.-based subjects, and models for any purpose. If fire model- by some third-party agency, which
subjects with a variety of educational ing is to achieve widespread use, could be a certification agency or pro-
backgrounds (technical college degree, developers will have to educate target fessional society. Others wished to
baccalaureate degree, or graduate users who may be unfamiliar with learn more details about the calcula-
degree). No attempt was made to modeling techniques. Without an tions and modeling techniques under-
select individuals with a prior knowl- understanding of the data and calcula- lying the computer program. Another
edge of FCC, the wood industry, or tions on which a model is based or of suggested that the model should be
fire modeling in general. Considerable how to use the model correctly, users discussed in trade journals as well as
effort was expended to ensure that the who have not been educated about peer-reviewed journals so that more
selected users provided as great a the model may be reluctant to trust potential users could learn about it.

24 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 help to increase users’ level of trust in thus far indicate that target users are
the results of the model. entirely willing to use computer mod-
A majority (54%) of the target users els of fire phenomena, as long as they
wanted to see further comparisons can understand how and why the
between WALL2D’s results and experi- model works.
mental results. Again, this finding
underscores the user expectation that a FUTURE FIRE MODELING EFFORTS
model accurately represent real-life
conditions. The greater reluctance of The varied responses of the target
regulators to accept WALL2D at its users to the interview questions about
then-current level of validation empha- the future directions of model devel-
sized the need for model developers opment all echoed the same theme –
to communicate with regulators the more parameters that can be set
(through the media mentioned above, by the user, the more useful a model
as well as through demonstrations and is. For WALL2D, a model representing
educational seminars) about the theo- heat transfer through walls, users
ry, results, and appropriate use of the wanted to be able to set parameters
model. If regulators do not accept a for such variables as wall size, cover-
model, the model’s usefulness is limit- ing material, stud material, insulation
ed for all other users. Developers material, fastener spacing, and the
might therefore be better served by effects of doors or other openings,
overpublicizing their efforts than by among others. Clearly, the message for
underpublicizing. developers of any kind of fire model is
that the more scenarios a program can
DOCUMENTATION OF FIRE model accurately, the more value it
MODELS has to the user.
The results of WALL2D model inter-
Potential users of WALL2D were views can be generalized for develop-
asked whether they preferred the ers of other fire models. The two
model’s documentation in electronic or recurring themes were education and
printed form. It was originally intend- adaptability. Users want to be educat-
ed that either form of documentation ed so that they can understand how a
would consist simply of a user manual model works, why it is a representa-
describing how to use the computer tive model of real-life scenarios, and
program. The interviews revealed, how it is used correctly and appropri-
however, that users thought it impor- ately, in order for them to feel confi-
tant that more technical information be dent about and rely on the results to
documented as well, such as the vali- help make decisions. Furthermore, for
dation information, the theoretical any model to be of value to its users,
basis of the model, and guidance it must be adaptable to a variety of
about the appropriate use of the scenarios, rather than hard-coded to a
model, including its limitations. Most given set of parameters. Model devel-
(69%) of those interviewed were of the opers who bear these two goals in
opinion that this information, as well mind throughout the development
as the how-to user manual, should be process are likely to find that their
available as a printed document, not models achieve much successful use.
just electronically.
This finding illustrates users’ reluc-
tance to trust online help systems,
probably because of their experience J.K. Richardson is with Ken Richardson
with nonintuitive and downright Fire Technologies Inc.
unhelpful “help” attached to other pro- L.R. Richardson and J.R. Mehaffey are with
These comments by the target users grams. Model developers are likely to Forintek Canada Corporation.
echo the remarks made above – that find more sympathy for documentation C.A Richardson is a graduate student in
users must be educated about the in book form than online. The inter- Linguistics at Northwestern University.
“inner workings” of a model before viewees’ comments about what must
they will be willing to accept it. be included in the documentation also
Evaluation or certification of a model reveal a trend that was hinted at in
by an independent agency will clearly their previous answers. Their answers

S PRING 2000 Fire Protection Engineering 25

A RISK-BASED
FIRE-ENGINEERED
ALTERNATIVE
SOLUTION FOR

Nursing
Homes
A CASE STUDY IN
NEW ZEALAND

By Tony Parkes, and sented in this case study uses the relia- After considering an application for
Carol Caldwell, P.E. bility and performance of sprinklers building consent, the territorial author-
and smoke detectors installed through- ity shall grant the consent if it is satis-
out the building in place of the pre- fied on reasonable grounds that the

N ew Zealand’s building code

allows for performance-based fire
engineering designs. However, perfor-
scriptive code requirement for self-
closers and fire doors to the rooms. It
should be noted that the prescriptive
provisions of the building code would
be met if the building work was prop-
erly completed in accordance with the
mance-based designs that are submit- code requires sprinklers and smoke plans and specifications submitted
ted are evaluated on their relative mer- detectors to be installed throughout with the application.
its when compared to the prescriptive the building as well as self-closers and Although this case study provides
code requirements. These prescriptive fire doors to bedrooms. less than the prescriptive code require-
requirements are designated to be the The performance-based design pro- ments, the Territorial Authority was
minimum risk acceptable by the pub- vided the fire safety features of the satisfied on reasonable grounds. It
lic. Therefore, a performance-based building to meet the requirements of accepted the performance-based
design should show that it provides a the New Zealand building code. The design based upon the performance of
level of risk that is equal to or better acceptance criteria of a performance- residential sprinklers and the excellent
than the prescriptive requirements. based design is outlined in the New past history of sprinklers in New
The performance-based design pre- Zealand Building Act, which states: Zealand.

S PRING 2000 Fire Protection Engineering 29

 There are many fire issues involved nursing home and hospital care. Optical smoke detectors will be used.
with the design of nursing homes. Typically, the occupants in the nursing Separate strobe lights and low level
Often the occupants may have physi- home are ambulant; they move to a sounders are to be provided through-
cal or mental problems that prevent different level of care facility when out all areas of the building. The
them from freely egressing from the they are no longer so. However, both strobe and low-level sounders are to
building in the event of fire. It is often facilities are SC purpose groups. be wired so that each can be used
best to provide for staged evacuation The prescriptive requirements for independently. The capability for mut-
into another part of the building the nursing homes vary according to ing the low-level sounders is to be
instead of a complete evacuation of the number of sleeping occupants. provided at the main/remote fire alarm
the building. This case study addresses For up to five occupants in a single- panel.
these issues and the performance- story home, there are only require- Emergency lighting is required
based fire engineered approach that ments for manual pull stations. For six throughout the facility. It is to last for
was developed. to 20 occupants, smoke detectors are 120 minutes.
required. Beyond 20 occupants, sprin- Fire/Smoke Separations. The
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY klers are required with at least smoke building will be divided into two fire
detectors in the bedrooms. Smoke cells. The fire separations are to be 30
A performance-based design has detectors are required throughout the minutes. The doors at these locations
been developed that considers all facility in addition to sprinklers when are required to be a 30-minute fire
the fire protection features of the the occupant load exceeds 40. doors and shall be fitted with self-clos-
building: active systems, passive sys- In addition to the requirements for ing devices.
tem and administrative procedures. smoke detectors or sprinklers, there The fire and smoke stop doors are
Additionally, the performance of sprin- are also requirements for fire separa- to be held open on an approved hold-
kler systems in New Zealand is used tions. The fire separation requirements open device. The hold-open devices
to justify the performance-based apply regardless of the other installed will be connected to the smoke detec-
design. fire protection features. Interpretation tion system. On activation of the
The fire report is submitted as a per- of the New Zealand Building Code smoke detector adjacent to the doors,
1
formance-based design fire report. It is Handbook and Approved Documents the hold open devices will release the
submitted to permit the installation of requires the occupant rooms to be fire doors and allow the automatic closers
nonfire-rated patient room doors with- separated from the rest of the building. to close them.
out self-closures. The performance- This requires all sleeping rooms to be System Operation. When a smoke
based design allows the fire safety fea- separated by 30- or 15-minute fire- detector, sprinkler system, or manual
tures of the building to meet the resistant construction; this includes the pull station is activated, the low-level
requirements of the New Zealand walls and doors. This would require sounders and strobes alarm throughout
building code. The primary objectives that a fire door fitted with a self-closer the building. If it is a sprinkler or man-
1
of the code are : be provided. The difficulty arises in ual pull station, the signal is sent to
•Protect occupant life safety that fire doors with self-closers are not the New Zealand Fire Service. The
•Protect neighboring property practical for the occupants of these zone in alarm is displayed on the
•Provide for some safety for fire- spaces. It is difficult for the occupants main/remote fire alarm panels in the
fighters in this facility, SC purpose group, to building. The capability for muting the
•Protect the environment open the door to escape from their low-level sounders is provided at the
With the installed fire safety features rooms. It also tends to isolate the main/remote fire alarm panels. Staff
in this building, these objectives have occupants behind a shut door, which respond to determine the cause and
been achieved, as well as showing that is counterproductive to getting them relocate occupants to the other side of
the level of risk provided is equal to involved in activities. fire or smoke separations. If there is a
or better than the prescriptive require- need to fully evacuate the building, a
ments. FIRE PROTECTION FEATURES switch will be provided at the
In general, the prescriptive require- main/remote fire alarm panels to allow
ments of means of escape features, The building is to have a sprinkler for operation of the sounders for full
door widths, and interior finish and smoke detection system installed evacuation.
requirements of the New Zealand throughout. The building will be pro-
Building Code Handbook and tected with quick-response sprinklers COMPLIANCE WITH NEW
Approved Documents1 are followed. (not residential), and the bedrooms, ZEALAND BUILDING CODE
with residential sprinklers. Standard-
PRESCRIPTIVE REQUIREMENTS response sprinklers will be used in the New Zealand Building Code
attic space. Any sprinkler operation Clause. New Zealand building code
Nursing homes are classified as an will activate the strobes and audible performance criteria C3.3.2 states:
SC purpose group, sleeping care. The alarms in the building. Fire separations shall be provided
prescriptive documents in New A smoke detection system will be within buildings to avoid the spread
Zealand do not differentiate between provided throughout the building. of fire and smoke to:

