FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:33 PM Page FC1

THE OFFICIAL MAGAZINE OF THE SOCIETY OF FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERS

SPRING 2005 Issue No.26

FIRE PROTECTION
ENGINEERING
ECONOMICS page 10

ALSO:

18 THE ECONOMICS OF AUTOMATIC

FIRE SPRINKLERS
22 FIRE SAFETY MEETS ECONOMICS 101
32 TOTAL COST OF FIRE IN THE
UNITED STATES

38 QUANTIFYING TOTAL LOSSES DUE

TO FIRE
FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:34 PM Page IFC2

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FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:34 PM Page 1

FIRE PROTECTION

Fire Protection Engineering (ISSN 1524-900X) is

published quarterly by the Society of Fire Protection
Engineers (SFPE). The mission of Fire Protection
Engineering is to advance the practice of fire protection
engineering and to raise its visibility by providing
contents SPRING 2005

information to fire protection engineers and allied 10

professionals. The opinions and positions stated are COVER STORY
the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect those of SFPE. Fire Protection Engineering Economics
Editorial Advisory Board How engineering economics are used to analyze fire protection
Carl F. Baldassarra, P.E., Schirmer Engineering Corporation engineering projects.
Don Bathurst, P.E. By John M. Watts, Jr., Ph.D., and G. Ramachandran, Ph.D., D.Sc.
Bob Boyer, Edwards Systems Technology
Russell P. Fleming, P.E., National Fire Sprinkler Association
18 The Economics of Automatic Fire Sprinklers
Morgan J. Hurley, P.E., Society of Fire Protection Engineers
The costs of installing sprinklers versus the benefits – in terms of both lives
William E. Koffel, P.E., Koffel Associates
and dollars saved.
Jane I. Lataille, P.E., Los Alamos National Laboratory By Stacy N. Welch, P.E.
Margaret Law, M.B.E., Arup Fire
Edward Prendergast, P.E., Chicago Fire Dept. (Ret.) 22 Fire Safety Meets Economics 101 – How Chicago Achieved
Warren G. Stocker, Jr., Safeway, Inc. Balance in Its High-Rise Building Ordinance
Beth Tubbs, P.E., International Code Council An overview of the code development process that led to adoption of an
Regional Editors ordinance requiring fire safety improvements in existing high-rise buildings
U.S. H EARTLAND in Chicago.
John W. McCormick, P.E., Code Consultants, Inc. By Carl F. Baldassarra, P.E.
U.S. M ID -ATLANTIC
Robert F. Gagnon, P.E., Gagnon Engineering, Inc.
32 Total Cost of Fire in the United States
More quantitative means of measurement are necessary to more accurately
U.S. N EW E NGLAND
Thomas L. Caisse, P.E., C.S.P., Robert M. Currey &
determine how much fire costs the U.S. on an annual basis.
Associates, Inc. By Patricia Frazier
U.S. S OUTHEAST
Jeffrey Harrington, P.E., The Harrington Group, Inc.
38 Quantifying Total Losses Due to Fire – Remembering the Browns
Ferry Nuclear Plant Fire
U.S. W EST C OAST
Michael J. Madden, P.E., Gage-Babcock & Associates, Inc.
Lessons learned from one fairly small fire that caused tremendous financial
disruption and damage.
A SIA
Peter Bressington, P.Eng., Arup Fire
By Bernie Till
A USTRALIA 44 The Mosquito and the Picket Fence – A Modern-Day Fire Alarm
Brian Ashe, Australian Building Codes Board
Fable about Broadband vs. Narrowband Signaling – Part 2
C ANADA Narrow-band analysis and signaling provides an effective way to design
J. Kenneth Richardson, P.Eng., Ken Richardson Fire
Technologies, Inc.
signals for the penetration of specific noise content and for alerting persons
with hearing deficiencies.
N EW Z EALAND
Carol Caldwell, P.E., Caldwell Consulting
By NEMA
U NITED K INGDOM
Dr. Louise Jackman, Loss Prevention Council DEPARTMENTS
Personnel 2 Letters to the Editor
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR, SFPE 6 Viewpoint
David Evans, P.E.
T ECHNICAL E DITOR 8 Flashpoints
Morgan J. Hurley, P.E., Technical Director, SFPE 48 Resources
P UBLISHER
Terry Tanker, Penton Media, Inc. 56 Products/Literature
A SSOCIATE P UBLISHER 58 Brainteaser
Joe Pulizzi, Penton Custom Media, Penton Media, Inc.
60 From the Technical Director
A CCOUNT M ANAGER
Jillian Lewis, Penton Custom Media, Penton Media, Inc.
A RT D IRECTOR
Pat Lang, Penton Custom Media, Penton Media, Inc. Online versions of all articles can be accessed at www.sfpe.org.
M EDIA S ERVICES M ANAGER Invitation to Submit Articles: For information on article submission to
Erik Lodermeier, Penton Custom Media, Penton Media, Inc.
Fire Protection Engineering, go to www.sfpe.org/sfpe30/fpemagsubmit.htm.
C OVER D ESIGN
Dave Bosak, Penton Custom Media, Subscription and address change correspondence should be sent to Fire Protection Engineering,
Penton Media, Inc. Penton Media, Inc., 1300 East 9th Street, Cleveland, OH 44114 USA. Tel: 216.931.9180. Fax: 216.931.9969.
e-Mail: asanchez@penton.com.
Copyright © 2005, Society of Fire Protection Engineers. All rights reserved.

www.sfpe.org 1
FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:35 PM Page 2

letters to the editor

THE OFFICIAL MAGAZINE OF THE SOCIETY OF FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERS

By excluding all but the most populous to me as if people are learning to use
counties, including all the rural areas, he space heating safely rather than that
removed the counties that would have there has been any flight, large-scale or
WINTER 2005 Issue No.25
added to the statistical power of poverty otherwise, away from space heating.
as an explanatory variable. That would Dr. Eisenberg cites improved fire rat-
likely have produced a better r-squared ings on upholstered furnishings, bed-
than the 13% of variation obtained by ding, and sleeping attire. These are all
Dr. Eisenberg (in Table 4). And the rela- positive developments, but they are
tive importance of other variables would most associated not with newer homes
have receded as well. but with wealthier homes, which tend
ALSO:

20 VULNERABLE POPULATIONS IN
Newer homes tend to look safer be- to be the first recipients of every new
RESIDENTIAL OCCUPANCIES

28 RESIDENTIAL FIRE SAFETY AND

cause they typically are occupied by innovation.
THE AGE OF OCCUPANTS
more affluent people. Whenever a study Dr. Eisenberg cites the trend in smoke
34 BENEFITS AND COSTS OF RESIDEN-
TIAL FIRE SPRINKLER LEGISLATION
REDUCING
40 CHALLENGES FACING ENGINEERED
STRUCTURAL FIRE SAFETY – RESIDENTIAL breaks that connection – as in NFPA’s alarms. Smoke alarm usage exploded in
A CODE OFFICIAL’S PERSPECTIVE

FIRE DEATHS annual study of state fire death rates, the 1970s, and most purchases were
page 8
where states like Vermont and Connecti- made voluntarily. The building codes
cut have a high proportion of old homes came along and mopped up the rela-
being occupied by the well-to-do – the tively few hold-outs. The push to inter-
explanatory power of age of housing connected, hard-wired smoke alarms is
melts away. As new homes change a positive development and one more
Dear Editor, hands, they tend to pass down the food driven by codes, but it remains an ex-
chain to relatively less affluent occu- ception in homes even today. Most of
Ordinarily, I am pleased to see fire pants, who bring their higher personal the potential benefit from smoke alarms
statistics used to provide useful insights risks into the home. occurred with the initial acquisitions,
into fire safety strategies. Unfortunately, When you look at the differences that which were not as unreliable as Dr.
Dr. Eisenberg’s feature article in the are actually intrinsic to new homes, it Eisenberg says.
Winter 2005 issue contained more prob- becomes even clearer why you would Dr. Eisenberg says the post-1990 trend
lems than insights. not expect to see age of housing as a in cigarette smoking will no longer be of
In the past 30+ years, I and my col- powerful factor in risk. much help in reducing fire fatalities.
leagues at NFPA have been involved in Dr. Eisenberg cites improved fire From 1990 to 2001, the smoker percent-
more than a dozen studies of the statisti- blocking and stopping, which he says age of the population declined from
cal relationships between fire outcome results in better fire containment. How- 25.4% to 22.7%, an 11% decline or 1% a
measures and potentially explanatory ever, the percentage of dwelling fires year. But the number of cigarettes
variables. We have compared state to confined to the room of origin has been smoked declined by 24% from 1990 to
state, city to city, and census tract to in the narrow range of 69%-71% from 2003, which is more like 2% a year.
census tract. We have compared fires 1980 to 2002 except in 1981-1987, when Since the entire fire death problem de-
per million population and deaths per it was higher. In other words, there is lit- clined by 45% from 1979 to 2001, or
million population. Only one of these tle statistical evidence of a trend up or about 2% a year according to Dr. Eisen-
works is cited in Dr. Eisenberg’s refer- down, but what trend there is indicates berg’s figures, a 2% a year decline ain’t
ences, and perhaps that explains the less containment is occurring, not more. bad. We not only have fewer people
problems in his article. Dr. Eisenberg cites better heating and smoking each year, but our smokers are
Previous studies have consistently electrical design, resulting in less use of smoking less on average.
found that certain variables – led by race extension cords and space heaters. I Dr. Eisenberg’s regression analysis
and age of housing – show up as strong don’t know of any source of data on ex- also cites mobile homes (actually, the
predictors when taken in isolation but tension cord usage, but space heater us- preferred term is manufactured homes)
do not fare so well when the effects of age soared in the late 1970s, driven by as a risk factor. However, NFPA studies
other, stronger variables, such as large changes in the cost and availability have shown that if you focus directly on
poverty and education, are factored in. of different fuel and power choices. a comparison of manufactured homes to
High-poverty areas tend to have high Fires involving space heaters soared, other dwellings, the traditional differ-
fire rates and even higher fire death too, then dropped fast and far from ence in fire death rate relative to hous-
rates. Rural poverty is associated with an about the mid-1980s on. However, the ing units has vanished. You might not
even higher risk multiplier than urban data I have don’t show a comparable pick that up in a study like Dr. Eisen-
poverty, and that may be one crucial drop in relative space heater usage, as berg’s because manufactured homes
place where Dr. Eisenberg went wrong. Dr. Eisenberg postulates. It looks more continued on page 4

2 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:36 PM Page 3

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FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:36 PM Page 4

letters to the editor continued

correlate with poorer neighborhoods Author’s Response that simple. Here Dr. Hall commits the
and also average fewer people per unit, ecological fallacy, as he makes infer-
which means their fire death rate per While Dr. Hall has written extensively ences about individual smoking behav-
person may be higher than their fire on fire deaths, his comments are based ior based on aggregate group data.
death rate per unit. But the main point exclusively on non-peer-reviewed NFPA Dr. Hall closes by recommending that
remains: you cannot call manufactured research and dismiss a large body of fire sprinklers be installed in new
homes a distinctive fire risk anymore. peer-reviewed articles which substanti- homes. Unfortunately, as Dr. Hall says,
Nearly all the points in this letter – the ate my findings. “newer homes probably are safer
exception is the trend in fire confine- Dr. Hall suggests that when “stronger homes.” And if he is arguing that new
ment in dwellings – are taken from pub- variables” are included, race and age of homes will eventually become old and
lished analyses by NFPA staff. In other housing do not fare well. Interestingly, less fire-worthy, he requires that if and
words, the substantiated rebuttals to Dr. the two variables he suggests were each when sprinklers are needed, 30 or 40
Eisenberg’s points are already on the tried, and the results obtained were very years in the future, they will work. That
record and have been widely circulated. similar to those reported, suggesting that is a big “if” because not “many” things in
It is unfortunate when an article with so race and age of structure do matter. a house work after 40 years unless they
many errors appears in a respected pub- His suggestion that I “went wrong” by are properly maintained and/or re-
lication. It is troubling when readily excluding rural areas in the analysis is placed. And unfortunately, unlike a hot
available, technically sound information untrue. Had that data been available, water heater or dishwasher, if sprinklers
would have flagged those errors but was they would have been included. Out of do not work when they are needed,
not consulted or addressed. privacy concerns, the National Center on they are useless. Moreover, to repeat, to
What should a reader take from this Health Statistics suppresses death data date there is no peer-reviewed evidence
article, or more importantly the facts on for counties with a population of less that sprinklers reduce fire deaths.
these issues? If we build safer homes than 100,000 in 1990. However, because Rather that refuting every one of Dr.
and safer products for those homes, the dataset I used is specifically de- Hall’s remaining arguments and pro-
while also teaching ourselves safer be- signed to capture the cause of death and longing this discussion about codes,
haviors, we will become safer, either is not based on a sample, it has advan- variables, and statistical significance,
quickly or slowly depending on the de- tages over both NFIRS and NFPA data. let’s resolve this debate once and for all.
gree of safety provided by each innova- Dr. Hall suggests that when the rela- We are united in our desire to reduce
tion and the rate of turnover in whatever tionship between new homes and afflu- fire deaths. Given that the NPFA has it
is being changed. In that sense, newer ence is broken, the explanatory power within its purview to collect data on age
homes probably are safer than older of age of house “melts away.” One of structure, I suggest that it be collected
homes, but the changes in homes are could only wish that this were the case. in the next NFIRS survey. With good
not currently a primary driver of our By including house value in the equa- data on age of house, this debate might
move to greater safety. If we want them tion, I, in fact, break the connection just resolve itself.
to be, we need to make changes in as he suggests. However, the signifi- In short, I want to save lives by focus-
homes that will make a large difference cance of age of house persists, again ing life safety efforts where fire deaths
in safety – like requiring fire sprinklers suggesting that age of structure matters. are most prevalent now, using proven
in new homes. Dr. Hall continues by suggesting that smoke detector technology. By contrast,
Greater safety does not come auto- increasingly stringent building codes are Dr. Hall wants to try unproven remedies
matically; it comes only if we make it not working, and as proof he suggests that may or may not saves lives in the
happen. All the statistics are only details that fire containment is actually declin- distant future, that have no proven track
on this essential point. ing. That is precisely my point! We have record of success, and that do not help
come to the point of severely diminish- those in most need today.
Sincerely, ing returns to code improvements with
respect to fire deaths. Rather than con- Sincerely,
John R. Hall, Jr., Ph.D. tinuing to strengthen codes in an effort
Assistant Vice President to prevent possible future fire deaths, Elliot F. Eisenberg, Ph.D.
Fire Analysis & Research why not prevent current fire deaths by Housing Policy Economist
National Fire Protection Association focusing our resources where deaths are National Association of Home Builders
occurring today, not where they may or
may not occur many years in the future.
Later, Dr. Hall suggests that the entire
decline in fire deaths may be attributable
to declines in smoking. I wish it were

4 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:36 PM Page 5

www.ansulinfo.com/fpe2 800-346-3626 715-735-7411

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:36 PM Page 6

viewpoint

Allocating Resources for Fire Protection:

A Building Owner’s Perspective
By Tomi Sue Beecham, RBM, RPA The second type of investment for fire play when deciding on which improve-
protection improvements are ones that ments should be included and how to

O
ne of my favorite regular are entirely discretionary for the building prioritize these decisions.
columns is the “Property owner. These improvements and expen- Some of the most important assistance
Report” in every Wednesday’s ditures should be carefully and deliber- that a fire protection engineer can pro-
Wall Street Journal. A recent article by ately considered. Many of these deci- vide is to furnish suggestions on the
Ray A. Smith on February 23, 2005, sions are made with the assistance of a maintenance of a fire detection and sup-
pointed out that savvy investors in fire protection engineer who guides the pression system. Having periodic in-
buildings (and we really are talking building owner through the task of de- spections advances the operation of
savvy) buy buildings not because of the termining which of the options should these systems and provides peace of
value that they represent, but because be chosen. mind that they will operate correctly and
of the income stream that they can pro- Choosing which features to include is effectively if they are called upon.
duce. This is sage advice for anyone difficult. Most building owners would Although building owners are ever-
considering an investment in a building. like to have all the latest in fire protec- watchful for situations that appear to be
Yet, returns on an investment in a tion/prevention incorporated into their fire hazards, an extra critical eye is help-
building can be considered, or even de- buildings. It’s a difficult thing to pay for ful in looking for practices such as the
veloped, in ways other than measuring and difficult for tenants to appreciate. It improper storage of flammable materials
cash flow. The sheer joy of owning an goes without saying that building tenants or the dangerous use of an appliance or
attractive piece of property, satisfaction just expect that their environment is safe a piece of equipment by a tenant or
in contributing to the visual appearance and free from the threat of fire and the building employee. One of the recom-
of a community, or providing a valuable severe disruptions that it can bring. mendations that a fire protection engi-
service to the business community are Older buildings require, for good rea- neer can make is on improved exit sig-
all worthwhile considerations. There is son, more resources for improving fire nage to show the fastest emergency
satisfaction, too, in the knowledge that protection than in newer buildings. New evacuation route. Another would be the
you are doing everything possible to buildings have the benefit of the latest in evaluation of the fire alarm system.
keep your tenants and their important design for fire protection and prevention The assessments that the fire protec-
property as safe as possible. The return, that have been incorporated in model tion engineer can make can be a good
of course, depends on how the owner building codes. Older buildings, obvi- return on investment. Although it may
defines it. Another return that is ex- ously, generally do not. Depending on not be part of the cash flow of the build-
tremely difficult to measure in dollars the age of the building and the amount of ing, the services of a fire protection en-
and cents is the investment that an care provided previously, an older build- gineer do produce both a return in cash
owner makes in fire protection. ing can necessarily command quite a bit and the satisfaction of knowing that you
The expenditures made for fire pro- of attention when improving its fire pro- are doing all that can be done to make
tection can be considered in two veins: tection/prevention system, and this atten- the property as safe as possible. In allo-
those that are required by code or other tion can result in the expenditure of a cating resources for fire protection/pre-
regulations put forth by the local juris- great deal of money. This is not to say vention in your building, strong consid-
diction, and those that you have volun- that an older building is unsafe – quite the eration should be made to the retention
tarily budgeted with the expectation of contrary. It’s just fair to say that an older of a qualified fire protection engineer.
gaining some return. building, in general, is going to require a
Expenditures required by building bit more in the way of resources than a Tomi Sue Beecham is the chair of the
codes are mandatory for all building newer building. When an older building Building Codes and Voluntary Stan-
owners of a particular type of building. does present this situation, then the build- dards Committee of the Building Owners
They represent the minimum that the ing owner is confronted with the chal- and Managers Association International
community has determined are neces- lenge of which improvements to choose. and the senior property manager of a
sary for a safe building, and adherence This is where the assistance of a quali- shopping mall in San Antonio, Texas.
is required. fied fire protection engineer comes into

6 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:37 PM Page 7

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FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:37 PM Page 8

flashpoints
fire protection industry news

Home Safety Council Provides

Free Safety Resources to Communities Nationwide The SFPE Corporate 100 Program was founded in 1976
The Home Safety Council Expert Network provides fire and life safety experts with to strengthen the relationship between industry and the
free valuable resources to strengthen local public education outreach. fire protection engineering community. Membership in
the program recognizes those who support the objec-
In 2004, its inaugural year, the program reached more than 1,800 safety advocates tives of SFPE and have a genuine concern for the safety
from every state in the U.S., supplying them with teaching aids, lesson plans, com- of life and property from fire.
pelling research, brochures, posters, child-specific educational tools, and an award- BENEFACTORS
winning fire safety video. FM Global Corporation
Joining the Expert Network is free. New members who sign up at www.homesafe- Koffel Associates, Inc.
Rolf Jensen & Associates, Inc.
tycouncil.org/expertnetwork will receive a welcome package that includes the fire
Schirmer Engineering Corporation
safety video, plus: SimplexGrinnell
• The 2004 State of Home Safety in America – Trend Analysis and Executive
PATRONS
Summary Code Consultants, Inc.
• 10 Home Safety Council injury prevention brochures Edwards Systems Technology
• Home safety posters in English and Spanish, and much more. Gage-Babcock & Associates, Inc.
Hughes Associates, Inc.
The Home Safety Council is a nonprofit organization dedicated to helping prevent National Fire Protection Association
the nearly 21 million medical visits that occur on average each year from uninten- The Reliable Automatic Sprinkler Company
tional injuries in the home. Specified Technologies, Inc.
TVA Fire and Lifesafety, Inc.
For more information, go to www.homesafetycouncil.org. Tyco Fire and Building Products, Inc.

