1.

6 PHYLOGENETIC STATUS, CHARACTERISTICS AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE

FOLLOWING FOSSILS:

(A) Australopithecines:
Australopithecus, meaning “southern ape,”
is a genus of hominins that evolved in
eastern Africa approximately four million
years ago and became extinct about two
million years ago. It includes several different
fossil species, most of which were found
in East Africa. The genus Homo evolved
from a common ancestor shared with
Australopithecus about two million years
ago. Australopithecus had characteristics
more similar to great apes than to modern
humans.
Geographical Distribution:
Australopithecus fossils have been primarily
discovered in eastern Africa, with significant finds
in regions like Ethiopia, Tanzania, and South Africa.
Classification/Types: Paranthropus Versus
Australopithecus
There were several species within the genus
Australopithecus. Some of the notable ones Paranthropus Australopithecus

include: A genus name often applied to

robust fossil hominids first found
A fossil bipedal primate with both
ape-like and human
in South Africa in 1938 characteristics, found in pliocene
and lower Pleistocene deposits
» Australopithecus anamensis (about 4.2 (C.4 million to 1 million year old)
in Africa
million years ago). AKA: Robust australopithecines AKA: Gracile australopithecines

» Australopithecus afarensis (about 3.9 - Has a more prominent sagittal crest Has a forward-pointing great toe, a
strong heels strike, and powerful
2.9 million years ago). toe-off

Has larger teeth known as molars Has smaller teeth and a

and larger jaw smaller jaw
» Australopithecus africanus (about 2 - 3
million years ago). Species:
Paranthropus robustus
Species:
australopithecus afarensis
Paranthropus boisei, australopithecus africanus
Paranthropus aethiopicus australopithecus anamensis
» Australopithecus sediba (about 1.95 - australopithecus bahrelghazali
australopithecus garhi
1.78 million years ago). australopithecus sediba

» Paranthropus robustus (included within

the genus Australopithecus).

Characteristics:
» Australopithecus had a cranial capacity slightly in excess of 400 cubic centimeters.
» Their teeth were more similar to the great apes, with larger canines and molars than in
modern humans.
» The skull showed ape-like features, such as a U-shaped jaw, prominent brow ridges, and
a sloped forehead.
» They demonstrated sexual dimorphism, with males being up to 50 percent larger than
females.

ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL 39
 » Australopithecus was bipedal
but likely spent some time in
trees as well.
» Their limb bones, hip bones,
and big toe arrangement
indicate adaptations to upright
posture and bipedal walking.
» They had a reduced dentition
and jaw size compared to
earlier hominins, showing a
trend in human evolution

Phylogenetic Status:
Australopithecus is considered an early hominin genus that predates the genus Homo. While they
share some features with modern humans, Australopithecus did not lead directly to the human
lineage. The genus Homo evolved from a common ancestor with Australopithecus about two
million years ago and represents a separate branch of hominin evolution.

40 ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL
 (B) Homo Habilis:
Homo habilis, meaning “handy man,” is an early hominin species that lived during the early
Pleistocene, approximately 1.75 to 2 million years ago. The discovery of fossils in Kenya and
Tanzania indicated that Homo habilis individuals had cranial capacities ranging from over 650
cubic centimeters to close to 800 cubic centimeters.
Geographical Distribution:
Fossils of Homo habilis have been found in East Africa, specifically in regions of Kenya, Tanzania,
and Olduvai.
Characteristics:
» Homo habilis was named “handy man” because it was believed to be a tool-maker. Its
hands were similar to those of modern humans, and it showed early signs of developing
manual dexterity.
» Compared to Australopithecus africanus, Homo habilis had a larger head, shorter and
rounder neck, a relatively flat and less protruding face, and teeth that were less massive
than those of southern apes.
» The cranial capacity of Homo habilis ranged from over 650 to close to 800 cubic
centimeters, indicating some advancement in brain size compared to its Australopithecus
predecessors.
» They were likely omnivorous, incorporating meat into their diet and showing signs of early
tool use, such as simple stone tools used for hunting and scavenging.
Stone Tools and Cultural Behavior:
» Homo habilis is associated with the first evidence of stone tool usage in the archaeological
record. The stone tools were crude choppers, made by removing flakes along one side of
a pebble to create an irregular cutting edge. These tools were likely used for butchering
and processing animal carcasses.
» The use of tools for hunting and processing meat suggests a shift towards more advanced
hunting and scavenging
behaviors, which might have
played a significant role in the
evolutionary success of Homo
habilis.
» They likely lived in small bands
or groups with stable camp
sites, showing some degree of
social organization.
» Homo habilis showed early
signs of cultural behavior,
including the division of
labor based on sex and
communication through visual
signals and simple audible
sounds.
Phylogenetic Status:
» Homo habilis is considered a
transitional species between
Australopithecus and early members of the genus Homo.
» Its fossils represent the first appearance of the human genus Homo and are significant in
the evolutionary history of hominins.
» The discovery of stone tools in association with Homo habilis fossils suggests a shift in
behavior, with a greater reliance on technology and adaptation to changing environments.

ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL 41
 Coexistence with Other Hominins:
» Homo habilis likely
coexisted with other
hominin species, such as
Australopithecus africanus
and Paranthropus
robustus, in Africa during
the early Pleistocene.
» The coexistence of these
species might have
led to competition for
resources and ecological
niches, contributing to
evolutionary changes and
adaptations in the human
lineage.
Cultural Advancements:
» The use of stone tools and hunting behavior demonstrated by Homo habilis marked a
significant step in cultural and technological advancements in early human evolution.
» The development of stone tools was a critical milestone in human history, leading to
further innovations and cultural complexity in later hominin species.

CLIFF NOTE CLIFF NOTE CLIFF NOTE

42 ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL
 (C) Homo erectus:
Homo erectus is an extinct species of early hominins that first appeared about 1.6 million years ago
and is believed to have lived for at least 600,000 years. Homo erectus emerged during the Pleistocene
interglacial period. This species is considered an important transitional form between Australopithecus
and Homo sapiens.
Biological Features Homo Erectus Versus
Homo erectus displayed several Homo Sapiens
distinctive biological features: Homo Erectus Homo Sapiens
» Brain Size: Homo erectus had a An extinct species of archaic
larger brain compared to earlier humans that lived throughout
most of the Pleistocene
Primate species to which
modern humans belong
species, with cranial capacities geological epoch
ranging from 775 to 1,100 cubic Refers to 'upright man’ Refers to 'man who thinks
centimeters, closer to the size of
An extinct species A presently thriving species
modern human brains (1,130 to
Evolved from European
1,260 cubic centimeters). Evolved from
early modern humans
Australopithecus around 2 Mya
about 300,000 years ago
» Nasal Structure: They possessed a
Lived in Africa and Eurasia Widely-distributed all over
nose with downward-facing nostrils, by 1.8 Mya the world
similar to modern humans, which Java man, Yuanmou Man,
might have been an adaptation to Lantian Man, Nanjing Man. Peking
Man, Meganthropus, Solo Man,
Homo sapiens sapiens and
Homo sapiens idaltu (extinct)
colder climates, warming cold air and Tautavel Man are some are the two subspecies
subspecies
before it entered their lungs.
Brain size was 850 cc-1100 cc Bain size is 1300 cc
» Sexual Dimorphism: Although there
Comparatively less intelligent Intelligent
was sexual dimorphism in Homo
Has small teeth
erectus, it was less pronounced than Had large teeth

in earlier species, with males being Had heavily built jaws Has less heavily built jaws

only 20 to 30 percent larger than Had heavy eye ridges and Has less heavy eye ridges
more prognathism and less prognathism
females.
Chin is less prominent Chin is more prominent
» Cranial Features: Homo erectus Facial features are similar
Facial features were similar
had a prominent brow, a face that apes to modern man
pointed downward, and a more Had thicker and stronger bones Has less thick and weaker
throughout the skeleton bones
primitive skull compared to Homo
Legs are short and arms are
sapiens. Had longer legs and
slender arms less slender

Shorter Taller

Used a primitive speech Shows modern speech

Homo erectus Javanicus (Java Man)
Sexual dimorphism was Sexual dimorphism is
more pronounced
» Fossils of Homo erectus javanicus less pronounced

were found in Java, Indonesia.

» Their cranial capacity ranged from 775 to 900 cubic centimeters.
» They were approximately five feet tall and weighed around 70 kg.
» Physical characteristics included a low and slanting forehead, prognathic face, massive jaws
with large teeth, and heavy bony eyebrow ridges.
» Homo erectus javanicus used stone tools for hunting and butchering animals.

Homo erectus Pekinensis (Peking Man)

» Fossils of Homo erectus pekinensis were discovered near Peking (Beijing), China.
» They had a larger cranial capacity, ranging from 850 to 1200 cubic centimeters, compared
to Homo erectus javanicus.
» Lived approximately 1.5MYA to 5,00,000 years ago.
» Similar to Homo erectus javanicus, they also used stone tools for hunting and butchering
animals.

ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL 43
 Cultural Development
» Homo erectus populations
were hunters and gatherers,
and evidence of organized
hunting has been found in
Europe.
» They learned to use fire
for cooking purposes, as
evidenced by findings in
Hungary and China, which
improved their diet and
provided warmth.
» Nomadic in nature, they
roamed widely in small groups
or extended families, adapting
to changing environments.
» Some Homo erectus groups
began to use animal skins for
clothing, providing protection
from adverse weather
conditions.
» They likely used rudimentary
visual signals and simple
audible sounds for
communication.
Tool-Making Ability
» Homo erectus displayed
advanced tool-making abilities, representing a significant technological advancement
compared to earlier hominin species.
» The chopper tradition, witnessed in Java and Peking Man, involved striking stone flakes
from a core and shaping them further by chipping on one side.
» Development of the biface core tool, or hand axe, was another significant advancement,
enabling more efficient skinning of animals and preparation of skins.
» Homo erectus used stone tools for hunting and butchering various animals, including
deers, antelopes, bears, wild oxen, and elephants. They also used bone and wooden tools.
» Two main stone tool industries, the Olduwan and Acheulian industries, characterized their
tool-making culture.

Homo erectus Pekinensis (Peking Man)

» Fossils of Homo erectus pekinensis were discovered near Peking (Beijing), China.
» They had a larger cranial capacity, ranging from 850 to 1200 cubic centimeters, compared
to Homo erectus javanicus.
» Lived approximately 1.5MYA to 5,00,000 years ago.
» Similar to Homo erectus javanicus, they also used stone tools for hunting and butchering
animals.

44 ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL
 Phylogenetic Status of Homo erectus:
Homo erectus, an important transitional species in human evolution, emerged around 1.6 million
years ago and lived for about 600,000 years. It bridged the gap between Australopithecus and
Homo sapiens. With a larger brain size, reduced sexual dimorphism, and advanced tool-making
skills, Homo erectus showed significant biological and cultural advancements. They were hunters,
used fire, and made sophisticated stone tools.
Phylogenetic studies suggest that Homo erectus is a direct ancestor of later hominin species,
including Neanderthals and Homo sapiens. Their migration out of Africa was facilitated by their
adaptive abilities. Although no longer extant, Homo erectus’s impact on human evolution and
cultural development remains profound. Understanding this species sheds light on our ancient
past and the origins of our species.
Significance of Homo Erectus
1. Homo erectus fossils provide evidence of the transition from opportunistic scavenging to
cooperative and organized big-game hunting, marking a crucial development in human
behavior.
2. They are the first hominin species known to have discovered and used fire, which had profound
implications for their survival and cultural development.
3. The development of systematic tool-making
skills in Homo erectus marked a major
advancement in human technology, enhancing
their ability to interact with and manipulate
their environment.
4. The presence of home bases and organized
campsites indicates a level of social
organization and territorial behavior in Homo
erectus populations.
5. Natural selection likely acted on specific
traits in Homo erectus, favoring increased
body size, longevity, and the development of
cultural adaptations such as the use of fire
and advanced tool-making.
6. Homo erectus’ intelligence was intermediate
between apes and modern humans, suggesting
cognitive developments over earlier hominin
species.
7. Their skills as efficient tool-makers and
cooperative game hunters set them apart
from their predecessors, contributing to their
success and long-lasting existence.
8. Homo erectus is considered the characteristic
species of the Lower Paleolithic age,
representing a significant stage in human
evolution.
9. By the time Homo erectus started to decline around 275 thousand years ago, many of the
salient features found in modern humans had already become established in this species.
10. Homo erectus is the first hominin species known to have migrated out of Africa, spreading
to various regions across the globe. Their successful migration and adaptation to different
environments demonstrate their capabilities as a highly adaptable species.

ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL 45
 (D) Neanderthal Man:
Neanderthal man lived during the late Pleistocene period and was found in the
Neanderthal Valley, Germany.
Their existence began around 150,000 years ago, thriving in Europe, Asia, and North
America until they went extinct approximately 25,000 years ago.

Key Fossil Discoveries:

» Significant Neanderthal fossil findings include Le Moustier, La Chapelle-aux-Saints, and Mt.

Carmel (Tabun Cave, Skhul Cave, El-Wad Cave).