30 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 a) Other fire cells, Although the risks associated with lighting in the rest home bedrooms.
b) Spaces intended for sleeping, the performance-based design are Residential Sprinklers. Residential
c) Household units within the same somewhat implied, the risk of the per- sprinklers are to be installed in the
building or adjacent buildings. formance of the sprinkler system and a bedrooms. Residential sprinklers have
The building meets the performance good level of staff training show that passed special testing requirements in
criteria by the fact that “sleeping what is provided is nothing less than order to be called “residential sprin-
spaces” are provided with fire separa- what is expected by the public, i.e., klers.” For sprinklers to be classified as
tions. There are two separate fire cells the minimum risk acceptable. residential, standard testing must be
in the nursing home containing sleep- When a smoke detector or manual undertaken to show that a sprinkler
ing spaces. Hence the “sleeping pull station goes into alarm, this acti- meets certain performance criteria
spaces” are fire separated. With the vates the strobes and low-level audible before it may be marketed. The accep-
installed smoke detectors for early devices in the building of alarm. Only tance requirements for residential
warning of fire and residential sprin- the strobes will activate in the other sprinklers are based on the tempera-
klers installed in the bedrooms, the building. It also indicates the zone of tures in the surrounding environment.
occupants of the bedrooms are not the alarm on the main/remote fire After sprinkler activation, the accep-
expected to be exposed to untenable alarm panel. The staff on duty tance requirements of the space pro-
3
conditions. responds to determine the cause of tected by residential sprinklers are:
the alarm. • The maximum temperature 76.2
COMPARATIVE RISK-BASED When the sprinkler system activates, mm (3 in) below the ceiling shall
PERFORMANCE SOLUTION basically the same sequence as that not exceed 316 °C (600 °F).
taking place during smoke detector • The maximum temperature 1.6 m
We now turn to items that deviate activation occurs. The only difference (5.25 ft) above the floor shall not
from the New Zealand Building Code is that the sprinkler system is one zone exceed 93 °C (200 °F).
Handbook and Approved Documents1. for the building. The sprinklers and • The temperature 1.6 m (5.25 ft)
They relate to the degree of fire sepa- manual pull stations are connected to above the floor shall not exceed
ration between bedrooms, the installa- the New Zealand Fire Service. 54 °C (130 °F) for more than any
tion of nonfire-rated patient room In the event there is a fire in a bed- continuous two-minute period.
doors without self-closers, and the room, staff will evacuate the occupant • The maximum ceiling temperature
location of emergency lighting. Staff from that room and close the door. 6.35 mm (0.25 in) behind the fin-
operation and system operation are This is included as part of staff train- ished ceiling surface shall not
discussed to provide the scenario of ing. The facility has staff in attendance exceed 260 °C (500 °F).
what happens in the event of a fire. 24 hours a day, every day. There will The first three requirements are
Additionally, information on the bene- be at least two staff on duty in the directly relevant to the life safety of
fits of residential sprinklers and infor- building at all times. the occupants in the rooms. The resi-
mation on the past history and reliabil- dential sprinklers must meet these per-
ity of sprinkler systems in residential- Emergency Lighting. According to formance requirements. Considering
type occupancies is provided. the New Zealand Building Code this information and actual fire experi-
This performance-based design Handbook and Approved Documents1, ence, it is reasonable to expect that
compares the implied risk of failure of emergency lighting is required through- the bedroom occupant will survive in
a sprinkler system to that of the out the facility. It must be available for the event of a flaming fire in the bed-
requirement of the BIA Acceptable 120 minutes. The emergency lighting is room. If the occupant of the bedroom
Solutions. Is the AHJ reasonably satis- provided to assist in evacuating occu- can survive the fire, it is reasonable to
fied that the risk to life safety of the pants. Since the doors to the rest home state that tenable conditions will be
occupants is not lessened with a solu- bedrooms are not on self-closers, the maintained in the adjacent corridor.
tion based upon the performance of door can be left open to allow light With the presence of the smoke detec-
sprinkler systems in New Zealand? from the corridor to enter the bed- tors in the bedroom units, it is expect-
This question addressed by the AHJ room. That light is sufficient to assist ed that the occupants will be alerted
relates to the risks associated with occupants from their beds in the event to the presence of a fire before the
each fire protection measure and they need to evacuate. sprinklers are activated.
whether or not it can be implied that There is also the problem of the
they are equal to one another. One emergency lights coming on when Past Experience with Sprinkler
must also not forget that, with the evacuation from the facility is not nec- Systems. The effectiveness of sprin-
installation of sprinklers in these facili- essary, which is most often apt to be kler systems in residential-type build-
ties, the use of passive fire measures the situation. If the emergency lighting ings at preserving life when an occu-
is not thrown out the window, but is installed in the bedrooms and is on pant is in the same room as the fire
that more emphasis is placed upon when evacuation is not required, it has been well documented by H.W.
the performance of an active fire-sup- prevents the occupants from sleeping. Marryatt in his book, Fire: A Century
pression system and the good level of Considering this, it is believed to be of Automatic Sprinkler Protection in
2
staff training. appropriate to not provide emergency Australia and New Zealand.