MEMBERS
Altronix Corporation
Ansul, Inc.
NFPA President Calls for Emergency Planning to Arup Fire
Address Needs of People with Disabilities Automatic Fire Alarm Association
Cybor Fire Protection Company
The head of the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is calling on state and
Fike Corporation
local safety officials, building owners, and facility managers to take additional steps GE Global Asset Protection Services
to incorporate the needs of people with all types of disabilities into emergency Harrington Group, Inc.
HSB Professional Loss Control
planning.
James W. Nolan Company (Emeritus)
“We know there have been times in which people who use wheelchairs were sim- MIJA Inc.
ply left behind during emergencies without any specific direction or instruction, pre- Marrioff Systems
Marsh Risk Consulting
sumably to wait for rescue,” says James M. Shannon, NFPA president and CEO. “That
National Fire Sprinkler Association
is just not acceptable. People with disabilities deserve to know there is an effective The Protectowire Co., Inc.
emergency plan in place that will keep them safe. And these plans must be devel- Reliable Fire Equipment Company
S.S. Dannaway & Associates, Inc.
oped with input from accessibility experts and people with disabilities who will be
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
affected by the plan.” Wheelock, Inc.
For several decades, NFPA has developed many of the exiting (means of egress) Williams Fire & Hazard Control, Inc.
requirements that are used in buildings all around the world. SMALL BUSINESS MEMBERS
“Clear procedures must be in place, ranging from relocation within the building to Beall & Associates, Inc.
evacuation of the building. It is up to all of us involved in this issue to make sure Bourgeois & Associates, Inc.
The Code Consortium, Inc.
people with disabilities are protected just as much as everyone else.” Davidson and Associates
Shannon reaffirmed NFPA’s commitment to work with accessibility experts to de- Demers Associates, Inc.
velop recommended steps and educational materials for use during emergency Fire Suppression Systems Association
Futrell Fire Consult and Design, Inc.
planning. Gagnon Engineering, Inc.
“As a building code developer, NFPA recognizes that more must be done to pro- Grainger Consulting, Inc.
tect people with disabilities,” said Kevin G. McGuire, a leading expert on accessibility J.M. Cholin Consultants, Inc.
Poole Fire Protection Engineering, Inc.
and emergency evacuation requirements. “I look forward to working with NFPA and Risk Logic, Inc.
others as we strengthen recommended emergency procedures.” Risk Technologies LLC
For more information, go to www.nfpa.org. Scandaliato Design Group
Slicer and Associates, LLC
University of Maryland Online Studies Program
WPI Center for Fire Safety Studies

8 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:37 PM Page 9
FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:38 PM Page 10

By John M. Watts, Jr., Ph.D., and

G. Ramachandran, Ph.D., D.Sc.
Fire Protection Engineering

INTRODUCTION

O
ne way to
increase
awareness
and interest in fire pro-
tection is by means of
the universally effective
stimulus – money. The
ultimate objective is to
inject fire protection into
corporate economics.
Certain factors suggest
the immediacy of this
need.

• The dollar loss from fire is increas- economic environment. There are al- ate and optimize economic selection of
ing. Even if this was attributable entirely ready too few customers to go around. fire safety strategies in combination with
to inflation, would it not be an effective The interruption of production by fire fire insurance or self-insurance options.
attack on inflation to reduce losses due would almost certainly shrink the share This selection process would involve un-
to fire? of the market at a time when profit is, at certainties caused by several factors affect-
• A small number of fires account for best, marginal. ing the occurrence of a fire in a particular
the majority of the world’s fire losses. Engineering economics is used in the building and the amount of damage or
Economies of scale dictate that the trend analysis of proposed fire protection engi- loss if a fire occurs. Essential background
toward bigness will continue, and more neering projects to determine the net eco- in the subject is provided in the SFPE
and more large-loss potentials are being nomic gains to be expected from alterna- Handbook,1, 2 and in the book The Eco-
constructed everyday. tive proposals. It deals with the time value nomics of Fire Protection.3 There are many
• Few enterprises, private or public, of money and other cash-flow concepts good texts on engineering economics
could survive a large-loss fire in today’s and decision-making aids used to evalu- from a more general perspective.4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

10 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:39 PM Page 11

Economics
MINIMIZING COSTS ics need to be understood and incorpo- F = Future sum of money ($)
rated in fire risk assessment (versus N = number of interest periods
Figure 1 portrays the economic rela- macroeconomics, which refers to na- i = interest rate per period (%)
tionship between the level of fire risk tional and world economies of com- Interest factors are multiplicative
and the cost of fire to society. Basically, modities, industries, and governments numbers calculated from interest for-
as the level of risk increases, its cost in- that affect more strategic business mulas for given interest rates and peri-
creases. Similarly, as the level of pro- decisions). ods. They are used to convert cash
tection increases, the social cost of flows occurring at different times to a
losses due to fire decreases. The social TIME VALUE OF MONEY common time. For example, in Equa-
cost is the sum of three rather broad tion (1), for finding the future value of
categories. Direct losses refer to prop- The value of money changes from day a sum of money with compound inter-
erty value and those losses such as to day because of three major issues: est, the mathematical expression (1+i)N
business interruption which are com- • Cost of money is referred to as the compound amount
monly covered by insurance. Indirect • Risk factor.
losses refer to financial detriments to a • Inflation or deflation Discounting is the inverse of com-
specific enterprise which are not nor- Cost of money, also variously referred pounding. The present value or worth
mally covered by insurance, e.g., share to as interest rate, rate of return, and dis- of a future cost or benefit N time periods
of the market. Sociological losses are count rate depending on the analysis, is from now is given by:
those which are not borne by the enter- the most predictable and, hence, the
prise suffering the fire but by some seg- most commonly addressed component P(N) = F(1+ i)− N Equation (2)
ment of society, e.g., loss of tax base, of economic analysis.
loss of jobs, distress that an individual’s Risk assessment is the essential objec- And the expression (1+i)-N is referred
death or injury in a fire would cause to tive. Incorporating risk into economic to as the discount factor. The discount
family members, destruction of cultural analysis involves models such as reliabil- rate, i, may represent the opportunity
heritage, environmental damage, etc. ity and utility theory. cost of capital in the absence of inflation.
The curve representing total cost is the For many project comparisons, infla- Values of the compound amount fac-
sum of losses or social cost and the tion can be considered a constant that tor, discount factor, and other interest
cost of fire protection or risk control. will affect each alternative equally and factors are tabulated for a variety of
As may be apparent from Figure 1, not change the decision resulting from interest rates and number of periods in
the optimum level of risk or safety is analysis. most texts on engineering economy.
provided by the fire protection strategy Example tables are presented in
that minimizes the total cost. Some of INTEREST CALCULATIONS Appendix B of Section 5, Chapter 7, in
the important aspects of microeconom- the SFPE Handbook.2 Calculators and
Interest is the money paid for the use computers have greatly reduced the
of borrowed money or the return on in- need for such tables. Most notably,
vested capital. The economic cost of spreadsheet packages such as Quatro
construction, installation, ownership, or Pro and Excel have extensive sections
operation can be estimated correctly on economic functions.
Cost to Society

Total Cost only by including a factor for the eco- However, there is not a one-to-one
nomic cost of money. mapping of these spreadsheet functions
to the interest factors in Appendix B.
Cost of An example is the formula for the Further complicating the situation is that
Risk Control value of a future sum of money after N spreadsheet functions do not use the
Equal Slopes, periods. standard engineering notation conven-
Optimum Level
of Risk tion found in the SFPE Handbook. Not
Social Cost
from Risk
F(N) = P(1+ i) N Equation (1) all practitioners follow a standard con-
vention of notation, and care must be
Level of Risk
Where: taken to avoid confusion when reading
Figure 1. Cost Minimization. P = Present sum of money ($) the literature.

S PRING 2005 www.sfpe.org 11

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:40 PM Page 12

■ Fire Protection Engineering Economics

ANNUAL LOSS value has to be a finite amount since no sary data is not a problem. Assessment
society can devote its entire resources to of values of life could also be expected
The loss expected to incur from a fire the elimination of life risk due to any to be reasonably accurate since lawyers
in a particular building can be estimated accident. and judges have considerable profes-
by applying one of the following tech- Damage to life in terms of injuries and sional expertise in the “ex-post” analysis
niques: deaths is an important component of fire of accidents.
• Power functions risk that needs to be assessed, particu- “Willingness-to-pay” is the fourth ap-
• Probability distributions larly for incorporating appropriate safety proach, which is the one most widely
• Event trees measures in national codes, standards, adopted for valuing life. It is based on
• Stochastic models or regulations. For establishing the eco- the money people are willing to spend
The magnitude of fire loss can also be nomic justification of such measures, it is to increase their safety or reduce a par-
estimated by performing simulations for necessary to estimate monetary equiva- ticular mortality risk. It rests on two
several fire scenarios based on a deter- lents for fire deaths and injuries. Insur- principles. First, living is an enjoyable
ministic zone or field model. The ex- ance claims provide some data for the activity for which people would be will-
pected loss can then be expressed on an valuation of injury, but they are likely to ing to sacrifice some expenditure on
annual basis by multiplying the magni- be limited to costs mediated by the mar- other activities, such as consumption.
tude of the consequence by the annual ketplace, such as treatment costs and the Second, safety should be treated as a
frequency or probability of fire value of work time lost. Monetary equiv- commodity like any other and valued
occurrence. alents of pain, grief, and distress suf- according to the value individuals put
fered by the families of fire victims are on it. Despite this individual-oriented
AMORTIZATION intangible costs which are more difficult underpinning, this approach can also be
to evaluate. used to develop a general figure for a
Amortization is the most popular pre- There are four basic methods devel- typical person based on consensus pat-
sent method of estimating the annual oped in the economics literature for esti- terns in the values individuals estimate.
equivalent of the cost incurred in the in- mating value of human life:3 This, in turn, permits analysis of societal
stallation of a fire protection system. The • Output decisions.
annual cost is the product of installation • Life insurance Surveys have been carried out for esti-
cost and the capital recovery factor that, • Court awards mating value of life according to the
like other interest factors, depends on • Willingness-to-pay willingness-to-pay approach. These
the interest rate and the planning pe- The first method is concerned with have shown variability and inconsisten-
riod, usually the life of fire protection gross output based on goods and ser- cies in responses, mainly due to the fact
system or the life of the building or vices which a person can produce if not that most people find it difficult to accu-
process protected. deprived by death of the opportunity to rately quantify the magnitude of a risk. It
But the methods described above do so. Sometimes, gross productivity is is also difficult to put a monetary value
only address the issue of direct loss. reduced by an amount representing con- on intangible benefits such as enjoy-
Thus, these approaches will not always sumption (net output). This approach ment and peace of mind. Economists
justify an appropriate level of fire pro- usually gives a small value for life, espe- therefore use a variety of inferential
tection. For example, premium savings cially if it is based on discounted values methods, which include an examination
on a warehouse full of televisions will of net outputs over a period of years. of patterns from the other three ap-
usually justify a full sprinkler system. The second approach is the insurance proaches for valuing life. Studies have
The savings for a warehouse full of method, which assumes that if an indi- been done of the implied value of life
used automobile tires will seldom jus- vidual has a life insurance policy for $x, associated with several regulatory ac-
tify a sprinkler system, even though it then he/she implicitly values his/her life tions related to safety and health. Stud-
may be a demonstrable environmental at $x. The major advantage in adopting ies could be done based on the
hazard. And a fire-resistive apartment this method is that collection of neces- price/demand curves for safety-oriented
house full of people will never eco- sary data from insurance companies is products, such as smoke alarms. Policy-
nomically justify a sprinkler system not a difficult task. But the major draw- makers should carry out a sensitivity
with premium savings, unless metrics back is that a decision whether or not to analysis using a range of values for hu-
for evaluating the cost of human life purchase insurance and the amount of man life to economically justify the rec-
are employed. that insurance is not necessarily made in ommendation of any fire safety mea-
a manner consistent with one’s best sure. The safety measure cannot be
VALUE OF HUMAN LIFE judgment of the value of one’s life. This economically justified if the implied
decision depends largely on the pre- value of life for adopting the measure is
For economic justification, the proba- mium the assured can bear from his/her unacceptably large.
ble reduction in life risk due to any fire income, taking into account family There are limitations to all the meth-
safety measure should exceed the costs expenditures. ods of valuing human life. For example,
involved in adopting the measure. For The third method for assessing value a common variation of the output
this purpose, it is necessary to assign a of life involves court awards to heirs of a method is the “livelihood approach.”
monetary value to human life. This death. Here again, collection of neces- This method assigns valuations in direct

12 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:40 PM Page 13

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FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:41 PM Page 14

■ Fire Protection Engineering Economics

proportion to income. The present value socially or politically; however, they are the ratio is less than unity. In the context
of future earnings of an individual is es- often the basis for the third approach – of fire protection engineering, the aver-
timated and reduced by an amount court awards. age annual benefit due to a fire safety
equal to discounted consumption. This strategy should exceed the annual amor-
method gives a small value for life. It BENEFIT-COST ANALYSIS tized cost of installation plus the present
normally favors males over females, values of future costs towards repairs to
working persons over those retired, and The ratio of benefits to costs should the system or replacement of parts.
higher-paid persons over lower-paid. exceed unity for selecting an investment The benefit-cost ratio can be con-
Such preferences may not be acceptable project; the project should be rejected if structed as the aggregated (total dis-
counted) present value of the annual
benefits likely to be realized in future
years divided by the initial cost of in-
stalling a fire protection system.

Alarm Point Location. For a property owner, the benefits

due to fire protection are mainly in
terms of savings in self-insured fire loss
(or deductible), insurance premiums,
and taxes. A property owner may select
a strategy with the shortest payback or
recovery period for the costs associated
with the strategy as revealed by a year-
by-year analysis of discounted benefits.
At a regulatory level of decision-mak-
ing, i.e., for developing fire safety codes,
the only benefit to be considered is the
reduction in fire loss, most often the po-
tential number of lives saved, as may be
reflected in the valuation of human life
described above. The fire safety strategy
with the highest benefit-cost ratio is gen-
erally the economically best strategy.

UTILITY THEORY

In a cost-benefit analysis, the usual

practice is to consider the monetary val-

Displays the Shortest Distance ues of the costs involved and expected
fire damage. This could lead to the un-

Between You and a Fire. sound conclusion that “no insurance” is

a cheaper option than “insurance,” full
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of loadings to the expected damage – a
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location in linear distance from the control panel, saving critical response operating costs. An insurance premium
time. In addition, Protectowire Linear Heat Detection Systems feature: will, therefore, be greater than the ex-
• Easy, low cost installation • Stable sensitivity. . . pected damage. The expected value cri-
• Simple testing and low maintenance no field calibration terion can also lead to a wrongful rejec-
tion of an efficient fire safety measure.
• Suitable for harsh environments and • Unique dual temperature, The problem described above arises
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14 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:42 PM Page 15

u(100)
However, while physicists live in an unit of measure, the economic value of
ivory tower because their measurements each good and service can be expressed
B do not change, the dollar is always in in terms of a single unit. Just as money
Utility, u(x)

fluctuation. serves as a standard of trade, it also

A But imagine the difficulties if the dol- serves as the unit of measurement in
C lar did not exist. The economic value of economic engineering analysis.
every good and service would have to However, there is a danger in using
be evaluated in terms of every other dollars or other currency for economic
good and service. With the dollar as a analysis. Dollars are not the cost or the

u(0)
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100 x
Money
Figure 2. Typical Utility Functions.3

Utility is defined as the intrinsic value

of a positive monetary outcome, i.e.,
gain. Its negative counterpart, disutility,
is the intrinsic value of a cost or loss.
Under a rule based on utility or disutil-
ity, the risky investment project with the
highest expected utility or lowest ex-
pected disutility will be selected by a de-
cision-maker, whereas, under the con-
ventional cost-benefit analysis, the
object is to maximize expected mone-
tary gain or minimize the expected mon-
etary cost or loss.
Figure 2 graphically shows three typi-
cal utility functions that are usually en-
countered in economic analysis. The
utility function represented by the
straight line A is appropriate for a deci-
sion-maker operating on an expected
monetary value basis. This line repre-
sents risk neutrality. The concave curve
B corresponds to a risk-averse decision-
maker, where the utility is greater than
the monetary value and so loss is to be
avoided. The convex curve C would ap-
ply to a risk-taking decision-maker.

INFLATION

Understanding money requires an un-

derstanding of inflation. The dollar, the
euro, the yen, or any other currency has
no intrinsic economic value beyond the
paper it is printed on. Money exists as
an accounting measure. Yet, dollars and
other currencies can be exchanged for
goods and services.
In the U.S., the dollar is the standard
of economic value. Just as the meter is
used to measure distance, the kilogram
to measure mass, the degree Celsius to
measure temperature, the Watt to mea-
sure power, and other units are used for
other types of measurement, the dollar
is used to measure economic value.

