Московский государственный университет экономики,

статистики и информатики

Московский государственный институт эконометрики,

информатики, финансов и права

Турук И.Ф.
Самойлова Т.Т.
Лобанова Е.И.

English for Students of Management

Москва, 2002
Турук И.Ф., Самойлова Т.Т., Лобанова Е.И. ENGLISH FOR STUDENTS OF
MANAGEMENT: Учебное пособие . / М. Московский международный институт
эконометрики, информатики, финансов и права. 2002.

© Турук Ирина Федоровна, 2002.

© Самойлова Тамара Тимофеевна, 2002
© Лобанова Евдокия Ивановна, 2002
© Московский международный институт эконометрики, информатики,
финансов и права, 2002
 СОДЕРЖАНИЕ

UNIT 1 ............................................................................................................ 4
UNIT 2 .......................................................................................................... 10
UNIT 3 .......................................................................................................... 16
UNIT 4 .......................................................................................................... 21
UNIT 5 .......................................................................................................... 28
UNIT 6 .......................................................................................................... 32
UNIT 7 .......................................................................................................... 36
UNIT 8 .......................................................................................................... 42
UNIT 9 .......................................................................................................... 45
UNIT 10 ........................................................................................................ 50
GRAMMAR REFERENCE ......................................................................... 57
BUSINESS CASE STUDY .......................................................................... 73
SUPPLEMENTARY READING ................................................................. 82

3
 UNIT 1
I. Information for study

Прочтите и постарайтесь понять текст.

MANAGEMENT: AN OVERVIEW
What Is Management?
Management is the process of achieving organizational goals through
engaging in the four major functions of planning, organizing, leading, and
controlling. This definition recognizes that management is an ongoing activ-
ity, entails reaching important goals, and involves knowing how to perform
the four major functions of management.

Fig. The Functions of management

Planning:
Setting goals and deciding
how best to achieve them
Controlling: Organizing:
Regulating activities Allocating and
to reach goals arranging resources
Leading:
Influencing others
to work toward goals
Management functions
Planning. Planning is the management function that involves setting
goals and deciding how best to achieve them. This function also includes con-
sidering what must be done to encourage necessary levels of change and in-
novation.
Organizing. Organizing is the management function that focuses on
allocating and arranging human and nonhuman resources so that plans can be
carried out successfully. It is through the organizing function that managers
determine which tasks are to be done, how tasks can best be combined into
specific jobs, and how jobs can be grouped into various units that make up the
structure of the organization. Staffing jobs with individuals who can success-
fully carry out plans is also part of the organizing function.
Leading. Leading is the management function that involves influenc-
ing others to engage in the work behaviors necessary to reach organizational
goals. Leading includes communicating with others, helping to outline a vi-
sion of what can be accomplished, providing direction, and motivating or-
ganization members to put forth the substantial effort required.
Controlling. Controlling is the management function that is aimed at
regulating organizational activities so that actual performance conforms to
expected organizational standards and goals. To do the necessary regulating,
managers need to monitor ongoing activities, compare the results with ex-

4
pected standards or progress toward goals, and take corrective action as
needed.
The Management Process
Although the four major functions of management form the basis for
the managerial process, several additional elements are considered key ingre-
dients of this process as well. The additional elements were identified by
management scholars Steven J. Carroll and Dennis J. Gillen on the basis of
their review of major studies on managerial work.

Knowledge Base
and Key
Management Skills

Work Management Performance

Work
Methods Functions (goal achievement)
Agenda
and Roles
• Planning
• Organizing
• Leading
• Controlling

Fig. An extended model of the management process

As indicated in the model, the functions of management form the cen-
tral part of the process. However, the model also shows that work methods
and managerial roles, as well as work agendas, feed into the management
functions. A manager's working knowledge and key management skills also
are important factors that contribute to high performance (achieving goals).
To understand how management can influence in an organization, we
need to define the organization.
For most of us, organizations are an important part of our daily lives.
By organization, we mean two or more persons engaged in a systematic ef-
fort to produce goods or services. We all deal with organizations when we at-
tend classes, deposit money at the bank, buy clothing, and attend a movie. We
are also influenced by organizations more indirectly through the products that
we use.
It is useful to keep in mind that the management process applies not
only to profit-making organizations but also to not-for-profit organizations. A
not-for-profit organization (sometimes called a nonprofit organization) is an
organization whose main purposes center on issues other than making profits.
Common examples of not-for-profit organizations are government organiza-
tions (e.g., the federal government), educational institutions (your college or
university), cultural institutions (New York's Carnegie Hall), charitable insti-
tutions (United Way), and many health-care facilities. Of course, environ-

5
mental factors (such as the state of the economy and actions by competitors)
also have a bearing on ultimate goal achievement.

II. Exercises
1. Ознакомьтесь со словами в разделе III и запомните их.*)
2. Найдите в тексте предложения, где употребляется герундий и пере-
ведите их на русский язык (см. грамматический справочник, стр. 78).
3. Напишите, от каких глаголов образованы существительные, взятые
из текста и дайте перевод этих глаголов.
Например: learning (сущ.) – to learn (гл.) – учить.
planning
organizing
leading
controlling
management
innovation
performance
4. Переведите письменно текст на русский язык, пользуясь словарем.
5. Выпишите из текста термины, переведите и запомните их.
6. Напишите определения к следующим терминам своими словами на
английском языке:
− management functions
− managerial process
− profit-making organization
− nonprofit organization.
7. Напишите развернутые ответы на следующие вопросы по содержа-
нию текста:
1) Why is management an ongoing activity?
2) What are the four major functions of management?
3) What does planning as the management function involve?
4) Which are the parts of the organizing function?
5) Which function of management includes influencing others to engage
in the work behaviours necessary to reach organizational goals?
6) What is controlling aimed at?
7) What forms the basis for the managerial process?
8) Why do you think organizations are an important part of our daily
lives?
8. Напишите на английском языке, как Вы понимаете:
“What is management?”

*)
Прослушайте слова на кассете и повторите их за диктором.
6
 III. Vocabulary items
management - руководство; управление; заведование; менедж-
мент; дирекция; администрация
to achieve goals - достигать цели
syn. to reach goals
planning - планирование
organizing - организация; процесс организации
leading - руководство
controlling - контроль; контролирование
to perform functions - выполнять функции
to involve - вовлекать; включать в себя (in); подразумевать,
предполагать
to set goals - поставить цели
change - перемена, изменение; сдвиг
innovation - нововведение, новшество
human resources - людские ресурсы
non human resources - нелюдские ресурсы
to carry out plans - выполнять, осуществлять планы
task - задача
job - работа
to make up the structure - составлять структуру организации
of the organization
to staff jobs - набирать кадры для выполнения работ
to engage behaviours in - привлекать возможности для выполнения рабо-
the work ты
to outline a vision - нарисовать картину (перен.)
to provide direction - обеспечить руководство
to motivate - мотивировать
to be aimed at - быть нацеленным на ...
to regulate activities - регулировать деятельность
performance - исполнение, выполнение; действие; производи-
тельность
to conform to - соответствовать чему-либо
to monitor activities - контролировать деятельность
to compare results - сравнивать результаты
to form the basis for ... - составлять основу чего-либо
key ingredients - ключевые ингредиенты, составные части
scholar - ученый
work method - метод работы
working knowledge - практические знания, необходимые для работы
management skills - навыки управления
to contribute to - содействовать; способствовать
to deal with - иметь дело с кем-либо, чем-либо
to influence through - влиять посредством чего-либо
management process - процесс управления
profit-making organiza- - прибыльные, ставящие перед собою цель-
tions получение прибыли, организации

7
not-for-profit organiza- - не ставящие себе целью извлечение прибыли,
tions = nonprofit organi- некоммерческие организации
zations
to make profit - получать прибыль; приносить прибыль
charitable institutions - благотворительные учреждения
health-care facilities - здравоохранительные организации
environmental factors - факторы окружающей среды
state of the economy состояние экономики
competitor - конкурент

IV. Test
1. Закончите предложения, выбрав необходимое слово или сло-
восочетание справа. Запишите ответы следующим образом: напри-
мер, 5)-m.

1) Management is an ongoing activity, entails a) the organizing function

reaching important goals, and involves knowing
how ... the four major functions of management.

2) The function of planning also includes consid- b) a manager's working

ering what must be done to encourage necessary knowledge
levels of ...

3) Staffing jobs with individuals who can suc- c) compare the results
cessfully carry out plans is also part of ...

4) To do the necessary regulating, managers need d) key ingredients

to monitor ongoing activities, … with expected
standards or progress toward goals, and take cor-
rective action as needed.

5) Although the four major functions of man- e) not-for-profit organiza-

agement form the basis for the managerial proc- tions
ess, several additional elements are considered ...
of this process as well.

6) ... and key management skills also are impor- f) to perform

tant factors that contribute to high performance
(achieving goals).

7) It is useful to keep in mind that the manage- g) change and innovation

ment process applies not only to profit – making
organizations but also to ...

8
 2. Выберите определения справа, соответствующие терминам
слева. Запишите ответы следующим образом: например, 5) – g.

1) management a) the management function that involves setting goals

and deciding how best to achieve them

2) planning b) two or more persons engaged in a systematic effort

to produce goods or services

3) organizing c) the management function that involves influencing

others to engage in the work behaviours necessary to
reach organizational goals

4) leading d) the management function that is aimed at regulating

organizational activities so that actual performance
conforms to expected organizational standards and
goals

5) controlling e) the management function that focuses on allocating

and arranging human and non-human resources so that
plans can be carried out successfully

6) organization f) the process of achieving organizational goals

through engaging in the four major functions of plan-
ning, organizing, leading and controlling

9
 UNIT 2
I. Information for study
Прочтите и постарайтесь понять этот текст.
THE CONCEPT OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT
Most well-run organizations attempt to develop and follow strategies,
large-scale action plans for interacting with the environment in order to
achieve long-term goals. A comprehensive statement of an organization's
strategies, along with its mission and goals, constitutes an organization's stra-
tegic plan. To learn where such strategies originate and how they are put into
action, we need to examine carefully an aspect of the planning function called
strategic management. Strategic management is a process through which
managers formulate and implement strategies geared to optimizing strategic
goal achievement, given available environmental and internal conditions. This
definition recognizes that strategic management is oriented toward reaching
long-term goals, weighs important environmental elements, considers major
internal characteristics of the organization, and involves developing specific
strategies.
The Strategic Management Process
The strategic management process is made up of several major compo-
nents. The process begins with identifying the organization's mission and stra-
tegic goals. The process also includes analyzing the competitive situation, tak-
ing into consideration both the external environment and relevant organiza-
tional factors. Once the situation has been carefully analyzed, managers can
begin to develop, or formulate, various strategies that can be used to reach
strategic goals. The part of the strategic management process that includes
identifying the mission and strategic goals, conducting competitive analysis,
and developing specific strategies is often referred to as strategy formulation.
In contrast, the part of the strategic management process that focuses on
carrying out strategic plans and maintaining control over how those plans are
carried out is known as strategy implementation. Strategy implementation is
increasingly highlighted as a distinct part of the strategic management process
because even the most brilliantly formulated strategies must be implemented
effectively in order to reach strategic goals.

Importance of Strategic Management

Strategic management is important to organizations for several reasons.
For one thing, the process helps organizations identify and develop a competi-
tive advantage, which is a significant edge over the competition in dealing
with competitive forces. For example, Disney has been able to gain a
competitive advantage in the family entertainment industry by creating
amusement parks, movies, and products based on the renowned Disney char-
acters.

10
 Strategy Formulation Strategy
Implementation
assess
environmental
factors

Conduct
Identify Develop Carry Out
Competitive
Current Specific Strategic
Analysis:
Mission Strategies: Plans
• Strengths
And • Corporate
Strategic • Weaknesses
• Business
Goals • Opportunities Maintain
• Functional Strategic
• Threats
Control

assess organizational
factors

Fig. The strategic management process

Another reason for the importance of strategic management is that it

provides a sense of direction so that organization members know where to ex-
pend their efforts. Without a strategic plan, managers throughout the
organization may concentrate on day-to-day activities only to find that a com-
petitor has maneuvered itself into a favorable competitive position by taking a
more comprehensive, long-term view of strategic directions. For example, the
Rayovac Corporation, a battery and flashlight maker based in Madison,
Wisconsin, had fallen behind competitors in the early 1980s because of its
aging product line, outdated packaging, and slowness in entering the market
for alkaline batteries (which became the industry standard). Since that time, a
new chairman and vice-chairman, the husband-and-wife team of Thomas and
Judith Pyle, have rejuvenated the company partially through a variety of
innovative new products.
Yet another reason for the importance of strategic management is that it
can help highlight the need for innovation and provide an organized approach
for encouraging new ideas related to strategies. For instance, Disney has a
special procedure for handling major innovations, whereby new ideas and ac-
companying financial considerations are forwarded to the strategic planning
group, which evaluates them for compatibility with the firm's overall strategy.
In addition, the process can be used to involve managers at various levels in
planning, thus making it more likely that the managers will understand the re-
sulting plans and be committed to their implementation.

11
 II. Exercises
9. Ознакомьтесь со словами в разделе III и запомните их.
10. Найдите в тексте предложения, где употребляется страдательный
залог. Переведите эти предложения на русский язык (см. граммати-
ческий справочник, стр. 68).
11. В приведенных ниже предложениях заполните пропуски следующими
словами и словосочетаниями, опираясь на текст:
long-term goals; a competitive advantage; strategies; innovation; new ideas;
environmental elements; relevant organizational factors.
1) Most well-run organizations attempt to develop and follow … .
2) This definition recognizes that strategic management is oriented toward
reaching … .
3) Strategic management weighs important … .
4) The strategic management process also includes analyzing the competitive
situation, taking into consideration both the external environment and … .
5) ... is a significant edge over the competition in dealing with competitive
forces.
6) Strategic management can help highlight the need for ... .
7) Strategic management can provide an organized approach for encouraging
... related to strategies.
12. Переведите письменно текст на русский язык, пользуясь словарем.
13. Напишите развернутые ответы на следующие вопросы, исходя из
содержания текста:
1) What does the definition of strategic management recognize?
2) What does the strategic management process begin with?
3) What does the strategic management process include?
4) Why is strategy implementation increasingly highlighted as a distinct
part of the strategic management process?
5) Why is strategic management important to organizations?
14. Напишите определения к следующим терминам своими словами на
английском языке:
− strategies;
− an organization's strategic plan;
− strategy formulation;
− strategy implementation;
− a competitive advantage.
15. Напишите на английском языке, как Вы понимаете:
“The concept of strategic management”.

12
 III. Vocabulary items

concept - концепция
strategic management - стратегическое руководство, ~ менеджмент
large-scale action - крупномасштабная акция, ~ операция
environment - окружение; окружающая среда
long-term goals - долгосрочные цели
strategic goals - стратегические цели
environmental condi- - условия окружения
tions
internal conditions - внутренние условия
strategic management - процесс стратегического управления;
process ~ руководства
competitive situation - конкурирующая обстановка
external environment - внешнее окружение
strategy formulation - формулировка стратегии
strategy implementa- - осуществление стратегии
tion
competitive advantage - конкурентное преимущество; преимущество
перед конкурентами
competition - конкуренция
competitor - конкурент
product line - товарный ряд, ассортимент
packaging - упаковка
innovation - нововведение, новшество
strategic planning - группа стратегического планирования
group
compatibility - совместимость; сочетаемость
overall strategy - всеобщая стратегия
achievement - достижение
mission - задача
to maintain - поддерживать
favorable - благоприятный
aging product time - устаревший ассортимент
outdated packaging - устаревшая упаковка
slowness - медлительность
approach - подход

13
 IV. Test

1. Выберите определения справа, соответствующие терминам

слева. Запишите ответы следующим образом: например, а) – 7.

a) competitive ad- l) large-scale action plans for interacting with the envi-
vantage ronment in order to achieve long-term goals;

b) strategy formula- 2) a comprehensive statement of an organization's

tion strategies, along with its mission and goals;

c) strategies 3) a process through which managers formulate and

implement strategies geared to optimizing strategic
goal achievement, given available environmental and
internal conditions;

d) strategy imple- 4) the process of identifying the mission and strategic

mentation goals, conducting competitive analysis, and develop-
ing specific strategies;

e) an organization's 5) the process of carrying out strategic plans and main-

strategic plan taining control over how those plans are carried out;

f) strategic man- 6) a significant edge over the competition in dealing

agement with competitive forces.

2. Выберите русские эквиваленты справа, соответствующие анг-

лийским словам, данным слева. Запишите ответы следующим образом:
например, 20) – b.

1) an organization’s strategic a) задача и стратегические цели орга-

plan низации
2) planning function b) благоприятное положение в конку-
ренции
3) strategic goal achievement c) анализ конкуренции

4) environmental and internal d) организованный подход

conditions
5) an organization's mission and e) медлительность при внедрении на
strategic goals рынок

6) internal characteristics of the f) стратегический план организации

organization

7) competitive analysis g) внутренние характеристики органи-

зации

14
8) to maintain control h) необходимость нововведений

9) to develop a competitive ad- i) функция планирования

vantage
10) a favorable competitive posi- j) развивать конкурентное преимуще-
tion ство

11) aging product line k) достижение стратегической цели

12) outdated packaging l) внешние и внутренние условия

13) slowness in entering the m) поддерживать контроль

market
14) need for innovation n) устаревший ассортимент

15) organized approach o) устаревшая упаковка

15
 UNIT 3
I. Information for study

Прочтите и постарайтесь понять этот текст.

MANAGERIAL KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS, AND PERFORMANCE

For managers to develop work agendas, act out roles, and engage in
planning, organizing, leading, and controlling, they need a sound knowledge
base and key management skills.
Knowledge Base
Although managers often switch companies and work in different
industries, they are apt to run into difficulties if they don't have a reasonably
extensive knowledge base relevant to their particular managerial job. A
knowledge base can include information about an industry and its technology,
company policies and practices, company goals and plans, company culture,
the personalities of key organization members, and important suppliers and
customers.
Key Management Skills
In addition to having a knowledge base, managers need three key types
of skills to carry out the various functions of management. A skill is the abil-
ity to engage in a set of behaviors that are functionally related to one another
and that lead to a desired performance level in a given area. For managers, the
three key skill types are technical, human, and conceptual.
Technical Skills. Technical skills are skills that reflect both an under-
standing of and a proficiency in a specialized field. For example, a manager
may have technical skills in a specialized field such as accounting, finance,
engineering, manufacturing, or computer science.
Human Skills. Human skills are skills associated with a manager's
ability to work well with others both as a member of a group and as a leader
who gets things done through others. Managers with effective human skills
typically are particularly adept at communicating with others and motivating
them to develop themselves and perform well in pursuit of organizational
goals.
Conceptual Skills. Conceptual skills are skills related to the ability to
visualize the organization as a whole, discern interrelationships among organ-
izational parts, and understand how the organization fits into the wider con-
text of the industry, community, and world. Managers need to recognize these
various elements and understand the complex relationships among them so
that they can take actions that advance the goals of the organization. Concep-

16
tual skills, coupled with technical skills, human skills, and a knowledge base,
are important ingredients in organizational performance.
Performance
What constitutes high performance in an organization? Performance ac-
tually is made up of two important dimensions: effectiveness and efficiency.
Effectiveness. Effectiveness is the ability to choose appropriate goals
and achieve them. Effectiveness, then, has two parts. First, goals must be ap-
propriate. Second, goals must be reached. For example, Nordstrom, Inc., a
Seattle-based apparel, shoe, and soft-goods retailer, is carving out an admira-
ble niche for itself by providing legendary good customer service at its 55 de-
partment stores (mainly on the West Coast). Sales associates (many of whom
are college graduates) gift-wrap packages for no extra cost and have even
been known to drop them off at customers' homes in a pinch. Piano players
serenade customers while they shop. According to one story, which the store
has not denied, a customer got his money back on a tire. Given that the com-
pany does not sell tires, the story illustrates the store's dedication to a return
policy based on "no questions asked". Bill Baer, a men's clothing salesman in
the Palo Alto store, says, "Nordstrom tells me to do whatever I need to do to
make you happy. Period." This stance has enabled the upscale chain to expand
into new areas of the country such as Washington, D.C., and New Jersey.
Nordstrom illustrates that effectiveness is essentially doing (accomplishing)
the right things.
Efficiency. In contrast, efficiency is the ability to make the best use of
available resources in the process of achieving goals. In the case of Nord-
strom, the store enjoys the highest sales per
In essence, organizations need to exhibit both effectiveness (doing the
right things) and efficiency (doing things right) in order to be good perform-
ers.
II. Exercises
16. Ознакомьтесь со словами в разделе III и запомните их.

17. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на подчеркнутые сло-

восочетания:
Пример: They need both a sound knowledge base and management skills.
Перевод: Они нуждаются как в прочной базе знаний, так и в навыках
управления.
a) Technical skills are skills that reflect both an understanding of and a
proficiency in a specialized field.

17
 b) Human skills are skills associated with a manager’s ability to work well
with others both as a member of a group and as a leader who gets
things done through others.
c) In essence, organizations need to exhibit both effectiveness (doing the
right things) and efficiency (doing things right) in order to be good per-
formers.
18. Найдите в тексте предложения, в которых употребляется Инфи-
нитив. Определите его формы и функции. Переведите эти предло-
жения на русский язык (см. грамматический справочник, стр. 82).
19. Переведите письменно текст на русский язык, пользуясь словарем.
20. Напишите развернутые ответы на следующие вопросы, исходя из
содержания текста:
1) Why is a knowledge base important to managers?
2) What do managers need to carry out the various functions of manage-
ment?
3) What does a skill mean?
4) What skills are associated with a manager’s ability to work well with
others?
5) What is the difference between effectiveness and efficiency in organ-
izational performance?
21. Напишите определения к следующим терминам своими словами на
английском языке:
− knowledge base;
− technical skills;
− conceptual skills;
− effectiveness;
− efficiency.
22. Напишите на английском языке, как Вы понимаете:
“Some ways that managers can acquire an appropriate knowledge base and
the key skills”.

18
 III. Vocabulary items

work agenda - рабочий план, рабочая повестка

knowledge base - база знаний
management skills - навыки управления
to switch companies - менять компании
apt - вероятный, возможный; склонный
to run into difficulties - сталкиваться с трудностями
relevant - уместный
supplier - поставщик
customer - заказчик; покупатель
ability - способность; умение
to be related to - быть связанным с
level - уровень
technical skills - технические навыки
proficiency - опытность
human skills - навыки общения с людьми
to associate - соединять, связывать
adept - знаток, эксперт; сведущий
to develop - развивать (-ся)
in pursuit of - в поисках
conceptual skills - понятийные навыки
to visualize - отчетливо представлять себе
to discern interrelation- - различать взаимосвязи
ships
community - общество; сообщество
to recognize - признавать; различать
to take actions - принять меры
performance - исполнение, выполнение, производитель-
ность
to constitute - составлять
dimension - величина; измерение
effectiveness - результативность; годность; польза
appropriate - подходящий, соответствующий
efficiency - эффективность; подготовленность
available resources - ресурсы, имеющиеся в наличии
to exhibit - показывать, проявлять
in order to - с целью; чтобы

19
 IV. Test
1. Закончите предложения, выбрав необходимое слово или слово-
сочетание справа. Запишите ответы следующим образом: например, 8)
– с.
1) Managers are apt to run into difficulties if they a) conceptual skills
don't have a reasonably extensive ... relevant to
their particular managerial job.

2) A ... is the ability to engage in a set of behav- b) doing the right things
iors that are functionally related to one another
and that lead to a desired performance level in a
given area.

3) … are skills that reflect both an understanding c) skill

of and a proficiency in a specialized field.

4) Managers with effective ... are particularly d) doing things right

adept at communicating with others and motivat-
ing them to develop themselves and perform well
in pursuit of organizational goals.

5) …, coupled with technical skills, human skills, e) human skills

and a knowledge base, are important ingredients in
organizational performance.

6) The given example illustrates that effectiveness f) technical skills

is essentially … .

7) The following example illustrates efficiency g) knowledge base

as … .

2. Выберите определения справа, соответствующие терминам

слева. Запишите ответы следующим образом: например, 6) – с.
1) conceptual skills a) information about an industry and its technology, company
policies and practices, company goals and plans, company cul-
ture, the personalities of key organization members and impor-
tant suppliers and customers;
2) effectiveness b) skills associated with a manager's ability to work well with
others both as a member of a group and as a leader who gets
things done through others;
3) knowledge base c) skills related to the ability to visualize the organization as a
whole, discern interrelationships among organizational parts
and understand how the organization fits into the wider context
of the industry, community and world;
4) efficiency d) the ability to choose appropriate goals and achieve them;
5)human skills e) the ability to make the best use of available resources in the
process of achieving goals

20
 UNIT 4
I. Information for study
Прочтите и постарайтесь понять этот текст.

MANAGERIAL JOB TYPES

Managerial jobs do vary somewhat on the basis of two important di-
mensions. One is a vertical dimension, focusing on different hierarchical lev-
els in the organization. The other is a horizontal dimension, addressing varia-
tions according to the area for which managers have major responsibility.
Vertical Dimension: Hierarchical Levels
Along the vertical dimension, managerial jobs in organizations fall into
three categories: first-line, middle, and top management. These categories can
be viewed as vertical differentiation among managers because they involve
three different levels of the organization.

TOP

Vertical
Levels MIDDLE
of
Management

FIRST-LINE

HR RD M F A E
u e e e a i c n
ms s v r n c g
a o e e k a o i
n u a l e n u n
r r o t c n e
c c p i e t e
e h m n i r
s &e g n i
n g n
t g

Horizontal Responsibility Areas

Fig. Types of managers by level and responsibility area

21
 First-Line Managers. First-Line Managers ( or first-line supervi-
sors) are managers at the lowest level in the hierarchy who are directly re-
sponsible for the work of operating (nonmanagerial) employees. They often
have titles that include the word “supervisor”. First-line managers are ex-
tremely important to the success of an organization because they have the ma-
jor responsibility of seeing that day-to-day operations run smoothly in pursuit
of organizational goals.
Because they operate at the interface between management and the rest
of the work force, first-line supervisors can easily find themselves in the mid-
dle of conflicting demands. At the same time, the power of first-line supervi-
sors has been gradually eroding because of such factors as union influence
and the increasing educational level of workers.
According to one recent review of research literature on first-line su-
pervisors, the autonomy and influence of first-line managers is likely to ebb
still further in the future. One reason is the increasing attempts by organiza-
tions to emulate the Japanese emphasis on worker participation in managing
the work-place. Another is the trend toward work teams.
Still another is the use of computers to keep track of many activities
formerly regulated by first-line managers. Finally, a growing number of spe-
cialists, particularly in fields involving sophisticated technology, provide ad-
vice and direction to work areas. One implication of these developments is
that the job of the first-line supervisor is likely to change toward a greater
emphasis on dealing with internal human relations and on representing the
unit externally.
Middle Managers. Middle managers are managers beneath the top
levels of the hierarchy who are directly responsible for the work of other
managers below them. The managers for whom they have direct responsibility
may be other middle managers or first – line managers. Middle managers also
sometimes supervise operating personnel, such as administrative assistants
and several specialists (such as engineers or financial analysts). Many differ-
ent titles are used for middle managers. Some typical titles include such words
as “manager”, “director of”, “chief”, “department head”, and “division head”.
Middle managers are mainly responsible for implementing overall organiza-
tional plans so that organizational goals are achieved as expected.
Organizations, particularly very large ones, often have several layers of
middle managers. For example, in recent years, giant General Motors has
generally had about 14 or 15 management levels. That number reflects a post-
World War II trend aimed at adding layers of middle management to help co-
ordinate expanding activities. By the early 1980s, however, that trend began
to reverse. At that point, many companies began cutting the number of levels

22
of management hierarchy in an attempt to lower costs, reduce the layers in-
volved in decision making, and facilitate communication.
One common result of having fewer layers is that the remaining mid-
dle-management levels gain greater autonomy and responsibility.
Top managers. Top managers are managers at the very top levels of
the hierarchy who are ultimately responsible for the entire organization. Top-
level managers are few in number; their typical titles include “chief executive
officer” (CEO), “president”, “executive vice president”, “executive director”,
“senior vice president” and sometimes “vice president”. Top-level managers
are often referred to as executives, although the term “executive” also is
sometimes used to include the upper layers of middle managers as well. Top
managers have direct responsibility for the upper layer of middle managers.
They typically oversee the overall planning for the organization, work to
some degree with middle managers in implementing that planning, and main-
tain overall control over the progress of the organization.

Horizontal Dimension: Responsibility Areas

In addition to their vertical differences, managerial jobs differ on a
horizontal dimension that relates to the nature of the area of responsibility in-
volved.
The three major types of horizontal differentiation among managerial
jobs on the basis of responsibility area are functional, general, and project
managers.
Functional managers are managers who have responsibility for a spe-
cific, specialized area (often called a functional area) of the organization and
supervise mainly individuals with expertise and training in that specialized
area. Common specialized, or functional, areas include finance, manufactur-
ing or operations, marketing, human resources management, accounting, qual-
ity assurance, and engineering.
General managers are managers who have responsibility for a whole
organization or a substantial subunit that includes most of the common spe-
cialized areas within it. In other words, a general manager presides over a
number of specialties or functional areas (hence the term “general”). General
managers have a variety of titles such as “division manager” and “president”,
depending on the circumstances. A small company usually will have only one
general manager, who is the head of the entire organization. Depending on
how it is organized, a large company may have several general managers (in
addition to the chief executive officer).
Project managers are managers who have responsibility for coordinat-
ing efforts involving individuals in several different organizational units who
are all working on a particular project. Because the individuals report not only
23
to managers in their specific work units but also to project managers. Project
managers usually must have extremely strong interpersonal skills to keep
things moving smoothly.
Project managers are frequently used in aerospace and other high-
technology firms to coordinate projects, such as airplane or computer project
development. They also are used in some consumer-oriented companies to
launch or stay on top of market development for specific products such as
cookies or margarine.

II. Exercises

23. Ознакомьтесь со словами в разделе III и запомните их.

24. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на подчеркнутые сло-
восочетания:
Пример: Managerial jobs in organizations fall into such categories as:
first-line, middle, and top management.
Перевод: Виды управленческой деятельности в организациях подпа-
дают под такие категории, как: управляющий первого звена, управ-
ляющий среднего звена и высшее руководство.

a) At the same time, the power of first-line supervisors has been gradually
eroding because of such factors as union influence and the unceasing edu-
cational level of workers.
b) Middle managers also sometimes supervise operating personnel, such as
administrative assistants and several specialists (such as engineers or fi-
nancial analysts).
c) Some typical titles include such words as “manager”, “director of”,
“chief”, “department head”, and “division head”.
d) General managers have a variety of titles, such as “division manager” and
“president”, depending on the circumstances.
e) Project managers are frequently used in aerospace and other high-
technology firms to coordinate projects, such as airplane or computer pro-
ject development.
f) They also are used in some consumer-oriented companies to launch or stay
on top of market development for specific products such as cookies or
margarine.
25. Найдите в тексте предложения, в которых употребляется причас-
тие настоящего времени – Participle I. Определите его формы и
функции. Переведите эти предложения на русский язык (см. грам-
матический справочник, стр. 80).

24
26. Переведите письменно текст на русский язык, пользуясь словарем.
27. Напишите развернутые ответы на следующие вопросы, исходя из
содержания текста:
a) What do a vertical dimension and a horizontal dimension differ in?
b) What are first-line managers directly responsible for?
c) Why can first-line supervisors easily find themselves in the middle of
conflicting demands?
d) What titles are used for middle managers?
e) Why did many companies begin cutting the number of levels of man-
agement hierarchy by the early 1980s?
f) What managers typically oversee the overall planning for the organiza-
tion?
g) What do functional areas include?
h) What does a general manager preside over?
i) Why must project managers usually have extremely strong interper-
sonal skills?
28. Напишите определения к следующим терминам своими словами на
английском языке:
− first-line managers /supervisors;
− middle managers;
− top managers;
− functional managers;
− general managers;
− project managers.
29. Напишите на английском языке, как Вы понимаете:
“The variation of managerial jobs on the basis of a vertical dimension and
a horizontal one”.
III. Vocabulary items
managerial jobs - управленческая, административная дея-
тельность (работа)
first-line manager - менеджер, управляющий первого (нижнего)
(first-line supervisor) звена
supervisor - контролер; надзиратель
work force - рабочая сила
worker participation - участие рабочих
work-place - место работы, рабочее место
work team - рабочая команда, рабочая группа
human relations - связи с людьми
middle manager - управляющий, менеджер среднего звена
chief - заведующий
department head - руководитель отдела

25
division head - руководитель подразделения
top manager - главный управляющий; менеджер верхнего
звена
chief executive officer - главный управляющий делами
executive vice president - исполнительный вице-президент
executive director - исполнительный директор; директор-
распорядитель
senior vice-president - первый вице-президент
executive - должностное лицо, руководитель, админи-
стратор (фирмы, компании)
functional manager - функциональный менеджер
general manager - главный управляющий; генеральный дирек-
тор
functional area - функциональная сфера, область
division manager - управляющий подразделением
project manager - руководитель проекта
differentiation - дифференциация
high technology - высокая технология
influence - влияние
level - уровень

IV. Test
1. Выберите определения справа, соответствующие терминам
слева. Запишите ответы следующим образом: например, 6) – m.
1) general managers a) managers at the lowest level in the hierarchy who
are directly responsible for the work of operating
(nonmanagerial) employees;
2) project managers b) managers beneath the top levels of the hierarchy
who are directly responsible for the work of other
managers below them;
3) first-line managers c) managers at the very top levels of the hierarchy
who are ultimately responsible for the entire organi-
zation;
4) top managers d) managers who have responsibility for a specific,
specialized area of the organization and supervise
mainly individuals with expertise and training in
that specialized area;
5) functional managers e) managers who have responsibility for a whole
organization or a substantial subunit that includes
most of the common specialized areas within it;
6) middle managers f) managers who have responsibility for coordinat-
ing efforts involving individuals in several different
organizational units who are all working on a par-
ticular project.

26
 2. Дополните предложения, выбрав необходимое слово или слово-
сочетание справа. Запишите ответы следующим образом: напри-
мер,7)– m.

1) One dimension is a vertical dimension, focusing a) first-line managers

on different … in the organization.
2) ... are extremely important to the success of an b) horizontal
organization because they have the major respon- differentiation
sibility of seeing that day-to-day operations run
smoothly in pursuit of organizational goals.
3) The power of first-line supervisors has been c) high-technology
gradually eroding because of such factors as ... . firms
4) … are mainly responsible for implementing d) hierarchical levels
overall organizational plans so that organizational
goals are achieved as expected.
5) Top-level managers are often referred to as ..., e) general manager
although the term “executive” also is sometimes
used to include the upper layers of middle manag-
ers.
6) The three major types of ... among managerial f) union influence and
jobs on the basis of responsibility area are func- the increasing educa-
tional, general, and project managers. tional level of workers
7) A small company usually will have only one ..., g) executives
who is the head of the entire organization.
8) Project managers are frequently used in aero- h) middle managers
space and other ... to coordinate projects, such as
airplane or computer project development.

27
 UNIT 5
I. Information for study

Прочтите, постарайтесь понять текст и запишите на полях ос-

новные термины.
DEFINING OPERATIONS MANAGEMENT
Operations management is the management of the productive proc-
esses that convert input into goods and services. Because of its close associa-
tion with manufacturing, operations management is sometimes called produc-
tion-operations management. Recently, though, the term “production” is in-
creasingly being dropped in favor of simply “operations management”, a term
that has less of a manufacturing connotation. The operations management
function is that part of the organization directly involved in producing the
primary goods and services.
In the case of a manufacturing organization such as Fanuc, the opera-
tions management function would include plan managers and all the other
managers who work in the factories (e.g., production managers, inventory
control managers, quality assurance managers, and line supervisors). If an or-
ganization's structure had corporate level, operations would also encompass
any manufacturing or operations vice presidents that exist as the corporate
level, as well as related corporate operations staff (such as those primarily
concerned with production, inventory, quality, facilities, and equipment).
In a service industry such as the hotel business, the operations man-
agement function would include hotel managers and the various managers
who work in the hotels (e.g., housekeeping managers, food and beverage
managers, and convention managers). Again. If there were a corporate level,
operation would also comprise managers and staff at the corporate level who
are directly involved in actually running the hotels (as opposed to managers
who are involved in other related functions, such as marketing and finance).
Regardless of whether an organization produces a service, a product, or both,
operations managers need to be acutely concerned about productivity.
The productivity-operations management linkage
Productivity is an efficiency concept that gauges the ratio of outputs
relative to input into a productive process. Effectiveness relates to the extent
to which performance reaches organizational goals. In contrast, efficiency ad-
dresses the resource usage (inputs) involved in achieving outcomes (outputs).
Productivity is aimed at assessing the efficiency aspect of organizational per-
formance – the ratio of outputs relative to inputs. As such, productivity can be
a useful tool for managers because it helps them track progress toward the
more efficient use of resources in producing goods and services.
Organizational productivity is often measured by using this equation:

28
 goods and services produced (outputs)
Productivity = —————————————————————————
labor + capital + energy + technology + materials (inputs)
An approach, like this one, that considers all the inputs involved in pro-
ducing outputs is sometimes referred to as total-factor productivity. Manag-
ers also use partial-factor productivity, a productivity approach that consid-
ers the total output relative to a specific input, such as labor. For example:
goods and services produced (outputs)
Productivity = ——————————————————
labor hours (labor input)

Manufacturing versus service organizations

Manufacturing and service organizations differ in several important re-
spects. Manufacturing organizations are organizations that transform input
into identifiable, tangible goods, such as soft drinks, cars, or videocassette re-
corders. Typically, the tangible goods they produce can be stored (at least to
some degree), and the untimate customer does not usually need to be present
while the transformation process is taking place. As a result, manufacturing
can often be done in centralized places, and the products can be shipped to
customers. In addition, a manufacturing concern can often avoid wasting ca-
pacity during slack periods by using available capacity to produce inventory
in anticipation of future sales.

II. Exercises

30. Прочтите и запомните слова в разделе III.