32 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 As noted in the book, “An important room occupant will survive in the ures due to shutdowns, etc. The issue
question raised by the fire fatalities in event of a flaming fire in the bedroom. of shutdown or maintenance is
the USA in 1985 is whether sprinkler If the occupant of the bedroom can addressed by the Building Act, howev-
operation in a single-room fire, as in a survive the fire, then it is reasonable to er. Shutdowns or significant mainte-
hotel or hospital, would be fast state that tenable conditions will be nance involving the sprinkler systems
enough to prevent the asphyxiation of maintained in the adjacent corridor. (or for that matter any major fire pro-
an occupant smoking in bed for exam- Therefore, a fire in the room would tection system) in a building would
ple.” The author goes on to evaluate not cause conditions to become unten- mean that the building no longer
the fatalities in 79 single-room fires. able in an adjacent space if the door meets the New Zealand building code.
There were only two: one person were left open. The building Warrant of Fitness and
whose clothes were on fire and who registered evacuation scheme would
ran from the room, and one whose ACCEPTABLE LEVEL OF RISK be void. During these periods, the
bedding ignited. These were all stan- responsibility is placed upon the
dard response sprinklers, not quick- The reliability and performance of owner to report to the AHJ and the
response. sprinkler systems in New Zealand has New Zealand Fire Service, who may
The statistics show that in 389 docu- been shown to be high. According to ask for interim requirements. For
mented fires in which sprinkler sys- Marryatt:2 example, this could result in the place-
tems in residential buildings activated, It is reasonable to claim that the per- ment of additional safety features, such
there have been only three fatalities. centage of fires recorded is high as extra staff. Currently, this is not
The majority of the these residential enough, and the number of occu- being done to any large extent.
sprinkler systems have been provided pancies in which fires were recorded However, attention to the compliance
with standard-response sprinklers, not wide enough, to enable valid conclu- of the fire protection systems is
residential sprinklers that use a quick- sions to be drawn regarding the increasing, with co-ordination between
response activating element. The fatali- effectiveness of automatic sprinkler the AHJ and Fire Service becoming a
ties occurred when the occupant was protection. The “fires controlled” per- requirement.
intimate with the fire origin: centage of 99.46% is remarkable...
• An elderly woman dropped a cig- However this reliability of 99.46% CONCLUSION
arette onto the rubber-upholstered only addressed those buildings in
chair on which she was sitting. which the sprinklers did operate. It The fire report submitted shows
• An elderly woman sustained fatal does not include those failures due to that, with the proposed fire protection
burns when her bedding caught shutdowns, etc. In this case a reliabili- features, the objectives of the New
fire when the overhead fluores- ty of 95%-98% is more applicable. The Zealand building code have been
cent lights burst and hot metal reliability of sprinklers in New Zealand achieved. The Territorial Authority is
ignited her bed covers. is higher than other countries, due to satisfied on reasonable grounds that
• A young woman in a mental hos- the sprinkler systems being wet pipe the installation of smoke detectors in
pital ignited her clothing while systems and significant monitoring and the bedrooms and sprinklers provides
smoking and suffered fatal burns. servicing. Due to the reliability of an acceptable level of risk to meet the
In each of the described fatality sce- sprinkler systems in New Zealand, performance criteria of the New
narios, the standard-response sprin- their performance, compared to pas- Zealand building code in lieu of fire
klers activated and prevented danger sive fire protection, is considered to be separations between bedrooms and
to other occupants of the buildings. In greater. It is recognized that, with the fire-rated patient room doors with self-
all other documented fires where resi- installation of a sprinkler system, the closures.
dential-type sprinkler systems were spread of fire and smoke is limited Tony Parkes, and Carol Caldwell,
installed, the sprinklers activated and better than with barriers. P.E., are with Caldwell Consulting Ltd.
either suppressed the fire or controlled This performance-based design
it until the fire service was able to shows that, although more emphasis is REFERENCES
intervene. The documented situations placed upon the performance of the
show residential sprinkler systems are sprinkler system, it is a reasonable 1. New Zealand Building Code Handbook
capable of saving the lives of occu- acceptable level of risk and provides a and Approved Documents, Building
pants directly exposed to the fire. In level of life safety to the occupants Industry Authority, Wellington, NZ, 1992.
some cases, the sprinkler system has that is reasonably equivalent to that of 2. H.W. Marryatt, Fire: A Century of
saved the lives of occupants who have the BIA-Acceptable solutions. Automatic Sprinkler Protection in
deliberately started fires in their room. Australia and New Zealand, 1886-1986,
With the advent of residential sprin- MAINTENANCE AND SHUTDOWNS Australian Fire Protection Association,
klers, the performance of a sprinkler Melbourne, 1988.
system in the rest home occupancies is As mentioned, the reliability of 3. UL 1626, Residential Sprinklers for Fire-
increased. sprinkler systems only addressed those Protection Service, Underwriters
With the installed sprinkler system, buildings in which the sprinklers did Laboratories, IL, 1994.
it is reasonable to expect that the bed- operate. It did not include those fail-

34 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 LARGE EDDY SIMULATIONS
OF FIRES
FROM CONCEPTS TO COMPUTATIONS

Figure 1 – Simulation
of a Fire in a Hangar.

By Howard R. Baum, incomplete knowl-

Ph.D. edge of fire sce-
narios that is char-

T he idea that the

dynamics of a fire
might be studied
acteristic of real
fires. Finally, the
methods should be
using digital comput- capable of system-
ers probably dates back to the begin- • Finally, since the “fuel” in most atic improvement. Thus, as our physi-
nings of the computer age. The con- fires was never intended as such, the cal insight and computing power grow
cept that a fire requires the mixing of data needed to characterize both the more powerful, the methods of analy-
a combustible gas with enough air at fuel and the fire environment may not sis can grow with them.
elevated temperatures is well known be available. The “Large Eddy Simulation” (LES)
to anyone involved with fire. Graduate In order to make progress, the ques- technique developed at NIST over a
students enrolled in courses in fluid tions that are asked have to be greatly nearly two-decade period is our
mechanics, heat transfer, and combus- simplified. To begin with, instead of attempt to carry out the conceptual
tion have been taught the equations seeking a methodology that can be program outlined above. The phrase
that need to be solved for at least as applied to all fire problems, we begin refers to the description of turbulent
long as computers have been around. by looking at a few scenarios that mixing of the gaseous fuel and com-
What is the problem? The difficulties seem to be most amenable to analysis. bustion products with the local atmos-
revolve about three issues: Hopefully, the methods developed to phere surrounding the fire. This
• First, there are an enormous num- study these “simple” problems can be process, which determines the burning
ber of possible fire scenarios to con- generalized over time so that more rate in most fires and controls the
sider. complex scenarios can be analyzed. spread of smoke and hot gases, is
• Second, we do not have either the Second, we must learn to live with extremely difficult to predict accurate-
physical insight or the computing idealized descriptions of fires and ly. This is true not only in fire
power (even if we had the insight) to approximate solutions to our idealized research, but in almost all phenomena
perform all the necessary calculations equations. These idealized descriptions involving turbulent fluid motion. The
for most fire scenarios. have to be based on the kind of basic idea behind the use of the LES

36 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 motion of a gas driven by chemical is due to the fact that the combustion
heat release and buoyancy forces. The processes that release the energy take
low Mach number equations are solved place at length scales of 1 mm or less.
on the computer by dividing the physi-
cal space where the fire is to be simu- FIRE PLUMES
lated into a large number of rectangular
cells. In each cell, the “state of motion,” The idea that different physical phe-
i.e., the gas velocity, temperature, etc., nomena occur at different length and
is assumed to be uniform, changing time scales is central to an understand-
only with time. The computer then ing of fire phenomena and to the com-
computes a large number of snapshots promises that must be made in attempt-
of the state of motion as it changes ing to simulate them. The most impor-
with time. Figure 1 shows one such tant example is an isolated fire plume
snapshot of a hangar fire simulation. in a large, well-ventilated enclosure
2,3
Clearly, the accuracy with which the (see Figure 1). The fire plume is the
fire dynamics can be simulated “pump” that entrains fresh air and
depends on the number of cells that mixes it with the gasified fuel emerging
can be incorporated into the simulation. from the burning object. It then propels
This number is ultimately limited by the the combustion products through the
computing power available to the user. rest of the enclosure. The eddies that
Present-day computers limit the number dominate the mixing have diameters
of such cells to at most a few million. that are roughly comparable to the
This means that the ratio of largest to local diameter of the fire plume. Thus,
smallest eddy length scales that can be in the above simulations, the cells have
resolved by the computation (the to be small enough so that many (a
“dynamic range” of the simulation) is 12x12 array, in this case) are used to
roughly 100 ~ 200. Unfortunately, the describe the state of motion across the
range of length scales that need to be surface of the fuel bed. Since the simu-
Figure 2 – Thermal Elements in a Fire accounted for, if all relevant fire lation also needs to include the remain-
Plume Simulation. processes are to be simulated, is rough- der of the hangar as well, even the 3-
ly 104 ~ 105. Much of the discrepancy million-cell simulation shown in Figure
technique is that the eddies accounting
for most of the mixing are large
enough to be calculated with reason- Instantaneous Time-Averaged
able accuracy from the equations of 12 12
fluid mechanics. The hope (which must 10 10
ultimately be justified by appeal to
experiments) is that small-scale eddy 8 8
Height z/D*