S PRING 2005 www.sfpe.org 15

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:42 PM Page 16

■ Fire Protection Engineering Economics

return, but only a measure of these quantities. Overlooking this even when their net costs remain the same. This behavior in the
simple, seemingly obvious point can cause people and compa- national economy is price inflation. Causes and cures of price
nies to unwisely allocate money and measure economic suc- inflation are not well understood.
cess.
Inflation is an increase in prices paid for goods and services. RELIABILITY
This increase results from both cost inflation and price infla-
tion. Cost inflation is the result of real cost increase to produce System reliability is another confounding factor in fire protec-
goods and services, that is, more input in terms of labor and tion economic analysis. Fire safety systems are not absolute in
capital are needed to produce a given amount of product. Soci- terms of their ability to perform their design function. Reliability
ety as a whole must work harder and invest more to produce is a measure of the likelihood that a system will respond appro-
the same goods and services as before. Cost inflation can result priately to conditions that occur during the system’s lifetime. Es-
from a number of causes: timating reliability for systems requires considerable historical
• Depletion of natural resources information regarding the system and its operations.
• Natural disasters and catastrophes For example, automatic fire control capability involves system
• Social and political disruptions availability, reliability, and effectiveness. With proper mainte-
Cost inflation is not related to money. It could occur in bar- nance and monitoring, installed fire protection systems can be
tering economies. An important aspect of cost inflation is that it considered available with a high degree of certainty. While peri-
must be absorbed somewhere in the economy. It is the out- odic inspection, testing, and maintenance can improve system
come of real cost increases, and that means some or all people reliability, the complexity of these mechanical devices retains an
must work more or spend less. inherent possibility of failure. In some instances, such as a mu-
Price inflation is different. Price inflation is a money phe- seum, it is also necessary to consider the possibility of a non-fire
nomenon not entailing any real costs. More is paid for every- malfunction that can cause major economic or cultural damage.
thing, but people also earn more for their work. In general, most fire protection systems lack adequate relia-
Since the value of currency is an illusionary quantity and bility data. While such information would be welcome, limita-
there is nothing to specifically set the economic value, it is free tions in system reliability data did not prevent sending a man to
to float. The prices of goods and services may rise and fall, the moon. Economic assessment models should include reliabil-
ity considerations. In sophisticated analyses, reliability can be
included in the same manner as other probabilistic events. A
more simplistic approach is to evaluate a failure scenario, as
prescribed by NFPA codes.

PERFORMANCE-BASED ENGINEERING AND

TALL BUILDINGS

One very important application of fire protection economics

is the valuation of unique fire safety designs. Fire protection for
tall buildings against extreme events requires standards of pas-
sive and active fire safety measures higher than the standards
specified for buildings of normal size and height. Such a high
level of protection can be expected to be very expensive. Such
huge costs can, perhaps, be justified since several thousands of
people would be at risk in such buildings. Economic justifica-
tion is difficult but necessary. The financial value at risk in these
buildings and their contents may also be very high.
Prescriptive rules, if enforced rigidly, can lead to costly over-
designs, particularly for large and complex buildings. For exam-
ple, certain egress requirements, area limitations, and fire-resis-
tance ratings do not universally create better fire safety in every
building situation. Recognizing this problem, a fire protection
engineering approach has developed in the past decade as a vi-
able substitute for prescriptive rules. Performance-based fire
protection engineering allows decision-makers to select design
options that meet consensus objectives and evaluate them for
economic optimality in terms of costs and benefits.
For designing a large, tall, or complex building, a fire safety
engineering approach is recognized as a viable alternative to
prescriptive rules specified in fire safety regulations. Applying
this approach, alternative fire safety strategies can be identified
for the building, among which the most cost-effective strategy
may be selected for adoption.

16 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:43 PM Page 17

It is, however, necessary to evaluate In an economic assessment of fire 2 Watts, Jr, J.M., and Chapman, R.E.,
quantitatively the performance and ef- protection strategies for large and tall “Engineering Economics” Section 5, Chapter
fectiveness of the alternative strategies buildings against extreme events, in ad- 7, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
considered. This is to ensure that the dition to catastrophic property damage, Engineering, 3rd edition, National Fire
Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002.
strategies would provide levels of safety, monetary equivalents of large numbers
particularly to the occupants of the of people likely to be killed or injured 3 Ramachandran, G., The Economics of Fire
building, equivalent or greater than the should also be evaluated and included Protection, Spon, London, 1998.
life safety level implicit in the fire regula- in the economic analysis. The assess- 4 Fabrycky, W.J., Thuesen, G.J., and
tions. This task would involve a quanti- ment should also include, if possible, Verma, D., Economic Decision Analysis,
tative assessment of fire risk and of the quantitative (monetary) estimates of psy- 3rd edition, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998.
effectiveness of different fire protection chological and financial stress to the 5 Grant, E.L., Areson, W.G., and Ireson,
strategies. families of fire victims and other likely W.G., Principles of Engineering Economy,
Some strategies considered may in- consequential losses. ▲ 8th edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1990.
volve combinations of active and pas- 6 Newnan, D.G., and Lavelle, J.P.,
sive protection measures. Evaluation of Jack Watts is with the Fire Safety Insti- Engineering Economic Analysis, 7th edi-
the actions and trade-offs between these tute. Prof. G. Ramachandran is with the tion, Engineering Press, 1998.
measures would be a formidable task. Universities of Leeds and Manchester.
7 Park, C.S., Contemporary Engineering
For this purpose, deterministic and
Economics, 2nd edition, Addison-Wesley,
probabilistic models developed so far REFERENCES 1997.
need to be improved and validated in
the light of experimental, engineering, 8 Riggs, J.L., Bedworth, D.D., and
1 Ramachandran, G., and Hall, Jr., J.R., Randhawa, S.U., Engineering Economics,
and statistical data. Such data are yet to “Measuring Fire Consequences in 4th edition, McGraw-Hill, 1996.
be collected and analyzed, particularly Economic Terms,” Section 5, Chapter 6,
for large, tall, and complex buildings, SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection 9 Sullivan, W.G., Bontadelli, J.A., and
making the analysis more difficult but Engineering, 3rd edition, National Fire Wicks, E.M., Engineering Economy, 11th
Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2002. edition, Prentice-Hall, 2000.
not eliminating its necessity.

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S PRING 2005 www.sfpe.org 17

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:43 PM Page 18

THE ECONOMICS
of
Automatic Fire Sprinklers
By Stacy N. Welch, P.E. estimates the cost to install fire sprin- tion dropped to approximately 80 cents
klers in new single-family residences to per square foot ($8.60 per square me-

C odes used today require auto-

matic fire sprinklers in many
occupancies. However, there
are many new and existing buildings
that are exempt. The benefits of sprin-
be $1.00 to $1.50 per square foot ($11 -
$16 per square meter). This typically
equates to about 1 percent of the con-
struction cost, similar in magnitude to
ter) when the guide was used.5
Additional initiatives to reduce sprin-
kler installation cost are being exam-
ined. These include streamlining the
the cost of carpet.3 However, some design and permit process, alternatives
kler systems are widely known and home builders are reluctant to offer or to subdivision site plans, and building
documented, so why are they not used install sprinklers in homes because of code trade-offs.5 Site plan alterations
in more buildings? The NFPA states the added cost and the additional work may include setback, unit density, and
that nearly 80 percent of fire deaths which could possibly delay construc- hydrant spacing increases, in addition
occur in residential properties, the tion. to street width, turnaround radius, and
overwhelming majority of which are When sprinklers are an option, or are water main diameter decreases.6 Some
not required to be sprinklered.1 The required to be an option by the local communities have provided trade-offs
sad fact is that these deaths occur not jurisdiction, the builder markup may be or incentives to builders for installing
because the technology to provide substantial. This would be similar to the sprinklers. These have included reduc-
protection is not available, but because other options typically offered in new tion in the fire rating of gypsum wall-
as stated in the Fire Sprinkler Incentive homes, such as a fireplace or upgraded board, increased spacing for attic fire
Act of 2003, “the major hurdle to be flooring. When sprinklers are required stops, and reduced fire-retardant stan-
overcome to reach the next step of fire in homes or buildings, the markup is dards for masonry walls and doors.
safety is that of economics.”2 greatly reduced or eliminated because Cobb County, Georgia, tested voluntary
There are many aspects associated the cost is now incorporated into the incentives for builders in multifamily
with the economics of fire sprinklers. cost of construction, like plumbing or dwellings and they have resulted in re-
Some of them are easy to define, such wiring. In this situation, since the re- duced construction costs.5
as the cost of design, materials, and la- quirement affects all builders, competi-
bor. Then there are the more subjective tion among contractors results in lower High-Rise Retrofitting
components that should impact the de- costs. For example, the City of Scotts- The cost for retrofitting sprinklers into
cision-making process, such as the dale, Arizona, passed an ordinance in an existing high-rise building is between
value of lives saved by a sprinkler sys- 1985 requiring sprinklers in all new $2.00 and $3.00 per square foot ($20 -
tem or the reduction in injuries to both homes, and the installation cost for $30 per square meter).2 The use of plas-
occupants and firefighters. Sprinklers sprinklers dropped from $1.14 per tic sprinkler piping has made these
also lessen the severity of fires, reduc- square foot ($12.30 per square meter) retrofits easier and more affordable.
ing damage to property and diminish- to 59 cents per square foot ($6.40 per Further measures to reduce cost will
ing the strain on the fire service and square meter).4 make these retrofits more attractive to
community resources. A full under- The United States Fire Administra- owners and will contribute to the likeli-
standing of all of these aspects is criti- tion, the National Association of Home hood of local governments instituting
cal to the more widespread use of fire Builders Research Center, and the Inter- sprinkler ordinances.
sprinklers. national City Management Association Already, the 2003 edition of The Life
have developed and are testing a guide Safety Code requires sprinklers to be in-
DIRECT INSTALLATION COSTS to reduce the cost of installing sprin- stalled in existing high-rise hotels and
klers in residences. In Prince Georges apartment buildings (with some excep-
Single-Family Home Construction County, Maryland, and in eight other tions) and requires either a sprinkler
The United States Fire Administration locations, the cost of sprinkler installa- system or an engineered life safety sys-

18 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:44 PM Page 19

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FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:44 PM Page 20

■ The Economics of Automatic Fire Sprinklers

tem for high-rise office buildings.7 Functioning sprinklers reduce the properties. The MACRS system shortens
Many jurisdictions have adopted this magnitude of fires. The number of fire the depreciable life of an asset, which
code or are requiring sprinklers retroac- calls is not reduced, but the demands of in turn provides greater tax deductions
tively in specific occupancies. In addi- and risks to the responding fire depart- in a shorter time. These deductions not
tion, some building owners, corpora- ment personnel are decreased. This en- only make the installation of a sprinkler
tions, and insurance companies have ables slower growth of fire department system more feasible, they also allow
insisted on sprinklers being installed in costs over time. The recovered re- the savings to be reinvested into the
their properties. This was the case at sources may then be reallocated to business.
One Meridian Plaza in Philadelphia. In other community needs, such as the This legislation also discusses the fis-
February 1991, a fire spread through growing demand for emergency med- cal impacts fire has on a community.
eight unsprinklered floors until it ical services. Seven years after their These include increased firefighter
reached an area where sprinklers had sprinkler ordinance was passed, Scotts- workers’ compensation, reduced
been installed at the request of a ten- dale, Arizona, reported a savings of 30 tourism, negative publicity, litigation
ant. A chief from the Philadelphia Fire percent to 50 percent by their citizens costs, lost revenue for destroyed busi-
Department stated that “nine sprinkler for fire service when compared to sur- ness, and increased unemployment.
heads on that floor stopped a fire the rounding communities. They were also These substantial impacts must be con-
whole Philadelphia Fire Department able to employ more personnel in areas sidered when assessing the loss of rev-
couldn’t stop.” Three firefighters died in such as arson investigation, plan re- enue from this tax incentive.
this fire, and 24 others were injured. view, education, building inspection, The tax incentive would also
Direct property loss was estimated to and fire administration.5 strengthen the economy. Approxi-
be $100 million while business inter- There are also insurance benefits to mately 65 percent of the cost of retro-
ruption costs were at least that installing sprinkler systems. The most fitting a sprinkler system is labor. By in-
amount.8 The cost to completely retrofit significant savings are for commercial stalling more sprinkler systems, the
this building with sprinklers would and industrial buildings, and often in- demand for sprinkler designers and fit-
have been a mere fraction of the loss it surance companies will insist on sprin- ters is increased, in addition to a
incurred. klers prior to insuring a property. In greater need for materials.2
multi-family dwellings, the savings may
INDIRECT SAVINGS also be substantial. Owners of four THE COST OF NOT SPRINKLERING
multi-family units involved in a United
During 2002, U.S. fire departments States Fire Administration retrofit pro- Sprinklers save lives. There has not
responded to over 500,000 structure gram received insurance reductions been a single fatality in a sprinklered
fires, and there was over $10 billion in from 4 percent to 40 percent off of their residential building in Cobb County,
direct property damage. There were entire insurance premium.5 Because of Georgia, or in Napa, California, since
also 3,380 civilian fire deaths and the limited use of sprinklers in one- and their long-standing residential sprinkler
18,425 injuries.1 The direct property two-family dwellings, the savings are ordinances were enacted. In addition,
damage cost, in addition to the costs not as great. The Insurance Service Of- Scottsdale, Arizona, credits sprinklers
associated with loss of life, injuries, fire fice (ISO) recommends a reduction of for saving 52 lives since its sprinkler or-
department services, insurance, legal 13 percent for these occupancies when dinance was passed in 1985.5 This is
expenses, etc., is staggering. The po- sprinkler systems meeting NFPA 13D dramatic, considering the NFPA states
tential for savings by more widespread are used, with another 2 percent reduc- that eight out of ten fire deaths in the
installation of sprinklers is also tion for smoke detectors.5 The savings United States occur in residential struc-
staggering. in these occupancies may increase as tures, and there were 2,670 fire deaths
Sprinklers are already required in sprinklers become more prevalent and in homes in 2002 alone.1
many residential and commercial build- insurance companies document result- In addition to saving lives, sprinklers
ings, including industrial and manufac- ing cost reductions. significantly reduce property damage
turing facilities, because of code re- costs. Cobb County and Napa both re-
quirements or insurance requirements. TAX INCENTIVES ported incidental or minimal damage
When these occupancies are sprin- when sprinklers activated in compari-
klered, benefits include reduced prop- Federal tax legislation is currently be- son to possible losses into the millions.
erty damage and loss of life, diminished ing considered by the U.S. Congress, From 1985 to 1995, Scottsdale’s data
business interruption and continued which could be a catalyst for making has shown the average loss in a home
work for their employees, and reduced sprinkler systems much more viable in with sprinklers to be $1,945, while the
experience-based insurance rates.2 In existing buildings. The legislation rec- average loss for a home without sprin-
addition, they do not suffer negative ommends use of the Modified Acceler- klers is $17,067.4 The total property
publicity by having a large-loss fire ated Cost Recovery System (MACRS), damages during this 10-year period
when it could have been prevented. with a five-year class life, for the depre- were just $30,401 when the potential
This negative publicity has the potential ciation of sprinkler systems. Presently, a loss was estimated at $5.4 million. It
to discourage consumers and could straight-line depreciation is used, with a should also be noted the population in
have a significant impact on the success basis of 39 years for commercial prop- Scottsdale during this time period in-
of a corporation or business. erties and 27.5 years for residential creased 54 percent.6 Fresno, California,

20 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:44 PM Page 21

states that property damage has been IS IT ALL ABOUT THE MONEY? of Fire Chiefs, NFPA, and National Fire
limited to $42,000 during the 10-year Sprinkler Association, “Fire Sprinkler
period that their residential sprinkler From the price of a sprinkler to the Incentive Act of 2003,” April 18, 2003.
law has been in effect. In addition, value placed on a lost life, the driving 3 “Automatic Fire Sprinklers: The Facts,”
NFPA statistics indicate that property force behind the decision to install sprin- American Fire Sprinkler Association,
damage in hotel fires was reduced by klers is economics. This is why it is es- www.firesprinkler.org/sprinklerinfo.
78 percent in sprinklered buildings be- sential for fire protection professionals, 4 “Automatic Sprinklers: A 10-Year Study,”
tween 1983 and 1987. The average loss lawmakers, code officials, and the sprin- Rural/Metro Fire Department, Scottsdale,
for sprinklered hotels during this pe- kler industry to continue exploring ways Arizona, 1997.
riod was $2,300, compared to the loss to make sprinkler installation more feasi- 5 “The Case for Residential Sprinklers,”
of $10,300 in unsprinklered hotels.3 ble in existing buildings and in occupan- National Fire Sprinkler Association,
The increased life safety and prop- cies that are not currently required to be www.nfsa.org/info/thecase.html.
erty protection provided by sprinklers sprinklered. ▲
6 Smith, S., “Residential Fire Sprinkler Q &
may also be demanded by consumers A,” PMmag.com,
and investors. The Hotel and Motel Fire Stacy Welch is with Marriott Interna- www.pmmag.com/CDA/ArticleInformatio
Safety Act of 1990 requires federal em- tional. n/features/BNP_Features_Item/0,,23771,00
ployees on travel to stay in sprinklered ten-uss_01dbc.html, April 2001.
buildings (when these hotels and mo- REFERENCES 7 NFPA 101, The Life Safety Code, National
tels exceed three stories). Federally Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA,
funded meetings and conferences must 1 Karter, Jr., M., “Fire Loss in the United States 2003.
also be held in sprinklered buildings. During 2002,” National Fire Protection
8 Routley, J.G., Jennings, C., and Chubb, M.,
Because of the great numbers of fed- Association, Quincy, MA, September 2003.
“High-Rise Office Building Fire, One
eral employees who travel, this has a 2 American Fire Sprinkler Association, Meridian Plaza Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
significant impact on hotel occupancy Campus Firewatch, Congressional Fire (February 23, 1991),” United States Fire
and use. Services Institute, International Association Administration.