31. Найдите в тексте предложения, где употребляется сослагательное
наклонение (см. грамматический справочник на стр. 71) и переведи-
те их.
32. Подберите к словам в колонке слева близкие по значению эквивален-
ты из колонки справа. Запишите ответы следующим образом: на-
пример, 1-5.
1) to involve 1) activity
2) to gauge 2) to deal with
3) to concern with 3) to track
4) process 4) to assess
5) to follow 5) to encompass
6) operations management 6) production
33. Переведите письменно текст, пользуясь словарем.
34. Ответьте на вопросы по тексту.
1) What is operations management?
2) What is the function of operations management?

29
 3) What are the operations management functions in the case of manu-
facturing organizations?
4) What are the operations management functions in the case of service
industry?
5) What is productivity?
6) How does productivity help managers?

35. Напишите на английском языке как Вы понимаете: “Operations man-

agement”.

III. Vocabulary items

production operations - управление процессами производства
management
connotation - вторичное, дополнительное значение
primary goods and ser- - первичные товары и услуги
vices
to involve - вовлекать, включать в себя
corporate level - корпоративный уровень
to encompass - содержать, заключать в себе
to gauge - измерять, оценивать
total-factor productivity - совокупно-факторная производительность
(действие)
partial-factor productivity частично-факторная производительность
(действие)
to exist - жить, существовать, находиться
to relate - соотноситься
facilities and equipment - средства и оборудование
service industry - услуги в области промышленности
acutely - остро, сильно
to track - следить, выслеживать
labor (amer) = labour - труд, работа
(англ)
to store - снабжать, наполнять
to assess - оценивать
resources - ресурсы, источники
manufacturing - производственный
customer - покупатель
goal - цель

30
 IV. Test
1. Выберите определения к терминам из колонки слева и запишите
следующим образом: 10-b.
1. Operations management а) … is an efficiency concept that gauges the
ratio of outputs relative to input into a produc-
tive process.
2. Productivity b) … are organizations that transform inputs
into indentifiable, tangible goods, such as soft
drinks, cars or videocassette recorders.
3. Total-factor productivity c) … is a productivity approach that considers
the total output relative to specific input, such
as labour.
4. Partial-factor productiv- d) … is an approach, that considers all the in-
ity puts involved in producing outputs.
5. Manufacturing organiza- e) … is the management of the productive
tions processes that convert inputs into goods and
services.

2. Закончите предложения, выбрав необходимое слово или слово-

сочетание справа, запишите ответы следующим образом: например,
1)-m.

1) The operations management function (OMF) a) productivity

would include …
2) The operations management function is the b) the primary goods and
part of the organization that is involved in pro- services
ducing …
3) The operations management functions in the c) labor
hotel business include …
4) Whether an organization produces a service d) customers
or a product, operations managers need to be
acutely concerned about …
5) Effectiveness relates to the extent to which e) goods and services
performance reaches …
6) Productivity can be a useful tool for manag- f) organizational goals
ers because it helps them track progress toward
the more efficient use of resources in producing
…
7) A productivity approach considers the total g) hotel managers
output relative to a specific input, such as …
8) Products can be shipped to … h) plan managers

31
 UNIT 6
I. Information for study
Прочтите и постарайтесь понять текст.
STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (HRM)
At 3M, a company famous for fostering employee innovation, human
resource issues are increasingly an integral part of strategic management.
Thus 3M is at the forefront of a trend toward recognizing human resources as
a crucial element in the strategic success of organizations. In a growing num-
ber of organizations, such as 3M and CARE, high-level managers within the
human resource management function participate directly in strategy imple-
mentation. They also help coordinate human resource aspects of strategy im-
plementation. In this section, we review major aspects of the human resource
management process before exploring in greater depth the main reasons for
the growing strategic role of human resource management.
The HRM Process: An Overview
As suggested by the HRM process shown in Figure 12-1, human re-
source management encompasses a number of important activities. One criti-
cal aspect of the process, human resource planning, assesses the human re-
source needs associated with strategic management and help identify staffing
needs. The staffing component of the process includes attracting and selecting
individuals for appropriate positions. Once individuals become part of the or-
ganization, their ability to contribute effectively is usually enhanced by vari-
ous development and evaluation efforts, such as training and periodic per-
formance evaluations. Compensating employees for their efforts is another
important factor in the HRM process, because adequate rewards are critical
not only to attracting but also to motivating and retaining valuable employees.
Finally, managers must respond to various issues that influence work-force
perceptions of the organization and its treatment of employees.
In order to explore human resource management in an orderly fashion,
the various activities that make up the HRM process are discussed sequen-
tially in this part. The components, though, are actually highly interrelated.
For example, when a group of British financiers took over the British arm of
F.W. Woolworth from its American parent in 1982, the chain of 1000 stores
had a tarnished image and 30,000 employees with a reputation for poor ser-
vice. Investigation revealed many interrelated problems, such as poor em-
ployment interviewing practices (interviews typically lasted 10 minutes), little
training for either sales staff mangers, and a components of the HRM process
collectively reinforced the service problems.
Human resource professionals operating within human resource de-
partments typically play a major role in designing the various elements in the
HRM process and in supporting their use by line managers. Nevertheless, line

32
managers ultimately are responsible for the effective utilization of human re-
sources within their units and, thus, carry out many aspects of the HRM proc-
ess, particularly as they relate to implementing strategic plans
Fig. 12 – 1

Human Development
Resource Staffing and Compensation
Planning Evaluation

Maintaining Effec-
tive Work Force
Relationships

The Strategic Importance of HRM

Understanding the strategic potential of human resource management in
organizations is relatively recent phenomenon. In fact, the role of such man-
agement in organizations, as it is known today, has evolved through three
main stages. From early in this century until the mid -1960s, HRM activities
comprised a file maintenance stage, in which much of the emphasis was on
screening applicants, orienting new employees, recording employee-related
data for personnel purposes, and planning company social functions (such as
the company picnic).
The second stage, government accountability, began with passage of
the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (which forbids employment discrimination based
on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin) and continued as additional
laws, court rulings, and federal regulatory guidelines increasingly impacted
various aspects of employment, such as hiring and promotion decisions, pen-
sion plans, and health and safety issues. Of course, some laws, particularly
those governing relations with unions, existed before 1964, but the mid-1960s
ushered in an era of accelerated governmental regulation of employment is-
sues. As organizations attempted to gain greater control over activities that
could result in legal difficulties and large financial settlements, the HRM
function gained in importance. Indicative of the expense that can be involved,
under a 1973 consent decree (a court-sanctioned agreement in which the ac-
cused party does not admit wrongdoing but agrees to discontinue a practice),
AT&T agreed to raise the starting pay of women promoted to managerial po-
sitions so that their pay level would be equal to those of similarly promoted
men, at a cost of more that $30 million.
The third stage, which began in the late 1970s and early 1980s, can be
termed the competitive advantage stage. In this stage, human resource man-
agement is increasingly viewed as important for both strategy formulation and
33
implementation. Thus. under some circumstances, human resources can com-
prise a source of distinct competence that forms a basis for strategy formula-
tion. For example, 3M's notes scientists enable the company to pursue a dif-
ferentiation strategy based on innovative products. Under other circum-
stances, HRM activities may be used to support strategy implementation. For
instance, at Honda of America's Marysville, Ohio, plant, an emphasis on dif-
ferentiation through quality is supported by such HRM activities as training
programs, developmental performance appraisal processes, and promises of
job security. Human resource management often is an important ingredient in
the success of such strategy-related activities as downsizing, mergers, and ac-
quisitions . At the competitive advantage stage, then human resources are
considered explicitly in conjunction with strategic management, particularly
through the mechanism of human resource planning.

II. Exercises
36. Ознакомьтесь со словами в разделе III и запомните их.
37. Найдите в тексте нижеприведенные слова, определите их функции в
предложениях и запишите перевод (см. грамматический справочник
стр. 77-78).
building –
selling –
planning –
staffing –
attracting –
selecting –
training –
compensating –
motivating –
retaining –
interviewing –
38. Переведите письменно текст на русский язык, пользуясь словарем.
39. Напишите развернутые ответы на следующие вопросы, исходя из
содержания текста
1) What is an integral part of strategic management?
2) What are the major aspects of HRM?
3) What does HRM encompass?
4) What is one of the critical aspect of the process?
5) What does it associate with?
6) What does the staffing component include?
7) What are the three main stages in the activities of HRM?
5. Напишите определения к следующим терминам своими словами на
английском языке.
− human resource management
− file maintenance stage

34
 − competitive advantage stage
6. Напишите на английском языке как вы понимаете:
“What is the strategic human resource management?”
III. Vocabulary items
to be famous for - быть знаменитым чем-л.
to foster - поощрять
crucial element - решающий (критический) элемент
to coordinate - устанавливать правильное соотношение, ко-
ординировать стратегию
implement(ation) - орудие, инструмент; (выполнение)
overview - обзор
to encompass - окружать
to assess - оценивать
staffing needs - персональные (материальные) нужды
to contribute - способствовать, содействовать
to enhance - повышать (цену), увеличивать
to evaluate - оценивать, высчитывать
to interrelate - соотносить
- переправлять, перевозить
tarnished image - запятнанный имидж
to reveal - обнаруживать, открывать
to be responsible for - быть ответственным за
to evolve - развиваться, развертываться
to comprise - охватывать, включать в себя
to downsize - опускаться, снижаться
merger - слияние, объединение
acquisition - приобретение
to screen - выбирать, просеивать
to attract - привлекать
to select - отбирать, выбирать, подбирать
utilization - использование, утилизация
employee - служащий, работающий по найму
to compensate - вознаграждать, возмещать (убытки)
line manager - образ действия, (поведение, установка) ме-
неджера
competitive advantage - преимущественная степень в конкуренции
stage
activity - деятельность

IV. Test

1. Закончите предложения, выбрав необходимое слово или слово-

сочетание справа. Запишите ответы следующим образом: например,
1)-m.
35
1) Investigation revealed many inter- a) attracting and selecting
related …
2) The staffing component of the b) managers
process includes … and … individu-
als.
3) Line managers ultimately are re- c) effective utilization of HRM
sponsible for …
4) One critical aspect of the process - d) human resource management
… assesses the human resource
needs.
5) … encompasses a number of im- e) problems
portant activities.
6) … is another important factor in f) human resource planning
the HRM process.
7) … must respond to various issues g) compensating employees
that influence work-force perceptions
of the organization.

2. Выберите определения справа, соответствующим терминам

слева. Запишите ответы следующим образом: 10)-b.

1) Human resource profes- a) … may be used to support strategy imple-

sionals mentation.
2) Line managers b) … is an important ingredient in the success
of such strategy – related activities as downsiz-
ing, mergers, and acquisition.
3) The competitive advan- c) … are responsible for the effective utilisa-
tage stage tion of human resources within their units.
4) Human resources d) … can comprise a source of distinct compe-
tence that forms a basis for strategy formula-
tion.
5) HRM activities e) … play a major role in designing the various
elements in the HRM.
6) Human resource f) … is increasingly viewed as important for
managment both strategy formulation and implementation
in the HPM.

UNIT 7
I. Information for study
Прочтите и постарайтесь понять текст. Запишите на полях ос-
новные термины.
HOW LEADERS INFLUENCE OTHERS

36
 Why do people accept the influence of a leader? One major reason is
that leaders have power. In this section, we examine the major sources of
power and the ways that leaders can effectively use the power they potentially
have available.
Sources of Leader Power
Power is the capacity to affect the behavior of others. Leaders in or-
ganizations typically rely on some or all of six major types of power: legiti-
mate, reward, coercive, expert, information, and referent.
Legitimate Power. Legitimate power stems from a position's place-
ment in the managerial hierarchy and the authority vested in the position.
When we accept a job with an organization, we usually are aware that we will
be receiving directions related to our work from our immediate boss and oth-
ers in the hierarchy. Normally, we accept such directions as legitimate be-
cause these persons hold positions of authority. Hence legitimate power re-
lates to the position, rather than to the person per se.
Reward Power. Reward power is based on the capacity to control and
provide valued rewards to others. Most organizations offer an array of re-
wards, including pay raises, bonuses, interesting projects, promotion recom-
mendations, a better office, support for training programs, assignments with
high visibility in the organization, recognition, positive feedback, and time
off. The greater a manager's control over valued rewards, the greater that
manager's reward power.
Coercive Power. Coercive power depends on the ability to punish
others when they do not engage in desired behaviors. Forms of coercion or
punishment include criticisms, terminations, reprimands, suspensions, warn-
ing letters that go into an individual's personnel file, negative performance
appraisals, demotions, and withheld pay raises. The greater the freedom to
punish others, the greater a manager's coercive power.
Expert Power. Expert power is based on the possession of expertise
that is valued by others. Managers often have considerable knowledge, tech-
nical skills, and experience that can be critical to subordinates' success. To the
extent that a leader possesses expertise and information that is needed or de-
sired by others, the leader has expert power.

37
 Information Power. Information power results from access to and
control over the distribution of important information about organizational
operations and future plans. Managers usually have better access to such in-
formation than do subordinates and have some discretion over how much is
disseminated to work-unit members. The greater the control over important
information, the greater the information power.
Referent Power. Referent power results from being admired, person-
ally identified with, or liked by others. When we admire people, want to be
like them, or feel friendship toward them, we more willingly follow their di-
rections and exhibit loyalty toward them. Some observers argue that Lee
Iacocca’s initial success in turning around the Chrysler Corporation was based
partially on the fact that he possessed referent power in relation to the work
force. The more that a leader is able to cultivate the liking, identification, and
admiration of others, the greater the referent power.

Effective Use of Leader Power

Although all six types of power are potential means of influencing
others, in actual usage they may engender somewhat different levels of subor-
dinate motivation. Subordinates can react to a leader's direction with com-
mitment, compliance, or resistance. With commitment, employees respond
enthusiastically and exert a high level of effort toward organizational goals.
With compliance, employees exert at least minimal efforts to complete direc-
tives but are likely to deliver average, rather than stellar, performance. With
resistance, employees may appear to comply but actually do the absolute
minimum, possibly even attempting to sabotage the attainment of organiza-
tional goals. For example, when Chicago scrap-metal czar Cyrus Tang bought
the ailing McLouth Steel Products Corporation, he relied on legitimate and
coercive power to gain worker cooperation. Workers reacted with production
slowdowns and a wildcat strike that eventually led to the further deterioration
of the company and its sale to employees.
Managers usually rely on several different types of power in order to be
effective. When Jim Lynn was chosen to be chairman of the Aetna Life &
Casualty Company, the firm had just been through the painful process of a
competitive price-cutting program, had suffered write-offs from several ill-
fated acquisitions in noninsurance areas, and was facing the lowest earnings
in 9 years. At that point, Lynn, a 6-year veteran on Aetna's board of directors,
a previous partner in two prestigious law firms, and a former Nixon admini-
stration cabinet member, had a reputation for being effective with both han-
dling people and solving problems. In establishing himself at Aetna, he
clearly had the legitimate power of his new chairman's position. However, he

38
relied heavily on building referent power. According to one former Aetna sen-
ior vice president, Lynn went out of his way to "portray a peer relationship
with everybody". He also used reward power to boost the morale of the heads
of Aetna's three principal businesses, each with revenues of more than $3 bil-
lion, by awarding them the title of president in recognition of their major roles
in the company.

II. Exercises

40. Прочтите слова в разделе III и запомните их.

41. Переведите предложения, обращая внимание на подчеркнутые вы-
ражения:
Пример: The greater the price on the good, the greater the tax on the good.
Перевод: Чем выше цена на товар, тем больше налог на него.
1) The more we read, the more we know.
2) The greater a manager's control over valued rewards, the greater that
manager's reward power.
3) The greater the freedom to punish others, the greater a manager's
coercive power.
4) The greater the control over important information, the greater the
information.
5) The more we work, the more we get.
42. Найдите в тексте предложения, где сказуемое выражено в страда-
тельном залоге. Определите время. Переведите эти предложения на
русский язык (см. грамматический справочник, стр. 70).
43. Переведите письменно текст на русский язык, пользуясь словарем.
44. Напишите развернутые ответы на следующие вопросы, исходя из
содержания текста:
1) What are the sources of leader power?
2) What does legitimate power stem from?
3) What is reward power based on?
4) What does coercive power depend on?
5) What is expert power based on?
45. Дайте письменно определения к следующим терминам на английском
языке:
− referent power
− information power
− power.
46. Напишите на английском языке, как Вы понимаете:
“How do leaders influence others?”

39
 III. Vocabulary items
leader power - руководящая власть (сила)
legitimate power - законодательная власть
reward power - поощрительная власть
coercive power - принудительная власть
expert power - экспертная власть
information power - информационная власть
referent power - власть эталона
promotion - содействие (реклама); продвижение
bonus - премия
to train - учить, обучать
to gain - получать, приобретать
slowdown - отсталый, медленный
deterioration - ухудшение, изнашивание
competitive - конкурентный
price-cutting program - программа снижения (уменьшения) цен
write-off - списывание со счета; аннулирование (дол-
гов)
ill-fated - злополучный, несчастный
acquisitions - приобретения
noninsurance areas - необеспеченные районы (области, зоны)
revenue - годовой доход, государственный доход

IV. Test

1. Закончите предложения, выбрав необходимые словосочетания

справа. Запишите ответы следующим образом: например, 1) – g.

1) Managers usually rely on several different a) referent power

types of power … .
2) The use of coercive power has a strong b) being effective with both
tendency … . handling people and solving
problems
3) Nixon administration cabinet member had c) to provoke resistance in
a reputation for ... . subordinates
4) Nixon relied heavily on building … . d) in order to be effective
5) He also used reward power to boost the e) in recognition of their major
morale of the heads of Aetna’s three principal roles in the company
businesses, each with revenues of more than
$3 billion, by awarding them the title of
president … .

40
 2. Выберите определения справа, соответствующие терминам
слева. Запишите ответы следующим образом: например, 5) – h.

1) Power … a) is based on the possession of expertise that is

valued by others.
2) Legitimate power … b) is the capacity to affect the behavior of others.
3) Reward power … c) results from being admired, personally identi-
fied with, or liked by others.
4) Coercive power … d) is based on the capacity to control and provide
valued rewards to others.
5) Expert power …. e) results from access to and control over the dis-
tribution of important information about organiza-
tional operations and future plans.
6) Information power f) depends on the ability to punish others when
… they do not engage in desired behaviors.
7) Referent power … g) stems from a position's placement in the mana-
gerial hierarchy and the authority vested in the po-
sition.