Height z/D*

motion can either be crudely accounted

6 6
for or ignored. The equations describ-
ing the transport of mass, momentum, 4 4
and energy by the fire-induced flows
2 2
must be simplified so that they can be
efficiently solved for the fire scenarios 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
of actual interest.
Velocity w/(gD*)1/2 Velocity w/(gD*)1/2
The general equations of fluid
mechanics describe a rich variety of 12 12
physical processes, many of which
10 10
have nothing to do with fires. Retaining
this generality would lead to an enor- 8 8
Height z/D*

Height z/D*

mously complex computational task

6 6
that would shed very little additional
insight on fire dynamics. The simplified 4 4
equations, developed by Rehm and
1
Baum, have been widely adopted by 2 2
the larger combustion research commu- 0 0
nity, where they are referred to as the 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
“low Mach number” combustion equa- Temperature (T-To)/To Temperature (T-To)/To
tions. They describe the low-speed
Figure 3 – Vertical Centerline Temperature and Velocity Profiles.

S PRING 2000 Fire Protection Engineering 37

 OUTDOOR FIRES

Large outdoor fires can be conve-

niently divided into two categories
based on the fuel source. Wildland
fires are characterized by a relatively
low heat release rate per unit area of
ground covered by fuel, but a very
large area over which the fire can
spread. Indeed, the description of the
fire spread process is an essential part
of any successful simulation of such
an event. Industrial fires, in contrast,
are usually much more highly local-
ized but intense emitters of heat,
smoke, and other combustion prod-
Figure 4 – Simulation of an Oil Spill Fire. ucts. This is particularly true if the fuel
is a petroleum-based substance, with a
1 cannot cope with the combustion tion of radiant energy by the products high energy density and sooting
processes without additional modeling of combustion, the radiant heat trans- potential. This latter type of fire is the
effort. fer to boundaries is an important com- object of study here.
Physical processes like combustion ponent of the total heat transfer to any The hazards associated with such
that occur on scales much smaller than solid surface. fires occur on two widely separated
the individual cell size are often called Figure 2 shows a snapshot of the length scales. Near the fire, over dis-
“sub-grid scale” phenomena. For our elements used to simulate an isolated tances comparable to the flame length,
purposes, the most important of these fire plume in the absence of any the radiant energy flux can be suffi-
are the release of energy into the gas, boundaries. Time averages of the out- ciently high to threaten both the struc-
the emission of thermal radiation, and put of this kind of simulation must be tural integrity of neighboring buildings
the generation of soot together with produced in order to make quantita- and the physical safety of firefighters
other combustion products. These tive comparison with most experimen- and plant personnel. At much greater
phenomena are represented by intro- tal data. Indeed, the fact that the distances, typically several times the
ducing the concept of a “thermal ele- results of the simulation can be aver- plume stabilization height in the atmos-
4
ment.” This can be thought of as a aged in a routine way while the equa- phere, the smoke and gaseous prod-
small parcel of gasified fuel interacting tions of fluid mechanics cannot is the ucts generated by the fire can reach
with its environment. The concept is basis of the whole approach presented the ground in concentrations that may
illustrated in Figure 2. here. be unacceptable for environmental rea-
Each element is carried along by the On the left of Figure 3 are the sons. The far-field hazard has been
large-scale flow calculated as outlined. instantaneous vertical centerline veloci- studied extensively by NIST
7,8
As long as the fire is well ventilated, it ty and temperature profiles. The oscil- researchers. This work has led to the
burns at a rate determined by the lations are primarily due to the large development of the computer code
9
amount of fuel represented by the par- toroidal eddies generated at regular ALOFT , which is available from NIST.
cel and a lifetime determined by the intervals at the base of the fire, which Consider the near-field hazard associ-
overall size of the fire. The lifetime of then rise asymmetrically. Note that the ated with the flame radiation. The sce-
the burning element is determined flow is not even remotely axially sym- nario chosen is a fire surrounding an
from experimental correlations of metric, and the centerline is defined oil storage tank adjacent to several
5
flame height developed by McCaffrey. only by the geometry of the pool at neighboring tanks. This scenario is cho-
A prescribed fraction of the fuel is the base of the plume. The right side sen both for its intrinsic importance and
converted to soot as it burns. Each of Figure 3 shows the corresponding because it illustrates the ingredients
element also emits a prescribed frac- time averaged quantities (solid lines) needed to generate a realistic simula-
tion of the chemical energy released and McCaffrey’s centerline correlations. tion of such an event. The heat release
by combustion as thermal radiation. The time averaged flow is symmetric generated by a fire on this scale can
This fraction is typically about 35 per- and in excellent agreement with the reach several gigawatts if the entire
cent of the total. The soot generated correlations. The only deviations are at pool surface is exposed and burning.
by the fire can act as an absorber of the bottom of the plume, where the Such fires interact strongly with the
the radiant energy. Thus, if the fire thermal elements are turned on instan- local topography (both natural and man
generates large amounts of soot, the taneously without any preheat as they made) and the vertical distribution of
transport of radiant energy through the leave the pool surface, and at the top, wind and temperature in the atmos-
6
gas must be calculated in detail. Even where the computational “hood” exerts phere. Moreover, the phenomena are
in the absence of significant absorp- some upstream influence on the plume. inherently time dependent and involve

38 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 Figure 5 – Simulation of a Cartoned Plastic Commodity Fire Test.

a wide temperature range. Thus, the at 768 m (2,520 ft) that is representa- surrounding tanks. A test calculation
simplifications employed in ALOFT and tive of the atmospheric mean wind was performed in which no thermal
its generalizations cannot be used in profile near the ground was chosen. radiation was absorbed by the smoke.
the present analysis. Indeed, the “low The ambient temperature was taken to Comparison of the two results showed
Mach number” combustion equations be constant. This is a very stable that the effective radiative fraction
need to be modified to account for the atmosphere, typical of winter condi- reaching the surface is about 6 per-
stratification of the atmosphere. tions in northern climates. The spilled cent. Thus, 29 percent of the original
Figure 4 shows a simulation of a oil in the trench was assumed to burn 35 percent was reabsorbed by the
fire resulting from an oil spill trapped with a heat release rate of 1,000 soot. This is consistent with measure-
kW/m2, for a total heat release rate of
10
in the containment trench surrounding ments made by Koseki. To explore
one of the tanks. The diameter of each 12.1 GW. Each element was assumed this further, a separate simulation of a
tank is 84 m (270 ft), the height 27 m to emit 35 percent of its energy as vertical plume in the absence of any
(89 ft). Each tank is depressed below thermal radiation, and 12 percent of wind was performed. The convective
ground level and surrounded by a the fuel was converted to soot. energy flux at several heights above
containment trench of depth 9 m (30 The brightly colored elements in the fire bed was calculated. The ener-
ft). The geometry was modeled on the Figure 4 are burning, releasing energy gy flux was consistently approximately
oil storage facility of the Japan into the gas and the radiation field. 94 percent of the total heat release
National Oil Corporation at Thus, the composite burning elements rate in the fire. This means that of the
Tomokomai, Japan. No attempt was represent the instantaneous flame original 35 percent released as thermal
made to represent the entire facility, structure at the resolution limit of the radiation, 29 percent was reabsorbed,
11
which contains over 80 tanks. The vol- simulation. The darkly colored ele- confirming the earlier result.
ume of space represented is a cube ments are burnt out. They represent
768 m (2,520 ft) on a side. This was the smoke and gaseous combustion INDUSTRIAL FIRE CONTROL
filled with a 128x128x128 array of cells products that absorb the radiant ener-
6 m (20 ft) on a side in the horizontal gy from the flames. It is important to Up to this point, the emphasis has
and ranging from 3 m (10 ft) near the understand how much of the emitted been on studying fires as natural phe-
ground to 12 m (39 ft) at the top in radiant energy is reabsorbed by the nomena. Recently, the LES techniques
the vertical direction. A wind profile surrounding smoke. The magnitude of have begun to be used to study the
that increased from 6 m/s (13 mph) this smoke shielding can be realized effects of human intervention to con-
near the tank top to 12 m/s (27 mph) by computing the radiative flux to the trol the damage caused by fires. The