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S PRING 2005 www.sfpe.org 21

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:45 PM Page 22

FIRE SAFETY MEETS ECONOMICS 101 –

How Chicago Achieved Balance in Its

High-Rise Building Ordinance

By Carl F. Baldassarra, P.E. coordinated technical regulations affecting high-rise buildings. The current edition of
the broad scope of building designs and the Chicago Building Code (CBC) defines
INTRODUCTION occupancies. The code development high-rise buildings as those having a
processes of the two model code organiza- height of 80 feet (24 meters) or more. The

C hoices... As individuals – and as

consumers – people make numer-
ous choices every day. For exam-
ple, people make choices about where
they live, where they work, where their
tions are such that the resulting regulations
generally reflect the national consensus
about society’s “acceptable” level of safety.
In reality, however, the resulting level of
high-rise provisions require automatic
sprinkler systems, standpipe systems, oc-
cupant and fire department voice commu-
nication systems, stairway unlocking sys-
safety from the adoption of a model code tems, and other passive and active systems
children will attend school, and what goods or regulation is rarely quantified or speci- similar to the provisions found in the
they purchase. Many of these choices fied. Hence, consideration of any alterna- model building codes. While the current
involve fundamental principles of eco- tives and performance-based designs may high-rise provisions also include a “com-
nomics. Individuals, families, and busi- lead to protracted debates about the ade- partmentation option” that may find ready
nesses make economic choices every day quacy of safety or the resulting safety fac- application in residential buildings, few or
when they allocate their scarce resources tor. In a number of cases, the adoption of no buildings built after 1975 have exer-
on the basis of the perceived value of the such model codes is further complicated cised that option. At the present time, the
goods and services that they purchase. when a state or local government includes City is very close to adopting new fire pro-
When these decisions are made, people amendments to reflect the specific local tection provisions based upon the 2003
compare the costs and benefits of alterna- practices and conditions of a jurisdiction. edition of the CBC, including a local
tive courses of action. Because people This article examines the code-develop- amendment to require automatic sprin-
make decisions by comparing costs and ment process leading to the adoption of an klers in buildings having occupied floors
benefits, their behavior may change when ordinance requiring fire safety improve- greater than 35 feet (11 meters) above
the costs or benefits change, i.e., people ments in existing high-rise buildings in the grade.
will generally respond to incentives. In City of Chicago and the economic consid- At various times since 1975, the City has
some cases, however, the costs and bene- erations which helped determine the considered regulations that would have re-
fits are not readily apparent or measur- scope of the ordinance. The following quired automatic sprinklers and other fire
able. In addition, decisions are frequently analysis focuses on the major requirements safety improvements after several infre-
not “black and white,” but usually involve of the ordinance, specifically the require- quent – but attention-getting – fires in
many shades of gray. ments for voice communication systems, high-rise buildings. As recently as 1999, a
Like individuals, families, and busi- automatic sprinkler protection, stairway multi-interest-sponsored high-rise building
nesses, elected officials make choices to enclosures, and Life Safety Evaluations. sprinkler retrofit proposal was developed
determine the level of safety for their com- but ultimately not supported by the real
munities when they adopt legislation con- BACKGROUND estate owners because of cost considera-
cerning building and fire safety regulations. tions.
Many communities have been well-served Like many other cities in the United Without diminishing the tragic conse-
by adopting model codes promulgated by States, the City of Chicago amended its quences of each lost life, the frequency of
the International Code Council and NFPA building code in the mid-1970s to include fatal high-rise fires and the resulting num-
International that provide comprehensive, provisions specifically applicable to new ber of fatalities are, fortunately, relatively

22 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:46 PM Page 23

P
A
T
E
N
T

P
E
N
D
I
N
G

P
A
T
E
N
T

P
E
N
D
I
N
G

Over 10 years ago, Potter Electric Signal Co. recognized the problems corrosion can
cause in a sprinkler system. Since then, Potter has been the exclusive provider of a
Vane Type Flow Switch (VSR-F) that includes corrosion proof wetted materials,
eliminating potentially catastrophic problems.
P
A
T
E Today, Potter offers three new corrosion-fighting products.
N
D
E
D
z The PAAR (Potter Automatic Air Release) helps eliminate trapped air in a sprinkler system.
Eliminating trapped air reduces the air/water interface where corrosion often thrives. The PAAR
also includes a secondary automatic water shutoff valve that can be fully supervised.

z The PCMS (Potter Corrosion Monitoring Station) replicates the condition in the cross main or

branch line of a wet pipe system, allowing the system to be regularly inspected for signs of
corrosion. Water sampling, visual inspection, coupon analysis, and sprinkler analysis are

easily achieved without disabling and draining the sprinkler system.

z The PCDS (Potter Chemical Delivery System) utilizes a patented process that allows a
corrosion-inhibiting agent to be added to the water supply as it enters the sprinkler
system. This system is fully supervised, and comes complete with a local alarm and
digital communicator.

800.325.3936 w w w. p o t t e r s i g n a l . c o m
FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:48 PM Page 24

■ Fire Safety Meets Economics 101

100
low compared to low-rise buildings, as is the case 90
with other municipalities. It is acknowledged, how- Fires 77
80
ever, that the risk to high-rise building occupants is Fatalities
70

Fires/Fatalities
greater because of the well-known physical charac-
60 57
teristics of high-rise buildings and the larger num-

No. of
ber of persons at risk. The number of fatal fires and 50
total fatalities in Chicago, from 1946 to 2003, is 40 33
shown in Figure 1. The total number of fatalities 30
over the 57-year period is: 14 in office buildings, 57 20 14 10
in residential buildings, and 77 in hotel occupan-
10 5
cies. In the 1980s, the City addressed hotel fire
0
safety through an ordinance requiring a complete Office Residential Hotel
fire detection system in hotel occupancies (or a re-
Building Type
duced level of detection in fully sprinklered build-
ings), and fire fatalities in hotels since then have Figure 1. Fatal Fires and Fatalities in Chicago High-Rise Buildings, 1946-2003.
dramatically declined.
building facade inspections and repairs (1996, 2003), emergency
The Chicago Department of Construction and Permits estimates
generators (2000), and evacuation plans (2001). Some building
that there are approximately 1,700 high-rise buildings in the City.
owners have reported expenses of millions of dollars to comply
Of these, approximately 1,300 were built before 1975 and 400
with these previously adopted ordinances. Clearly, there was a
were built after 1975. Of the 1,300 pre-1975 buildings, it is esti-
heightened sensitivity to an additional ordinance that may require
mated that 1,100 buildings are primarily of residential occupancy.
costly fire safety improvements.
With the exception of New York, no other U.S. city has as many
high-rise residential buildings and dwelling units as Chicago. In
ORDINANCE DEVELOPMENT
recent years, owners of high-rise buildings have been subject to a
number of ordinances which have had a major financial impact
In response to a multiple-fatality fire in the Cook County Ad-
upon some of the buildings. These ordinances require exterior
ministration Building on October 17, 2003, Chicago officials con-
sidered a number of proposals and began development of an or-
dinance to address fire safety for existing high-rise buildings in a
comprehensive manner. The objective of the ordinance was to
provide a reasonable level of safety for the occupants of high-rise
buildings and to do so in a manner that sustains the City’s eco-
nomic strength, and preserves jobs and business opportunities.
The City staff and its consultant reviewed the criteria in the na-
tional model codes, reviewed the experience of other cities and
jurisdictions adopting similar legislation, and considered issues in-
cluding practicality, effectiveness, experience, new technology,
and costs. This work resulted in a comprehensive proposal devel-
oped by the City’s administration.
The issue of safety for existing buildings is especially difficult
because of practical difficulties and costs involved in making im-
provements in these buildings. Accordingly, the proposed ordi-
nance was limited in its scope to fire safety features judged to be
of basic fire safety importance. While some cities elected to essen-
tially require their existing buildings to meet the same fire safety
criteria required of new buildings, such was not the case in Chi-
cago. For example, costly smoke control and pressurization sys-
tems, supplied by emergency power, were not deemed as mini-
mum required features given automatic sprinkler protection for
commercial buildings and the degree of compartmentation in-
cluded in residential buildings.
Shortly after the fire and before the development of a compre-
hensive draft ordinance, the Chicago City Council adopted an or-
dinance that prohibits stairway doors locked against re-entry into
the building unless such doors are equipped with automatic and
manual unlocking systems. (A temporary provision allowed
locked stairway doors on certain floors, similar to the criteria in-
cluded in the NFPA Life Safety Code, until January 2005.)
Two proposals were presented to the Chicago City Council.
One proposal by one of the City’s aldermen would have required

24 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:49 PM Page 25

the provision of automatic sprinklers throughout all existing STAIRWAY DOOR LOCKING
high-rise buildings within five years. The administration’s com-
prehensive proposal, however, provided a reasonable balance Prior to October 2003, a number of pre-1975 high-rise buildings
between safety and the costs, and consisted of the following ma- maintained locked doors from the stairway side of the stair enclo-
jor elements: sure in the interest of maintaining building security. While prohib-
• Evacuation plans for all high-rise buildings electronically ited for high-rise buildings constructed after 1975, the Chicago
filed with the City’s 911 center; Building Code was silent on the application of such requirements
• Prohibiting stairway doors locked against re-entry, except for in pre-1975 buildings. Shortly after the fire, the City Council
automatic and manual unlocking systems, in all buildings with adopted an ordinance that prohibited locking of stairway doors
stairways serving four or more stories; that would not allow occupants to re-enter the floors of the build-
• Voice communication systems for occupant notification and ing, except when equipped with automatic/manual unlocking
fire department communication in high-rise buildings; systems. The ordinance was subsequently revised and allowed
• Automatic sprinkler protection for commercial high-rise temporarily locking of certain doors until January 1, 2005.
buildings;
• Life Safety Evaluations (LSE) to verify a minimum level of VOICE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
fire safety for nonsprinklered high-rise buildings;
• Modification of material and installation criteria to allow Human behavior studies indicate that it is important to provide
more economical installations and encourage optional fire pro- timely and accurate information and instructions to building occu-
tection improvements; and, pants.1, 2 The current CBC criteria for new high-rise buildings re-
• A requirement for a minimum one-hour fire-resistive stair- quire one-way voice occupant notification systems in public areas
way enclosure in residential buildings. and office tenant spaces over 5,000 square feet (460 m2). In addi-
In addition to the above proposals, the Administration is also tion, the current CBC criteria for new high-rise buildings require
seeking property tax relief and tax incentives for fire safety im- two-way communication systems for fire department use. These
provements at the state and county levels. This is in addition to criteria were included in the ordinance for installation in existing
the tax incentives included in pending federal legislation (see the high-rise buildings. Costs for these systems were judged to be rea-
article on page 18 for a description), generally applicable to com- sonable when viewed on a per-dwelling-unit basis for residential
mercial buildings.
Following development of the proposed ordinance, it was
posted on the City’s Web site and was the subject of a series of
public hearings and community meetings, at which the proposal
was discussed and comments from affected parties were re-
ceived. Stakeholders included regulatory officials, elected offi-
cials, contractors, building owner organizations, labor organiza-
tions, real estate interests, trade associations, and citizens. Not
surprisingly, the testimony of many citizens reflected the percep-
tion that fires are rare events, that they feel adequately protected,
and that they do not need to spend substantial sums of money
on fire protection improvements, particularly sprinklers. Issues
such as the cost of sprinkler installations, the need for improved
life safety, and potential insurance savings were frequently raised.
In addition, certain buildings were evaluated per the criteria in
the ordinance, and cost estimates were obtained for compliance
with the ordinance. As a result of the public comments and trial
building evaluations, the ordinance was subsequently modified
and was adopted on December 15, 2004. A second ordinance
concerning broadening the application of the previously adopted
building evacuation plan ordinance is pending.
The major elements included in the ordinances are discussed
in the following sections.

EVACUATION PLANS

The proposed ordinance requires the owners of all high-rise

buildings to file certain information about their buildings’ systems
and occupants, and electronic copies of evacuation plans with the
City’s 911 Center. The filings are to include typical floor plans and
the locations of disabled persons to facilitate on-site search-and-
rescue operations by communication with the 911 Center person-
nel. The City is also studying technology to allow the display of
the information in fire department vehicles on the fireground.

S PRING 2005 www.sfpe.org 25

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:49 PM Page 26

■ Fire Safety Meets Economics 101

buildings and on a per-area basis for com- were judged to present an unacceptable cilities, open-air portions of stadiums, non-
mercial buildings. The ordinance allows a risk. On the other hand, an ordinance transient residential buildings, designated
five-year installation period. mandating sprinkler protection in a large landmark buildings, and contributing
Nevertheless, a substantial number of number of residential buildings, costing (landmark) buildings. The requirement for
public comments were received concern- hundreds of millions of dollars, was not sprinklers affects almost all commercial
ing this portion of the ordinance, particu- considered necessary because of the non- buildings in the City. In response to the
larly with respect to the cost of compli- transient nature of the occupants and the concerns of the real estate industry, the or-
ance with this provision. As a result, the inherent level of compartmentation in res- dinance was drafted to allow a 12-year in-
current proposal now includes perfor- idential buildings. A review of high-rise stallation period, providing that one-third
mance-based language that will permit residential building fire records, in fact, of the installation is completed in each of
other existing voice communication sys- showed a high degree of the buildings’ three four-year incremental periods. A
tems to be used, provided that the systems ability to limit fires to the unit of origin. plan of compliance is required to be sub-
meet certain criteria and are judged to be Buildings designated as landmarks were mitted to the City within one year.
acceptable by the fire department. also considered to present practical diffi- Based upon a survey conducted by the
culties and, therefore, were exempted Building Owners and Managers Associa-
AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER from the draft ordinance. Nevertheless, tion (BOMA), a trade association repre-
PROTECTION there was a concern about verifying that senting 269 commercial buildings and 94
the residential and landmarked buildings’ percent of the commercial square footage
The benefits of automatic sprinkler construction integrity has been main- in Chicago, approximately 29 percent of
protection are well known to City offi- tained since originally constructed. the responding buildings with 37 percent
cials and need not be repeated here. The draft ordinance took a measured of the rentable square footage were built
While the frequency of fatal fires in high- approach to the installation of automatic after 1975, the effective date of the City’s
rise commercial buildings was low, the sprinklers in existing high-rise buildings. high-rise provisions.3
large numbers of persons in commercial The ordinance mandates the installation of The BOMA-Chicago survey identified 87
high-rise buildings, the nature of the oc- sprinklers in high-rise buildings, with the buildings representing approximately 24.7
cupancy, and typical building geometries following exceptions: open-air parking fa- million square feet (2,290,000 m2) as

26 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:49 PM Page 27

affected by this provision. Most of these cluded in the Life Safety Code. Neverthe- made to establish the minimum level of
buildings are “Class B” and “Class C” less, the Life Safety Code requires that the safety consistent with the provisions in
buildings, an industry term reflecting that LSE be approved by the Authority Having the Chicago Building Code specifically
they are not the newer, higher rental rate Jurisdiction. applicable to existing buildings. It was the
properties, making it difficult for the land- The definition of an LSE, specifically for collective judgment of the team that rigor-
lords to raise rental rates to amortize the existing nonsprinklered residential and ous compliance with the CBC provisions
cost of the sprinkler installations. BOMA- landmark commercial buildings, first re- for existing buildings would provide a
Chicago estimated that there is a total of quired that an objective be specified with reasonable level of fire safety. From this
35 million square feet (3,300,000 m2) of respect to the desired level of safety. After review, it was later determined that the
unsprinklered office space in the City, 17 due consideration, a policy decision was CBC requirement for minimum fire resis-
million square feet (1,600,000 m2) of which
may require asbestos abatement. Using a
range of $6.25 to $14 per square foot
($67.20 to $150 per square meter) for in-
stallation costs and $16.25 per square foot
($175 per square meter) for asbestos
abatement, BOMA-Chicago estimated the
cost for city-wide compliance to be $636
million. It was noted that sprinkler retrofits
frequently involve much more than the
cost of the sprinkler system alone. For ex-
ample, a major sprinkler retrofit installa-
tion will involve substantial upgrade or re-
placement of the building’s fire alarm and
supervisory system which monitors the
sprinkler system, possibly triggering a fur-
ther upgrade to achieve ADA compliance;
cutting, painting, and patching; soffit
and/or ceiling installations; and possibly
light fixture replacement.
BOMA-Chicago asked for a longer com-
pliance period and for the ability to have
an alternative to a mandate for automatic
sprinkler protection, as proposed for non-
transient residential landmark commercial
buildings. The BOMA-Chicago cost esti-
mate was disputed as high by the fire
sprinkler industry representatives. The fire
sprinkler industry representatives also
spoke against using a Life Safety Evalua-
tion option (allowed for nontransient resi-
dential and landmark commercial build-
ings), suggesting that automatic sprinklers
are necessary for a reasonable level of
safety in all high-rise buildings.

LIFE SAFETY EVALUATION

To address the issue of providing a rea-

sonable level of safety in the nonsprin-
klered high-rise buildings, the City used
the NFPA Life Safety Code4 as a standard of
good practice and noted its published al-
ternative to automatic sprinkler protection
in existing high-rise business and residen-
tial buildings which prescribes a “Life
Safety Evaluation (LSE)” to demonstrate
that a minimum level of safety is provided.
Although certain parameters are discussed,
specific criteria for the LSE are not in-

S PRING 2005 www.sfpe.org 27

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■ Fire Safety Meets Economics 101

tance-rated stairway enclosures in residen- mined that certain buildings would not ADOPTION OF THE ORDINANCE
tial buildings was not clear and that a meet the minimum criteria owing primar-
revision to clarify the requirement was ily to inadequate stairway enclosures. As the elected officials determined the
necessary. This was included in a later Again, it was judged that the existing appropriate regulations for the City, they
version of the proposed ordinance. condition was allowed to exist because were faced with choices involving issues
Accordingly, because the CBC require- of a lack of clarity of the stairway enclo- such as: What level of safety is needed for
ments differ for residential and commercial sure requirement. Certain maintenance- existing buildings? How much are the citi-
high-rise buildings, two LSEs were devel- related deficiencies were also noted. It zens willing to pay for the improved level
oped to implement this portion of the or- was the collective judgment of the staff of safety? These issues are definitely in the
dinance, one for nontransient residential and the City’s consultant that the LSE “shades of gray” category. This proposed
buildings and one for commercial (land- identified potentially life-threatening con- ordinance differs from previous, unsuc-
mark) buildings which need not be sprin- ditions, as was intended, and that the cessful attempts at a high-rise ordinance
klered per the proposed ordinance. The corrective measures would be substan- for existing buildings in that it includes a
LSEs are similar to the Fire Safety Evalua- tially less expensive than providing auto- number of cost-saving provisions, tax in-
tion Systems (FSESs) included in NFPA matic sprinkler protection in the same centives, reasonable compliance periods,
101A.5 However, the LSEs were specifi- buildings. and alternatives to a blanket requirement
cally developed to measure the buildings’ for automatic sprinkler installations. The
level of compliance with the minimum MODIFICATION OF INSTALLATION legislative body adopting the ordinance,
provisions of the CBC under which they STANDARDS the 50-member City Council and the
were designed and constructed. The use mayor, balanced the safety interests of the
of NFPA 101A would simply demonstrate The City has, over the years, enforced community against the costs of compli-
the fact that the building did not meet the certain installation practices which exceed ance and reached a consensus that the or-
criteria of NFPA 101 and would be irrele- the criteria included in the applicable dinance be adopted in its final form. While
vant to the objective. NFPA standards. In the interest of facilita- the technical issues and alternatives have
Like other FSESs, the LSEs for this appli- ting economical compliance with the pro- been addressed by fire protection engi-
cation include 18 major parameters: build- posed ordinance and to encourage the neers and other professionals, the actual
ing height; construction type; compartment installation of protection systems which policy decision was made by the elected
area; tenant separation; corridor walls; ver- exceed the minimum requirements of the officials charged with that responsibility.
tical openings; HVAC systems; smoke de- ordinance, e.g., automatic sprinkler sys- The City Council’s action on this ordi-
tection; communication systems; smoke tems in residential buildings, various modi- nance was its determination of an appro-
control; number and capacity of the means fications to the installation standards have priate balance of fire safety and cost for
of egress; dead-end corridors; exit travel been codified in the proposed ordinance. the citizens of the community in order to
distance; elevator controls; emergency These include: provide a reasonable level of safety for the
lighting; mixed occupancy separation; au- • Use of water supply criteria for the occupants of high-rise buildings. ▲
tomatic sprinklers; and auxiliary uses. The greater of either the sprinkler system or
intention of the LSE is to demonstrate that standpipe system demand, generally al- Carl F. Baldassarra is with Schirmer En-
a minimum level of fire safety is achieved lowing the continued use of existing fire gineering Corporation.
in areas involving fire safety, means of pumps;
egress, and general safety, and to allow • Use of all listed sprinkler piping and REFERENCES
alternative methods to achieve compliance sprinklers per NFPA 13, 2002 edition;
if the minimum level of protection is not • Use of NFPA 13, 2002 edition design 1 Bryan, J.L., “Psychological Variables that May
achieved. It is not intended, however, as a criteria; Affect Fire Alarm Design,” Fire Protection
method to circumvent the minimum provi- • Continued zoning of existing dry pipe Engineering, Summer 2001, pp. 42-48.
sions of the CBC applicable to existing systems; 2 Proulx, G., “The Impact of Voice
buildings. The ordinance requires that the • Installation of low-voltage electrical Communication Messages During a
LSE be conducted by a licensed architect risers associated with fire alarm and com- Residential Highrise Fire,” Human Behaviour
or engineer and that a report be completed munication systems within stairway enclo- in Fire – Proceedings of the First
within 12 months after the passage of the sures; International Symposium. Belfast, Northern
ordinance. The City is responsible for re- • Installation of detection system and Ireland, 1998, pp. 265-274.
viewing and approving the LSE for each notification system wiring and components 3 Building Owners and Managers Association
building, an objective measure of the rela- in the same electrical conduit and equip- of Chicago, Presentation Before Chicago
tive level of safety of the building. Building ment enclosure, per NFPA 72; Committee on Buildings, January 28, 2004.
owners will have up to seven years to • Central station monitoring using digi- 4 National Fire Protection Association. Life
complete repairs in order to achieve com- tal alarm communication equipment per Safety Code, Quincy, MA, 2003.
pliance with the LSE, or owners can elect NFPA 72. 5 NFPA 101A, Guide on Alternative Approaches
to sprinkler the building within the 12-year The above modifications have been esti- to Life Safety, National Fire Protection
time frame. mated to save as much as 25 percent of the Association, Quincy, MA, 2001.
LSEs were conducted on a sample of installation cost of certain systems over the
existing high-rise buildings. It was deter- traditional installation methods.