41
 UNIT 8
I. Information for study
Прочтите и постарайтесь понять текст.
CONTROL AS A MANAGEMENT PROCESS
Like their McDonald’s counterparts, managers in other organizations
also face important issues related to the function of controlling. Controlling
is the process of regulating organizational activities so that actual perform-
ance conforms to expected organizational standards and goals. As the defini-
tion suggests, controlling means that managers develop appropriate standards,
compare ongoing performance against those standards, and take steps to en-
sure that corrective actions are taken when necessary. Since most aspects of
organizations ultimately depend on human behavior, controlling is largely
geared toward ensuring that organization members behave in ways that facili-
tate the reaching of organizational goals. Thus controls both highlight needed
behaviors and discourage unwanted behaviors. For instance, during their 2-
year training program, management trainees preparing to become McDonald’s
franchisees work their way through a thick quide that spells out various as-
pects of what to do and not do in properly running a McDonald’s outlet.
Significance of the control process
As you might expect, the controlling function is closely allied to the
other, three major functions of management: planning, organizing, and lead-
ing. It builds most directly on the planning function by providing the means
for monitoring and making adjustments in performance so that plans can be
realized. Still, controlling also supports the organizing and leading functions
by helping ensure that resources are channeled toward organizational objec-
tives. For example, feedback from the control process might signal the need to
reorganize, provide more training to workers, clarify communications, in-
crease leadership influence, or take other actions associated with the respec-
tive organizing and leading functions. For instance, after detecting a shortage
of workers who could assume some supervisory responsibilities, six McDon-
ald’s restaurants in Fairfax Virginia, have been experimenting with a training
program to teach English to workers who have management potential but
speak little English.
As part of the control process, managers set up control systems. A con-
trol system is a set of mechanisms that are designed to increase the probabil-
ity of meeting organizational standards and goals. Control systems can be
.developed to regulate any area that a manager considers important, such as
quantity produced, resources expended, profit margins, quality of products or

42
services, client satisfaction, timeliness of deliveries, or specific activities that
are performed in producing a product or service.
For example, McDonald’s has a 19-step procedure that workers have
rigidly to follow when they are cooking and bagging french fries. Local man-
agers are expected to ensure that employees prepare and bag french fries in
accordance with these steps to that the french fries will conform to McDon-
ald’s standards. This procedure also is one of the operations that corporate
evaluation teams check during their unannounced inspections of outlets. Thus
the local managers, the corporate evaluation teams, and the standards embod-
ied in the procedure from part of a control system aimed at achieving consis-
tently good french fries at all McDonald’s outlets.

II. Exercises

1. Ознакомьтесь со словами в разделе III и запомните их.

2. Найдите и подчеркните в тексте модальные глаголы и их эквивален-
ты (см. грамматический справочник, стр. 75)
3. Переведите письменно текст на русский язык, пользуясь словарем.
4. Напишите развернутые ответы на следующие вопросы, исходя из со-
держания теста.
1. What is controlling?
2. What does the controlling mean from the management point of
view?
3. How are controls related to behaviors?
4. What are the major functions controlling is closely allied to?
5. What is control system used for?
6. What is the role of controls?
5. Напишите определения на английском языке следующих терминов:
− Controlling
− Control system
− Controlling function
6. Напишите на английском языке, как Вы понимаете:
“What kind of activities does the control process include?”

43
 III. Vocabulary Items

counterpart - двойник; зд. коллега

controlling - контроль; процесс контролирования
to regulate activities - регулировать деятельность
to conform to standards - соответствовать стандартам
goal - цель
to ensure - обеспечивать, гарантировать
syn. to provide
human behaviour - поведение людей
to behave - поступать; вести себя
to gear - направлять по определенному плану
training - обучение; стажировка
training program - учебная программа
trainee - проходящий обучение; стажер
franchisee - держатель лицензии (франшизы)
to run - зд. управлять
outlet - рынок сбыта; зд. торговая точка
to be allied to - быть тесно связанным с
to monitor - контролировать, проверять
to make adjustment - приспособиться
to channel resources to- - направлять ресурсы на…
ward…
feedback - обратная связь (информация)
shortage - нехватка; недостаток
to assume responsibility - брать на себя ответственность
to meet standards - соответствовать стандартам
quantity - количество
quality - качество
profit margin - маржа; предел доходности; разница ме-
жду себестоимостью и продажной це-
ной
client satisfaction - удовлетворение желаний клиента
timeliness of deliveries - своевременность поставок
procedure - процедура
corporate evaluation - отдел контроля корпорации
team
highlight основной момент, факт
performance исполнение, выполнение
portable computer переносной компьютер
inflation инфляция
to expend тратить, расходовать
research исследование
IV. Test
44
 1. Дополните предложения слева недостающими совами или сло-
восочетаниями из колонки справа. Запишите ответы следующим обра-
зом: например, 8-в.

1) Most aspects of organizations ultimately a) resources are channeled

depend on …
2) The planning function mainly provides b) human behaviour
the means for … so that plans can be real-
ized.
3) The organizing and leading functions c) to regulate
help ensure that … toward organizational
objectives.
4) As part of the control process, managers d) corporate evaluation
set up … teams
5) Control systems can be developed … any e) highlight
area that a manager considers important.
6) … check some operations of the proce- f) control systems
dure during their unannounced inspections
of outlets.
7) Controls both … needed behaviors and g) monitoring and making
discourage unwanted behaviors. adjustments in performance

2. Выберите словосочетания из колонки справа, соответствую-

щие утверждению слева, основываясь на содержании текста. Ответов
может быть несколько. Запишите их буквами следующим образом: на-
пример – k, f, e, c.

a) quality of products or services

b) change and innovation
c) portable computers
d) profit margins
e) timeliness of deliveries
Control systems can regulate … f) consumer-products business
g) scientific research
h) quantity produced
i) client satisfaction
j) resources expended
k) inflation
UNIT 9
I. Information for study

45
 Прочтите и постарайтесь понять этот текст. Запишите на по-
лях основные термины.
THE NATURE OF MANAGERIAL COMMUNICATION
Communication is the exchange of messages between people for the
purpose of achieving common meanings. Unless common meanings are
shared, managers find it extremely difficult to influence others. For example,
in looking back on his efforts to revitalize General Motors, former CEO
Roger Smith says that he would make the same decisions for again regarding
the implementation of major changes to rebuild the company foe global lead-
ership in the twenty first century.
Types of Communication
In their work, managers use two major types of communication: verbal
and nonverbal. Each type plays an important part in the effective transmis-
sions of messages within organizations.
Verbal Communication. Verbal communication is the written or oral
use of words to communicate. Both written and oral communications are per-
vasive in organizations.
Written communication occurs through a variety of means, such as
business letters, office memorandums, reports, resumes, written telephone
messages, newsletters, and policy manuals. In many cases, considerable time
and effort are expended in preparing written communications. According to
several estimates, the cost of producing a single letter or memo has risen to
more that $7, with one recent estimate placing the figure as high as $25 for
the average memo. Yet one study of 800 randomly selected letters from a va-
riety of industries indicates that written business correspondence suffers from
significant deficiencies in such areas as proper word usage, clear sentence
construction, and precision. A related study shows that more than 80 percent
of managers judge the quality of the written communication they receive as
either fair or poor. They also did not give themselves very high grades, with
55 percent describing their own writing skills as fair or poor.
Despite some possible shortcomings in writing skills, written commu-
nication generally has several advantages over oral communication. Written
communication provides a records of the message, can be disseminated
widely with a minimum of effort, and allows the sender to think through the
intended message carefully. Written communication also has several disad-
vantages, including the expense of preparation, the relatively impersonal na-
ture of written communications, possible misunderstanding by the receiver,
and the delay of feedback regarding the effectiveness of the message.
In contrast to written communication, oral communication, or the spo-
ken word, take place largely through face-to-face conversations with another
individual, meetings with several individuals, and telephone conversations.

46
Oral communication has the advantage of being fast, is generally more per-
sonal than written communication, and provides immediate feedback from
others involved in the conversation. Disadvantages include the fact that oral
communication can be time-consuming, can be more difficult to terminate,
and requires that additional effort be expended to document what is said if a
record is necessary.
Given the advantages and disadvantages of written and oral communi-
cation, it is not surprising that both types of verbal communication are used.
Nonverbal Communication. Nonverbal communication is commu-
nication by means of elements and behaviors that are not coded into words.
Studies estimate of elements that nonverbal aspects account for between 65
and 93 percent of what gets communicated. Interestingly, it is quite difficult
to engage in verbal communication without some accompanying form of non-
verbal communication. Important categories of nonverbal communication in-
clude kinesic behaviour, proxemics, paralanguage, and object language.
Kinesic behavior refers to body movements, such as gestures, facial
expressions, eye movements, and posture. We often draw conclusions regard-
ing people's feelings about an issue, not only from their words but also from
their nonverbal behaviour, such as their facial expressions.
Proxemics refers to the influence of proximity and space on commu-
nication. For example, some managers arrange their offices so that they have
an informal area where people can sit without experiencing the spatial dis-
tance and formality created by a big desk. Another example of proxemics,
which you have probably experienced, is that you are more likely to get to
know students whom you happen to sit near in class than students who are sit-
ting in other parts of the room.
Paralanguage refers to vocal aspect of communication that relate to
how something is said rather that to what is said. Voice quality, tone of voice,
laughing, and yawning fit in this category.
Object language refers to the communicative use of material things,
including clothing, cosmetics, furniture, and architecture. If you have pre-
pared a job resume lately, you probably gave some thought to the layout and
to the type of paper on which you wanted your resume printed - nonverbal as-
pects of your communication about yourself and your credentials. Nonverbal
elements form an important part of the messages that managers communicate.

47
 II. Exercises
47.Ознакомьтесь со словами в разделе III и запомните их.
48.Найдите и подчеркните в тексте, где употребляются причастия
прошедшего времени – Participle II – в функции определения и переве-
дите их на русский язык. (См. грамматический справочник на стр. 78)
49. Переведите письменно текст на русский язык, пользуясь словарем.
50. Напишите развернутые ответы на следующие вопросы, исходя из
содержания текста:
1) What is communication?
2) What kind of communication do managers use in their work?
3) What is verbal communication?
4) How does written communication occur?
5) What are the advantages of written communication?
6) Where does oral communication take place?
7) What do the disadvantages of both written and oral communications
include?
8) What can you say about nonverbal communication?
51. Дайте письменно определения следующим терминам своими слова-
ми:
− proxemics
− paralanguage
− object language
− kinesic behavior
52. Напишите на английском языке, как Вы понимаете:
“The nature of managerial communication”.

III. Vocabulary items

communication - связь; общение; сообщение
managerial communi- - управленческая связь; административное
cation общение
verbal communication - вербальная связь; ~ общение; ~ сообщение
common meaning - общее значение
written communication - письменная связь; ~ общение; ~ сообщение
nonverbal communica- - невербальная связь; ~ общение;
tion ~ сообщение
estimate - оценка
kinesic behaviour - кинетическое поведение
paralanguage - паралингвистический язык
object language - предметный язык
implementation - выполнение, осуществление
transmission - передача, пересылка
deficiency - недостаток; нехватка
shortcoming - недостаток; несовершенство
to disseminate - распространять

48
to involve - включать в себя; вовлекать
layout - план; компоновка
credential(s) - полномочия
to refer - посылать, отослать, ссылаться

IV. Test
1. Найдите в колонке справа английские эквиваленты следующих
русских словосочетаний. Запишите ответы следующим образом: на-
пример, 1)-m.
1) административное общение a) common meaning
2) вербальная связь b) kinesic behaviour
3) общение c) managerial communication
4) общее значение d) verbal communication
5) письменная связь e) object language
6) невербальная связь f) paralanguage
7) кинетическое поведение g) communication
8)паралингвистический язык h) written communication
9) предметный язык k) nonverbal communication

2. Выберите определения справа, соответствующие словам и вы-

ражениям слева. Запишите ответы следующим образом: например: 1)-
m.
1) Communication is ... a) ... the written or oral use of words to communi-
cate.
2) Paralanguage refers b) ... vocal aspect of communication that relate to
to … . how something is said rather that to what is said.
3) Proxemics refers to c) … the influence of proximity and space on
…. communication.
4) Kinesic behaviour d) ... the communicative use of material things, in-
refers to ... . cluding clothing, cosmetics, furniture, and archi-
tecture.
5) Nonverbal commu- e) ... the communication by means of elements and
nication is … . behaviours that are not coded into words.

6) Verbal communica- f) ... the exchange of messages between people for

tional is ... . the purpose of achieving common meanings.
7) Object language re- g) ... body movements such as gestures, facial ex-
fers to … . pressions, eye movements and posture.

49
 UNIT 10
I. Information for study

Прочтите и постарайтесь понять текст. Запишите на полях ос-

новные термины.

THE NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL MANAGEMENT

If you took an inventory of the items that are in your living quarters,
you would probably find many that reflect the increasing volume of business
conducted on an international basis. For example, you might have shoes from
Italy or Brazil, a television and VCR from Japan, and a shirt made in Korea.
Even items that bear, the brand names of a U.S. - based company may have
been produced in a far-off land in the course of international business. Inter-
national business refers to profit-related activities conducted across national
boundaries. Such activities encompass importing supplies from other coun-
tries, selling products or services to customers abroad, or providing for the
transfer of funds to subsidiaries in other countries. International manage-
ment is the process of planning, organizing, leading, and controlling in or-
ganizations engaged in international business.

Changing character of international business

There is strong evidence that the United States is losing its competitive
edge in international trade and is facing increasing competiting in world mar-
kets. According to some accounts, the United State enjoyed an abnormal ad-
vantage for several decades after World War II because the productive facili-
ties of other large industrial powers had been severely damaged by wartime
activities. Now countries such as Japan and Germany have become formida-
ble competitors, and developing national such as Brazil, India, and South Ko-
rea also are emerging as potential major players. Despite the increased compe-
tition, though, international markets are growing rapidly, providing expanded
opportunities for many U.S. - based businesses.

Organizations engaging in International management

Organizations that engage in international management vary considera-
bly in size and in the extent to which their business activities cross national
boundaries. One special type of organization involved in international man-
agement is the multinational corporation. Although definitions differ some-
what, the term multinational corporation (MNC) is typically reserved for an
organization that engages in production or service activities though its own
affiliates in several countries, maintains control over the policies of those af-
filiates, and manages from a global perspective.

50
 The World's 25 Largest Industrial Multinational Corporations RANK
1988 1987 Company Headquarters Industry
1 1 General Motors Detroit Motor vehicles
2 4 Ford Motors Dearborn, Mich Motor vehicles
3 3 Exxon New Yerk Petroleum refin-
ing
4 2 Royal Dutch/Shell Group London/The Hague Petroleum refin-
ing
5 5 International Business Ma- Armonk, N.Y. Computers
chines
6 8 Toyota Motor Toyota City (Japan) Motor vehicles
7 10 General Electric Fairfleild, Conn Electronics
8 6 Mobil New York Petroleum refin-
ing
9 7 British Petroleum London Petroleum refin-
ing
10 9 IRI Rome Metals
11 11 Daimler-Benz Stuttgart Motor vehicles
12 16 Hitachi Tokyo Electronics
13 21 Chrysler Highland Park, Mich Motor vehicles
14 18 Siemens Munich Electronics
15 17 Fiat Turin Motor vehicles
16 19 Matsushita Electric Indus- Osaka Electronics
trial
17 15 Volkswagen Wolfsburg(W.Ger.) Motor vehicles
18 12 Texaco White Plains, N.Y. Petroleum refin-
ing
19 14 E.I. Du Pont de Nemours Wilmington, Del Chemicals
20 20 Unilever London/Rotterdam Food
21 24 Nissan Motor Tokyo Motor vehicles
22 22 Philips' Gloeilampen- Endhoven (Nether- Electronics
fabrieken lands)
23 27 Nestle Vevey (Switzeriands) Food
24 32 Samsung Seoul Electronics
25 25 Renault Paris Motor vehicles
Multinational corporations are not always easy to identify, since it may
be difficult to determine from the outside how much control management
maintains over the policies of affiliates or whether management actually uses
a global perspective. As a result? for purposes of gathering statistics, an arbi-
trary percentage (such as 25 percent of sales from foreign sources) is some-
times used to distinguish multinational corporations from other types of inter-

51
national businesses. However, there is no single universally accepted percent-
age of foreign sales that clearly separates multinational corporations from
others.
Regardless of their size, companies may decide to expand internation-
ally for a number of different reasons. Some organizations may become in-
volved through unsolicited orders from foreign customers. Others may initiate
international efforts in order to open new markets or to preclude foreign com-
panies from entering specific foreign markets and eventually becoming do-
mestic competitors. Still others may be motivated by the need to develop
sources of supplies, possibilities of acquiring needed technology or prospects
for reducing costs by operating in foreign countries. Whatever the reason,
managers need to think through their basic orientation toward international
management.
Orientations toward International Management
Top-level managers in companies that are expanding internationally
(particularly those in multinational corporations) tend to subscribe to one of
three basic orientations, or philosophies, regarding a degree to which methods
of operatting are influenced by headquarters or by company members in other
parts of the world. The three orientations are ethnocentric (home-country ori-
ented), polycentric (host-country oriented), and geocentric (world oriented). A
home country is the country in which an organization's headquarters is lo-
cated, whereas a host country is a foreign country in which an organization is
conducting business.
An ethnocentric (or home-country) orientation is an approach to in-
ternational management whereby executives assume that practices which
work in the headquarters or home country must necessarily work elsewhere.
For example, during the period 1973 to 1986, Procter & Gamble lost an esti-
mated quarter of a billion dollars of business in Japan partially because of an
ethnocentric orientation. As one former Japanese employee stated, “They did
not listen to anybody”. One of the most serious blunders was a commercial
for Camay soap that was used in the late 1970s. The commercial showed a
Japanese man meeting a Japanese woman for the firs time and immediately
comparing her skin to that of a fine porcelain doll. Although this commercial
had worked well in the Philippines, South America, and Europe, it was a dis-
aster in Japan. A Japanese advertising specialist who worked on the commer-
cial had warned Procter & Gamble that only an unsophisticated or rude man
would say something like that to a Japanese woman, but company representa-
tives would not listen. As the visechairman of Procter & Gamble later noted,
“We learned a lesson here [in Japan] about tailoring your products and mar-
keting to the market. Although an ethnocentric orientation often is a phase
that organizations go through when they enter the international area, it can
prove extremely difficult to eradicate.”

52
 A polycentric (or host-country orientation) is an approach to interna-
tional management whereby executives view host-country cultures and for-
eigners as difficult to fathom and, therefore, believe that the parts of the or-
ganization located in a given host country should be staffed by local individu-
als to the fullest extent possible. Locals – or nationals, as they are sometimes
called – are thought to know their own culture, mores, work ethics, and mar-
kets best.
As a result, subsidiaries in various countries operate almost independ-
ently under the direction of local individual and are tied to the parent com-
pany mainly through financial control. The parent company may maintain a
very low public profile relative to the subsidiary, as was the case until re-
cently with Unilever and its U.S. subsidiary. Level Brothers. It is very possi-
ble that you only discovered that a Level Brother was owned by a foreign
company when you read the individuals run operations in the host countries,
they have little prospect of holding senior executive positions as headquarters,
largely because they are perceived as having only a local perspective and ex-
pertise. Still, a polycentric approach may be successful when decision making
is largely decentralized to host-country personnel.
The geocentric (or world) orientation is an approach to international
management whereby executives believe that a global view is needed in both
the headquarters of the parent company and its various subsidiaries and that
the best individuals, regardless of home- or host-country origin, should be
utilized to solve company problems anywhere in the world. Major issues are
viewed from a global perspective at both headquarters and subsidiaries, which
consider questions such as “Where in the world shall we raise money, build
our plant, conduct R&D, develop and launch new ideas to serve our present
and future customers?” The geocentric approach is the most difficult to
achieve because it requires that managers acquire both local and global
knowledge.
II. Exercises
52. Ознакомьтесь со словами в разделе III и запомните их.
53. Найдите в тексте предложения, где употребляются модаль-
ные глаголы с Perfect или Passive Infinitive и переведите их (см. грам-
матический справочник, стр. 79).
54. Переведите письменно текст на русский язык, пользуясь сло-
варем.
55. Напишите развернутые ответы на следующие вопросы, исходя
из содержания текста.
a) What does international business refer to?
b) What is international management?
c) What does MNC mean?
d) What are the three orientations in international management?