Diversity:
» Recent studies indicate the presence of three
distinct Neanderthal sub-groups, with minor
variations, and a potential fourth group in
western Asia.
» Migration between these sub-groups
occurred, and the size of the Neanderthal
population fluctuated over time.
Interbreeding with Modern Humans:
» Analysis of the Neanderthal genome confirms
limited interbreeding with early modern
humans.
» Europeans and Asians share about 1-4%
of Neanderthal DNA, while Africans do
not possess any Neanderthal genetic
contributions.
» The interbreeding most likely took place in the
Levant region between 50,000 to 90,000 years
ago.

46 ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL
 Physical Characteristics:
» Neanderthals exhibited human-like features with distinctive facial attributes and a robust
physique, well-adapted to cold climates.
» Their average height was shorter than modern humans, and they had larger brain sizes,
around 1500 cubic centimeters.
» Notable features included a thick, low and slanting forehead, prominent brow ridges, no
chin, and a rounded brain case.
» They had strong limb bones with large joints, indicating a powerful musculature
Environment:
» Neanderthals inhabited diverse environments across Europe and the Middle East,
coexisting with changing climatic conditions.
» Ice Ages and full glacial conditions occurred around 40,000 years ago.
Tool Culture:
» Neanderthals transitioned from the Abbevillian and Acheulian cultures to the Mousterian
tradition.
» They crafted symmetrical and sharp tools made from stone flakes and utilized long
wooden spears with stone tips for hunting.
» Evidence suggests group hunting, butchering of animals, and use of fire for cooking and
warmth.

Cultural Development:
» N e a n d e r t h a l s
demonstrated cultural
advancement by using
animal hides for clothing
and burying their dead.
» Evidence of symbolic
abilities, such as cave
paintings and flower
cultivation, points to
concepts of life and death
and rituals.
» Extinction: Fossil and
climatic evidence
indicates a decline in
Neanderthal diversity
and inbreeding.
» Challenging
environmental conditions and limited adaptability contributed to their extinction.

CLIFF NOTE CLIFF NOTE CLIFF NOTE

ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL 47
 Controversies Regarding Classical and Progressive Varieties:

La Chapelle-aux-Saints Mount Carmel

Feature
(Classic Type) (Progressive Type)
Pronounced ridges over eye
Brow Ridges Less pronounced brow ridges
sockets

Transition towards modern

Facial Features Robust facial structure
human

Nose Shape Flatter and broader noses Less flat and refined noses

Larger brain size (around 1600 Brain size similar to modern

Cranial Capacity
cc) humans (around 1400-1600 cc)

Less pronounced receding chin,

Chin Receding chin, lacks definition
showing some development

Geographical Mount Carmel region,

Europe (Correze, France)
Distribution Palestine, Middle East

Earlier periods (some remains

Late Pleistocene (around 40,000
Time Period dating back to 250,000 years
years ago)
ago)

Levalloiso-Mousterian industry
Mousterian culture (stone tools with evidence of cultural
Cultural Artifacts
like scrapers and points) sophistication (burial practices
and rituals)

The variation in physical features between the Classic and Progressive Neanderthals is a significant
controversy. Classic Neanderthals from Europe exhibited pronounced brow ridges, robust facial
features, a muscular build, flatter noses, and larger brains than modern humans. In contrast,
Progressive Neanderthals from the Middle East had less pronounced features, a less massive
build, and less prominent brow ridges.
The controversy arises from whether Progressive Neanderthals were less different from modern
humans compared to Classic Neanderthals. Some suggest that Progressive Neanderthals may
represent a transitional phase in human evolution towards modern humans, while Classic
Neanderthals adapted to Ice Age Europe’s harsh climate. However, climate and morphological
studies indicate coexistence and intermingling of both varieties in the same region.
Phylogenetic Relationship:
The evolutionary relationship between Neanderthals and modern humans has sparked speculation
and debate. Originally considered intermediate ancestors between Homo erectus and modern
humans, Neanderthals’ distinctive features and limited geographic range led to their exclusion
from this category.

48 ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL
 Three interpretations of their relationship exist:
a. Unilinear Evolution, viewing Neanderthals as intermediate ancestors;
b. Separate Lineages, where Neanderthals are Homo sapiens with unique features, yet selective
pressures remain unclear; and
c. Pre-Neanderthals, suggesting a pre-existing Homo sapiens population migrated and
underwent natural selection
in Europe, leading to
Neanderthal characteristics.
Recent genetic testing of
Neanderthal DNA supports
a shared common ancestor
with modern humans about
500,000 years ago. While the
Neanderthal genome is almost
identical to modern humans,
ongoing research continues
to shape our understanding
of their precise phylogenetic
status.