28 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

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Total Cost of Fire

in the United States
By Patricia Frazier nominator for these comparisons is of- computation methods and estimates
ten difficult. Cost is one basis; the num- used in the Meade study, the study

O ver the last three decades,

many attempts have been
made to estimate the total
annual cost of fire in the United States.
The total annual cost is much greater
ber of casualties is another. With a
common basis, the fire service and deci-
sion-makers can track changes over time
to gain a better understanding of the
sparked interest not only into the magni-
tude of the cost of fire but also how
those costs were determined and used.3
John Hall, of the National Fire Protec-
real-world effects of fire and to stimulate tion Association, has made a series of
than simply the value of property prevention and mitigation efforts. estimates of the total cost of fire built on
destroyed by fire. The total cost It also is important to estimate and the WPI and Meade estimates, with fur-
includes the cost of fire services; the track trends in the magnitude of the main ther development of the methodology.
cost of fire protection built into build- components of the total cost of fire to as- Notably, his methodological improve-
ings and equipment; the cost of fire sist in fire protection policy trade-offs. ments segregate cost estimates into
insurance overhead; the many indirect Moreover, the apparent and hidden costs those that are more solid, based on veri-
costs, such as business interruptions, of fire protection need to be compared to fiable data sources and inputs, and those
medical expenses, and temporary the losses averted and losses incurred. that are based on broad understandings
lodging; the value to society of the Eventually, a quantitative understanding of the cost, but with less well-defined
injuries and deaths caused by fire; the of how investments in protection affect estimates. His most recent estimate of
cost of government and private fire- total costs needs to be established. the total cost of fire, $187 to $251 billion,
related organizations; and the myriad was released in 2004.4
of other related costs that add up to a ESTIMATES OF THE COST OF FIRE The cost of core elements of fire pro-
very large economic impact. tection, those more “solid” costs, has
The total cost of fire is in the range of One of the first attempts to estimate grown larger. In 1980, the cost of these
$130 billion to $250 billion a year, de- the total cost of fire for the United States elements was conservatively estimated
pending on how loss and costs are de- in last thirty years, if not the first, was by Hall to be on the order of $28.3
fined and the estimation methodology undertaken by a team of fire protection billion. By 2002, the estimate was $84.9
used. Some may argue that disasters, engineering students from Worcester billion, triple the 1980 estimate. Almost
such as fires, stimulate the economy, Polytechnic Institute (WPI) circa 1980.1 half of this increase can be attributed to
and that the economic multiplier effects This initial estimate was based on first- inflation, with the remainder of the in-
of recovery activities such as rebuilding cut thinking about the problem. crease largely attributable to increases in
and redevelopment may offset some of A further effort to estimate the total fire service costs. In terms of 2002 dol-
the costs. Despite potential offsets, it is cost of fire was made in 1991 by econo- lars, Hall estimated the overall net in-
important to estimate these costs, specif- mist William Meade for the National In- crease in these core costs to be $23.1
ically the cost of fire, as a measure of stitute of Standards and Technology.2 billion, or 37 percent. The remaining
losses incurred and of expenditures Drawing heavily on the WPI study and costs included a $36.7 billion compo-
caused by those losses that society relying on in-depth discussions with ex- nent, based on Meade’s 1991 estimate,
might prefer to see spent otherwise. perts in a variety of fields, including for costs associated with fire protection
Understanding the total cost of the many from industry, Meade expanded built in to equipment, fire maintenance,
fire problem is important for other rea- into the wide range of areas in which and other areas; $39 billion for human
sons as well. Perhaps the most impor- fire protection is built into society. The loss; and a range of $47 billion to $90
tant reason is to raise the awareness of report made initial estimates of some billion as an estimate of the value of vol-
the public and decision-makers to the new cost areas that, though crude, have unteer firefighter time.
economic magnitude of the fire problem yet to be substantially improved. Using a In a related 1994 effort, Schaenman
– a cost that is often underestimated. broader definition of costs – including expanded the U.S. work on the total cost
Losses due to fire are large enough, an estimate of the value of volunteer of fire by applying it to the Canadian fire
about 2 percent of the GDP, to encour- firefighters’ labor, but resisting placing a experience.5 The Canadian National Re-
age a national strategic plan to find av- value on the human loss equivalent – search Council had performed some
enues to prevent them. It is also useful Meade estimated the total cost of fire at original research on estimating the incre-
to compare the fire problem with other the time to be between $92 billion and mental cost of fire protection in struc-
problems facing the nation so that some $139 billion. This estimate translates to a tures. That research was incorporated in
rationale can be applied in the alloca- range of $133 billion to $202 billion in the analysis on the total cost of fire in
tion of resources. Finding a common de- 2002 dollars. While some questioned the Canada, solidifying the basis for some of

32 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

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FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:51 PM Page 34

■ Total Cost of Fire

the Canadian estimates. As a point of com- Table 1: Total Cost of Fire Components.
parison, these estimates, converted and in-
flated to 2002 U.S. dollars, adjusted for the Cost Component Contribution to Total Cost (%)
U.S. population, and using U.S. estimates for
direct and human losses, yield a range of Direct Economic Losses 5% - 6%
$119 billion to $159 billion dollars.

RELATED FIRE COST STUDIES Cost of Fire Service 30% - 45%

Building on this body of work, a variety of Built into Equipment, Buildings, etc. 25% - 35%
studies have estimated different aspects of
the cost of fire or, more specifically, the Net Fire Insurance 5%
losses resulting from fire. As part of the Fire
Safe Cigarette Act, the Consumer Product Indirect Economic Losses 5% - 15%
Safety Commission developed estimates on
the societal costs of cigarette-ignited fires, Estimates of Human Loss 10% - 15%
valued at the time (1992) at approximately
$4 billion.6 Much of this particular study fo- (Based on information from references 2, 4, 5, and 7)
cused on the economic costs resulting from
burns and anoxia. injury cost methodologies from The National Highway Traffic
To understand the impact of its fire programs, the National In- Safety Administration.8 When this cost methodology is applied to
stitute of Standards and Technology sponsored research on the all fire casualties, the resulting estimate of the cost of human loss
cost of firefighter injuries.7 Based on methods applied from eco- is $30 billion – quite comparable to the estimate used by Hall.
nomic studies, the estimated cost of addressing firefighter in- In addition, the NFPA, as part of its annual report on fire loss
juries and of the efforts to prevent them ranged from $2.8 billion in the United States (most recently published for 20039), pro-
to $7.8 billion. This later research incorporated newly published duces statistically derived estimates on the direct losses from
fire. These estimates of the direct cost of fire in terms of prop-
erty and human loss are widely used and are important inputs
into the estimates for the total cost of fire.

TOTAL COST COMPONENTS

While the different approaches to computing the cost of fire

may group subsets of the costs differently, generally speaking,
there are six main cost components (Table 1). When people re-
fer to the cost of fire, the most common statistic quoted is direct
losses from fire – what was burned or damaged by fires – but
this is only a small fraction of the total. Other categories of
losses and costs must be taken into account to fully estimate the
total cost of fire. Direct losses generally account for only about
5 percent to 6 percent of the total cost of fire.
When estimating direct losses, the question arises of what
costs are reflected for property loss. Are these insurance esti-
mates of actual loss or replacement cost? Are they fire depart-
ment estimates of loss? How are uninsured losses accounted
for? What is the extent of the unreported losses?
The largest cost category is the cost of the fire service. People
often focus on the fires and forget the cost to the public and
government to maintain a “ready army” of firefighters, equip-
ment, and stations. This includes the cost of local paid and vol-
unteer departments (although the latter includes an estimate of
the equivalent cost of volunteer time, which is not a direct
cost), forest fire management, and capital outlays for equip-
ment. It may not include infrastructure improvements necessary
to accommodate firefighting (e.g., increased water main capac-
ity, road improvements to accommodate the fire equipment)
and generally does not include the cost of federal and private
fire brigades. This component can vary depending on the inclu-
sion of the volunteer time and can vary from 30 percent to 45
percent of the total cost.

34 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:52 PM Page 35

Nearly equal in size to the cost of the Finally, there is the cost of deaths and losses is often done as part of cost studies
fire service is the cost of fire protection injuries to society. Part of these costs is in other fields. The total of these attributed
built into buildings, equipment, infra- conceptually clear, if difficult to estimate, costs is about 10 percent to 15 percent of
structure, and business operations. To- such as the cost of medical treatment, fu- the estimated total cost of fire.
gether, these costs run about 25 percent neral expenses, and time lost from work.
to 35 percent of total cost of fire. The Other costs, more conceptually difficult THE CHALLENGE
cost of built-in fire protection in build- and to some distasteful, included in this
ings is hard to quantify. While fire detec- category are the value of a life and of pain The fire protection engineering com-
tion and suppression systems are identi- and suffering. Estimating these aspects of munity is faced with a remarkable chal-
fiable costs, as are the incremental costs
associated with fire-resistant materials,
much of built-in fire protection also pro-

Design with
vides protection from other hazards (e.g.,
thick walls offer resistance to fires and
provide structural integrity, electrical
safety features reduce the hazard of elec-
trical shock as well as fires).
The cost of fire protection built into
equipment is even more difficult to esti-
mate because there are so many more
Flexibility in Mind.
types of equipment than buildings. Equip- FlexHead–the pioneers of flexible fire protection.
ment ranging from televisions to portable

O
space heaters to cigarette lighters have spe- ver twenty years ago, FlexHead
cial features to prevent them from becom-
invented the first flexible fire
ing the equipment involved in ignition.
The cost of business operations af- sprinkler connection. That sys-
fected by fire considerations includes the tem was used in protecting billion dollar
training of employees in fire safety, cost
of special transportation for flammables, cleanroom facilities. Today, over 95% of
the use of special containers for flamma- the world’s computer chips are produced in
bles, and work time lost evacuating
cleanroom facilities protected by FlexHead.
buildings from false alarms.
Net insurance cost, or insurance over- Now, we’ve applied the same technology and
head, is the cost paid by the public for quality to the commercial marketplace, and
insurance, less what is returned to the
public in payments for insured losses introduced the first flexible fire sprinkler
(which are accounted for as part of di- connection designed for use in suspended
rect losses). Issues here include how to
ceilings. FlexHead’s are fast and simple to
separate fire-related insurance from other
kinds of hazard and peril insurance, and install. In a quarter of the time it takes for
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and profit that are paid for fire-related in-
surance. Insurance costs are less than 5 a FlexHead exactly in the center-of-tile.
percent of the overall cost of fire. New or retrofit buildings are ready for
Indirect losses from fire include busi-
revenue producing occupancy quicker,
ness interruptions, costs of temporary
lodging, tax losses, loss of market share, and ready for fast and easy space
legal expenses, and many other cate- changes. All at an installed cost
gories. This is one of the most difficult
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S PRING 2005 www.sfpe.org 35

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:52 PM Page 36

■ Total Cost of Fire

lenge. Using Hall’s estimates,4 for exam- munity. The role of the fire service has ses, if indeed the necessary data to per-
ple, between $144 billion and $187 bil- changed markedly in the past 20 years. form such analyses were available. Ef-
lion was spent (total cost less losses and Although fire protection is still far and forts to date have most likely achieved
insurance) to avert an untold number of away its primary job, the fire service an understanding of the order of magni-
fires and their resulting losses in 2002. A plays an increasing role in the delivery of tude of the problem and of the relative
substantial portion of this estimated cost, emergency medical services, the re- importance of each component. To ef-
$61 billion, was spent on built-in fire sponse and mitigation of hazardous ma- fectively use this information in policy
protection. Yet combined economic and terials incidents, and most recently, in decisions, it is necessary to to establish
human losses of $52 billion still occurred. homeland security responsibilities. The good quantitative means to derive esti-
This fact presents several confounding fire service is no longer “just” firefighters; mates. ▲
questions, not only about the resources it is now “first responders” with an in-
that are spent to prevent fires and pro- creasingly wide array of services it pro- Patricia Frazier is with the TriData Di-
tect against them, but how to maximize vides. None of the costs discussed here vision of System Planning Corporation.
the benefits of these resources. are discounted for the increasing respon-
First and foremost of these questions sibilities the fire service plays outside of REFERENCES
is how much more would it cost to re- the traditional fire role. Increased effi-
duce the current losses, and as important ciencies in built-in protection and pro- 1 Apostolow, J.J., Bowers, D.L., and
as this cost itself, is the incremental cost moting (or even requiring) built-in pro- Sullivan III, C.M., “The Nation’s Annual
Expenditure for the Prevention and
acceptable and defensible – that is, tection to reduce the incidence of fire
Control of Fire,” Project Report, Worcester
would the increased cost to prevent have the added benefit of freeing up first Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA,
losses be worth more or less than the responders to perform other, equally im- December 21, 1978.
losses themselves? Using the estimates portant functions. Innovative designs and
2 Meade, W.A., “First Pass at Computing the
above, if 40 percent more could be spent cost-efficient solutions along with in-
Cost of Fire in a Modern Society,” The
in built-in protection, which resulted in a creased installation of sprinklers and fire-
Herndon Group, March 1991, prepared
50 percent reduction in losses, a near graded materials in residential structures for Center for Fire Research, National
zero sum would be achieved – spending would surely play a significant role here. Institute of Standards and Technology.
as much as was saved – a situation that
3 “Concerned Comments on Meade’s ‘First
may not necessarily make monetary CONCLUSION Pass at Computing the Cost of Fire Safety
sense but could achieve the valued soci- in a Modern Society’,” David J. Thomas,
etal goals of saving lives and property. A The total cost of fire is among the Fire Technology, First Quarter 1993, pp.
corollary question is, with increasing fire larger national problems in terms of its 69-75.
safety improvements in products and economic impact. It is important to con-
4 Hall, J., “The Total Cost of Fire in the
construction materials, whether more sider each major cost element and trade- United States,” NFPA Report, September
should be spent now to achieve lower offs among them when making fire pro- 2004.
losses in the future. This question has tection policy. For example, the size of
special prominence, as it is the nonloss 5 Schaenman, P., et al., “Total Cost of Fire
the fire service affects losses; the extent of
in Canada,” The National Research
(e.g., built-in protection) components built-in protection and engineering affects
Council of Canada Fire Research
that are the driving components in the the cost of fire services and the losses in- Laboratory, December 1994.
total cost of fire. While investments, such curred; the number and size of losses,
as residential sprinklers, increase the etc., should affect net insurance costs. 6 Miller, et al., “Estimating the Costs to
Society of Cigarette Fire Injuries,” National
short-term cost, the long-term cost sav- Changes in incremental costs of the major
Public Services Research Institute, July
ings may be substantial. These and other components of the total cost of fire
1993, as published in Societal Costs of
thorny questions are critical to pose and should be analyzed and the results given Cigarette Fires, Consumer Products Safety
answer. more consideration in setting priorities. Commission, August 1993.
The $150 billion to $200 billion spent Current estimates of the total cost of
7 Frazier, P., et al., “The Economic
averts losses in addition to containing fire include a large component for the
Consequences of Firefighter Injuries and
the losses currently experienced. How fire service itself. With the increasing Their Prevention,” System Planning
many incidents are averted (and how roles of the fire service, the cost of the Corporation, TriData Division, August
can this number be determined), and fire service’s protection and prevention 2004, prepared for National Institute of
what would be the losses from these roles need to be disaggregated from the Standards and Technology.
averted fires? It may well be that what is various other services it provides. Or it
8 Blincoe, L., et al., “The Economic Impact
spent in fire protection services is more would be necessary to assess the overall of Motor Vehicle Crashes 2000,” National
than paid back by the losses that are not costs of providing first responder ser- Highway Traffic and Safety Administration
incurred. Research to examine the cost vices. This is an area where further re- Technical Report, May 2002.
savings current engineering options al- finement is needed.
9 Karter, M. “United States Fire Loss for
ready afford would be beneficial. Lastly, it is critical to understand that 2003,” NFPA Journal, November/
The fire protection community also most methods used to estimate the total December, 2004, pp. 66-71.
has a unique opportunity to provide ad- cost of fire are “soft,” and few would
ditional support to the overall fire com- stand up to the rigors of detailed analy-

36 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:52 PM Page 37

Shown here with

optional bypass loop.
FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:53 PM Page 38

By Bernie Till

T his year marks the 30th anniver-

sary of the landmark fire at the
Browns Ferry Nuclear Power
Station. On March 22, 1975, employees
inspecting penetration seals for air
leakage accidentally started a fire,
which damaged over 1,600 cables,
including 628 that were “important to
safety”1 at the facility. The event has
had far-reaching impact on the fire
protection community – particularly in
regard to cables and penetration seals,
or more correctly, firestops.
Many lessons can be learned from this
fire, but one stands out above others.
The lesson of how a fairly small fire can
cause tremendous financial disruption
and damage is exemplified in this case
as in few others. Certainly, other large-
loss fires have been reported, and they
too had far-reaching economic impacts
in addition to their role in shaping fire
protection. However, nuclear facilities
are usually remote from populated ar-
eas, and often they are the major em-
ployer in an area, resulting in potentially
greater local or regional economic im-
pact in the event of a fire. What is the
total monetary impact of a fire at one of
these facilities? As with most large fires,
a large value, which is often difficult to
quantify. For example, for industrial
fires, there is the actual fire loss – the fa-
cilities, equipment, or inventory directly
impacted by the fire. Then there are the
business interruption costs. This can
move far beyond the actual loss to sales
or other income, and in some cases may
also include the costs of purchasing
goods or services from competitors in
order to meet obligations. The least visi-
Quantifying Total Losses Due to Fire – ble of all is often the impact on the local
economy.