40 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 International Fire Sprinkler, Smoke and ber of sprinklers and those that did 3. McGrattan, K.B., Baum, H.R., and Rehm,
Heat Vent, Draft Curtain Fire Test not. This goal has been met. The R.G., “Large Eddy Simulations of Smoke
Project, organized by the National Fire model was also used to provide valu- Movement,” Fire Safety Journal, Vol. 30,
Protection Research Foundation, able insight into what occurred in the pp. 161-178, 1998.
brought together a group of industrial experiments and what would have 4. Baum, H.R., Ezekoye, O.A., McGrattan,
sponsors to support and plan a series occurred for various changes of test K.B., and Rehm, K.B., “Mathematical
12,13
of large-scale tests to study the interac- parameters. Modeling and Computer Simulation of
tion of sprinklers, roof vents, and draft There are plans to continue the Fire Phenomena,” Theoretical and
Computational Fluid Dynamics, Vol. 6,
curtains of the type found in large development of the IFS model in the
pp. 125-139, 1994.
warehouses, manufacturing facilities, future. Much more work is needed to
and warehouse-like retail stores. The verify the additional models used to 5. Baum, H.R. and McCaffrey, B.J., “Fire
tests were designed to address rela- account for the flame spread, the Induced Flow Field-Theory and
tively large, open-area buildings with interaction of the spray with fuel sur- Experiment,” Fire Safety Science:
Proceedings of the Second International
flat ceilings, sprinkler systems, and faces, and the various heat transfer
Symposium, Hemisphere, New York, pp.
roof venting, with and without draft mechanisms. However, the results 129-148, 1989.
curtains. The most elaborate tests obtained to date are certainly encour-
involved a series of five-high rack stor- aging. The simulations yield informa- 6. Baum, H.R. and Mell W., “A Radiative
Transport Model for Large-Eddy Fire
age commodity burns. tion that is difficult, if not impossible,
Simulations,” Combustion Theory
In parallel with the large-scale tests, to obtain any other way. Moreover, it
Modeling, Vol. 2, pp. 405-422, 1998.
a program was conducted at NIST to is possible to test the various assump-
develop a computer model based on tions and models individually against 7. Baum, H.R., McGrattan, K.B., and Rehm,
the LES methodology, the Industrial experiments designed to yield much R.G., “Simulation of Smoke Plumes from
Large Pool Fires,” Twenty-Fifth
Fire Simulator (IFS), that incorporated more precise information than can be
Symposium (International) on
the physical phenomena needed to obtained from large-scale tests. Thus, Combustion, The Combustion Institute,
describe the experiments. A series of the knowledge gained from a limited Pittsburgh, pp. 1463-1469, 1994.
bench-scale experiments was conduct- number of large-scale tests could be
8. McGrattan, K.B., Baum, H.R., and Rehm,
ed at NIST to develop necessary input systematically extended by coupling
R.G., “Numerical Simulation of Smoke
data for the model. These experiments this information to the results of com-
Plumes from Large Oil Fires,”
generated data describing the burning puter simulations. While this goal has Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 30, pp.
rate and flame spread behavior of the yet to be realized, it lies in the near 4125-4136, 1996.
cartoned plastic commodity, thermal future.
9. McGrattan, K.B., Baum, H.R., Walton,
response parameters and spray pattern
W.D., and Trelles, J., “Smoke Plume
of the sprinkler, and the effect of the The author would like to acknowledge Trajectory from In Situ Burning of Crude
water spray on the commodity select- the contributions of many people at Oil in Alaska-Field Experiments and
ed for the tests. NIST, including Dr. Ronald Rehm, Dr. Modeling of Complex Terrain,” NISTIR
Simulations were first compared with Kevin McGrattan, Dr. William Mell, 5958, National Institute of Standards and
heptane spray burner tests, where they and William Walton, as well as the Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 1997.
were shown to be in good quantitative guidance of the late Prof. Howard W. 10. Koseki, H. and Mulholland, G.W., “The
agreement with measured sprinkler Emmons. Effect of Diameter on the Burning of
activation times and near-ceiling gas Crude Oil Pool Fires,” Fire Technology,
temperature rise. The sprinkler activa- Howard R. Baum, Ph.D., is with the Vol. 54, 1991.
tion times were predicted to within 15 National Institute of Standards and 11. Baum, H.R. and McGrattan, K.B.,
percent of the experimental values for Technology “Simulation of Large Industrial Outdoor
the first ring of sprinklers surrounding Fires”, Fire Safety Science: Proceedings
the fire and 25 percent for the second. of the Sixth International Symposium,
The gas temperatures near the ceiling REFERENCES forthcoming.
were predicted to within 15 percent. 12. McGrattan, K.B., Hamins, A., and Stroup,
Next, simulations were performed and 1. Rehm, R.G. and Baum, H.R., “The D., “Sprinkler, Smoke and Heat Vent,
compared with the unsprinklered Equations of Motion for Thermally Draft Curtain Interaction-Large Scale
calorimetry burns of the cartoned plas- Driven, Buoyant Flows,” Journal of Experiments and Model Development,”
tic commodity. The heat release rates Research, National Bureau of Standards, NISTIR 6196-1, National Institute of
were predicted to within about 20 per- Vol. 83, pp. 297-308, 1978. Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg,
cent. Simulations of the five cartoned MD, 1998.
2. Baum, H.R., McGrattan, K.B., and Rehm,
plastic commodity fire tests were then R.G., “Three Dimensional Simulation of 13. McGrattan, K.B., Hamins, A., and
performed. A snapshot from one of the Fire Plume Dynamics,” Fire Safety Forney, G.P., “Modeling of Sprinkler,
simulations is shown in Figure 5. The Science: Proceedings of the Fifth Vent and Draft Curtain Interaction,” Fire
goal of these simulations was to be International Symposium, Y. Hasemi, Safety Science: Proceedings of the Sixth
able to differentiate between those ed., International Association for Fire International Symposium, forthcoming.
experiments that activated a large num- Safety Science, pp. 511-522, 1997.

42 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 Fire protection engineering is a growing proffession with many challenging career opportunities. Contact the Society of
Fire Protection Engineers at www.SFPE.org or the organizations below for more information.