53
56. Напишите определения к следующим терминам своими слова-
ми на английском языке:
− international management
− multinational corporation
− ethnocentric orientation
− polycentric orientation
− geocentric orientation
57. Напишите на английском языке, как Вы понимаете:
“What is the nature of international management?”.

III. Vocabulary items

inventory - инвентарь
to conduct - руководить, управлять
to bear - нести
far-off - отдаленный
boundary - граница
to encompass - заключать в себя (содержать)
edge - конкурентно - способное положение
abnormal - ненормальный
formidable - значительный, громадный
to emerge - всплывать, появляться
rapidly - бистро
to be engaged - быть занятым
to vary - 1) меняться, изменяться
2) расходится, различаться
extent - степень, протяжение, пространство
to affiliate - присоединяться в качестве филиала
perspective - перспективный
unsolicited orders - невостребованные заказы
to involve - вовлекать
to subscribe - подписываться
headquarters - главное управление, штаб
to assume - взять на себя
executive - исполнительный
to fathom - вникать
blunder грубая ошибка
subsidiary вспомогательный, дополнительный
ethnocentric этноцентрический
polycentric полицентрический
geocentric геоцентрический
IV. Test

1. Подберите к определениям слева соответствующие термины

справа. Запишите ответы следующим образом: например, a) – 10).

54
a) The process of planning, organizing, lead- 1) multinational corporation
ing, and controlling in organizations engaged
in international business is ... .
b) One special type of organization involved 2) international management
in international management is ... .
c) An approach to international management 3) geocentric orientation
where by executives assume that practices
work in the headquarters is ... .
d) An approach to international management 4) ethnocentric orientation
where by executives view host - country cul-
tures and foreigners as difficult to fathom and
believe that the parts of the organization lo-
cated in a given host country should be
staffed by local individuals to the fullest ex-
tent possible is ... .
e) An approach to international management 5) policentric orientation
whereby executives believe that a global
view is needed in both the headquarters of
the parent company and its various subsidiar-
ies is … .
f) … is a foreign country in which an organi- 6) international business
zation is conducting business.
g) … refers to profit-related activities con- 7) home country
ducted across national boundaries.
h) … is the country in which an organiza- 8) host country
tion’s headquarters is located.

2. Закончите предложения, выбрав необходимое слово или слово-

сочетание слева. Запишите ответы следующим образом: например, а)-
1.
1) international trade a) In the inventory of the items you would
probably find many that reflect the increasing
volume of business conducted on … .
2) international management b) The brand names of U.S. – based company
may have been produced in … .
3) international business c) The profit-related activities encompass im-
portant supplies from … .
4) the subsidiary d) The United States is losing its competitive
edge in… .

5) different reasons e) There is no single universally accepted

percentage of foreign sales that clearly sepa-
rates … from others.
6) other countries f) Regardless of their size, companies may

55
 decide to expand internationally for a number
of … .
7) a far –off land g) Whatever the reason, managers need to
think through their basic orientation to-
ward … .
8) multinational corporations h) The parent company may maintain a very
low public profile relative to … .

56
 GRAMMAR REFERENCE
(Грамматический справочник)
The Verb /Глагол/
По употреблению в речи глаголы классифицируются на:
1) самостоятельные (смысловые или знаменательные); he works
2) модальные; he can work
3) глаголы-связки; he is a student
4) вспомогательные глаголы; he is reading
Глагол становится служебным, если он выполняет функцию глаго-
ла-связки или вспомогательного глагола.
Глагол, выполняющий функцию смыслового глагола в предложе-
нии, имеет форму времени, категорию наклонения и залог.
В английском языке глагол имеет следующие видо-временные
группы: Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous.

Сводная таблица видо-временных форм глагола в действительном

залоге
Форма глагола Употребление формы
Indefinite (or Simple)
Present Past Future
I ask
I  I shall  Глагол в форме Indefinite
  представляет действие как:
He  He  He  
  will 
She  asks She  1) факт;
She  

 We shall  2) обычное, регулярно по-
We  ask вторяющееся действие;
We  asked You  

You  ask You   will 3) последовательность
 They  
They  They  действий.

Форма глагола Употребление формы

Continuous (or Progressive)
Present Past Future Глагол в форме Continuous
 обозначает:

 I shall be  1) процесс, происходящий
I am  
 I   He   asking в определенный какой-то
He      will be

She 
is  asking He  was  She  
момент (или период);
 She  
We  

 asking We shall be asking 2) параллельно происходя-
 We  
You  are


You  were
You  щие процессы;
They     will be asking
They   They  3) процесс, охватывающий
определенный отрезок
времени.

57
 Форма глагола Употребление формы
Perfect
Present Past Future
Глагол в форме Perfect обо-
значает:
I have 

I  I shall  1) действие, завершенное к
He   asked  
He  He   haveasked определенному моменту и
 has
She   She   will
She
We   had asked  результат этого действия
We 

You  have asked
We shall  налицо;
You  
They   You   have asked
2) Past и Future Perfect выра-
They  will
They 
жают действия, завершен-
ные до другого действия и
предшествующие ему.

Форма глагола Употребление формы

Perfect Continuous
Present Past Future
Глагол в форме Perfect
Continuous выражает
I have been 

I 

I shall have been asking
действие, начавшееся
He   asking He  He 
 has been 
She  She 
 will have been asking
She  до какого-то момента и
  had been asking
We 
We  We shall have been asking продолжающееся в
You 

You  have been asking  You 
 will have been asking
данный момент, вклю-
They 
They  They 
чая или исключая его
(for two hours – в тече-
ние 2-х часов; since
1941 – c 1941 года).

The Passive Voice /Страдательный залог/

В английском языке, как и в русском, различают формы глагола
действительного или страдательного залога; формы глагола страдатель-
ного залога выражают действие, совершенное подлежащим и направ-
ленное на него, в то время как форма действительного залога показывает
действие, производимое самим подлежащим.
Например:
Действительный залог Страдательный залог
/Active Voice/ /Passive Voice/
He asked them at the lesson They were asked (by him) at the lesson
(он спросил их на уроке) (их спросили на уроке)

58
 Страдательный залог образуется из вспомогательного глагола “to
be” в соответствующем времени, лице, числе и формы Past Participle
(Participle II) смыслового глагола (см. Table 1).

The Indefinite Tenses in the Passive Voice

Table 1
Affirmative Sentence Interrogative Sentence Negative Sentence
Present

I am asked Am I asked? I am not asked

He is asked Is he asked? He is not asked

She she She

We we We
You are asked Are you asked? You are not asked
They they They

Past

I I I
He was asked Was he asked? He was not asked
She she She

We we We
You were asked. Were you asked? You were not asked.
They they They

Future

I shall be asked. Shall I be asked? I shall not be asked.

He will be asked. Will he be asked? He will not be
She she She asked.
We shall be asked. Shall we be asked? We shall not be asked.
You will be asked. Will you be asked? You will not be
They they They asked.

59
 The Perfect Tenses in the Passive Voice
Тable 2
Affirmative Sentence Interrogative Sentence Negative Sentence
Present

I have Have I been I have not

He has been asked. Has he asked? He has been asked.
She she She

We we We
You have been Have you been You have not been
They asked. they asked? They asked.

Past

I I I
He he He
She had been she been She had not
We asked. Had we asked? We been asked.
You you You
They they They

Future

I shall Shall I I shall

He will Will he have He will not
She have she been She have
We shall been Shall we asked? We shall been
You will asked. Will you You will asked.
They they They

Примечание: Употребление глагольных форм Perfect Passive такое

же, как и в действительном залоге и переводится на русский язык
формами глагола совершенного вида.
Many new houses have been built.
Много новых домов было построено.

60
 The Continuous Tenses in the Passive Voice
Table 3
Affirmative Sentence Interrogative Sentence Negative Sentence
Present

I am Am I am
He is being asked Is he being asked? He is not being
She is now. she She is asked.

We we We
You are being Are you being You are not being
They asked. they asked? They asked.

Past

I I I
He was being Was he being He was not
She asked. she asked? She being asked.

We we We
You were being Were you being You were not being
They asked. they asked? They asked.

Future
Эта форма отсутствует. Вместо отсутствующей формы Future Con-
tinuos употребляется Future Indefinite.

Примечание: Английский глагол в форме Continuos Passive пере-

водится на русский язык формами глагола только несовершенного вида
с окончанием на -ся или неопределенно-личным предложением.

Например:
New houses are (were) being built.
Новые дома строятся (строились).

61
 Сослагательное наклонение
Сослагательное наклонение указывает на то, что говорящий рас-
сматривает действие не как реальный факт, а как желательное, предпо-
лагаемое, условное или возможное.
Формы сослагательного наклонения
1. Простая форма (синтетическая), которая совпадает с формами
изъявительного наклонения за исключением следующих случаев:
а) глагол to be в Present Subjunctive имеет форму be для всех лиц:
I be we be
He, she, it be you be
they be
б) глагол to have в Present Subjunctive имеет форму have для всех лиц:
I have, he have
в) остальные глаголы в Present Subjunctive не имеют окончания -s в 3-м
лице единственного числа:
he speak
г) глагол to be в Past Subjunctive имеет форму were для всех лиц:
I were, he were
2. Сложная форма (аналитическая), которая образуется из соче-
тания вспомогательных глаголов should или would или модальных гла-
голов can, could, may, might с инфинитивом; последние частично со-
храняют свое лексическое значение.
Система форм сослагательного наклонения
Синтетические Аналитические
Present I, he, she 
 be, ask , have
Subjunctive we, you, they  —
Past I, he, she 
Subjunctive  were, asked should или would + Indefinite
we, you, they 
Infinitive
Perfect I, he, she 
 had been, hadasked
Subjunctive we, you, they should или would + Perfect In-
finitive
Грамматическая форма времен в сослагательном наклонении не
соответствует действительному периоду времени. Формы Present Sub-
junctive и Past Subjunctive относят действие к настоящему или будущему
периоду времени, а форма Perfect Subjunctive относит действие к про-
шедшему периоду времени. Все эти формы сослагательного наклонения
обычно переводятся на русский язык сочетанием глагола в прошедшем
времени с частицей бы или с союзом чтобы.

62
 Употребление сослагательного наклонения

В простых предложениях:
Пример: Success attend you!
Перевод: Пусть успех сопутствует тебе!
В сложных предложениях:
1. В придаточных предложениях подлежащих, в том числе после
безличных оборотов типа it is necessary, it is important.
Пример: It is necessary that one of the surfaces of a disc be made of some
material that has a low coefficient of friction.
Перевод: Необходимо, чтобы одна из поверхностей диска была бы сде-
лана из материала, имеющего низкий коэффициент трения.

2. В придаточных дополнительных предложениях:

Пример: They recommended that thorough laboratory tests should be con-
ducted before the system is installed in the computing centre.
Перевод: Они рекомендовали, чтобы были проведены тщательные ла-
бораторные испытания, прежде чем система будет установлена в вычис-
лительном центре.

3. В придаточных обстоятельственных предложениях цели с сою-

зами that, so that; lest – чтобы не.
Пример: They give him a list of instructions lest he should repeat the mis-
take made in his previous work.
Перевод: Они дали ему список инструкций, чтобы он не повторил оши-
бок, сделанных в его предыдущей работе.

4. В придаточных обстоятельственных предложениях сравнения

или образа действия с союзами as if, as though – как будто.
Пример: He listens as if he were greatly interested in our conversation.
Перевод: Он слушает, как будто бы он очень заинтересован нашим раз-
говором.

5. В уступительных придаточных предложениях с союзами и со-

юзными словами though, although – хотя (бы); even if, even though –
даже если (бы), хотя (бы); whenever – когда бы ни; whatever, no matter
what – что бы ни; wherever, no matter where – где бы ни; whoever, no
matter who – кто бы ни.
Пример: Whatever the nature of the tubes and the arrangement of the elec-
trode be, an emitting electrode should be present.
Перевод: Каковы бы ни были лампы и устройства электрода, необходим
изучающий электрод.

63
 6. В условных предложениях. Условные предложения сослага-
тельного наклонения бывают 2-х типов и выражают:
а) Условие выполнимое, относящееся к настоящему или будущему
периоду времени. В этом случае в главном предложении употребляются
формы should или would + Infinitive, а в придаточном – простая форма
Past Subjunctive.
Условное предложение такого типа переводится на русский язык
глаголом в пошедшем времени с частицей «бы».
Пример: If you increased the order they would reduce the price.
Перевод: Если бы вы увеличили заказ, они бы снизили цену.
б) Условие невыполнимое, относящееся к прошедшему периоду
времени. В этом случае в главном предложении употребляются формы
should или would + Perfect Infinitive, а в придаточном предложении –
простая форма Perfect Subjunctive. Такие условные предложения перево-
дятся на русский язык так же, как и условные предложения типа а).
Пример: If we had come some minutes earlier we should have met the dele-
gation at the plant.
Перевод: Если бы мы пришли на несколько минут раньше, мы бы встре-
тились с делегацией на заводе.
Примечание: Следует иметь в виду, что в английском языке су-
ществуют условные предложения, в которых сказуемое стоит в одном из
времен изъявительного наклонения. Такие предложения переводятся на
русский язык в соответствующем времени изъявительного наклонения.
Пример: If further information is required we shall send it immediately.
Перевод: Если потребуется дальнейшая информация мы немедленно
вышлем ее.
Условные предложения вводятся союзами и союзными словами if
– если; unless – если не; provided (that), providing (that), on condition
(that) – при условии если, при условии что; in case (that) – в случае если;
supposing (that), suppose (that) – если, если бы, в случае.
Пример: I should not have been able to realize what a wonderful instrument
it was if I had not seen it in action.
Перевод: Я не смог бы понять, какой это прекрасный прибор, если бы не
видел его в действии.
Пример: They would finish the work in time, provided they had the neces-
sary material.
Перевод: Они закончили бы работу вовремя, (при условии) если бы у
них был весь необходимый материал.

64
 Примечание: Слово provided в предложении может встречаться в
различных функциях и в зависимости от этого по-разному переводится.
а) provided –глагол-сказуемое в Past Indefinite:
II
Пример: We provided the expedition with all the necessary equipment.
Перевод: Мы обеспечили экскурсию всем необходимым оборудовани-
ем.
б) provided – причастие прошедшего времени в функции опреде-
ления:
п.о. II
Пример: The expedition provided with all the necessary equipment will start
tomorrow.
Перевод: Экспедиция, снабженная всем необходимым оборудованием,
отправится завтра.

Modal Verbs /Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты/

Модальные глаголы выражают не действие, а отношение говоря-
щего к действию, выраженному последующим инфинитивом. Модаль-
ные глаголы имеют не все временные формы, отсутствующие времен-
ные формы восполняются эквивалентами модальных глаголов, напри-
мер: to be able to или to have to.
Модальные глаголы могут употребляться в сочетании с любой
формой инфинитива.
Наибольшие трудности представляет перевод сочетаний модаль-
ных глаголов с Infinitive Passive и Perfect Infinitive.

Таблица модальных глаголов и их эквивалентов

Модальные Значение Present Past Future
глаголы и их
эквиваленты
1. CAN Возмож- can could —
ность со- am was  shall
вершения is  able ( to)  able ( to)  be able ( to)
to be able (to) were will 
действия*) are

2. MAY may might —
am  was  shall be allowed
  allowed ( to) 
to be allowed is  allowed ( to) were will  ( to)
(to) are 
3. MUST Должен- must — —
to have (to) ствование have (to) had (to) shall
 have ( to)
has (to) will 

*)
can – мочь, уметь (я могу, умею)
may – быть вероятным, выражает просьбу или разрешение (можете войти. вероятно это интересно).

65
 Модальные Значение Present Past Future
глаголы и их
эквиваленты
to be (to) am (to) was (to)
is (to) were (to) —
are (to)
should should — —
ought (to) ought (to) — —
am was  shall be obliged
  obliged ( to) 
to be obliged is  obliged ( to) were will  ( to)
(to) are

Сочетание модальных глаголов с Infinitive Passive и Infinitive Perfect

Сочетание модального глагола с Infinitive Passive указывает, что
подлежащее является объектом, на который направлено действие, выра-
женное инфинитивом. Поэтому подлежащее английского предложения
часто переводится на русский язык дополнением, прямым или предлож-
ным.
Пример: The man was so excited that he could not be understood.
Перевод: Человек был так возбужден, что его нельзя было понять.
Модальные глаголы must, may и might в сочетании с Perfect Infini-
tive выражают возможность или вероятность действия, относящегося к
прошлому и обычно переводятся словами должно быть, возможно.
А Пример He must have lost his book somewhere.
Он должно быть потерял свою книгу где-то.
Б Пример: He may have got the article he needed.
Он возможно достал статью, которая была ему нужна.
Глаголы can и could в отрицательной форме в сочетании с Perfect
Infinitive выражают сомнение в возможности совершения действия в
прошлом и обычно переводятся при помощи слов не может быть.
Пример: He cannot have made such a serious mistake.
Не может быть, чтобы он допустил такую серьезную
ошибку.
Модальные глаголы ought (to), should, could и might в сочетании с
Perfect Infinitive указывают на то, что действие, которое могло или
должно было бы совершиться не совершилось.
Пример: You should have told her the truth.
Тебе следовало бы рассказать ей правду.
Пример: He could have written that letter, he had a lot of free time.
Он мог бы написать это письмо, у него было много свобод-
ного времени.

The Participle /Причастие/

66
 Формы и функции

Participle I Participle II
Tense Voice Active Passive
1. –ed for regular verbs
e.g. asked
Indefinite asking being asked

Perfect having asked having been 2. specific form for irregu-

asked lar verbs
e.g. written
spoken
etc.

Функции Participle I
1. Определение, которое может стоять перед существительным. В
этой функции перфектные формы причастия не употребляются. Перево-
дится на русский язык как причастие, а иногда как обычное прилага-
тельное.
The reading boy – читающий мальчик
Participle I может стоять после существительного. В этом случае
после Participle I могут стоять прямое дополнение и обстоятельство, ко-
торые в целом образуют причастный оборот. Переводится причастный
оборот на русский язык придаточным определительным предложением
или причастным оборотом.
The boy reading a book is my friend.
Мальчик, читающий книгу – мой друг.
2. Часть сложного дополнения.
I see him speaking with a manager.
Я вижу, что он говорит с менеджером.
3. Обстоятельство времени, образа действия, причины и переводится
как деепричастие.
Having discussed this problem they came to the conclusion.
Обсудив проблему, они пришли к заключению.
4. Participle I может быть частью самостоятельного причастного оборота
(The Absolute Participle Construction), т.е. такого причастного оборота, в
котором перед причастием стоит существительное в общем падеже или
местоимение в именительном падеже, являющееся субъектом действия,
выраженного причастием.

67
 Такой оборот отделяется запятой и переводится на русский язык
придаточным предложением, если стоит в начале предложения.
Weather permitting, we’ll continue our search.
Если позволит погода, мы продолжим свой поиск.