Remembering the
THE INCIDENT2

On the day of the event, at approxi-

mately 12:15 pm, workers at the Tennes-

Browns Ferry
see Valley Authority facility near Athens,
Alabama, were working to resolve an air
leak in a fire penetration seal. As is nor-
mal in nuclear facilities, ventilation is de-
signed to flow from areas of lower cont-

Nuclear Plant Fire amination levels to areas with potentially

higher levels.
A cable penetration between the ca-
ble spreading room and the reactor

38 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

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FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:54 PM Page 40

■ Quantifying Total Losses Due to Fire

Table 1. Reported Fire Loss Values Associated with the Browns Ferry Incident.
building had been identified as a leak
point, and plans had been developed Reference Loss Reported Summary
for repair. The penetrations were two
Industrial Fire Protection $500 Million Total loss, no breakdown of
“stacks” of five trays each which passed Handbook4 category
through a square four-foot by four-foot
(1.2 m x 1.2 m) opening. The trays NFPA Fire Protection Handbook5 $227 Million Described as property damage
themselves did not pass through the Energy Power Research Institute Characterized as “direct” loss
two-foot (0.6 m) thick reinforced con- (EPRI)6 $1 Million and identified a “forced outage
crete fire wall. The seal, designed as of 550 days”
both an air seal and a firestop, consisted
SFPE Technical Report $380 Million- Includes property damage of
of formed-in-place polyurethane with a
77-22 450 Million $10 M, cost of replacement
fire retardant or protective material ap- electrical power of $300,000 –
plied to the exposed polyurethane face. $500,000 per day for 18
A candle was used to locate the specific months (total $200 M-$270 M,
leak point by observing flame move- loss of investment return of
ment caused by the airflow. Once the $170 M.
specific location was identified, Fire Journal, July 19763 Over $130 Million Property damage of $10 M,
polyurethane foam sheet material was replacement power costs of
inserted as necessary and the candle $10 M per month for over a
used to determine effectiveness of the year
repair. This time, however, the flame
was pulled into the opening by the air-
flow. The polyurethane material, not yet mates were established. In other words, meters) of cables were directly involved
protected by the fire-retardant material, is the estimate in current valuations, or is in the fire. However, the consequences
ignited. it the actual value when the event oc- of this “small fire” resulted in what was
Attempts by the workers to extinguish curred? For example, if one uses a $100 determined to be a property damage es-
the fire were complicated by the depth million damage assessment under the timate of up to $227 million – the cost of
of the seal, the fact that the seal did not assumption that the referenced value replacing all of the damaged cables –
extend to both faces of the wall (the seal was in 1975 dollars, then, according to a not just the damaged sections. Other
was installed at the reactor building conversion using the Consumer Price In- sources report estimated damage at $500
side), impediments caused by the pene- dex (CPI), the value in 2003 dollars million.4
trating items, and by the lack of immedi- would be $342 million. Of larger importance are the costs of
ately available and appropriate means of Also of concern is the method for repairs and the loss of production capa-
extinguishment. Once obtained, a CO2 making the conversion. There are at bility. The fire in 1975 impacted both
extinguisher was perhaps compromised least five methods for converting past units at the site (a third was under con-
by the airflow, rendering it ineffective. values into current dollar estimates. All struction). Each unit was capable of pro-
The fire ignited the polyvinyl chloride five will give different results, and ducing 1,065 MW of power, and both
(and other) insulated cables. It was later choosing the most accurate is a point of were out of service for eighteen months.
estimated that about 4,000 pounds debate, since there is no common agree- A review of the literature reveals a
(1,800 kg) of cable insulation was in- ment on which is the most accurate. The wide discrepancy in the total reported or
volved, releasing an estimated 1,400 most commonly used is the Consumer estimated loss due to the fire at Browns
pounds (600 kg) of chloride to the reac- Price Index. It is familiar to most people Ferry. (See Table 1.) There are several
tor building. Damaged components in- and is useful for comparing the cost of reasons for this. First among these may
cluded electrical power, plant control average household items. The Gross Do- be the fact that the facility was self-in-
systems, and instrumentation cables.1 mestic Product (GDP) Deflator is similar sured, and either a comprehensive as-
to the CPI, but includes all items pro- sessment of the total impact of the fire
HOW MUCH? WHEN?... AND HOW? duced in the economy. A third method, was not performed or, if performed, was
the GDP, is the market value of all goods proprietary.
Bad news travels fast, and reporting and services produced in a year. The An obvious factor is scope of the esti-
of a fire when it is “fresh” doesn’t always fourth is the GDP per capita, and the mate. Some references identify only fire-
offer the benefit of offering the total cost fifth is the Unskilled Wage Rate. related property damage, while others
of the fire. The Browns Ferry Fire is a include property damage and business
good example. The July 1976 Fire Jour- APPLES AND APPLES interruption costs. None of the refer-
nal reported that the “property dam- ences reviewed captured the additional
age... is estimated at about $10 million, Some estimates of the consequences cost of repairs. SFPE Technical Report
and the cost of replacement power was of the fire refer only to the actual physi- 77-2 offered a possible estimate of over
approximately $10 million per month.”3 cal damage at the facility. In reality, this 1,000 person-hours for repairs (includ-
Another factor is determining the pe- was very small for the Browns Ferry fire. ing overtime).2 Other costs for interac-
riod of time during which the loss esti- It has been reported that only 20 feet (6 tion with the Nuclear Regulatory Com-

40 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:54 PM Page 41

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FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:55 PM Page 42

■ Quantifying Total Losses Due to Fire

mission or testimony before the Con- viding balanced fire protection at a level
gressional Joint Commission on Atomic appropriate to minimize the risk to ac-
Energy as well as recovery planning ceptable levels. The SFPE report2 indi-
would also have added to the total cost. cates that this is one lesson learned from
The SFPE report also calculated a loss the incident – two fire protection engi-
of return on investment of $170 million neers were added to the staff following
based on a 10 percent return on the $1 the Browns Ferry event.
billion facility. Ultimately, the total costs of the

Clarke Direct loss is the term used to de-

scribe the damage to the building, its
contents, and occupants (deaths or in-
Browns Ferry fire will never be precisely
known. Costs resulting from this fire in-
clude its effect on the commercial nu-

Diesels juries), while costs associated with a fire

following extinguishment are indirect or
consequential losses.7 Consequential
losses include loss of production, profit
clear industry. New regulations, addi-
tional oversight, changes in procedures,
new fire analyses, additional or more
frequent inspections, and many more re-

Do! loss potential, loss of employment, and

costs of recovery, including repair and
replacement. These losses can be partic-
lated activities came about following the
fire. While incalculable, these costs have
been estimated to be in the billions of
There’s nothing quite like that ularly significant when specialized equip- dollars.
feeling in your gut when the ment or components are damaged and Of course, all of the economic im-
require long lead times for replacement. pacts pale in comparison to the primary
power goes out. What happened?
role of ensuring life safety and the con-
Lightning? Blackout? Terrorists? LOCAL IMPACTS sequences of failure on that front. Re-
Tornado? Hurricane? Earthquake? flecting on the Browns Ferry fire can
One area of economic impact which serve as an effective reminder of how
Whatever the reason, it’s is harder to quantify than others is that important the fire protection engineering
comforting to know that a Clarke of the local economy. A major fire can profession is – and how necessary. ▲
diesel engine powers your fire significantly influence the economy of
the local community – positively or neg- Bernie Till is with the Westinghouse
pump and sprinkler system. atively. In the case of a fire where the Savannah River Company.
company decides to rebuild, the con-
When the electricity goes struction activities may bring jobs. Either REFERENCES
out, Clarke diesel engine new construction jobs become available
driven fire pumps work. or workers come from other areas. In 1 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Fact
the latter case, local lodging and food Sheet, “Nuclear Power Plant Fire
Clarke has been providing and service establishments may benefit. Con- Protection,” Washington, DC, December
versely, normally assigned workers may 2003.
supporting UL-FM fire pump diesel be laid off during the construction. If the 2 Pryor, A., “The Browns Ferry Nuclear
engines for 40 years with more plant decides not to rebuild, the local Plant Fire,” Technology Report 77-2,
than 25,000 installations. economy loses jobs. What is often not Society of Fire Protection Engineers,
realized is the hidden impact of this job Bethesda, MD, 1977.
loss. For example, local businesses 3 Sawyer, R., and Elsner, J., “Cable Fire At
To request a free copy of the which rely on sales or services to the Browns Ferry Nuclear Power Plant,” Fire
Schirmer Engineering white former employees will likely see a de- Journal, July 1976.
cline in revenue.
paper “Diesel Engine vs. Electric A fire protection engineer bears quite
4 Zalosh, R., Industrial Fire Protection
Engineering, John Wiley & Sons, West
Motor Driven Fire Pumps” call a responsibility when one considers that Sussex, England, 2003.
614.764.1224 or email the potential consequences of a bad de-
5 Hathaway, L., “Electrical Generating
cision or poor judgment can reach far
diesel@clarkesystem.com Plants,” Fire Protection Handbook, 18th
beyond the boundaries of the affected
edition, National Fire Protection
facility. Fire protection engineers also Association, Quincy, MA, 1997.
TM
have to be salespeople – it is often their
job to convince a client or manager of 6 Energy Power Research Institute,
Guidelines for Designing Fire Protection
Fire Protection Products, Inc. the need for fire protection systems or
Systems for Cable Trays, EPRI-NP-5025,
features. Recognizing the business inter- Appendix A, January 1987.
ruption and other consequences of a fire
800-513-9591 513-771-2200 7 Ramachandran, G., The Economics of Fire
is critical in making fire protection deci-
www.clarkefire.com sions. Fire protection engineers are nec- Protection, E & FN Spon, London, 1998.
essary in evaluating risks and also pro-

42 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:55 PM Page 43

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challenge with maximum efficiency. It is also the foundation of NOTIFIER’s Cooperative Sensing
Technology.
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and accuracy of response to incipient fire signatures while maximizing system stability. By analyzing
data from multiple sensors, ONYX Series panels verify uniform smoke spread over distance to
accurately identify a true fire condition, while minimizing nuisance alarms caused by dust, moisture
or spurious smoke at a single device.
Cooperative Sensing Technology is the latest in advanced fire detection – and is
available only from NOTIFIER. Life. Safety. Technology.

800-595-7790 www.onyx-sensing.com worktogether@onyx-sensing.com

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:56 PM Page 44

The Mosquito and the Picket Fence –

A Modern-Day Fire Alarm Fable About

Broadband
versus

Narrowband Signaling
Part 2

nal-to-noise requirements of the National

I n Part 1 of this article in the Winter

2005 issue, it was shown that sound is
generally composed of many frequen-
cies. An example of noise in a compres-
sor room is shown in Figure 1 and listed
Fire Alarm Code (NFPA 72) and other fac-
tors, including the effects of distance,
hearing loss, and hearing protection. The
third article will also summarize advan-
Center
Frequency
(Hz)
25
dB
71
dBA
26.3
32 73 33.6
in Table 1. It was also shown that as long tages and disadvantages of narrowband
40 72 37.4
as one of the alarm signal’s frequency signaling.
In Figure 1 and Table 1, the sound 50 74 43.8
bands (pickets) is taller than the corre-
pressure level in dB for each frequency 63 76 49.8
sponding noise picket, the signal can be
band is shown. The last two bars in the 80 75 52.5
heard, even if the total broadband sound
pressure level of the noise is greater than charts are the total, integrated sound pres- 100 78 58.9
the total broadband sound pressure level sure level. LP is unweighted, while LA has 125 79 62.9
of the signal. In this second part of the been adjusted according the A-weighting 160 80 66.6
article, how one sound can penetrate curve to approximate how the human ear 200 80 69.1
another and the effects of masking will hears different frequencies. Refer to the 250 81 72.4
be introduced. The final article in this first part of this article in the Winter 2005 315 84 77.4
series, which will be published in the issue for an explanation.
400 83 78.2
Summer 2005 issue, will present the sig- 500 80 76.8
630 76 74.1
Compressor Noise 800 78 77.2
95
1,000 77 77.0
90 1,250 79 79.6
1,600 78 79.0
85
2,000 76 77.2
80 2,500 70 71.3
3,150 65 66.2
75
dB

4,000 68 69.0
70 5,000 69 69.5
65 6,300 67 66.9
8,000 66 64.9
60 10,000 64 61.5
12,500 63 58.7
55
16,000 67 60.4
50 20,000 65 55.7
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1,000
1,250
1,600
2,000
2,500
3,150
4,000
5,000
6,300
8,000
10,000
12,500
16,000
20,000
LP=
LA=

LP= 92
Frequency LA= 88
Figure 1. Compressor Room Noise. Table 1. Compressor Room Noise.

44 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:56 PM Page 45

Alarm Signal Penetration of Compressor Noise by Alarm Signal

95 95
88 dBA
90 90
85 dB
85 85
80 80
75 75
dB

dB
70 70
65 65
60 60
55 55
50 50
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1,000
1,250
1,600
2,000
2,500
3,150
4,000
5,000
6,300
8,000
10,000
12,500
16,000
20,000
LP=
LA=

32
40
50
63
80
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1,000
1,250
1,600
2,000
2,500
3,150
4,000
5,000
6,300
8,000
10,000
12,500
16,000
20,000
LP=
LA=
Frequency Frequency
Figure 2. Fire Alarm Signal. Figure 3. Combined Chart of Noise and Alarm Signal.

SIGNAL PENETRATION an equal or higher sound pressure level.

But, in addition to that, a key element of
Figure 2 shows the frequency content of a masking is that sound in one frequency
Center typical piezo type fire alarm signal. The data band can also mask sound in an adjacent,
Frequency for the signal are listed in Table 2. The mea- higher band.1
(Hz) dB dBA surements for both the ambient noise and The term “effective masked threshold” is
25 0.0 the fire alarm signal must be taken at the used to describe the sound level of an
same location in order to compare the rela- alarm signal at a particular frequency band
32 0.0
tive loudness. Note that the total, A-weight- that is just barely audible in the presence of
40 0.0
ed sound pressure level of the fire alarm sig- a masking sound (noise).2 In effect, mask-
50 0.0 ing by one frequency band can change the
nal is 87 dBA, while the noise (Table 1,
63 0.0 Figure 1) produces 88 dBA. Clearly this height of the dB bar for the next higher
80 0.0 would not meet the general broadband sig- band. This makes it necessary for the alarm
100 0.0 naling requirements of the National Fire signal to overcome not just the noise level
125 0.0 Alarm Code. One might be tempted to say at that band, but the noise level plus the
160 0.0 that the fire alarm would not be audible masking level imposed on the next lower
200 0.0 over the noise of the compressor. frequency band. To make it more compli-
250 0.0 However, when the two charts are com- cated, masking occurs only when the level
315 0.0 bined as shown in Figure 3, it is seen that of the lower (masking) frequency band is
the fire alarm signal “fence” is clearly “visi- significantly greater than that of the next
400 0.0
ble” behind the noise “fence.” The chart higher band.
500 0.0
shows that the fire alarm signal at 2,500 Hz NFPA 72 has adopted the requirements
630 0.0 of ISO 7731 for the calculation of the effec-
and 3,150 Hz is audible above the ambient
800 0.0 noise at those bands. The total, integrated tive masked threshold.3, 4 That standard
1,000 0.0 87 dBA of the alarm signal is hidden behind defines the minimum slope for each fre-
1,250 0.0 the 88 dBA of the noise. This is why the quency band as -7.5 dB per octave or -2.5
1,600 30 31.0 alarm signal can sometimes be heard, even dB per 1/3 octave. The minimum slope
2,000 36 37.2 though an integrating, A-weighted meter may also be called a maximum roll-off of
2,500 73 74.3 does not show the alarm to be any louder 7.5 dB per octave or 2.5 dB per 1/3 octave.
3,150 85 86.2 than the background noise. This same prin- The maximum roll-off (minimum slope)
4,000 67 68.0 ciple shows one reason why a mosquito acts like a shadow on the next higher fre-
can be heard over the drone of an air con- quency band. Another way to visualize
5,000 49 49.5
ditioner and the sound of a jet. masking is to plot the data as a line chart
6,300 0.0
rather than a bar chart. When connecting
8,000 0.0 each data point to the next higher frequen-
MASKING
10,000 0.0 cy data point, the minimum slope of the line
12,500 0.0 Before the analysis is complete, it is nec- is -7.5 dB per octave or -2.5 dB per 1/3
16,000 0.0 essary to account for the phenomenon of octave. See Figure 4.
20,000 0.0 masking. Masking occurs when one sound Although the concept of masking is
LP= 85 prevents the ear from perceiving a second complex, the practical determination of
LA= 87 sound. Of course, sound in a particular fre- the effective masked threshold is easy.
quency band can mask or cover other Simply put, the noise data is adjusted as
Table 2. Fire Alarm Signal. sounds in that same band whenever it has follows.

S PRING 2005 www.sfpe.org 45

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:57 PM Page 46

Center FOR OCTAVE-BAND ANALYSIS: In Figure 5, note how the effective

Frequency Masked Masked masked threshold noise data is slightly high-
(Hz) dB dB dBA Step 1: In the lowest octave-band, i=1, er than that of the base noise data – particu-
25 71 71.0 26.3 the threshold masked level is equal to the larly in places where there is steep drop off
actual noise level data for that band: going towards the highter frequencies. The
32 73 73.0 33.6
fire alarm signal produces 85 dB at 3,150
40 72 72.0 37.4 LTi,Oct = LNi,Oct HZ, which is 14 dB higher than the masked
50 74 74.0 43.8 threshold of noise (71 dB). If the system
Step n (n>1): In all subsequent octave-
63 76 76.0 49.8 bands, the effective masked threshold is were evaluated using an integrating meter
80 75 75.0 52.5 the greater of the actual noise data for that set to A-weighting, the noise would measure
100 78 78.0 58.9 band or the masked threshold for the pre- at 88 dBA and the fire alarm 87 dBA (Table
125 79 79.0 62.9 vious band less 7.5 dB: 2). Does this system pass or fail? The code
LTi,Oct = max( LNi,Oct , LT (i −1),Oct − 7.5 dB)
160 80 80.0 66.6 requirements, the effects of changing the
200 80 80.0 69.1 position of measurement, and the effects of
250 81 81.0 72.4 Step n+1: Repeat step n for all subse- hearing loss and hearing protective devices
315 84 84.0 77.4 quent frequency bands. are presented in the next and final part of
this article. That article will also discuss the
400 83 83.0 78.2
FOR 1/3 OCTAVE-BAND ANALYSIS: concept of designing fire alarm signals.
500 80 80.5 77.3
630 76 78.0 76.1 REFERENCES
Step 1: In the lowest 1/3 octave-band,
800 78 78.0 77.2 i=1, the threshold masked level is equal to
1,000 77 77.0 77.0 the actual noise level data for that band: 1 Hassall, J.R., and Zaveri, K., Acoustic Noise
1,250 79 79.0 79.6 Measurements, Bruel & Kjaer, January 1979,
LTi,1/ 3Oct = LNi,1/3 Oct p 43.
1,600 78 78.0 79.0
2,000 76 76.0 77.2 Step n (n>1): In all subsequent 1/3 2 ANSI S1.1, “Acoustical Terminology,” Acoustical
octave-bands the effective masked thresh- Society of America, New York, NY, 1994.
2,500 70 73.5 74.8
3,150 65 71.0 72.2 old is the greater of the actual noise data 3 NFPA 72, National Fire Alarm Code, National
4,000 68 68.5 69.5 for that band or the masked threshold for Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA,
the previous band less 2.5 dB: 2002.
5,000 69 69.0 69.5
6,300 67 67.0 66.9 LTi,1/ 3Oct = max( LNi,1/3 Oct , LT(i −1), 1/3 Oct − 2.5 dB) 4 ISO 7731, Ergonomics – Danger signals for
public and work areas – Auditory danger sig-
8,000 66 66.0 64.9
Step n+1: Repeat step n for all subse- nals, International Organization for
10,000 64 64.0 61.5 quent frequency bands. Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 1996.
12,500 63 63.0 58.7 Table 3 lists the actual noise data and
16,000 67 67.0 60.4 the effective masked threshold calculated
20,000 65 65.0 55.7 Editor’s Note – About This Article
using the above rules for 1/3 octave-band
This is a continuing series of articles that is supported by
LP= 92 compressor room noise data.
the National Electrical Manufacturer’s Association (NEMA),
LT= 92 Returning to the bar chart format, Figure
Signaling Protection and Communications Section, and is
LT,A= 88 5 shows the actual noise data, with the intended to provide fire alarm industry-related information
effective masked threshold and the alarm to members of the fire protection engineering profession.
Table 3. Effective Masked Threshold Noise Data. signal.