RJA Employment Fire Protection

Opportunities Engineers
xplore your full potential! Come join the team at TVA Fire &
A s the global leader in fire protection, security, and life safety
solutions, Rolf Jensen & Associates, Inc., is always looking for
E Life Safety, Inc. – a growing international fire protection engineer-
ing/consulting firm headquartered in San Diego, CA, w/offices in CA,
talented, dynamic individuals. Opportunities exist throughout our MI, GA, NJ, and TX.
eleven offices for engineering and design professionals looking for
Qualified individuals are Registered PEs with 3+ yrs. exp., in-depth
growth. We are looking for engineers with experience in fire alarm,
knowledge of Model Codes and NFPA stds, and excellent communi-
sprinkler, and security design; code analysis; and business develop- cation/interpersonal skills. Duties include, but are not limited to:
ment.
• Preparing studies of industrial, commercial, and other properties considering factors
such as fire resistance, usage or contents of buildings, water supplies and delivery,
Check out our Web site at www.rjagroup.com for more details. and egress acilities.
Send your resume to: • Designing or recommending materials/equipment such as structural components
protection, fire detection equipment, alarm systems, extinguishing devices and sys-
Ralph Transue, PE tems, and advising on location, handling, installation, and maintenance.
The RJA Group, Inc. • Consulting with customers to define needs and/or issues and gathering information
549 W. Randolph Street, 5th Floor determine the scope of work.
Chicago, IL 60661 • Conducting meetings with fire and building officials to discuss upcoming and exist-
ing projects and answering any questions that may arise.
• Advising customers on alternate methods or recommending specific solutions to
solve problems that may arise.
• Conducting job site inspections, preparing and providing a technical report of find-
ings to customers and/or AHJs.
Enjoy a competitive salary, medical/dental benefits, profit sharing,
401(k), and company stock purchase plan. (EOE) Send your
résumé to: HR Department, TVA Fire & Life Safety, Inc.
2820 Camino del Rio South, Suite 200
San Diego, CA 92108
Fax: 619.296.5656 E-mail: Ndoolittle@tvafiresafety.com

Fire Protection Fire Protection

Engineers Engineers
arrington Group, Inc., has 2 immediate openings for Fire
H Protection Engineers in the Atlanta area: Senior Fire
Protection/PLC Engineer and Fire Protection Engineer. A rup Fire has immediate openings for Fire Protection Engineers
in New York. Successful candidates will play a very active role
in developing the practice in the USA and will work closely with
For full details on these job openings, please visit our Web site at many of the world’s leading architects and building owners develop-
www.hgi-fire.com or submit your résumé via e-mail or fax to: ing innovative design solutions for a wide range of building, indus-
Ms. Patsy Sweeney Psweeney@hgi-fire.com trial, and transport projects.
Fax: 770.564.3509 Phone: 770.564.3505 Candidates should possess a Fire Protection Engineering degree,
Harrington Group is a full-service fire protection engineering design approximately five years of experience, and preferably an FPE –
and consulting firm. Founded in 1986, Harrington Group has consis- PE. Risk management, industrial fire engineering, and computer
tently provided a high level of quality and value to clients throughout modeling skills will be highly regarded.
the United States, Canada, South America, and Germany. Similar opportunities available in London, Leeds, Dublin, Hong
Kong, and Australia, with opportunities available in Boston, San
Should you be interested in us? YES! If:
Francisco, and Los Angeles in the near future.
• You want a career with increasing responsibility and compensation.
• You care about quality and service delivered to the client. Arup Fire offers competitive salaries and benefit packages. Please
• You have strong engineering skills and people skills. submit résumé and salary history to:
• You are creative and desire to use your creativity. Chris Marrion, PE
• You are honest and hard-working. Arup Fire
• You want to be trusted and respected by your company. Ove Arup & Partners
• You want to participate in the financial aspects of your company – like owners do. 155 Avenue of the Americas
• You are in a dead-end where you are now. New York, NY 10013
Telephone: +1.212.896.3269
Check us out and discover what Fax: +1.212.229.1986
makes Harrington Group such E-mail: chris.marrion@arup.com
an excellent career opportunity.
EQUAL OPPORTUNITY EMPLOYER

44 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 Fire Protection Fire Protection
Engineers Engineers
ounded in 1973, Code Consultants, Inc. (CCI), is a nationally rec-
N ational fire protection consulting firm with career growth
opportunities has immediate need for entry level and senior
level Fire Protection Engineers in their Chicago office.
F ognized fire protection engineering firm providing professional
consulting and design services to developers, owners, architects, and
Opportunities also available in San Francisco, San Diego, other significant clients throughout the United States. With a staff of
Los Angeles, Dallas, Las Vegas, Miami, and Washington DC. 55, CCI is a dynamic, growing firm that has an unmatched reputation
for developing innovative fire protection and life safety solutions, code
Competitive salary/benefits package. EOE/M/F compliance guidance, and cost-effective designs which are equally well
received by clients and governing officials. CCI’s projects include
Mail or fax resume to: some of the nation’s largest shopping malls, retail stores, stadiums and
G. Johnson arenas, hospitals, convention centers, detention/correctional facilities,
Schirmer Engineering Corporation transportation (air and rail) facilities, warehouses, and theaters for the
707 Lake Cook Road performing arts, to name a few.
Deerfield, IL 60015-4997 The firm is seeking degreed Fire Protection Engineers and other
Fax: 847.272.2365 degreed individuals with a high level of experience applying Model
Codes and NFPA standards to service clients and projects throughout
the country.
These positions offer a unique income opportunity, including partici-
pation in CCI’s lucrative performance incentive program. The position
requires residency in the St. Louis area.

Code Consultants, Inc.

1804 Borman Circle Drive
St. Louis, MO 63146
314.991.2633

Fire Protection The F.P. Connection

Engineers
An electronic, full-service fire protection resource Web site.
offel Associates, Inc., is a fire protection engineering and code
K consulting firm with offices in Connecticut, Maryland, and he FP Connection offers posting of employment opportunities
Tennessee that provides services internationally. Positions are avail-
able at the following levels:
T and résumés of fire protection professionals. If, as a fire protec-
tion service provider or equipment manufacturer, your Web site is
Senior Fire Protection Engineer difficult to locate using search engines and key words, let us post
Registered Fire Protection Engineer your banner and provide a direct link for use by our visitors who
Fire Protection Engineers (BS or MS in FPE) may require your services.
Fire Protection Engineering Technician (AutoCAD experience,
NICET, or technology degree desirable) Please visit us at www.fpconnect.com or call 724.746.8855.
Responsibilities may include:
For posting information, e-mail jdumont@fpconnect.com
• Fire protection engineering and life safety surveys
• Design and analysis of fire protection systems including automatic sprin- Fax: 724.746.8856
klers, clean agent, fire alarm and detection, water supply, and smoke man-
agement systems
• Code consultation with architects, engineers, developers, and owners
during design and construction
• Post-fire analysis and investigation
• Computer fire modeling
• Fire risk and hazard assessments
• Codes and standards development
Koffel Associates, Inc., personnel actively participate in the activities
of professional engineering organizations and the codes and stan-
dards writing organizations. The firm offers a competitive salary and
benefits package including conducting its own in-house professional
development conference for all employees.