Функции Participle II
Participle II в предложении может иметь следующие функции:
1. Определения. Стоит перед или чаще после определяемого существи-
тельного и переводится на русский язык причастиями на –мый, -нный, -
тый, -вший(ся) (предшествовавший).
The translated book – переведенная книга.
2. Части сказуемого в страдательном залоге.
The book was translated last year.
Книга была переведена в прошлом году.
3. Обстоятельства /переводятся обстоятельственными придаточными
предложениями времени, условия, причины и др./. Перед Participle II в
этой функции иногда могут стоять союзы if, unless, when.
If translated well the book will be a success.
Если книга переведена хорошо, она будет иметь успех.
4. Participle II так же, как и Participle I может быть частью самостоятель-
ного причастного оборота.
The book translated, we shall be able to buy it.
Когда книга будет опубликована, мы сможем купить ее.
The Gerund /Герундий/
Формы и функции
Tense Voice Active Passive

Indefinite asking being asked

Perfect having asked having been

asked
Будучи неличной формой глагола, герундий имеет категорию от-
носительного времени и залога, может иметь прямое дополнение и опре-
деляется наречием.
Имея свойства существительного, герундий выполняет в предло-
жении те же синтаксические функции, что и существительное: подле-
жащего, именной части сказуемого, дополнения, определения с предло-
гом и обстоятельством с предлогом. Герундий может переводиться от-
глагольным существительным, инфинитивом или деепричастием.

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 Reading English books is useful. (подлежащее)
Чтение английских книг – полезно.
I like reading – Я люблю чтение (читать). (дополнение)

Примечание: После глаголов, данных ниже, в качестве прямого

дополнения может стоять только герундий:
to avoid (избегать); to enjoy (получать удовольствие);
to excuse (извинять(ся)); to intend (намереваться);
to need (нуждаться); to require (требовать);
to want (хотеть).

Герундий может определяться существительным в притяжатель-

ном или общем падеже, а также притяжательным или указательным ме-
стоимением.
Такие герундиальные обороты обычно переводятся придаточным
предложением, вводимым словами:
то, что; в том, что; тем, что; о том, что и т.п.
John’s returning home so late stayed unnoticed.
(То, что Джон вернулся домой так поздно, осталось незамечен-
ным.)
His returning home so late surprised nobody.
(Его возвращение домой так поздно никого не удивило.)

The Infinitive /Инфинитив/

В английском языке имеются следующие формы инфинитива:
Active Passive
Indefinite to translate to be translated
Continuous to be translating
Perfect to have translated to have been translated
Perfect Continuous to have been translating —
Инфинитив является основной глагольной формой, от которой об-
разуются все личные формы глагола во всех группах времен в действи-
тельном и страдательном залогах.
Infinitive Indefinite употребляется для выражения действия, одно-
временного с действием, выраженным глаголом-сказуемым в личной
форме в предложении.
Infinitive Continuous выражает действие в процессе его развития
одновременно с действием, выраженным глаголом-сказуемым в личной
форме.
Infinitive Perfect выражает действие, которое предшествует дейст-
вию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым в личной форме.

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 Infinitive Perfect Continuous выражает действие, продолжавшееся
в течение определенного периода времени и предшествовавшее дейст-
вию, выраженному глаголом-сказуемым в личной форме.
Форма инфинитива страдательного залога указывает на то, что
действие, выраженное инфинитивом, направленно на лицо или предмет,
связанный с инфинитивом.
Пример: Any mistake which is present in the calculation must be removed.
Перевод: Любая ошибка, которая есть в вычислениях, должна быть уда-
лена.
Способ перевода инфинитива на русский язык зависит от его
функции в предложении.
Инфинитив в английском предложении может выполнять сле-
дующие функции:
1. Подлежащего (переводится неопределенной формой глагола).
Пример: To prove this law experimentally | is very difficult.
Перевод: Доказать этот закон экспериментально очень трудно.
2. Именной части составного сказуемого (переводится неопреде-
ленной формой глагола, нередко с союзом чтобы).
Пример: Your work | is to observe | the rise of inflation.
Перевод: Ваша работа заключается в том, чтобы наблюдать за повыше-
нием инфляции.
3. Части составного глагольного сказуемого после модальных гла-
голов и их эквивалентов и глаголов в личной форме, обозначающих на-
чало, продолжение или конец действия.
Пример: He | is to make | the experiment.
Перевод: Он должен провести этот эксперимент.

4. Дополнения (переводится неопределенной формой глагола).

Пример: He | asked | to define the unit of measurement more accurately.
Перевод: Он попросил определить единицу измерения более точно.
Если дополнение выражено сложной формой инфинитива, то он
переводится придаточным предложением с союзом что или чтобы.
Пример: The students were glad to have obtained such good results in the
latest tests of the new model.
Перевод: Студенты были рады, что (они) достигли таких хороших ре-
зультатов при последних испытаниях новой модели.
5. Обстоятельства. Инфинитив в этой функции с группой после-
дующих слов чаще всего переводится на русский язык обстоятельством
цели с союзами чтобы; для того, чтобы.
Пример: To make the price higher | we must improve the quality of goods.

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Перевод: Чтобы повысить цену, мы должны улучшить качество товаров.
Пример: We go to the University to study.
Перевод: Мы ходим в университет, чтобы учиться.
6. Правого определения. В этой функции инфинитив с зависящими
от него словами обычно переводится определительным придаточным
предложением. Часто инфинитив в функции определения имеет оттенок
модальности и переводится на русский язык с добавлением слов следу-
ет, надо, должен.
Пример: Fielding | was the first | to introduce into the English novel real
characters in their actual surroundings.
Перевод: Филдинг был первым, кто ввел в английский роман реальные
характеры в их реальном окружении.
Пример: Experiments have shown that | the amount of work | to be used for
producing a given amount of goods | is the same under all conditions.
Перевод: Опыты показали, что количество работы, которое нужно из-
расходовать для получения данного количества товаров, является одина-
ковым при всех условиях.
Perfect Infinitive Passive в функции определения указывает на то,
что действие, выраженное инфинитивом, должно было совершиться, но
не совершилось.
Пример: Another important factor to have been referred to in that article was
that there are many functions of money.
Перевод: Другой важный фактор, на который нужно было бы сослаться
в той статье, заключался в том, что существует много функций денег.
Если инфинитив в функции определения имеет после себя пред-
лог, как в данном выше примере, то вся инфинитивная группа перево-
дится определительным придаточным предложением с соответствую-
щим предлогом перед союзным словом, а если предлог не переводится,
то он придает определенный падеж этому союзному слову.

Инфинитивные обороты в английском языке

Объектный инфинитивный оборот
(The Objective with the Infinitive)

Этот оборот состоит из существительного или местоимения в объ-

ектном падеже и инфинитива, между которыми существует связь анало-
гичная связи между подлежащим и сказуемым. Оборот в предложении
стоит обычно за сказуемым основного предложения и синтаксически
выполняет функцию сложного дополнения. Он употребляется после гла-
голов типа: to want, to suppose, to find, to expect, to believe и т.д. Оборот
переводится на русский язык придаточным дополнительным предложе-

71
нием, причем инфинитив переводится глаголом-сказуемым в соответст-
вующем времени в зависимости от формы инфинитива, а существитель-
ное или местоимение в объектом падеже – существительным или лич-
ным местоимением как подлежащее.
Пример: We know him to be the first inventor of an electrical measuring in-
strument.
Перевод: Мы знаем, что он является первым изобретателем электриче-
ского измерительного прибора.
Инфинитив в этом обороте употребляется без частицы to, если он
стоит после глаголов восприятия чувств, таких как: to hear, to see, to feel,
to watch и др.
Пример: We see the computer work well.
Перевод: Мы видим компьютер работает хорошо.

Субъектный инфинитивный оборот

(The Nominative with the Infinitive)
Этот оборот состоит из существительного или личного местоиме-
ния в именительном падеже и инфинитива, связанного с ним по смыслу.
Между ними стоит сказуемое, выраженное личной формой глагола в
страдательном залоге или глаголом типа to seem, to appear в действи-
тельном залоге, или оборотами to be likely, to be sure и др. Субъектный
инфинитивный оборот синтаксически выполняет функцию сложного
подлежащего.

Перевод всей конструкции обычно начинается со сказуемого, ко-

торое переводится неопределенно-личным предложением (известно, со-
общают, кажется и т.п.). Сам оборот переводится придаточным допол-
нительным предложением, причем инфинитив переводится глаголом-
сказуемым в соответствующем времени.

Пример: All these goods are known to be produced by our firm.

Перевод: Известно, что все эти товары производятся нашей фирмой

Пример: Russian scientists and inventors are known to have discovered

electrical phenomena of the greatest importance.
Перевод: Известно, что русские ученые и изобретатели открыли
электрические явления величайшего значения.

72
 BUSINESS CASE STUDY
(Примеры из деловой практики)
1. Ford at Dagenham
One of the plant managers, working with his area managers at Ford’s
Dagenham plant, had devised a plan for reducing costs by reorganising the
work in the area of machine operation. The problem was that if the plan was
to work it required two important changes from the workforce - first their co-
operation in moving from the production of one set of parts to the production
or another set half-way through each week. Second, it required the introduc-
tion of a new twilight shift. No extra money was on offer nor were any other
inducements held out. The ‘case’ had to be sold direct to the workforce (.some
80 people) by the relevant area manager. This was to be attempted at a special
meeting in the old canteen at the start of the morning shift.
At the appointed hour, the workers were assembled and seated in a
rather cold and uncomfortable setting, unconducive to extended debate. The
shop stewards for the area were seated out at tile front. The area manager ar-
rived ‘chauffeur-driven’ in one of the plant’s electric vehicles. Flanked by
section heads he strode to the front and commenced his delivery. The style
was relaxed, down-to-earth, occasionally jovial, but very direct. In essence,
‘the problem’ was explained as uncompetitive costs in the production of two
power-train assemblies. The danger of at least one or these ceasing production
altogether, unless the ‘uneconomic’ low volume levels could be compensated
for by more flexible switching each week between one job and another was
explained.
The ‘solution’ was then described. This involved the introduction of a
‘swing shift’ and the necessity for the shift, on certain days of the week, to be
ready to finish the scheduled run in ‘Power Train I’ and relocate themselves
to a different area of the factory to commence work on ‘Power Train II’.
Questions were then invited and the area manager fielded these himself. One
issue of concern was the extra time that would be needed reporting to work
and in lost break time because of the distance between the two work locations.
The area manager dealt with this by promising to keep it under review during
the first few weeks of the new work scheme.
After about 40 minutes the area manager and the rest of the manage-
ment team departed and the shop stewards were left to address the meeting.
The tone was essentially a realistic one of the economics of competition and
the poor state of ‘Power Train I’ because of its age and its low volumes.
While some minor problems were noted with the management plan, the over-
all message was that rearganisation was necessary. There was very little op-
position from the floor. A vote was taken and the plan was accepted almost
unanimously.
(a) Identify the aspects of management that are taking place in this situation.

73
(b) What leadership qualities did the plant manager and the area manager
demonstrate?
(c) What type of leadership style is the area manager adopting?
(d) What factors may have influenced this choice of leadership style?
(e) Use the leadership theory of Fiedler to explain why the strategy adopted by
the area manager was successful.
2. Marketing the Theatre
In all branches of the theatre today, marketing expertise is crucial.
When planning your strategy, the first step is to read the play which you are
going to be marketing. When you know a show it is sometimes easy to find
strong selling points.
Use these selling points in the design your posters and other publicity
material. These must be got out in good time, at least six weeks before the
show is due to open. Try to find ways to maximise local publicity about the
production: does something about the play itself, or its cast perhaps, give you
a key which will unlock local radio and press coverage?
It is important to think of possible group bookings – for example, you
can do useful business with school coach parties when you have a play which
is on the ‘A’*) level syllabus.
There will probably be a box office revenue target (largely determined
by the production cost of the play) and this will influence prices. Market re-
search of your potential audience is useful before setting prices. The careful
use of discount prices and concessions can be an important tactic.
It is interesting to consider Table 1 and the range of average ticket
prices charged for the different types of production and the varying extent to
which use is made by box offices of discounting.
Table 1
Average Ticket Prices and the Average Discount on Ticket Prices, 1991
Type of Production Average Ticket Average Discount on
Price (£) Ticket Price (%)
Modern Drama 12.59 10.1
Comedy 13.08 8.5
Modern Musicals 18.28 1.5
Traditional Musicals 17.26 9.8
Revue 15.11 0.7
Opera 30.20 8.5
Ballet 21.05 3.8
Classical Plays 11.82 17.5
Children’s Shows / Pantomime 10.79 4.3
Thrillers & Others 13.28 5.5
At the box office, the theatre business depends, to some extent, on the
custom of tourists, particularly those from the United States. However, ac-

*)
“A” – advanced – продвинутый уровень в обучении.

74
cording to the Society of London Theatres, the relative importance of tourists
has been declining. While 42% of the West End audience came from overseas
in 1985, this had fallen to 32% by 1991.
Theatre managers do not like having to rely on tourists because it
means that there will be regular seasonal troughs in demand when the number
of foreign visitors falls off in the winter. For this reason, it has been quite
common for up to half a dozen shows to be forced to close during the first few
months of the year.
Moreover, there are inevitably going to be bad years for tourism, for
example, during periods when the Dollar is weak, or when the threat of terror-
ism in Europe dominates the headlines (such as in the periods after Hie Lib-
yan bombing in 1986 and the Gulf War in 1991) and serves to discourage
people from travelling abroad.

Case Study Question 1: You are the business manager of your school or
college play which is to run for a week in the main hall. This means that you
have the take of selling 1,000 tickets. What are the main marketing steps you
must take?
Case Study Question 2: You decide to set your seat prices so that the produc-
tion will ‘break-even’. What are the main fixed and variable costs that you
should expect to incur.

3. High Lane VI Form College

High Lane VI Form College acquired designated status on 1st April
1993. This meant that control for the funding of the college moved from the
local authority to central government. In addition, the complete management
of the budget would be carried out by the principal of the college rather than
the local education authority. Finances for the college would be allocated by
the Further Education Funding Council and could depend, in the main, on the
number of students it could attract and on whether the college had achieved its
mission statement. This is a document that set out of college’s future goals
and objectives in terms of curriculum development and delivery and the pas-
toral programme for student guidance and support.
The principal and governors of the college decided to restructure in or-
der to meet the challenge of the future. In the past the structure had four levels
– the senior management team (the principal and two viceprincipals), senior
tutors (responsible for the pastoral programme), heads of departments and
main scale teachers. It was recognised that the senior management team
needed to be expanded. Senior tutors were given extra responsibilities and
made part of the senior management team. In addition a new team of curricu-
lum leaders (CLs) was created. The team was made up from heads of depart-
ments in the different curriculum areas, such as the social sciences and sci-
ences etc. and was responsible for curriculum development and delivery.

75
Much of the success of the college would depend on how well this group
worked together.
The group certainly had a variety of personalities in it - from those with
new, innovative ideas to those that more concerned with administration and
day to day problems. The group met formally once a fortnight to discuss is-
sues concerning a quality curriculum. It became apparent, however, that the
meetings rarely achieved concrete suggestions for future action. The meetings
seemed to be used as 'talking shops’ for curriculum leaders to air grievances
about the happenings of the week.
Some of the curriculum leaders were also part of an informal group of
friends who would socialise at lunchtimes and after college. It was often at
these informal gatherings/meetings that the real issues were raised and ideas
discussed. Other curriculum leaders who were not at such gatherings would
usually have any important issues raised communicated to them through the
‘grapevine’.
The informal meetings became a focal point for CLs to attack the lack
of focus in the official meetings and also the fact that their ideas were very
rarely accepted by senior management. They felt that senior management was
made up of individuals who had caused a decline in the number of students by
their inaction over the last five years. Their main complaint, however, was
that although they had been assured by the principal that they would be the
ones who would make decisions on curriculum matters, the senior manage-
ment team would often intervene and veto their proposals. For example, CLs
suggested that gNVQs (general national vocational qualifications) should be
more fully developed in the college to attract students that had normally gone
to the local FE colleges.
This idea was, rejected by the senior management team as not fitting
into the academic tradition of the college. Joan, the CL for Economics and
Business, felt exasperated by this decision. She said: “CLs were meant to be
part of the management of the college with responsibilities for curriculum de-
velopment and delivery. We meet formally and informally, communicating in
a variety of ways to each other, trying to advance a common view on curricu-
lum development. But at times we just don’t seem to have the authority to
make things happen. I just don’t know what we can do.”
(a) What new formal groups did the Principal and Governors set up in April
1993?
(b) How did communication take place in formal and informal groups at High
Lane?
(c) Comment on the likely effectiveness of:
(i) formal groups;
(ii) informal groups;
at High Lane.
(d) What problems might High Lane face as a result at the way group decision
making is organised?

76
(e) Suggest 2 methods High Lane management could have used to solve the
problems suggested in your answer to question (d).