(E) Rhodesian man:

The Kabwe cranium, also known as the Broken Hill cranium, is a fossilized human head
discovered in 1921 near Kabwe, Zambia. It was the first premodern Homo fossil found in Africa
and is often referred to as Rhodesian man.
Composition: The Rhodesian man skull closely resembles the Neanderthal skull but exhibits some
unique features. The presence of a prominent forward nasal spine characteristic of modern
humans suggests it may be a new species, Homo rhodesiensis.
Characteristics:
» Greater average brain volume (1212 cm3)
» Rounded parietal bones giving the skull a barrel-like appearance
» Cranial capacity ranging between 1250 and 1400cc
» Inflation of maxillary bones leading to midfacial prognathism and large noses
» Formation of a retromolar gap in the mandible
Significance of Discovery: The discovery of Rhodesian man provided valuable insights into the
early stages of human evolution in Africa. It prompted discussions about the relationship between
Neanderthals and modern humans and whether Neanderthals could be considered ancestors of
Homo sapiens.
Conclusion: The Rhodesian man, represented by the Kabwe cranium, is an important fossil
find that sheds light on the phylogenetic status and characteristics of early hominids. Its unique
combination of features indicates it may be a new species in the human evolutionary tree. Further
research and discoveries are needed to fully understand the significance of Rhodesian man in the
broader context of human evolution.

ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL 49
 (F) Homo sapiens—Cromagnon, Grimaldi and Chancelede.
The transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens, marking the emergence of modern humans,
is a significant event in human evolution. While the exact timeline of this transition remains
uncertain, the first Homo sapiens fossils date back to at least 300,000 years ago. Early Homo
sapiens populations were initially identified under different names like Homo neanderthalensis,
Homo heidelbergensis, and Swanscombe man. However, due to their striking similarities, these
populations are now classified under Homo sapiens. Fossils of Homo sapiens exhibit reduced
brow ridges, a steep forehead, a high rounded cranial vault, a short face, and a pronounced chin.
They were robust but not as tall as Neanderthals.
Transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens: Several fossils have provided insights into
the transition from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens. For instance, the Steinheim skull from
Germany displays a cranial capacity of about 1,000 c.c. and features puffy eyebrow ridges with
a low forehead, showing characteristics of both Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. Similarly, the
Swanscombe skull, with a cranial capacity of approximately 1,320 c.c., exhibits traits resembling
Homo sapiens. Another crucial discovery is the Ehringsdone skull from Germany, with a cranial
capacity of 1450 c.c., displaying features akin to both Neanderthal man and Homo sapiens,
indicating an intermediate phase.
Cromagnon Man: Around 33,000 years ago, Homo sapiens close to modern humans lived in
Europe and other parts of the world, known as Cro-Magnon Man. They were about 180 cm tall
with a large skull, broad face, rounded forehead, narrow nose, and a prominent chin. Unlike their
predecessors, they lacked eyebrow ridges. The cranial capacity of Cro-Magnon Man was about
1600 c.c. They were swift-footed, cave-dwelling forms, considered expert hunters. Their stone
tools demonstrated high technological precision, and they were known for their art, creating cave
paintings, ornaments, and engravings.
Grimaldi: The Grimaldi fossils, discovered in France and Italy, are around 45,000 to 35,000 years
old. They display a cranial capacity of 1530 c.c. and exhibit physical features with affinities to
the Negroids. The Grimaldi people were conversant with art, creating stunning cave paintings of
animals, and practiced ceremonial burials.
Chancelade: The Chancelade fossil, found in France, dates back to the Upper Paleolithic age. This
specimen exhibits a long and narrow skull, a cranial index of 70.9, slightly marked supraorbital
ridges, and a vertical forehead. The Grimaldi and Chancelade fossils are considered to have
resemblances to modern Eskimos.
Homo sapiens sapiens: The fully modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens, originated in Africa
around 200,000 years ago, later spreading to West Asia and beyond. They exhibited adaptability
to various climates, allowing them to colonize different regions across the globe. These modern
humans introduced innovations such as cave art, advanced tools, tailored clothing, and controlled
use of fire. They marked the completion of morphological evolution, with further progress related
to culture and language.
The journey from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens represents a remarkable transformation in
human evolution. Fossil findings provide valuable insights into this transitional phase, showcasing
a blend of characteristics from different species. The emergence of modern humans, Homo
sapiens sapiens, marked a turning point in human history, as they demonstrated a higher level of
cultural advancement and adaptability that allowed them to thrive in diverse environments. Their
art, tools, and social practices highlighted their cognitive capabilities, making them distinct from
their predecessors and paving the way for the development of complex societies and civilizations.