S PRING 2000 Fire Protection Engineering 45

 Central’s ”Combustible Concealed“ Linear Heat- & Fire-Detection Systems
Space Sprinkler A new color brochure from The
Protectowire Company describes how lin-
The new Central Combustible Con- ear heat- and fire-detection systems can
cealed CC1* sprinkler technology allows the warn of fire or overheating conditions in
use of CPVC pipe to be installed in a com- a variety of applications, such as refriger-
bustible concealed space, with the benefit of ated warehouses, conveyors, cable trays,
a superior sprinkler protection for this type transformers, power distribution equip-
of occupancy. Now, based on the unique ment, cooling towers, pipelines, fuel stor-
spray pattern and design characteristics of age tanks, tunnels and mines, aircraft
the CC1* sprinklers, the option to use hangars, historic landmarks, and a wide
CPVC in these areas is now available. range of other applications.
—Central Sprinkler — The Protectowire Co., Inc.
Circle 1 on reader service card Circle 5 on reader service card

Sprinkler Monitoring Fire Alarm Systems

Potter Electric Signal Co., the leader For over 50 years, NOTIFIER has
in fire sprinkler monitoring products, taken a leadership position in the fire
offers a wide range of literature for dis- alarm industry. Today, we are the largest
tributors and their customers. The cata- manufacturer of engineered fire alarm sys-
log highlights the main product line tems, with over 400 distributors worldwide
including datasheet information. The and regional support operations on every
company CD-ROM displays all products continent helping to ensure we provide
with specifications and technical infor- flexibility and options your business needs.
mation. Training manuals are also avail- —NOTIFIER Fire Systems
able. Contact Potter at 800.325.3936 or Circle 6 on reader service card
www.pottersignal.com. —Potter Electric Signal Co.
Circle 2 on reader service card ™

Firecycle III FLOWMAX Variable Range

Firecycle III is the only fire protec- When designing a foam-water sprink-
tion system with the ability to turn itself ler system, fast response is required even
off. Its intelligent design provides fire when only one or two heads are flowing.
suppression when you need it and avoids The new FLOWMAX™ Variable Range
needless water damage to valuable assets Proportioner accurately proportions as
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computer components, or anything else portioner and our complete line of foam
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contact us for more information on our —Ansul Incorporated
UL-listed and FM-approved systems. Circle 7 on reader service card

4010 TrueAlarm® Fire Alarm Systems

—The Viking Corporation
Circle 3 on reader service card

Simplex offers the 4010 TrueAlarm®

Free CD-ROM Free CD-ROM about The RJA Group, Inc.,
consultants in life safety, fire protection, and
security. Services include engineering consult-
Fire Alarm System – a product with the
functionality, flexibility, and price that
ing, master plan development, system design, engineers, contractors, and building owners
and construction management, as well as tech- want in an addressable system for small-
nical knowledge transfer programs in audio and mid-sized applications. The 4010 pro-
and video formats, on-site training seminars, vides ease of installation; reduced cost of
and a speakers’ bureau. maintenance, testing, and service; virtual
Call 888.831.4RJA or visit the RJA Web site eliminiation of nuisance alarms; and up to
at www.rjagroup.com. —The RJA Group, Inc. 250 addressable points. —Simplex
Circle 4 on reader service card Circle 8 on reader service card

46 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 Chemguard, Inc. As a supplier of foam concentrate
solutions and dry chemical composi-
tions, Chemguard, Inc., has estab-
BlazeMaster® Fire Sprinkler System
lished itself as a recognized world- Now in even more applications,
wide leader in the industry and as a BlazeMaster® 2000™ Fire Sprinkler
reliable partner. Engineered foam Systems from BFGoodrich offer
concentrate proportioning systems superior, lasting performance in fire
have almost completed our product protection, corrosion resistance, low
line of pressure-proportioning tanks flame spread, and low smoke char-
and pump-proportioning systems; in- acteristics. BlazeMaster® CPVC can
line, balanced-pressure-proportioning be used to protect ordinary hazard
systems; mobile units; and high-expansion foam systems. rooms (not exceeding
—Chemguard, Inc. 400 sq. ft.) in otherwise light hazard
Circle 9 on reader service card occupancies and in sprinklered com-
bustible concealed open wood truss

Master Controls Systems construction when the space is pro

tected by a Central Sprinkler model
CC1 sprinkler head.
Master Controls Systems, Inc., is the
complete fire pump controller company BlazeMaster® pipe and fittings also provide for easier installations
offering NFPA 20, UL-listed, and FM- with stronger, more durable qualities than metal fire sprinkler sys-
approved fire pump controllers in all sizes. tems. And BlazeMaster® CPVC is immune to Microbiologically
We offer controllers from 5 to 4000 hp at Influenced Corrosion (MIC).
200-600 volts and from 20 to 1900 hp at Contact BlazeMaster® Fire Sprinkler Systems at 888.234.2436 or
2300-7200 volts. We also offer diesel fire visit us at www.blazemaster.com. —BFGoodrich
pump controllers and accessory items. Five- Circle 13 on reader service card
year warranties are standard on our EC-
series controllers and paperless pressure and alarm recorders.
—Master Controls Systems, Inc
Circle 10 on reader service card
LDX-Lo-Pressure Dry System
LDX-Lo-Pressure Dry System (125 psi water needs a minimum
of 15 psi air). It offers opportunities to reduce compressor size
Performance-Based Design Training requirements and elimi-
nates the need for accelera-
Free brochure on “The Basics of tors. FM-approved, UL,
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Gem Tops The Charts Master Submittal Guide

Gem’s new electronic Fire Protection EST is proud to offer the industry’s
Products CD. From the desktop to the most complete line of life safety equip-
job site, it’s one CD you’ll never grow ment on the market today. Audible and
tired of playing. visual devices, multiple element detec-
For more information or to order tors, control panels from 1 zone to the
your free copy of Gem’s electronic Fire largest network systems round out our
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be sure to visit our Web site at www.gemsprinkler.com. with innovative products from EST.
—Gem Sprinkler Company —Edwards Systems Technology
Circle 12 on reader service card Circle 15 on reader service card

S PRING 2000 Fire Protection Engineering 47

 SFPE SEMINARS-
SFPE Guide to
A Continuing Education Opportunity - Performance-
contact SFPE at education@sfpe.org for based Analysis
more information and Design of
SEMINAR DATE/LOCATION CEU
COST CREDITS
Buildings Now
Smoke Management for Atria September 15, Dallas, TX $295 0.6
and Other Large Spaces
Provides design information for smoke manage-
October 6, Baltimore, MD CEU’s Available
ment systems for atria, shopping malls, sports

P
erformance-based design is the
arenas and other large spaces including smoke wave of the future. Make sure
exhaust, natural venting and smoke filling. you’re prepared with the field’s
Illustrates design and analysis techniques includ- definitive guide.
ing design fires, systems response, example calcu- This engineering guide, devel-
lations and case studies. Includes information on oped by the SFPE Task Group on
tenability, commissioning and acceptance testing Performance-based Analysis and
of systems and examples. Design outlines a process for car-
rying out these designs, and is es-
Changes to NFPA 72 and 13 October 6, Baltimore, MD $295 0.8 sential for anyone who will apply,
Provides highlights of all the important changes October 16, Phoenix, AZ CEU’s approve, or be affected by perfor-
made to these codes along with useful informa- mance-based codes and standards!
tion as to how to incorporate the changes in fire Not just engineers, but AHJs,
alarm and sprinkler system designs. Topics include architects, building code officials,
new requirements for fire alarm system certifica- fire code developers, building
tion, how to use the performance-based require- owners, fire officials, legislators
ments found in the residential chapter of the Fire and many others will learn from
Alarm Code, expansion of NFPA 13 to include the Guide’s detailed review of the
NFPA 24, 231 and 231C requirements as well as entire performance-based analysis
the rationale behind the changes. and design process. It’s both a
starting point and a comprehen-
Fire Alarm Systems Design October 2-3, Baltimore, MD $395 1.6 sive reference!
This seminar is intended to help fire protection CEU’s
engineering practitioners from a variety of back- Chapters cover such topics as:
grounds to effectively design fire alarm systems.
Advanced fire alarm system design techniques • Defining your project scope
are presented and practitioners are given an and identifying goals
opportunity to test those techniques on real world • Specifying stakeholders and
examples. The seminar will address equipment design objectives
selection, system design, specification writing and • Developing performance
development of inspection, maintenance and criteria
training programs. • Creating design fire scenarios
and trial designs
Introduction to Sprinkler • Evaluating trial designs
Design for Engineers • Documentation and
This two-day seminar provides an overview of the specifications
elements of sprinkler design that should be April 27-28, Orlando, FL $395 1.6
undertaken by engineers. Topics include the May 24-25, Seattle, WA CEU’s Equip yourself for the coming era
development of design concepts, hazard September 6-7, New York, NY of performance-based codes with
classifications, coordination with other October 4-5, Baltimore, MD this unique guide!
professionals, sprinkler system performance November 1-2, Nashville, TN
criteria, design documentation and specification
writing, evaluation of water supply and pump Non-Member Price:
sizing, and professional issues including the $52.00
impact of the engineer on the bidding process.
Contact SFPE at
publications@sfpe.org for
more information.