4. More than just a leisure park

The Dome Leisure Park is Europe’s largest multi-facility leisure devel-
opment under one roof, with a total floor area of 15 100 square metres. Since
its opening in October 1989, it has regularly welcomed more than one million
visitors through its doors per year, making it one of the UK’s top five leisure
attractions, ranking it alongside Alton Towers and the Chessington World of
Adventures.
The Dome is located in Doncaster, South Yorkshire. Its site gives quick
and easy access to the Ml, M18, and A1(M) motorways, thus giving good
communication links to surrounding towns and cities such as Sheffield,
Leeds, and Nottingham. Alternatively, the nearby mainline railway station of-
fers rail links to London, Birmingham, Manchester, and Edinburgh.
The land on which The Dome is built and surrounding areas comprise
350 acres of council owned waste land on the Southern edge of the town,
opposite the prestigious race course. The Dome can therefore be expanded
without complication, or nearby land sold to other private sector investors at-
tracted to the area.
The Aims of the Dome
The Dome was a Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council (DMBC)
initiative, first conceived in 1985. It was designed, built, and opened at a cost
of £25 million, which was wholly funded by the council through the receipts
of sales of land.
The main objectives of The Dome are:
1. To offer the residents of Doncaster a dramatically different leisure option.
2. To position Doncaster as the focal point for leisure and tourism following
the decline of the town’s more traditional industries of heavy engineering
and mining.
3. To act as a catalyst for the economic and qualitative regeneration of the
surrounding area and to act as an expression of confidence in the future of
the community.
4. To attract investment to the town.
The Mission Statement of The Dome is:
‘To enhance the quality of life of residents and visitors to Doncaster
and South Yorkshire by means of a wide range of well publicised, affordable
and enjoyable leisure opportunities in an attractive, healthy and safe environ-
ment”.
The Management of The Dome

77
 The council knew that much depended on the success of The Dome,
and as such, good management was imperative if they were to justify the ini-
tial cost the development demanded. They wanted the Dome to not only be a
successful leisure centre, but to provide the catalyst in attracting other devel-
opers and investors to the town. In short, successful management could turn
the initial £25 million into investment, rather than expenditure. With this in
mind, a private limited company, Dome Leisure Management, was formed to
oversee the commercial viability and day-to-day running of the project.
Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council (DMBC) recognised that it
required the highest levels of commercial management and decided that a
’stand alone’ operation, whereby a Private Limited Company runs the concern
for the Council, provided the best opportunities for success. A similar strategy
is illustrated by the success of the council-owned, privately-run, race course
in the town.
The Marketing Strategy
When the Dome first opened the marketing of the Centre as a whole,
and of specific events, was of prime importance. Without a high company
profile and influx of customers, the Dome would fail to satisfy its aims and
objectives. Due to this, the management enlisted the specialist skills of Col-
bear Dickson, an external marketing agency, to work with a group of manag-
ers including the General Manager and the Marketing Department. They
would identify promotions and initiatives for the coming months for the Mar-
keting Plan.
Each year the Marketing Department has had a different goal to reach
in promoting The Dome. In its first year it aimed at creating a corporate iden-
tity, in a bid to get the name of The Dome known throughout the region, if not
the country. In the second year, its task was to promote day-trip business and
the third year concentrated on promoting corporate business.
Market research is carried out periodically to ascertain the needs of the
market. Access and Visa customers are sent mail shots with information re-
garding future events, but no system is set up as yet to monitor the success of
this initiative.
The role of the Marketing Department focuses very much on the pro-
motion of The Dome and public relations activities. In addition, several sales
methods have been constructed as a result of market research, such as offering
joint tickets to both the water and ice facilities, as well as a Kids Club aimed
at the younger, energy-packed visitor.
Now that the Leisure Park has an established track record. The Dome
Management rely to a certain extent on the name and The Dome’s reputation
to do much of the marketing and selling for them. A large amount of the
Dome’s publicity comes in the form of press releases focusing on specific
events and new initiatives being launched, in the hope and expectation that
local newspapers will use the story, thus providing the public with informa-

78
tion about the centre. This tactic enables the Dome to reach a large audience
at little or no cost.
Local press and radio advertising tends to focus on specific high profile
events, such as forthcoming concerts and basketball matches. Leaflets adver-
tising the general facilities offered by the Dome are displayed in tourist of-
fice’s throughout Yorkshire and Humberside.
The Business Operations of the Dome
Apart from being successful in attracting customers, the Dome also
needed to be seen as having a strong corporate identity, in order to give the
confidence of potential investors in the area. After all, it is to a large extent
the Dome’s customers that feed all the other commercial developments on the
site. To this end, the Dome needed a resourceful management and competent
staff.
Senior management posts were filled largely with personnel from out-
side the local community with experience of the leisure industry, whereas po-
sitions lower down the hierarchy were filled from the large pool of labour
available locally. This enabled the Dome to find an acceptable balance be-
tween experienced, specialist staff brought into the area, and personnel from
the local community.
Any senior positions becoming available now are advertised internally
in the first instance. This offers several advantages to the company, in that it
motivates staff as they believe that they have a chance to succeed in the or-
ganisation. Also, the induction period (the first few weeks in the new job) is
made smoother as the employee is already familiar with the working envi-
ronment, its people and its policies. Disadvantages of promotion from within
are that no new blood is brought into the company which could lead to a lack
of innovative new ideas.
If internal advertising for management level positions fails to provide
suitable candidates, the Dome management prefer to ‘headhunt’ in order to
save time and expenditure involved with advertising externally. The head-
hunting process involves contacting people known to the staff who are work-
ing in, or have worked in, a similar position within the leisure industry. They
can be attracted to the Dome by offering larger salaries, additional benefits, or
better future prospects. Headhunting is particularly suited to senior positions
or ones where the post holder requires specialist skills or knowledge.
The Dome management place great importance on the induction, train-
ing and development of all staff. Every employee within the organisation re-
ceives an induction period upon taking up employment. The amount of time
taken in induction will depend on the position within the organisation. An an-
nual appraisal system is used thereafter to assess an individual’s overall per-
formance. This gives employees л formal opportunity to discuss with their
managers their role within the company, where they think their job is going,

79
and how it could be improved to the benefit of themselves and the organisa-
tion as a whole.
A common training theme runs throughout all levels of the hierarchy.
In 1992, for example, training concentrated on improving quality; whereas in
1993 training aimed at improving sates techniques. In addition to this themed
training, job holders also receive a training programme tailored to their needs.
Most training is carried out in-house, giving the advantages of minimal time
spent away from the workplace and avoiding the expense of hiring an external
training agency. The Dome is currently carrying out a Training Needs Analy-
sis, which is partly funded by the Doncaster and Barnsley Training and Enter-
prise Council ‘TEC’.
Due to the dynamic nature of the leisure industry, the Dome manage-
ment need to effectively manage change in order to maintain their competitive
edge. most changes implemented tend to be customer led. The ethos is that if
customer demand is sufficient/the management will try and ensure that the fa-
cility or activity is included.
It is not just current customers’ wishes that need to be met, however, in
order to sustain the growth needed to meet the council's expectations. If the
Dome is to live up to all of its original aims, it must evolve to become a Lei-
sure Park large enough to pull visitors from further afield. With a proposed
Channel Tunnel Terminal being sited at Doncaster, it is now feasible to expect
visitors from France and the rest of the EU. Because of this the council is con-
tinually updating its proposed expansions of the site. Current initiatives in-
volve the development of an artificial lake for water sports, a business and of-
fice complex, a holiday village, and an all-seater sports stadium. If it is to con-
tinue to attract private sector development, it must continue to invest in, and
expand on, the current provisions offered.
Such a large scale development is obviously likely to upset some peo-
ple in the local community, due to problems such as increased traffic, noise,
litter etc. Dealing with such groups is seen largely as a public relations exer-
cise. If the Dome management and the council give them a fair hearing and
lay down the basis of, and advantages of their proposals, or even bow to the
wishes of local groups where this seems to be the best strategy, the council
will maintain the much needed respect and support of the local residential and
business community.

Private Sector Investment

For the Dome to provide maximum benefit for the local community,
and Doncaster as a whole, it needed to attract private sector investors to the
area. This was the best way for the DMBC to recoup their initial investment,
as they sold off land to companies attracted to the area. The revenue from land
sales far outweighs profits obtained from the operations of the Dome. This
has already paid off in the form of a 50 bedroom Campanile Hotel situated in
two acres of land. The French hotel chain has the scope to add another 50
80
bedroom annexe to their existing £1.2 million development. Just prior to the
official opening of The Dome, Keith Brown Properties Ltd opened a £1.5 mil-
lion Ten Pin Bowling Alley covering one acre and providing 60 jobs. In 1990
an Asda Superstore opened covering 12 acres. Warner Brothers soon followed
with a multi-screen cinema development situated on a six acre site at a cost of
£6.5 million and providing 100 jobs.
The 500 full time jobs and 100 part time positions created by the £55
million worth of private sector investment in the first phase of the Park’s de-
velopment has given a boost to other commercial concerns in the local econ-
omy. Unemployment has fallen, spending power has increased, and this
spending has led to further employment in other businesses.
The council are hoping that further development of the park will trans-
form this area of Doncaster into a role model of private and public sector co-
operation in economic revival.
Conclusion
The Doncaster Dome was never intended to be a means to an end. It
was never intended to be merely a leisure park. It was intended to trigger new
hope and investment for the town. So far it seems to have worked.
The General Manager of the Dome was right when he said “The Dome
is a household name on nil regional lips, is well known in the Leisure indus-
try, is admired by its rivals and is the envy of other Borough Councils”. It is
certainly that, and to the people of Doncaster, much more besides. It has pro-
vided hope in what was otherwise a seemingly bleak future for a town where
traditional industries (e.g. mining and engineering) are in sharp decline.
Questions for discussion
1. Why do you think that the Doncaster Metropolitan Borough Council de-
cided that a stand alone operation, whereby a Private Limited Company
runs the concern, provided the best opportunities for success? What alter-
natives were open to the Council?
2. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the Dome’s marketing strategy?
What improvements could be made in marketing both the Dome, and the
Leisure Park as a whole?
3. Explain the links between the Public and Private sector that have emerged
as a result of the Leisure Park’s development. What benefits has each re-
ceived as a result of this co-operation?
4. What benefits has the Leisure Park’s development brought to the town of
Doncaster? Are there any groups in the community that may feel threat-
ened by the development?
5. What were the “opportunity costs” of the Dome? How would you justify
the expense to opponents of the Dome’s development?
6. Conduct a S.W.O.T. (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats)
Analysis for the Dome Leisure Park. From your findings, do you feel that
the Council were justified in investing £25 million in the project?

81
 SUPPLEMENTARY READING
(Дополнительное чтение)
What is management?
Unit 2 explained that managers are an important group involved in
business activity. It is difficult to define exactly what is meant by ‘manage-
ment’. However, many agree that managers are responsible for ‘getting things
done’ – usually through other people. The term manager may refer to a num-
ber of different people within a business. Some job titles include the word
manager, such as personnel manager or managing director. Other job holders
may also be managers, even though their titles do not say it.
It could be argued that managers:
• act on behalf of the owners – in a company, senior management are ac-
countable to the shareholders;
• set objectives for the organisation, for example, they may decide that a
long term objective is to have a greater market share than all of the com-
pany’s competitors;
• make sure that a business achieves its objectives, by managing others;
• ensure that corporate values (the values of the organisation) are main-
tained in dealings with other businesses, customers, employees and gen-
eral public.
The functions of management
Henri Fayol, the French management theorist working in the early part
of this century, listed a number of functions or ‘elements’ of management.
Planning This involves setting objectives and also the strategies, poli-
cies, programmes and procedures for achieving them. Planning might be done
by line manners (unit 63) who will be responsible for performance. However,
advice on planning may also come from staff management who might have
expertise in that area, even if they have no line authority. For example, a pro-
duction manager may carry out human resource planning (unit 51) in the pro-
duction department, but use the skills of the personnel manager in planning
recruitment for vacancies that may arise.
Organising Managers set tasks which need to be performed if the
business is to achieve its objectives. Jobs need to be organised within sections
or departments and ; authority needs to be delegated so that jobs are carried
out. For example, the goal of a manufacturing company may be to produce
quality goods that will be delivered to customers on time. The tasks, such as
manufacturing, packaging, administration, etc. that are part of producing and
distributing the goods, need to be organised to achieve this goal.
Commanding This involves giving instructions to subordinates to
carry out tasks. The manager has the authority to make decisions and respon-
sibility to see tasks are carried out.

82
 Co-ordinating This is the bringing together of the activities of people
within the business. Individuals and groups will have their own goals, which
may be different to those of the business and each other. Management must
make sure that there is a common approach, so that the company’s goals are
achieved.
Controlling Managers measure and correct the activities of individuals
and groups, to make sure that their performance fits in with plans.
The management process
Peter Drucker worked in the 1440s and 1950а as a business adviser to
a number of US firms. He is credited with the idea of MANAGEMENT BY
OBJECTIVES (unit 50), used by some businesses today. Drucker grouped the
operations of management into five categories.
• Setting objectives for the organisation. Managers decide what the objec-
tives of the business should be. These objectives are then organised into
targets.
• Organising the work. The work to be done in the organisation must be di-
vided into manageable activities and jobs. The jobs must be integrated into
the formal organisational structure (unit 63) and people must be selected to
do the jobs (unit 53).
• Motivating employees (unit 48) and communicating information (unit 62)
to enable employees to carry out their tasks.
• Job measurement. It is the task of management to establish objectives or
yardsticks of performance for every person in the organisation. They must
also analyse actual performance and compare it with the yardstick that has
been set. Finally, they should communicate the findings and explain their
significance to others in the business.
• Developing people. The manager should bring out the talent in people.

Every manager performs all five functions listed above, no matter how
good or bad a manager, Drucker suggests. A bad manager performs these
functions badly, whereas a good manager performs them well. He also argued
that the manager of a business has a basic function – economic performance.
In this respect the business manager is different from the manager of other
types of organisation. Business managers can only justify their existence and
authority by the economic results they produce.
Being a manager
In contrast with Fayol or Drucker, Charles Handy argued that any
definition of a manager is likely to be so broad it will have little or no mean-
ing. Instead he outlined what is likely to be involved in ‘being a manager’.
The manager as a general practitioner Handy made an analogy between
managing and staving ‘healthy’. If there are ‘health problems’ in business, the
manager needs to identify the symptoms. These could include low productiv-

83
ity, high labour turnover or industrial relations problems. Once the symptoms
have been identified, the manager needs to find the cause of trouble and de-
velop a strategy for ‘better health’. Strategies for health might include chang-
ing people, through hiring and firing, reassignments, training, pay increases or
counselling. A manager might also restructure work through job redesign, job
enrichment (unit 50) and a redefinition of roles. Systems can also be im-
proved. These can include communication systems, reward systems, informa-
tion and reporting systems budgets and other decision making systems, eg
stock control.
Managerial dilemmas Handy argued that managers face dilemmas. One
of the reasons why managers are paid more than workers is because of the di-
lemmas they face.
• The dilemma of cultures. When managers are promoted or move to other
parts o! the business, they have to behave in ways which are suitable for
the new position. For example, at the senior management level, managers
may deal more with long term strategy and delegate lower level tasks to
middle management more often. If a promoted manager maintains a ‘cul-
ture’ that she is used to, which may mean taking responsibility for all
tasks, she may not be effective in her new position.
• The trust-control dilemma. Managers may want to control the work for
which they are responsible. However, they may have to delegate work to
subordinates, trusting them to do the work properly. The greater the trust a
manager has in subordinates, the less control she retains for herself. Re-
taining control could mean a lack of trust.
• The leader’s dilemma. In many firms, junior managers often want to work
in project teams, with a clear task or objective. This can mean working
‘outside’ the normal bureaucratic structure of a larger organisation. Unfor-
tunately, there can be too many project groups (or ‘commando groups’) for
the good of the business- The manager must decide how many project
groups she should create to satisfy the needs of her subordinates and how
much bureaucratic structure to retain.

Managerial roles

Henry Mintzberg suggested that, as well as carrying out certain func-

tions, the manager also fulfils certain roles in a firm. He identified three types
of role which a manager must play.
• Interpersonal roles. These arise from the manager’s formal authority. Man-
agers have a figurehead role. For example, a large part of a chief execu-
tive’s time is spent representing the company at dinners, conferences etc.
They also have a leader role. This involves hiring, firing and training staff,
motivating employees etc. Thirdly, they have a liaison role. Some manag-
ers spend up to half their time meeting with other managers. They do this
because they need to know what is happening in other departments. Senior

84
 managers spend a great deal of time with people outside the business.
Mintzberg says that these contacts build up an informal information sys-
tem, and are a moans of extending influence both within and outside the
business.
• Information roles. Managers act as channels of information from one de-
partment to another. They are in а position to do this because of their con-
tacts.
• Decision making roles. The manager’s formal authority and access to in-
formation means that no one else is in a better position to take decisions
about a department’s work.
Through extensive research and observation of what managers actually
do, Mintzberg drew certain conclusions about the work of managers.
• The idea that a manager is a ‘systematic’ planner is a myth. Planning is of-
ten carried out on a day-to-day basis, in between more urgent tasks.
• Another myth is that a manager has no regular or routine duties, as these
have been delegated to others. Mintzberg found that managers perform a
number of routine duties, particularly ‘ceremonial’ tasks.
• Mintzberg’s research showed that managers prefer verbal communication
rather than a formal system of communication (unit 62). Information
passed by word of mouth in an informal way is likely to be more up to date
and easier to grasp.
Leadership
The ability to lead within organisations is of growing interest to busi-
nesses. This interest has resulted from the need to lead companies through
change, brought about by an increase in competition and a recessionary cli-
mate in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
Earlier in this unit it was shown that a manager might have a leadership
role. To be a good leader in business it has been suggested that a manager
must know what direction needs to be taken by the business and plan how to
achieve this. Leaders will also be able to persuade others that the decisions
that they have taken are the correct ones.
Leaders are often thought to be charismatic people who have ‘some-
thing about them’ that makes them stand out from others. It has been argued
that there are certain personality traits (unit 47) that are common to leaders.
However, studies have failed to prove this is the case.
In order to identify ‘leadership’, studies have shifted to examine what
leaders, and in particular managers, do – that is, what behaviour is associated
with leadership. This is dealt with in the next sections.
The qualities of leadership
One approach to find out what makes good leaders is to identify the
qualities that they should have. A number of chагасteristics have been sug-
gested.

85
• Effective leaders have a positive self image, backed up with a genuine
ability and realistic aspirations. This is shown in the confidence they have.
An example in UK industry might be Richard Branson, in his various pio-
neering business activities. Leaders also appreciate their own strengths and
weaknesses. It is argued that many managers fail to lead because they of-
ten get bogged down in short term activity.
• Leader need to be able to get to the ‘core’ of a problem and have the vision
and commitment to suggest radical solutions. Sir John Harvey-Jones took
ICI to £1 billion profit by stirring up what had become a ‘sleeping giant’.
Many awkward questions were raised about the validity of the way things
were done, and the changes led to new and more profitable businesses on a
world-wide scale for the firm.
• Studies of leaders in business suggest that they are expert in a particular
field and well read in everything else. They tend to be ‘out of the ordi-
nary’, intelligent, and articulate.
• Leaders are often creative thinking and innovative. They tend to seek new
ideas to problems, make sure that important things are done and try to im-
prove standards. One example might have been the restructuring of BHS
by David Dworkin so that unsold stock did not remain on the shelves.
• Leaders often have the ability to sense change and can respond to it. A
leader, for example, may be able to predict a decline of sales in an impor-
tant product or the likelihood of a new production technique being avail-
able in the future.

86
 Leadership styles
Another approach is to examine different styles of leadership. There are
a number of styles that managers might adopt in the work setting. Table 1
shows the different ways in which leaders can involve others in the decision
making process.
Autocratic. An AUTOCRATIC leadership style is one where the man-
ner sets objectives, allocates tasks, and insists on obedience. Therefore the
group become dependent on him or her. The result of this style is that mem-
bers of the group are often dissatisfied with the leader. This results in little
cohesion, the need for high levels of supervision, and poor levels of motiva-
tion amongst employees.
Autocratic leadership may be needed in certain circumstances. For ex-
ample, in the armed forces there may be a need to move troops quickly and
for orders to be obeyed instantly.
Democratic. A DEMOCRATIC leadership style encourages participa-
tion in decision making. Managers may consult employees or could attempt to
‘sell’ final decisions to them. It is argued that, through participation and con-
sultation, employees know and believe the objectives of management because
they have had some involvement with it. This will result in employees being
more motivated and willing to work harder.
Democratic leadership styles need good communication skills. The
leaders must be able to explain ideas clearly to employees and understand
feedback they receive (unit 62). It may mean, however, that decisions take a
long time to be reached as lengthy consultation can take place.
Laissez-faire. A LAISSEZ-FAIRE type of leadership style allows em-
ployees to carry out activities freely within broad limits. The result is a re-
laxed atmosphere, but one where there are few guidelines and directions. This
can sometimes result in pool productivity and lack of motivation as employ-
ees have little incentive to work hard.
Table 1
Leadership style
Autocratic Democratic Laissez-faire
Type of Autocratic Persuasive Consultative Laissez-faire
leadership
Leader Leader makes Leader consults with There is no for-
makes deci- decisions alone. others before decision mal structure to
sions alone. Others are per- is made. There will be decision mak-
Method Others are suaded by the group influence in the ing. The leader
informed leader that the final decision, even does not force
and carry decision is the though it is made by his or her views
out deci- right one, i.e. the leader. on others.
sions. leader ‘sells’ the
decision to the
group.