CLIFF NOTE

50 ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL
 Species Characteristics Height Physique Brain size (ml) Skull form Jaws/teeth Known date
(years ago)
Relatively
Small Thinner jaw;
Homo habilis small Relatively long
1 c.1.5 500-650 face; nose smaller, 2.1-1.6 million
(small) face; nose arms
developed narrow molars
developed

Flat, thick
Robust but skull with Robust Jaw;
Homo habilis Larger, flatter
c.1.5 ‘human’ 600-800 large occipital large narrow 2.1-1.6 million
(large) face
skeleton and brow molars
ridge

Flat, thick Robust jaw

Robust but Robust but 750-1250 skull with in larger
Homo ‘human’ 1.3-1.5 ‘human’ large occipital individuals; 1.8-0.3 million
erectus skeleton skeleton and brow smaller teeth
ridge than H. habilis

Reduced brow Robust but Teeth smaller

ridge; thinner ‘human’ Small or no except for
Neanderthals skull; large 1.5-1.7 skeleton; 1200-1750 ridge; shorter, incisors; chin 150000-30000
nose; mid face Adapted for high skull development
projection cold in some
Shorter
Early Modern
Small or no jaws than
modern skeleton;
ridge; shorter, 1.6-1.85 1200-1700 Small Skull Neanderthals: 130000-60000
Homo adapted for
high skull teeth may be
sapiens warmth
smaller

Human evolution path as per current stage of research

Approaches to Understand Modern Human Origin:
1. Complete/Total Replacement Model:
» Proposed by British Anthropologists Christopher Stringer and Peter Andrews (1988).
» Homo sapiens evolved in Africa around 200,000 years ago.
» Anatomically modern humans emerged exclusively in Africa through a speciation process.
» Migrated Homo sapiens did not interbreed with non-African human populations in other
continents.
» Populations in other continents, like Neanderthals, were considered different species
(e.g., H. Neanderthalensis).

ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL 51
 2. Partial Replacement Model:
» Majority of scholars believe modern humans evolved in Africa and later migrated to other
regions.
» Unlike complete replacement, this model suggests some interbreeding occurred between
African emigrants and pre-modern populations in other regions.
» Supporters argue that no speciation occurred, and resident pre-modern populations were
also members of H. sapiens.
» Proponents include Günter Bräuer, John Relethford, and Fred Smith (Relethford, 2001).
3. Regional Continuity Model/Multiregional Evolution Model:
» Proponents argue that local indigenous populations in Africa, Europe, and Asia continued
their evolutionary development from Middle Pleistocene to modern human.
» Anatomical and genetic similarity among different population groups is explained by gene
flow during the Pleistocene period.
» Mixing and gene flow prevented speciation, leading to the evolution of H. sapiens as a
polytypic species.
» All hominins following H. erectus are classified as H. sapiens.
» Accepts the influence of African emigrants throughout the world.
Critical Appraisal of the Models of Modern Human Evolution:
» Recent discoveries, palaeoanthropological findings, and data from sequenced ancient
and contemporary human DNA suggest a consensus view is emerging.
» The strong multiregional model is inadequate to explain modern human evolution.
» Evidence supports the potential for at least some amount of interbreeding between
African emigrants and indigenous populations in other regions.
» Both complete replacement and multiregional models are insufficient to fully explain
modern human evolution.

1.7 The biological basis of Life: The Cell, DNA structure and replication,
Protein Synthesis, Gene, Mutation, Chromosomes, and Cell Division:
Important Note:
This is to inform all students that Chapter 1.7 in our Anthropology syllabus covers topics that
have been extensively addressed in other sections of our course material.Hence,no separate
coverage is required here.

1.8 (a) Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology. Chronology : Relative and

Absolute Dating methods
(b) Cultural Evolution—Broad Outlines of Prehistoric cultures :
Important Note:
This is to inform all students that Chapter 1.8 in our Anthropology syllabus covers topics related
to archaeology that has substantial linkages with archaeology section/chapter (1.1)of paper2 so
it will be covered in paper 2 of the same document.

52 ONLINE | DELHI | JAIPUR | HYDERABAD | PUNE | AHMEDABAD | LUCKNOW | CHANDIGARH | GUWAHATI | RANCHI | PRAYAGRAJ | BHOPAL