Penetration of Compressor Effective

Effective Masked Threshold Compressor Noise Masked Threshold Noise by Alarm Signal
90 95
Effective masked threshold. 88 dBA
Slope can not be less than Noise Data
85 -7.5 dB/octave or -2.5 90 Effective Masked Threshold
dB/one-third octave. 85 dB
85 Alarm Signal
80
80
75
75
dB

dB

70
Acutal noise data. Roll-offs 71 dB
greater than 7.5 dB/octave 70
65 or 2.5 dB/one-third octave.
65 65 dB
60
60
55 55
50 50
25
32
40
50
63
80
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1,000
1,250
1,600
2,000
2,500
3,150
4,000
5,000
6,300
8,000
10,000
12,500
16,000
20,000

32
40
50
63
80
100
125
160
200
250
315
400
500
630
800
1,000
1,250
1,600
2,000
2,500
3,150
4,000
5,000
6,300
8,000
10,000
12,500
16,000
20,000
L P=
L A=
25

Frequency Frequency
Figure 4. Noise Data and Effective Masked Threshold. Figure 5. Penetration of Noise by Alarm.

46 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:58 PM Page 47

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FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:58 PM Page 48

Resources
SFPE Annual Meeting and
Professional Development Conference
October 17-21, 2005
Hyatt Regency La Jolla in San Diego, CA
MONDAY TUESDAY WEDNESDAY THURSDAY FRIDAY
October 17 October 18 October 19 October 20 October 21

SFPE Annual Meeting Symposium on Advances in Fire Suppression New! Smoke Control: New! Smoke Control:
and Picnic Technologies: Developing and Engineering New Session I – Session II – Design
Fire Suppression Solutions to Protect People, Fundamentals and Fires, Atrium Control,
Environment, and Property Pressurization Systems and Tenability Systems

Principles of Fire Protection Engineering

Sprinkler Design for the Engineer

New! Introduction to
Structural Fire New! Advanced Fire Dynamics Simulator and Smokeview
Protection

Human Behavior in Fire How to Study for the FPE/P.E. Exam

SFPE Technology Expanded! Dust Explosion: Hazard Recognition, Assessment, and
Showcase Management

Awards and Honors Welcome Reception F.P.E. Alumni Reception

Reception and Banquet

The SFPE Annual Meeting moves to San Diego!

Join your colleagues at the 2005 Annual Meeting and Professional Development
Conference at the Hyatt Regency La Jolla in San Diego, CA. The Annual Meeting will
include a technical program, a report on Society activities and finances, as well as the
SFPE Picnic. This will be followed by the Awards and Honors Banquet, and by four
days of educational events, including nine seminars, a symposium on Advances in Fire
Suppression Technologies, and an expanded Technology Showcase.

The week features several NEW seminars: Advanced Fire Dynamics Simulator and
Smokeview, Smoke Control, Structural Fire Protection, and Dust Explosion. Returning
are the always-popular seminars on sprinkler design, human behavior, principles of fire
protection engineering, and how to study for the FPE/P.E. exam.

For more detailed information visit www.sfpe.org or contact Julie Gordon, SFPE
Education Program Manager, at jgordon@sfpe.org or by phone 301/718-2910.

Plan to be there and participate!

48 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:59 PM Page 49

UPCOMING EVENTS
May 24-26, 2005 October 17-21, 2005
15th Annual International Halon Options Technical Working Conference SFPE Annual Meeting and Professional Development Conference
Albuquerque Marriott Hotel San Diego, CA
Albuquerque, NM Info: www.sfpe.org
Info: www.bfri.nist.gov/866/HOTWC
October 20, 2005
June 6-10, 2005 Fire Safety in Terrestrial Passenger Transportation
NFPA World Safety Conference and Exposition Santander, Spain
Las Vegas, NV Info: grupos.unican.es/GIDAI
Info: www.nfpa.org
November 2-4, 2005
September 28-30, 2005 Fire Safety – Sea Road Rail International Conference
3rd International Conference on Pedestrian and Evacuation Dynamics Melbourne, Australia
Vienna University of Technology Info: www.rocarm.com/FSAS05CFP.htm
Vienna, Austria
Info: www.ped2005.com
May 11-12, 2006
Fourth International Workshop Structures in Fire – SiF’06
October 6-10, 2005 Aveiro, Portugal
Fourth Mediterranean Combustion Symposium Info: www.civil.ua.pt/sif06.htm
Lisbon, Portugal
Info: Contact Federico Beretta, beretta@irc.cnr.it

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S PRING 2005 www.sfpe.org 49

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 3:59 PM Page 50

◆ S P E C I A L A DV E RT I S I N G S E C T I O N ◆

MIJA, INC. Case Study

Universities Eliminate Extinguisher Vandalism
with Electronic Monitoring health and safety said,“We are definitely going to
go campus-wide with this.There has been a huge

S tudent carelessness and vandalism can render

fire extinguishers ineffective, directly
compromising life safety. Extinguishers are highly
decrease in vandalism and the comfort zone is
priceless – knowing that extinguishers are available
and going to work.”
successful tools for fighting fires, but to be effective Suzanne Weaver, assistant director of
they need to be in their proper place, accessible and environmental health and safety at Virginia
working. Commonwealth University, said that the instant
To ensure safety, many colleges and universities removal notification aspect was the biggest draw for
are installing electronically monitored fire her,“The technology is great – no question.”Weaver
extinguishers in their residence halls.The is planning to install EN-Gauge fire extinguishers in
technology, EN-Gauge™, constantly monitors for two residence halls currently under construction. She
presence and checks every 15 hours for pressure is also working to get electronically monitored fire
and obstruction to access.When an extinguisher is extinguishers included in the design phase of every
removed from its cradle, an alert is immediately new building going forward.
sent to a monitoring station where safety officials At Wesleyan University in Middletown, CT,
can dispatch help in the event of a fire emergency – where currently one residence hall is outfitted with
or catch potential vandals in the act. wireless EN-Gauge extinguishers with several more
EN-Gauge fire extinguishers were installed in planned, associate director for campus fire safety
two freshman residence halls at the University of Barbara Spalding said providing an added sense of
Utah, Salt Lake City in October 2003. In the first comfort to parents is another benefit. She noted
MIJA, Inc.
year, there were no incidents of extinguisher that the University plans to include information
11 Commerce Road vandalism.The only incident since then was about the increased fire and life safety in admissions
Rockland, MA 02370 immediately resolved as the RA was on the scene information and new student orientation packets,
888/ENGAUGE in seconds due to the EN-Gauge notification. Mike “Parents entrust the safety of their children to us
www.mija.com Halligan, associate director of environmental and we take that responsibility very seriously.”

NOTIFIER® Case Study

NOTIFIER’s Superior Fire-Detection Technology
Protects Sony’s New Headquarters
system that would ensure Sony’s specific
T he Sony Corporation has become
synonymous with consumer-electronic
innovation, and Sony looks for the same
emergency procedures were followed using the
NFS-3030 intelligent Fire Alarm Control Panel,
technological superiority in its facilities. When one of NOTIFIER’s ONYX™ Series products.
investigating fire-detection systems for its new, Ideal for medium to large-scale applications, the
sophisticated, 80,000-square-foot Mexico City NFS-3030’s modular design can be configured to
headquarters, Carlos Aguilar, Sony Security meet virtually any facility’s fire detection and
Manager, put advanced technology as a top emergency evacuation requirements.
priority. Aguilar, who is responsible for the safety Aguilar was firmly convinced that the most
and security of all 300+ employees in the new important feature of the NFS-3030 is its early-
facility, wanted a fire alarm system with strong warning capability through ONYX Intelligent
early-detection capabilities. Sensing algorithms. In his opinion, only the
After speaking with experts from various NOTIFIER system would provide enough
security and fire protection associations who warning in the event of a fire to initiate all of the
offered strong testimonials about NOTIFIER, company’s emergency procedures.
the world’s leading manufacturer of engineered Ultimately, the NOTIFIER system blended
fire alarm systems, and part of Honeywell’s Life seamlessly with Sony’s business philosophy: to
NOTIFIER®
12 Clintonville Road Safety Group, Aguilar turned to Carlos Monroy, offer the best products to its customers while
Northford, CT 06472-1653 president of Conpel S.A. de CV, the local providing the best working conditions for its
203/484-7161 NOTIFIER Engineered Systems Distributor. employees.
www.notifier.com Together with NOTIFIER, Monroy customized a

50 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

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HONEYWELL POWER PRODUCTS Case Study

A New Choice In Power Supplies!
Meet Us at Booth 1159 at the NFPA
H oneywell Power Products
(HPP) is providing the
industry a new choice in power
to virtually any fire alarm control panel to
provide additional power needed for notification
appliance circuit expansion, these products
supplies. With a reputation for deliver significant power and functionality with
delivering unmatched quality, built-in synchronization protocols for all the
reliability, and value, these popular strobes.
engineers perfected their game Honeywell Power offers total solutions for
as part of Honeywell Fire your power supply needs:
Systems, manufacturer of the • An extensive warranty to assure reliable long
brands you trust today: Notifier, term, trouble-free operation
FCI, Fire-Lite, Gamewell and • Comprehensive industry experience allows
Silent Knight. them to better understand the connections
From small plug-in and operations of system products
transformers to large system power supplies, • Thanks to their toll-free technical support
HPP delivers high-quality power solutions for line, help from product experts is only a
the Fire, Access Control, Video, and Intrusion phone call away.
markets. They have the products with the You can see all they have to offer by visiting
features and ratings you need to get the job done www.honeywellpower.com.
right! Built on a customer-centered vision, HPP has
Honeywell Power Products
12 Clintonville Road
HPP’s fire-rated line includes the developed products that deliver the power to run
Northford, CT 06472 HPF602ULADA and the HPF902ULADA with your most demanding applications. Be sure to
203/484-7161 6.0 or 9.0 amps of notification power, direct AC check out Honeywell Power Products at the
www.honeywellpower.com power connections, an on-board charging circuit, NFPA show (Booth #1159). They have products
and spacious backup battery space. Connectable that fit your needs!

FIRE CONTROL INSTRUMENTS, INC. Case Study

Multi-Purpose Little Rock Facility Gets gateway, a NetSOLO VGX distributed
Immediate Benefits From Fire Control amplification system, plus Analog Addressable
Photo-Electronic Smoke Sensors,Analog
Instruments’ “Decisive” Fire Safety System Addressable Heat Detectors, Fixed Temperature
Heat Detectors, and speaker/strobe notification

W hen your facility is comprised of different

entities, your fire safety system needs to be
a quick thinker: both decisive and responsive.
devices.
ACS also installed a fiber network between 14
of FCI’s NetSOLO panels distributed throughout
In the case of Little Rock,Arkansas’s First the building.The system can pinpoint a fire to the
Security Center, the fire safety system faced a trial exact detector.
by fire just weeks after the building opened. Shortly after the building opened, a resident
The new 14-story mixed-use facility is who failed to ventilate his gas fireplace
comprised of a hotel, offices, and personally accidentally caused an explosion.
owned condos. The system responded instantly, detecting the
“We needed an incredibly functional, heat and immediately sending the system into full
maintainable, and flexible system that was also alarm mode. Because of the system’s addressable
economical,” says Dave Carter, the building’s features, management was able to determine
property manager.“Our subcontractor,Advanced which device activated first, and the succession in
Cabling Systems (ACS), and Hargrave Consulting which the other devices activated.“Luckily, the
Engineers brought the Fire Control Instruments resident was OK,” says Carter.“Also, the water
(FCI) system to our attention. It was clearly the damage to the offices below, from the activated
way to go,” says Carter. sprinkler system, would have been worse without
Fire Control Instruments, Inc. Carter’s firm – Moses Tucker Real Estate – the accurate pinpointing of the trouble-spot.”
16 Southwest Park opted for a state-of-the-art FCI NetSOLO fire Moses Tucker Real Estate will definitely
Westwood, MA 02090 alarm and voice evacuation system. consider FCI for future projects.“When we needed
781/471-3000 Among the 831 devices installed included a it, the system worked,” says Carter.“And that’s
www.firecontrolinstruments.com NetSOLO 7100 Fire Panel, NetSOLO VGC voice very good to know.”

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WHEELOCK, INC. Case Study

New Line of Series E50 Speaker
Strobes Allow for Faster profile product with universal mounting, two-wire
installation and the ability to mount the
appliances to a standard 4-in. X 2 1/8-in. electrical
Installations box – with NO extension ring required – was
Wheelock’s rationale for designing the new
speaker appliances. In addition to these features,
the appliances incorporate a speaker mounting
plate and a grille cover that snaps on so no
mounting screws are visible. More products can
now be installed in less time, and jobs can be
completed on time. The new design of the Series
E Speakers and Speaker Strobes provides a sleek,
aesthetic appearance that makes them a perfect
choice for a quality installation.
In addition to the Series E50, Wheelock offers
the broadest selection of Fire Alarm Notification
appliances including strobes, audible strobes,

W heelock Inc., Long Branch, NJ, is

introducing a new line of Speaker Strobes
for fire alarm notification – the Series E50. The
chimes, and chime strobes in selectable candela
settings of 15/30/75/110cd or135/185cd for wall-
mounted units, and 15/30/75/95 or 115/177cd for
wall-mount speakers and speaker strobes are ceiling-mounted units. Wheelock also
Wheelock, Inc.
available in red and white with a wide range of manufactures Facility Communication Systems
273 Branchport Avenue strobe intensities including 15/30/75/110cd and including SAFEPATH4 that combines voice
Long Branch, NJ 07740 135/185cd field-selectable models and 1575cd messaging, paging, background music, and
800/631-2148 (with 75 on axis). emergency notification. All information may be
www.wheelockinc.com Meeting customers’ needs by providing a low- found at www.wheelockinc.com.

WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE Case Study

They Kenneth Miller
M ore than 350 graduates of Worcester
Polytechnic Institute’s (WPI’s) Fire Assistant Fire Protection Engineer, Las Vegas
Learned Fire Protection Engineering program are contributing
to the broad field of fire prevention and safety
Fire Department
Ken is satisfied with the progress he’s helped
Prevention worldwide. They educate and train fire safety
professionals, provide technical assistance for
facilitate in Las Vegas. “There have been
documented cases where buildings I’ve approved

at WPI firefighters, review new construction projects and

building design plans, work with developers to
have spared many lives and in which the fire
sprinkler systems have helped extinguish dozens
of fires,” he says. “Minimizing life and property
assure code compliance, investigate fires, and
analyze fire research. Whatever the field of loss are the best things you can do with your
expertise, each graduate aims to make the world knowledge.”
a safer place.
David Sheppard
Paul Donga Senior Fire Research Engineer, Fire Research
Fire Protection Supervisor, Boston Fire Laboratory, Bureau of Alcohol,Tobacco, Firearms,
Department’s Fire Prevention Division’s Plan and Explosives (ATF),Ammendale, MD
Review and Acceptance Testing Unit Dave works in a huge laboratory where
Paul discovered WPI’s FPE program while materials and fluids are regularly set afire so
working for Boston’s Building Department.“I scientists can study their fire- and smoke-related
wanted to get into the fire code compliance review properties. The place is big enough to fit cars,
area, but my background was in electrical buses, and even reconstructed buildings for
Advanced Distance Learning Network
Worcester Polytechnic Institute engineering,” he says. He landed a fire-related job studies. Dave serves as a scientific supporter for
100 Institute Road and then entered the FPE program.“I got exactly arson investigations, trainer, and fire researcher.
Worcester, MA 01609 what I went for at WPI: tools for analysis,” says
508/831-5220 Paul. He uses these tools daily while reviewing Excerpted from an article by Eileen McCluskey.
www.wpi.edu/+ADLN building plans and overseeing acceptance testing.

52 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

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THE RELIABLE AUTOMATIC SPRINKLER Case Study

The Model DDX Valve
by Reliable
and Reliable’s Model BX Preaction and LDX
T he Reliable Automatic Sprinkler Company
introduces a new deluge valve, the Model
DDX, for use as the primary water control valve
Dry Pipe Valve Systems.
Other design features include a single main
in deluge, pre-action (both single and double drain valve, grooved inlet and outlet connections,
interlock), and Reliable’s low-pressure dry external reset by rotation of a comfortable hand-
systems. The DDX is available in 4 in. and 6 in. fitting knob, and a drop-in seat and clapper
sizes, with 2, 3, and 8-in. versions to come. assembly for future maintenance. The Model
The DDX is UL-Listed and FM-Approved for DDX Valve requires no priming water for any of
application in these various system types as its applications. The low-pressure dry system may
detailed in Reliable’s data sheets. Developed be hydrostatically tested with the clapper in the
with the latest advances in design technology, the closed position.
ductile iron valve body is: The trim is designed to be compact and simple,
■ Compact – Takeout dimension for the 4-in. resulting in faster installations with the valve and
valve is 14 in.; takeout dimension for the 6- trim piping requiring less space. Each complete
in. valve is 16 in. trim set may be ordered in either a pre-assembled
■ Lightweight – The 4-in. valve weighs 64 lbs.; segmented kit or a loose package. It is also
the 6-in. valve weighs 95 lbs. available completely assembled trim to valve,
■ Strong – 250 psi working pressure. with or without a butterfly control valve. To
The Reliable Automatic Sprinkler Co., Inc.
The Model DDX is a hydraulically operated simplify ordering of the complete trim packages,
525 North MacQuesten Parkway
Mount Vernon, NY 10552 differential-type valve. An intermediate chamber one part number will provide you with all the
800/431-1588 is designed into the valve body, eliminating the trim components necessary for a complete
www.reliablesprinkler.com check valve previously required for other brands installation.