48 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 BRAIN TEASER
The demand for a fire protection system is 0.0576 m3/s. The chance of matching three, four, five and six numbers
For this same system, the design area divided by the are as follows:
density is 1,000,000 ms. What is the system density
and design area? Three - 202 x ( 3/35 x 2/34 x 1/33 x 29/32 x 28/31 x 27/30 )=0.045
Solution to last issue’s Brain Teaser Four - 152 x ( 4/35 x 3/34 x 2/33 x 1/32 x 29/31 x 28/30 )=0.0038
Five - 62 x ( 5/35 x 4/34 x 3/33 x 2/32 x 1/31 x 29/30 )=0.00011
A lottery draws six numbered balls (without replace-
ment) from a set numbered 1 to 35. A ticket costs $1.00, Six - ( 6/35 x 5/34 x 4/33 x 3/32 x 2/31 x 1/30 )=6.1 x 10-7
and prizes are as follows:
Therefore, the expected return on a $1.00 ticket is:
Match any three numbers - $1
Match any four numbers - $50 ( 0.045 x $1)+( 0.0038 x $50)+( 0.00011 x $1000)
+( 6.1 x 10- x $1000000)=$0.96
7
Match any five numbers - $1000
Match all six numbers - $1,000,000
Thanks to Jane Lataille, P.E., for providing these brain-
What is the “value” of a $1.00 ticket? In other words, teasers.
what return could be expected on the $1.00 investment?

Index of Advertisers
C O R P O R AT E 1 0 0 The SFPE Corporate 100 Program
was founded in 1976 to strengthen the relationship between industry and the • Ansul ......................................................Page 31
fire protection engineering community. Membership in the program recog-
nizes those who support the objectives of SFPE and have a genuine concern • BFGoodrich ............................................Page 13
for the safety of life and property from fire. • Central Sprinkler ...................................Page 35
• Chemguard ............................................Page 51
ADT, Inc. Marsh Risk Consulting
Arup Fire MountainStar Enterprises • Edward Systems...............................Page 26-27
Automatic Fire Alarm Association National Electrical Manufacturers Association • Fenwal...................................Inside Bach Cover
Bourgeois & Associates, Inc. National Fire Protection Association • Fike Protection Systems........................Page 43
Central Sprinkler Corp. National Fire Sprinkler Association
The Code Consortium, Inc. Nuclear Energy Institute
• Grinnell Fire Protection Systems..........Page 22
Code Consultants, Inc. Poole Fire Protection Engineering, Inc. • Grinnell Supply Sales &
Copper Development Association The Protectowire Co., Inc. Marketing ......................................Back Cover
Draka USA The Reliable Automatic Sprinkler Co., Inc. • Koffel Associates ...................................Page 21
Duke Engineering and Services Reliable Fire Equipment Company • Master Control Systems ........................Page 17
Edwards Systems Technology Risk Technologies, LLC
Factory Mutual Research Corp. Rolf Jensen & Associates
• NOTIFIER Engineered Systems Co. .......Page 5
Fike Corporation Safeway, Inc. • Potter Electric ........................................Page 28
Fire Consulting Associates, Inc. Schirmer Engineering Corporation • Protection Knowledge Concepts ..........Page 39
Fire Suppression Systems Association Siemens, Cerberus Division
• Protectowire ..........................................Page 33
Gage-Babcock & Associates, Inc. Simplex Time Recorder Company
Grinnell Incorporated S.S. Dannaway Associates, Inc. • Reliable Automatic Sprinkler ................Page 49
Harrington Group, Inc. Starwood Hotels and Resorts • Rolf Jensen & Associates .....Inside Front Cover
HSB Professional Loss Control TVA Fire and Lifesafety, Inc. • Siemens....................................................Page 2
Hubbell Industrial Controls Tyco Laboratories Asia Pacific Pty., Ltd.
• Simplex ..................................................Page 19
Hughes Associates, Inc. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Industrial Risk Insurers Van Rickley & Associates • TVA Fire & Life......................................Page 41
James W. Nolan Company (emeritus) Vision Systems, Inc. • Viking Corp. ..........................................Page 14
Joslyn Clark Controls, Inc. Wheelock, Inc. • Wheelock .................................................Page 9
Koffel Associates, Inc. W.R. Grace Company

50 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6

 from the technical director

America Burning – Recommissioned

The United States Fire Administration To that end, the Society of Fire the National Bureau of Standards, in
has convened a new “America Protection Engineers has recently cooperation with the National Fire
Burning” panel to examine the fire entered into agreements with the Protection Association and other
problem in the United States from the National Fire Academy (part of the appropriate organizations, support
perspective of the fire service and fire U.S. Fire Administration) and the research to develop guidelines for a
prevention community. However, International Code Council to develop systems approach to fire safety in
since both the fire service and fire courses on performance-based design buildings.”
protection engineering are important for the enforcement community. These The Society of Fire Protection
professional groups that provide pro- courses will provide an overview of Engineers recently completed The
tection of the built environment, the the performance-based design process SFPE Engineering Guide to Fire
recommendations of this panel will and the science supporting perfor- Protection Analysis and Design of
likely be important to us. mance-based design. Buildings. It is the first performance-
SFPE has provided comments to this based design guide published in the
new Commission on two occasions: in Recommendation #36 stated: “The United States. Performance-based
live testimony and in written response Commission urges the National Bureau design is a complete systems approach
to a query. Preparing remarks and of Standards (now the National to fire protection design, which con-
comments for the new “America Institute of Standards & Technology) siders the effectiveness of the total
Burning” panel caused me to take to assess current progress in fire building fire protection system in
stock in some of the recent achieve- research and define the areas in need meeting fire protection objectives.
ments made by SFPE. of further investigation. Further, the Both America Burning and the pub-
America Burning was a landmark Bureau should recommend a program lication of performance-based codes
document that focused attention on for translating research results into a were seminal events that brought with
the fire problem in the United States. systematic body of engineering princi- them opportunities in the fire protec-
The document contained 90 recom- ples and, ultimately, into guidelines tion community. While the Society of
mendations aimed at reducing the fire useful to code writers and building Fire Protection Engineers will continue
burden. The America Burning report designers.” to advance the science and practice of
made three recommendations that As noted in last issue’s column, the fire protection engineering, we will
directly pertain to SFPE: Society of Fire Protection Engineers also look to capitalize on opportunities
recently hosted a workshop to develop for rapid progress.
Recommendation #41 from a research agenda for fire protection
America Burning stated: “The engineering. The final report identifies
Commission urges the Society of Fire research most needed by the fire pro-
Protection Engineers to draft model tection engineering community to
courses for architects and engineers in improve life safety, reduce fire-related
the field of fire protection engineering.” costs, and improve environmental pro-
The Society of Fire Protection tection.
Engineers has an active educational The second half of recommendation
program for our members and allied #36 forms the mission of SFPE’s tech-
professionals. The courses cover such nical program. We have developed
topics as performance-based design, design guides that transfer research
smoke management, sprinkler design, into practice in the areas of thermal
and computer fire modeling. radiation from pool fires and skin
Additionally, we are expanding our burns from thermal radiation. Design
educational activities as more coun- guides are under development in sev-
tries develop performance-based eral other areas including human
building and fire codes. Recognizing behavior in fire, design basis fires, and
that the widespread acceptance of room of origin fire hazards. Each of
performance-based codes hinges on these guides will move a significant
the knowledge of performance-based body of mature research results into
design by Authorities Having Jurisdic- mainstream engineering practice. Morgan J. Hurley, P.E.
tion, we plan to target several new Technical Director
courses towards the enforcement com- Recommendation # 37 stated: Society of Fire Protection Engineers
munity. “The Commission recommends that

52 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 6