87
 Factors affecting leadership styles
The type of leadership style adopted by managers will depend on vari-
ous factors.
The task. A certain task may be the result of an emergency, which
might need immediate response from a person in authority, The speed of deci-
sion needed and action taken may require an authoritarian or autocratic style
of leadership.
• The tradition of the organisation. A business may develop its own culture
which is the result of the interactions of all employees at different levels.
This can result in one type of leadership style, because of a pattern of be-
haviour that has developed in the organisation. For example, in the public
sector (unit 4) leadership is often democratic because of the need to con-
sult with politicians etc.
• The type of labour force. A more highly skilled workforce might be most
productive when their opinions are sought. Democratic leadership styles
may be more appropriate in this case.
• The group size. Democratic leadership styles can lead to confusion the
greater the size of the group.
• The leader’s personality. The personality of one manager may be different
to another manager and certain leadership styles might suit one but not the
other. For example, an aggressive, competitive personality may be more
suited to an authoritarian leadership style.
• Group personality. Some people prefer to be directed rather than contrib-
ute, either because of lack of interest, previous experience, or because
they believe that the manager is paid to lake decisions and shoulder re-
sponsibility. If this is the case, then an autocratic leadership style is more
likely to lead to effective decision making.
• Time. The time available to complete a task might influence the leadership
style adopted. For example, if a project has to be finished quickly, there
may be no time for discussion and an autocratic style may be adopted.

Why do leaders adopt different styles?

A number of theories have been put forward to explain the most appro-
priate leadership style when dealing with certain situations or groups at work.
Fiedler. In l976, F. Fiedler argued that it is easier to change someone’s
role or power, or to modify the job he has to do, than to change his leadership
style. From his 800 studies he found that it is difficult for people to change
leadership styles - an ‘autocrat’ will always lead in autocratic style whereas a
leader that encourages involvement will tend to be ‘democratic’. Different
leadership styles may also be effective depending on the situation. He con-
cluded that, as leaders are unable to adapt their style to a situation, effective-
ness can only be achieved by changing the manager to ‘fit’ the situation or by
altering the situation to fit the manager.

88
 In business it is often difficult to change the situation. Fiedler suggested
that a business should attempt what he called leadership match – to choose a
leader to lit the situation. Leaders can be either task orientated or relation-
ship orientated. So, for example, a business that faced declining sales might
need a very task orientated manager to pull the business around, even if the
tradition of the firm might be for a more democratic style of leadership.
Hersey and Blanchard. P. Hersey and K.H. Blanchard argued that a
leader’s strategy should not only lake account of the situation, but also the
maturity of those who are led. They defined maturity as the ability of people
to set targets which can be achieved and yet are demanding.
A leader will have task behaviour or relationship behaviour. Task
behaviour is the extent to which the leader has to organise what a subordinate
should do. Relationship behaviour describes how much support is needed and
how close personal contact is. Together these will decide which of the follow-
ing leadership styles will be used.
• Delegating leadership is where a leader allows subordinates to solve a
problem. For this type of leadership style to work, subordinates need to be
mature and require little support at work.
• Participating leadership is where a leader and subordinates work on a
problem together, supporting each other. In this situation subordinates are
slightly less mature than when a leader delegates and so need more sup-
port.
• Selling leadership is where a leader persuades others of the benefits of an
idea. Workers are likely to be only moderately mature and require a great
deal of support.
• Telling leadership is where a leader tells others what to do. Workers are
fairly immature. They are told exactly what to do and little contact or sup-
port is needed.
Wright and Taylor. In 1984, P. Wright and D. Taylor argued that theo-
ries which concentrate on the situation or maturity of those led ignore how
skilfully leadership is needed.
They produced a checklist designed to help leaders improve the per-
formance of subordinates. It included the following.
• What is the problem? An employee may, for example, be carrying out a
task inefficiently.
• Is it serious enough to spend time on? This could depend on the cost to the
business.
• What reasons may there be for the problem? How can it be solved?
• Choosing a solution and evaluating if it is the most effective one.
• Evaluation of the leader’s performance.

This can be used to identify the most suitable leadership style in a par-
ticular situation. For example, if the problem above is caused because the em-
ployee has been left to make his own decisions and is not able to, a more
89
autocratic leadership style may be needed. One the other hand, if the em-
ployee lacks motivation or does not have the authority to make decisions,
greater discussion or delegation may be needed.
Key terms

Autocratic leadership – a leadership style where the leader makes all deci-
sions independently.
Democratic leadership – a leadership style where the leader encourages
others to participate in decision making.
Laissez.-faire leadership – a leadership style where employees are encour-
aged to make their own decisions within limits.
Management by Objectives (MBO) – a management theory which suggests
that managers set goals and communicate them to subordinates.

Summary
1. State 5 functions of management.
2. Briefly explain the process of management by objectives.
3. Give 3 examples of a managerial dilemma.
4. Why might a good manager not always be a good leader?
5. Briefly explain 5 qualities of leadership.
6. Under what circumstances might an autocratic leadership style be useful?
7. State 6 factors which might affect the choice of leadership style.
8. According to Fiedler’s theory, why should a business attempt a leadership
match?
HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
Managing people in business
Since the mid-Eighties the term ‘Human Resource Management’
(HRM) has replaced ‘Personnel Management’ to describe the function within
business which focuses on the employment, training, use and welfare of peo-
ple. What does this signal about human relations in industry?
For people to be referred to as ‘human resources’ sounds mechanical
and yet the objectives of the approach are precisely the opposite. The inten-
tion is to emphasise a total strategy related to a firm’s most valued resource
rather than the set of functions which a personnel management department
was commonly expected to undertake.
The process begins with effective workforce planning which links in-
tentions related to employees with the internal organisation and the overall
objectives of the business. This sees employees not simply as people who per-
form a set o functions, narrowly contained within a job specification, nor as
groups catered for by collective agreements with unions. Rather, it stresses the
extent to which employees will have an active role within most of the decision

90
making which surrounds their 'job' in the firm. One of the best examples of
this which you will be familiar with is the approach summed up in the phrase
‘quality circles’. Employees are considered to be part of a team and not sim-
ply individuals working for the firm.

From individual to team member

The classic texts present employees as individuals working in a firm
and devote attention to individual human needs. You will be familiar with this
approach in the work of Maslow, who describes a hierarchy of human needs
and stresses the importance of satisfying the higher needs (see Figure 1).
Herzberg takes a similar approach (see Table 1), dividing the factors
which can be identified in the work situation into those which must be there if
people are to work at all (hygiene factors) and those which might be likely to
provoke a positive response (motivating factors).

Table 1
The Herzberg model
Hygiene factors Motivators
Working environment Achievement
Supervision Responsibility
Company policy Work itself
Relationship with superiors Advancement
Relationship with subordinates Recognition

Organisational culture
The human resource approach centres more on people working in
groups, looking at the firm as a whole and developing the idea of a ‘culture’
which the firm will evolve and to which employees will respond. The spot-
light is less on the individual employed through a job description and tightly
defined role and more on efficient working teams through which better per-
formance can be identified and achieved.
Where emphasis is placed on the needs of the individual and on indi-
vidual records, a wide range of indicators can be identified through which
high or low morale can be measured. These include absentee rates, lateness,
accident figures, low productivity and many others. This approach is rather
like viewing a class of A-level Business Studies students as individuals.
The alternative view of the class is as a set of sub-groups, not always
the same groups, working together to achieve learning objectives which the
teacher, as manager of the class, determines. These will be in line with overall
objectives as represented by the syllabus and the way it is assessed. Translat-
ing this to the work situation implies an approach which allows considerable
decision-making responsibility to be given to teams of workers. In
McGregor’s language, it is very much a Theory Y approach since it demands
91
much greater self-motivation and personal responsibility for outcomes (see
Table 2).

Table 2
McGregor's Theory X and Y model
X Y
Dislikes work Is satisfied by work
Avoids work Seeks work
Is lazy and selfish Works well, cooperates
Is directed, controlled, threatened Is self-directed
Avoids responsibility Seeks responsibility
Little ambition Seeks satisfaction of higher needs
Money motivates All needs motivate

From negative to positive

Much of what is traditionally implied in personnel management ap-
proaches centres on negative performance measures: the reduction in labour
turnover, the avoidance of industrial disputes, the minimising of lateness and
absence through such things as timeclocks and flexitime. The philosophy of
HRM, in contrast, is that members of teams have a responsibility to each other
which is a more compelling motivator than a rather generalised responsibility
to the firm.
Again I cannot resist comparison with the management of a class. Stu-
dents working in sub-groups work much more for each other than for the class
teacher. Evidence suggests that this leads to more continuous and more posi-
tive contributions than a whole class or individual student approach com-
monly produces.
The broader perspective of employment
If the philosophy of HEM is effectively practised, the view of employ-
ment as finding people who will offer individual job skills diminishes. The
focus of workforce planning, selection, induction and training is very much
broader. Its consequence is both to require and to develop good communica-
tion skills and a greater sense of identity with the organisation. HRM implies
a movement away from ‘us and them’ towards a cooperative concern for the
same objective based on differing but equally valued contributions.
Some might argue that this is true 'Taylorism' in the sense that there is a
common goal to be achieved which requires a solution-centred approach. It is
not based on different sets of objectives which have to be harmonised in a
way which is problem centred and designed to limit or prevent conflict.
Mary Parker Follett’s view that conflict is not only inevitable but is de-
sirable takes on a new dimension within the framework of HRM because it is
through the creative resolution of positive conflict that high performance can
be achieved. The approach does not deny the significance of individual hu-
92
man needs. Rather, it sets their satisfaction in a cooperative culture which is
more likely to give scope for satisfying higher needs than any approach based
on the individual job.
Why change now?
No doubt a variety of reasons can be found for the rapid acceptance of
an HRM approach, but I want to confine my self to two reasons apparent in
the changing environment of business. The first is the rapid pace of change
itself. This is both absorbing and creating innovation at a speed which can
only be tolerable within a cooperative, creative and flexible working envi-
ronment. The second reason is linked to this process – the thrust for better and
more complete quality assurance within all aspects of organisational behav-
iour.
Innovation
The environment is an ever-changing one. This tends to produce uncer-
tainty, fear and conflict when what is required is cooperation, flexibility and
contribution. Working within a team is more supportive, allows greater in-
volvement in decision making and an increased opportunity for making a con-
tribution.
Such a dynamic environment also needs a stable workforce – one that
can move with the changes without changing too much itself, one that can live
with a higher level of risk and greater uncertainty about the future.
Quality assurance
History has shown us that the old method of inspecting work and reject-
ing where necessary is not very effective. It is better to involve workers in the
process. Most will work better if they know what the quality objective is and
by what criteria completed work is to be assessed. Motivation is futher en-
hanced if workers participate in making decisions about all aspects of these
processes.
Quality is an agreed objective rather than an external standard, but the
pressures of the market place make it increasingly important that quality as-
surance targets are met. The contribution HRM can make to this process is to
develop worker involvement in deciding the goals of the organisation and
therefore far greater commitment to their achievement.
From theory to practice?
How real are these changes? Can they be seen in the way organisations
are run or is this largely the human relations writers talking to each other?
Drucker predicts that new organisations which embody HRM will rap-
idly appear in the next twenty years with flatter organisation charts and much
more responsibility centred around the workers. A large, number of individual
studies, particularly of large organisations in the motor industry, provide fur-
ther evidence of such changes, but it will no doubt be some considerable time
before they are commonplace in the business and industrial parks of our town.

93
 David Dyer is Head of the Economics, Geography and Business Educa-
tion Department at the University of London Institute. He is Director of the
Cambridge Business Studies Project, Chief Examiner for Cambridge Modular
and Oxford & Cambridge Modular and Linear courses, and Chairman of our
Business Review editorial team.
LIFE AT THE TOP

What do top managers actually do?

Andtew Karabadse discusses the varied
nature of their work and stresses the
importance of top managers in ensuring
that an organisation functions effectively
as a team.
On being asked ‘What do you do?’, Ian Prosser, Chairman and Chief
Executive of Bass, didn’t hesitate. He stressed the contribution he makes to
the organisation’s growth and development, and provided a strategic outline
for the company. Sir Graham Day was asked a similar question about his days
at Rover. His answer emphasised the sensitivity and care needed to introduce
change effectively and grow an ailing business. Colin Sharman, UK Partner of
the global consultants and auditors Peat Marwick, responded with a smile and
a question: ‘Where do I begin?’.
So here are three top managers, each displaying a different view as to
what their job really involves. Unusual? No – this is absolutely normal.

Prescribed work
Broadly speaking, any manager’s job can be divided into two parts –
prescribed and discretionary. The prescribed part refers to the daily structured
tasks someone needs to accomplish in order to achieve the basics. The person
has little choice but to do what is required (just as a GP’s prescription spells
out what sort of drugs the patient needs, the quantity, and over what time pe-
riod).
The job may need a low or a high level of skill. For example, routine
work is likely to involve people completing a set number of tasks, often con-
ducted in a particular way, on a daily basis. Strangely enough, the work of a
surgeon, although high level with respect to skills and status, is also ‘pre-
scribed’. Surgeons specialise in particular aspects of surgery and have a set
number of units of work to fulfil.
Apply this thinking to the role of sales manager. The manager is proba-
bly given a geographical region to cover, and sells a part or whole of the
company’s product range. There are likely to be revenue targets to achieve: a
certain volume of sales within certain periods of time. And there may equally
be cost targets: you are only allowed to spend so much in order to achieve the
target sales.

94
 Sales managers may say their ambitious revenue targets are impossible
with the limited number of sales people they have. They need more people.
The answer is: ‘No. Sell more – but with the people you have got!’ Hence the
job of the sales manager is to a large extent prescribed.
Discretionary work
The second type of managerial work is known as discretionary. This
means you have the choice of what to do according to what you think is right.
Sales managers who stop and think about their position do have choice: ‘OK,
the targets are tough. So do I motivate my people to work longer and harder?
Or do I get my assistants to manage my people, while I focus on those valued
customers who may require personal attention?’. That is a common dilemma
for a sales manager to consider. One crucial aspect of discretion is that the
manager in question decides. No-one else can really say what is best.
Research clearly shows that in most organisations, greater degrees of
discretion accompany more senior roles. The chief executive has the most
discretion. It is up to the job holder to provide the necessary leadership and
direction. So much depends on what that person feels is the best way forward,
bearing in mind the company’s strengths and weaknesses, likely future pat-
terns of consumer behaviour and the impact of competition.
Where choice is so broad, vision is required, meaning the view a person
holds about the future. This is as much about beliefs as about facts. Why
should Bass, a brewing and pub business, purchase a global hotel network? So
much depended on Ian Prosser’s belief that the Bass Group would be stronger
if it entered the hotel market. He believed it could achieve synergy by inte-
grating the beer and pub business with the hotel business. And Prosser’s char-
acter and leadership style are crucial to making the new-look Bass work.

95
 The top manager's role
A production manager would need product knowledge and an under-
standing of the manufacturing processes. For a manufacturing director, how-
ever, these skills may be useful but not vital. The crucial thing is overall ca-
pacity for the role of director. This involves a number of different elements:
an ability to apply specialist skills, such as financial or production skills; be-
ing able to think clearly about the issues and challenges facing the business,
and how to respond to them; and a style and sensitivity to communicate with
people in order to win their trust and confidence as their leader.
Each director/general manager is going to form a view as to how to
make the organisation successful. The chairman or chief executive officer
holds one view, but you, as a general manager or director, may not agree with
the boss. Perhaps the chairman of the company feels that the way forward is
to buy another company – as a lever to entering into a new market. The mar-
keting director may disagree, believing the market concerned to be too uncer-
tain and the extra borrowing needed to make the acquisition too risky. The
two managers may disagree, but both are rightly exercising the discretion in
their role. So what can prevent such disagreements becoming dangerous and
divisive?
Working as a team
The importance of a positive team spirit so that senior managers pull
together and yet discuss frankly all the key issues is self-evident, but this is
not easy to achieve. Why should a group of top general managers and direc-
tors get on? They are quite likely to disagree with each other as to the best
ways forward. Even if they agree, they may not like each other's style and
personality.
A Cranfield top executive leadership survey in several countries found
that about one-third of companies report fundamental splits of vision at top
management level. Even more interesting is the fact that more than half of the
companies report personality tensions and style differences. To allow such
tensions and differences to continue unabated would be destructive. To try
and prevent disagreements would be equally counter-productive. The secret is
to achieve an openness of conversation while maintaining a positive team
spirit.
Hence an additional element of discretion is achieving good teamwork.
Where there are several different views on how to make the company success-
ful, an acceptable way forward is likely to emerge from a robust dialogue be-
tween the top managers. What does each senior manager consider are the
strengths, weaknesses and challenges the company faces? What does each
think are the appropriate steps to improve current conditions? If disagreement
exists, why is this? (There may be good reasons for differences of view.) A
good team is one where the top managers have a sound relationship, where
they can bring their disagreements to the surface.
What if the relationships among the top team members are not well de-

96
veloped? What if people feel too inhibited and sensitive to talk to each other?
What if people feel that to make critical comments about one’s boss or col-
leagues could lead to being sacked? What happens if top managers feel that to
speak out is inappropriate?
Knowing the nature of the company’s problems is not sufficient. Senior
managers may still not speak out. People can have all the necessary insights
as to what is wrong and what to do about it, but still end up doing nothing.
Bringing certain issues to the surface may be too uncomfortable.
Therefore the final aspect of using the discretion in one’s role effec-
tively is maturity. Are the top managers of the organisation sufficiently ma-
ture to talk about sensitive issues? Nobody is born with maturity – it is a qual-
ity that people can develop during their life if they so choose. In fact, many
people seem to be unduly lacking in this personal quality. Maturity helps in-
dividuals cope with situations of ambiguity, disagreement and tension by ena-
bling them to listen, discuss and contribute with others. A piece of sound ad-
vice for any senior manager is to leave your ego at home. That way, others
find it easier to talk to you.

The activities of top managers

Forming a broad but accurate view about the company now and in the
future is important. And speaking your mind and team work are just as cru-
cial. But what do top managers actually do?
The answer is that they do a great deal in little bits: attending meetings,
sometimes just to discuss and sometimes to make decisions; listening to what
staff have to say; winning the support, trust and confidence of shareholders;
meeting with and entertaining key clients; listening to advisers; reading and
digesting a large number of reports; holding confidential one-to-one discus-
sions. These activities are often being conducted while other demands are be-
ing made on their time, causing interruptions and new priorities which upset
existing schedules. For many top managers, these are normal experiences. A
single error of judgement in this busy schedule could lead to resignation. Life
is demanding, precarious and constantly changing.
Top jobs require managers to address big issues and daily details almost
within the same breath. Making sense of such a demanding and diverse world
requires a rare combination of energy, maturity and vision. As Sir Graham
Day commented about his days at Rover: ‘I abandoned the historical docu-
ments I had inherited with the business, and started with a clean sheet of pa-
per. I then tried progressively to engage people in discussion about realistic
strategies for the business ...’
With the problems of Rover, this approach might not have worked. Yet
in 1993 Rover was the only car company in Europe which increased its mar-
ket share. The simple fact is that the strategy worked because Graham Day
made it work!

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 Andrew Kakabadse is Professor of Management Development at the
Cranfield School of Management. He recently completed a major world study
of chief executives and top executive teams.

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