UNIVERSITY OF MARYLAND Case Study

University of Maryland Detection and Management covers smoke

Now Offers Online Graduate analysis and response analysis of smoke

detectors. The three-credit course is taught by
University of Maryland faculty member Jim
Courses Milke. Advanced Fire Suppression, also a three-
credit course, is taught by Maryland faculty
member Fred Mowrer. It focuses on methods of
flame extinction, including foam and sprinkler
systems, among others.
To be responsive to the needs of working
engineers, students have the option of enrolling in
individual courses for professional development
purposes without being admitted to the online
Master of Engineering in Fire Protection degree
program. Qualified students may wish to continue
their studies and earn the full master’s degree.
Credits earned by satisfactorily completing online
courses may be applied toward the degree.

E
ngineers wishing to enhance their Courses offer Web-based chat rooms, threaded
knowledge of fire protection engineering discussions, and e-mail. Online students also
will be able to take individual courses benefit from online admission and registration as
University of Maryland
Online Studies in Fire Protection
completely online from the University of well as full technical support and access to the
Engineering Maryland this spring. university’s rich library resources.
4321 Hartwick Road, Suite 208 Two graduate-level courses will be offered by February 21, 2005, is the deadline for
College Park, MD 20740 the university’s Department of Fire Protection submission of a completed application.
www.onlinestudies.umd.edu/fire4 Engineering beginning March 7. Smoke

S PRING 2005 www.sfpe.org 53

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AGF MANUFACTURING INC. Case Study

The Pennsylvania State University Selects
AGF Model 1200 REMOTETEST TESTANDRAIN Valve
for Sprinkler Retrofits locked closets with locked handles.
Now the process of testing goes quickly, taking

T he January 2000 Seton Hall fire put sprinkler

retrofit plans at colleges and universities
nationwide into high gear. Administrators –
one person a fraction of the time originally slated
for the testing process (two people over several
days). The AGF REMOTETEST Valves can be
becoming aware of the life safety benefits that operated in numerous ways including through the
sprinklers provide – began including them in Fire Control Panel (FCP). The University
most new construction and scheduled residence however opted to use one auxiliary panel located
hall rebuilds. After January 2000, the installation next to the FCP to control the 50 valves.
of sprinklers became the driving force for The UL Listed/FM Approved Model 1200
residence hall retrofits. REMOTETEST meets all NFPA 13 and 25 testing
While these initiatives have created safer requirements by performing conventional system
environments, they have also posed a challenge testing from a single remote location.
for safety administrators: how to provide REMOTETEST has allowed the university to do
regularly scheduled system readiness testing for more frequent testing – with existing staff – than
more buildings with limited staff already working would be possible with standard manual-only test
at capacity. The solution for The Pennsylvania and drain valves.
State University has been to include the AGF Based on this success, the AGF Model 1200
Model 1200 REMOTETEST TESTANDRAIN REMOTETEST Valve has become part of the
AGF Manufacturing Inc.
Valve in its sprinkler retrofits. University’s sprinkler specification. They are
100 Quaker Lane The first installation was for a five-building installed in more than 20 residence halls and are
Malvern, PA 19355 dorm complex with 50 individual inspector’s test being included in the new Food Science Building
610/240-4900 and drain valve locations. To provide a precaution Complex, and historic McAllister Hall; with more
against tampering, the test valves were located in sprinkled buildings being planned each year.

INTRODUCING CYBERCAT IT’S NOT HOW MANY SECONDS,

IT’S HOW FEW.

DEPEND ON THE FASTEST, SMARTEST FIRE ALARM SYSTEM, FROM FIKE.

SPLIT-SECOND FAST - The new control CYBER INTELLIGENCE - CYBERCAT CAT-LIKE FLEXIBILITY - You can
panel, CYBERCAT, cuts fire alarm response offers peer-to-peer, intelligent, bi-directional configure the ideal system for your facility.
time to as a little as 1/4 of a second. communication between the control panel CYBERCAT allows you to control a
and devices, and between the intelligent small system or network of over a
devices themselves. 130,000 devices.

1-866-326-FIKE (3453)
VISIT WWW.FIKE.COM

54 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 5:35 PM Page 55

V I C T A U L I C • F I R E P R O T E C T I O N S Y S T E M S

In about the time it takes to read

this ad, you can install the new
FireLock EZ coupling from Victaulic.
™

Introducing FireLockEZ :
™

The fastest Victaulic rigid coupling ever!

The rigid coupling has never been this fast or this easy.
But then, there’s never been a coupling like the new
FireLock EZ™ from Victaulic.
We listened to contractors, and designed the FireLock EZ
to their requirements. It’s the latest advancement from
Victaulic, the original innovator of grooved joining.
The FireLock EZ is the first rigid coupling that you
can install as a single unit. Everything is installation
ready, with no loose parts that can drop. And that’s
no small matter when you’ve got coworkers below.
It’s easy as 1-2-3. One, stab the FireLock EZ onto
a grooved pipe end. Two, join in the other pipe.
Three, drive the bolts with an impact wrench.*
In seconds, you’re done. The result: you’re more
productive. More efficient. And more profitable.
So build your business the easy way. With FireLock EZ.

stab it. join it. drive it.done.

* This description and illustration does not represent the complete

installation instructions. Refer to the Victaulic installation instructions
supplied with the coupling for complete details.

The smarts to keep your profitability flowing.

www.victaulic.com/firelockez
FPE-SP05 3/30/05 4:01 PM Page 56

Products/Literature
Wide-Coverage Fire Suppression Multi-Gas Detector
Siemens introduces a new 1,200-lb. FM-200 The new MultiPro multi-gas detector provides
suppression system agent cylinder delivery real-time readings of up to four gases with
system that is capable of providing 24-hour one-button operation via a backlit LCD dis-
suppression protection for areas up to 40,000 play mounted on the front of the unit. The
square feet. During a fire, the system allows for single “Mode” button controls all operations,
a maximum of 1,200 lbs. of the clean, colorless including autocalibration. Other features
FM-200 gas to be distributed through a fixed include both audible and visual alarms, a
piping network for fast, effective protection of Calibration Due reminder, and Sensor Span
a facility’s most critical assets. Reserve indicators for predictive mainte-
www.siemens.com nance. All sensors are field-replaceable.
—Siemens Building Technologies, Inc. www.biosystems.com
—Biosystems, LLC

False Alarm Prevention Extended Coverage OH Sprinkler

The Ground Transient Terminator (GTT) Viking’s K-14 (20,2 metric) Extended Coverage,
was designed to reduce unnecessary dis- Ordinary Hazard (ECOH) Pendent Sprinkler pro-
ruptions to microprocessor-based equip- duces the flows required to meet Ordinary
ment by controlling frequency rather than Hazard density requirements at lower pressures
amplitude to prevent damaging voltages than 8.0 or 11.2 (11,5 or 16,1) K-factor sprin-
from entering. It offers a frequency range klers. With its extended coverage capability, it is
of 50 kHz to 2.0 GHz, with a fast response ideal for large open-type occupancies, such as
time for both current and voltage rise. The standard operating tempera- malls or other retail structures. UL and cUL list-
ture range is -40°C to 85°C. The device measures 65 x 55 mm and ed for coverage areas from 12 ft. X 12 ft. (3,7 m
retails for less than $100. x 3,7 m) through 20 ft. x 20 ft. (6,1 m x 6,1 m).
www.9corp.com www.vikingcorp.com
—9 Corp. —Viking Corp.

UL W-Rated Firestopping Systems Speakers/Strobes

3M’s line of Fire Barrier Water Tight Silicone Wheelock introduces the Series E50 Speakers
Sealants meets the UL W Rating, Class One and Speaker Strobes. For wall mounting, they
requirements for watertightness when used are available in red and white with a wide
on horizontal floor penetrations. Three range of strobe intensities including
sealants are available to meet a wide range 15/30/75/110cd and 135/185cd field-selectable
of applications and conditions. Designed to models and 1575cd (with 75 on axis).
help protect builders, owners, and occu- Features include a low profile, universal
pants from potential problems associated mounting, two-wire installation, and the abili-
with water and moisture intrusion. Ideal for ty to mount to standard 4 in. x 2 1/8 in. elec-
use in fast-track construction. trical boxes without the use of extension rings.
www.3M.com/firestop www.wheelockinc.com
—3M —Wheelock Inc.

Intelligent Addressable Control Panel Control Panels

The FireWarden™ 100 Intelligent Addressable The MS-2 and MS-4 Fire Alarm
Control Panel is a single-loop panel with a capaci- Control Panels offer automatic strobe
ty of up to 198 addressable NOTIFIER devices. synchronization of audio/visual
Suited well for small building applications, it fea- devices, enabling the control system
tures advanced smoke detection capabilities and to perform in compliance with ADA
autoprogramming ease. Ideal for owners who standards. Offering large-system protection for small environments,
need the flexibility of individual software zone both panels operate at 24 volts with 3 amps of total power on board;
mapping. Features include auto detector testing, the MS-4 is also capable of supplying 6 amps with an optional trans-
drift compensation, maintenance alert, and auto device type verification. former. An optional converter is available for the MS-4 to allow for
www.notifier.com Class A wiring when necessary.
—Notifier www.firelite.com
—Fire-Lite Alarms, Honeywell Fire Group

56 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 4:03 PM Page 57

Dealing the Best in Backflow Technology...

Ames, once again, has outpaced the competition.
Our new Colt & Maxim backflow assemblies feature the most
advanced design on the market. Ames valves are manufac-
tured from the best materials, offer the best performance,
are the easiest to service & maintain and have the lowest
installed cost of any backflow assembly in the industry.
As if that weren’t enough, check out these other great features:
• Certified lowest pressure loss
• 70% lighter than traditional designs
• Most compact design in the industry
• Wide selection of end connection
and installation options
Ames has the answer for all your backflow
needs. For the latest information and approvals,
call us at 916-928-0123 or visit our web site at
www.amesfirewater.com. Pick up the future
of backflow today!

Hands Down!

EXCELLENCE MATTERS, SPECIFY IT!

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 4:04 PM Page 58

FIRE PROTECTION

B R A I N T E A S E R
Sales
In a game of poker, a player is dealt five cards.
Offices
What is the probability of a player being dealt a
HEADQUARTERS
“straight flush,” i.e., five sequential cards of the TERRY TANKER Publisher
same suit? 1300 East 9th Street
Cleveland, OH 44114-1503
216.696.7000, ext. 9721
fax 216.696.3432
ttanker@penton.com

Solution to last issue’s brainteaser NORTHEAST

TOM CORCORAN District Manager
Yahtzee® is a game played with five 6-sided dice. Players take turns rolling the dice, trying 929 Copes Lane
to get certain combinations of 1s, 2s , 3s, etc. Players may roll the dice up to three times West Chester, PA 19380
610.429.9848
during each turn and are permitted to set aside any subset of the five dice after each roll.
fax 610.429.1120
tomcorcoran@penton.com
After the second roll, a player has the following combination of dice: 1, 2, 3, 6, 6. If the
NORTH CENTRAL
player keeps the two 6s, what is the probability of obtaining a “full house” (three of one JOE DAHLHEIMER District Manager
number and two of another) on the third and final roll? 1300 East 9th Street
Cleveland, OH 44114-1503
216.696.7000, ext. 9279
In this scenario, there are two ways that a full house can be rolled – 6, 6, 6, x, x; or 6, 6, fax 216.696.3432
x, x, x. For the first case, the likelihood of rolling a 6 is 1/6. The probability of rolling one 6 jdahlheimer@penton.com

and two of another number is (1/6)(1/36)=0.0046. Since double 1s, 2s, 3s, 4s, or 5s would CENTRAL / WEST
3!
be acceptable, there are five ways of achieving a full house. Also, there are =3 WAYNE BAYLISS District Manager
(3 − 1)!1!
possible combinations, so the probability of rolling 6, 6, 6, x, x is 0.0046 x 5 x 6 = 0.069. 51 Pinewood
Irvine, CA 92604
949.701.1437
For the second case, the probability of rolling three of a number is (1/6)3. Since there are fax 949.857.1359
wbayliss@penton.com
five possible combinations of rolling three of a kind (that are not 6s, which would result in
five of a kind), the probability of rolling three of a kind (other than three 6s) on the remain- SOUTHEAST

ing three dice is 0.023. Therefore, the probability of rolling a full house is 0.069 + 0.023 = TOM GRAVES District Manager
1180 Pin Oak Court
0.092. Cumming, GA 30041
770.205.1870
fax 770.205.1872
tgraves@penton.com

3M (Fire Protection Fluid) ..........................Page 13 Hughes Associates, Inc. ..............................Page 16

Index of AGF Manufacturing, Inc......................Pages 37, 54 Koffel Associates, Inc. ................Inside Back Cover
Advertisers Ames Fire & Waterworks ............................Page 57 MIJA, Inc. .............................................Pages 41, 50
Ansul Incorporated........................................Page 5 NEMA ....................................................Pages 44-46
Anvil International, Inc................................Page 49 NOTIFIER Fire Systems .......................Pages 43, 50
BlazeMaster® Fire Sprinkler Systems/ Potter Electric Signal Co. ............................Page 23
NOVEON .................................................Page 33 The Protectowire Company, Inc. ...............Page 14
Chemetron Fire Systems .............................Page 15 Reliable Automatic Sprinkler ..............Pages 19, 53
Clarke Fire Protection .................................Page 42 Rolf Jensen & Associates, Inc.....Inside Front Cover
DACS, Inc. ...................................................Page 24 SDi................................................................Page 34
Edwards Systems Technology.............Pages 30, 31 Siemens Building Technologies, Inc.
Fike Corporation .........................................Page 54 Faraday Division........................................Page 7
Fire Control Instruments .......................Pages 9, 51 Fire Safety Division .................................Page 39
Flexhead Industries .....................................Page 35 SimplexGrinnell ...........................................Page 47
General Air Products...................................Page 59 Tyco Fire & Building Products .............Back Cover
Grice Engineering .......................................Page 27 University of Maryland........................Pages 17, 53
The H.R. Kirkland Company ......................Page 25 Victaulic Company of America...................Page 55
Home Fire Sprinkler Coalition......................Page 3 Wheelock, Inc......................................Pages 29, 52
Honeywell Fire Systems......................Pages 26, 51 Worchester Polytechnic Institute ........Pages 21, 52

58 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

FPE-SP05 3/30/05 4:05 PM Page 59
FPE-SP05 3/30/05 4:06 PM Page 60

from the technical director

Fire Loads and Fire Resistance Design

method are discussed in the “From the times that of most plastics. In ventilation-
Technical Director” column in the Winter limited fires, the rate of air flow into the en-
2004 issue. closure will govern how much fuel vapor
Building codes generally specify fire re- burns inside the enclosure, and fuel vapors
sistance in units of time, which corresponds that cannot burn inside the enclosure will
to the time that the structural elements, vent from the compartment unburned.
with any supplementary protection applied, Therefore, a material that has a higher heat
must withstand the standard fire exposure of combustion will not necessarily result in
prior to exceeding the specified endpoint a more severe fire exposure within a com-
criteria. The technical underpinning of the partment.
system of hourly rating was first published Additionally, use of the fire load concept
by Simon Ingberg in 1928.1 suffers from the same limitations as use of
The basis for the concept of specifying the standard fire test method: other factors
minimum fire ratings is the “fire load con- that affect fire severity are not considered,
cept,” which states that the integration with such as ventilation and compartment ther-
time of the temperature of a fire is indica- mal properties; and single elements are
tive of the severity of the fire. For example, tested in isolation so that structural behavior
under this concept, a compartment fire in fire is not considered.
Morgan J. Hurley, P.E. with a temperature of 1200°C that lasts 30 Fortunately, several organizations are
Technical Director minutes would be assumed to have equal conducting work that will help advance
Society of Fire Protection Engineers severity to a 900°C compartment fire that structural fire protection engineering prac-
burned for 40 minutes. To avoid com- tice. The American Society of Civil Engi-
pletely nonsensical comparisons, tempera- neers has a plan to develop a standard on

F ew technological elements of mod-

ern society have endured in a form
that has been essentially unchanged
for periods of 80 or more years. An
exception to this is the method that is
tures below a threshold of about 300°C
would be neglected.
The fire load concept has the advantage
that it is easy to use. Equivalent fire expo-
sures for typical occupancies can be deter-
performance-based structural fire-resistance
design. An engineering guide2 that SFPE de-
veloped and a standard that SFPE is in the
process of developing are intended to facili-
tate this type of analysis. Additionally, the
generally used to design structural fire mined based on results of full-scale fire National Institute of Standards and Technol-
resistance in buildings. tests. However, the fire load concept is not ogy held a workshop to identify a path to-
Of course, the fact that this method has without limitations, some of which were wards widespread performance-based
changed little over the last 80+ years is not, identified by Ingberg when he initially pub- structural fire-resistance design,3 and they
in itself, necessarily indicative that structural lished his work.1 These include: are in the process of assembling a best
fire-resistance design is less than ideal. In 1. Heat transfer to bounding materials is practices guide on the design of concrete
fact, that buildings designed using the cur- not well represented by the product of tem- and steel structures.
rent method almost never experience struc- perature and time. While convection can be While the method that has been used to
tural failure in fire is a testament to the ro- represented by the product of time and design structural fire resistance for almost a
bustness of this design approach. However, temperature, radiation varies with tempera- century has resulted in safe buildings, use
these buildings have an unknown margin ture raised to the 4th power. A compartment of new design methodologies that over-
of safety (which is discussed more thor- fire with a temperature of 1200°C would come the inherent limitations of existing
oughly in the “From the Technical Director” have approximately two-and-a-half times methods will result in greater flexibility in
column in the Summer 2003 issue), and this the emissive power of a 900°C compart- design, and equal or greater safety and
method is not without its limitations. ment fire. economy to the public.
There are two main underpinnings of 2. The “fire load,” whether expressed in
the approach that is currently used for fire- units of mass per unit area (kg/m2 or lb/ft2) 1 Ingberg, S., “Tests of the Severity of Building
resistance design in buildings: the standard or energy potential per unit area (MJ/m2) is Fires,” Quarterly of the National Fire
fire test method and the minimum accept- not in and of itself representative of fire Protection Association, July 1928, pp. 43-60.
able time before pass-fail criteria are severity. The ease with which a material 2 Engineering Guide: Fire Exposures to
exceeded. burns is also a factor. For example, al- Structural Elements, Society of Fire
The Standard Fire Test Methods of though wood has a heat of combustion that Protection Engineers, Bethesda, MD, 20814.
Building Constructions and Materials, first is approximately half that of most plastics 3 Almand, K., et al., “NIST-SFPE Workshop
published as ASTM E-119 in 1918, specifies (in other words – burning one kg of a plas- for Development of a National R&D
a standard time-temperature curve and tic can liberate twice the energy as burning Roadmap for Structural Fire Safety Design
pass-fail criteria for elements of structures an equal mass of wood), wood’s heat of and Retrofit of Structures: Proceedings,”
subjected to the test. Limitations of design- gasification (a measure of how much en- NISTIR 7133, National Institute of Standards
ing based on the results of the standard test ergy it takes to create vapors) is two to five and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 2004.

60 Fire Protection Engineering N UMBER 26

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