DOON INTERNATIONAL

SCHOOL,
BHUBANESWAR, ODISHA

BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT

ON CANCER

NAME -

CLASS –

STREAM-
 CERTIFICATE

This is to cerify that this biology project

on topic “CANCER” has been
successfully completed by Aditee sethy
of class XII in particular fulfilment of the
curriculum of CBSE in the academic year
2024-2025.

______________ _______________
Teacher’s Signature External examiner’s
Signature

Aditee Sethy
Student’s Signature
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely express my gratitude to my Biology teacher
“NAME” for giving me the golden opportunity to do this
wonderful project. This project has helped me in doing a
lot of research and I gained knowledge about so many
interesting things.
I am also extremely grateful to my parents and friends
who gave valuable suggestions and guidance for
completion of my project. Their cooperation and healthy
criticism came handy and helped me further improve my
project.
Hence, I am immersely grateful to all these wonderful
people who helped me and always supported me.
 INDEX

S.NO CONTENT PAGE NO.

01 WHAT IS CANCER 01 – 03

02 TYPES OF CANCER 04 – 07

03 COMMON CAUSES 08
OF CANCER

04 RISK FACTOR OF 08 – 09
CANCER

05 HOW DOES CANCER 09

GROW AND
SPREAD

06 DIAGNOSIS OF 10 – 11
CANCER

07 CANCER STAGES 11 – 12
08 TREATMENT OF 13 – 14
CANCER
 What is Cancer?
Cancer is a condition characterised by the abnormal behaviour of
certain cells within the body. In a healthy person, cells follow a
specific pattern of growth, division, and eventually, natural death,
which is essential to maintain proper bodily function. However, in
the case of cancer, these cells deviate from this normal behaviour,
undergoing uncontrollable and abnormal growth

 India witnesses approximately 1,200,000 new cancer cases

each year. According to the latest data from the National
Cancer Registry, 1 in 8 men and 1 in 9 women in India are
projected to develop some form of cancer during their
lifetime.
 The incidence and types of cancer that are diagnosed are
influenced by a multitude of factors, including age, gender,
ethnicity, local environmental conditions, dietary habits, and
genetic predisposition. Among males in India, lung
cancer holds the highest incidence, followed by oral cavity
and throat cancers. Among females, cervical
cancer and breast cancer are the most commonly diagnosed
forms.

.
 Difference Between Cancer Cells and
Normal Cells
CHARACTERISTICS NORMAL CELLS CANCER CELLS
GROWTH Follow a controlled Grow
pattern uncontrollably,
ignoring signals
COMMUNICATION Interact effectively Fail to respond to
with other cells signals, act isolated
CELL REPAIR AND Undergo self-repair Do not engage in
DEATH or apoptosis self-repair or
apoptosis
ATTACHMENT Secrete adhesive Lack adhesive
substances properties, can
detach
APPEARANCE Uniform size, Heterogeneous in
orderly appearance size, significant
variations
MATURATION Undergo maturation Remain
process undifferentiated due
to rapid growth
 Tissue Changes that are ‘Not’ Cancer
Not all changes in body tissues are indicative of cancer. However,
certain changes should be monitored as they have the potential to
develop into cancer if left untreated. Let's explore some examples
of tissue changes that are not cancerous but may warrant
attention due to their potential to progress:

Hyperplasia: Hyperplasia occurs when cells within a tissue

multiply at a faster rate than normal, leading to an accumulation
of extra cells. However, when examined under a microscope, the
cells and tissue's structure will still appear normal.

Dysplasia: Dysplasia is a more advanced condition compared to

hyperplasia. There is also an accumulation of extra cells, but these
cells appear abnormal, and there are changes in the way the
tissue is organised. In general, the more abnormal the cells and
tissues appear, the higher the likelihood of cancer development.

Carcinoma in Situ: Carcinoma in situ is an even more advanced

condition. While sometimes referred to as “stage 0 cancers,” it's
important to note that it's not technically cancer because the
abnormal cells do not invade nearby tissues to the same extent as
cancer cells do. However, since some carcinomas can progress to
become invasive cancers, they are typically treated.
 Types of Cancer
Cancers are named after the organs or tissues in which they
originate. The specific type of cell that gives rise to cancer, such as
epithelial or squamous cells, is also used in the classification.

1. Carcinoma: The Most Common Type

Carcinoma is the most prevalent type of cancer. It primarily
consists of epithelial cells that line both the inner and outer
surfaces of the body. A variant known as basal cell carcinomai s
also noteworthy.

2. Sarcoma: Affecting Bone and Soft Tissues

sarcomas are cancers that develop in bone and soft tissues,
encompassing muscle, fat, blood vessels, lymphatics, as well as
fibrous tissues like tendons and ligaments .

3. Leukaemia: Blood-Related Cancer

Leukaemia is a form of cancer that originates in the blood-
forming tissues of the bone marrow. Unlike other cancers,
leukaemia does not form solid tumours. Instead, it results in the
accumulation of abnormal white blood cells (leukaemia cells and
leukemic blast cells) in the blood and bone marrow, displacing
normal blood cells.

4. Lymphoma: Involving Lymphocytes

Lymphoma is characterised by the malignancy of lymphocytes, a
type of white blood cell crucial for the immune system. In this
type of cancer, abnormal cells accumulate in the body's lymph
nodes, lymphatic vessels, and other organs.

5. Multiple Myeloma: Affecting Plasma Cells

Multiple myeloma originates in plasma cells, another type of
immune cell. The abnormal plasma cells, referred to as myeloma
 cells, accumulate in the bone marrow, forming tumours
throughout the skeletal system.

6. Melanoma: Skin and Beyond

Melanoma is a cancer that begins in specialised melanocytes, cells
responsible for producing melanin. While most melanomas
develop in the skin, they can also occur in other pigmented
tissues, including the eye.

7. Brain and Spinal Cord Tumours: Diverse Forms

Tumours originating in the brain and spinal cord manifest in
various forms. They are classified based on the cell type of origin
and the location within the central nervous system where they
first appear.

Other Types of Cancer

 Germ Cell Tumours: These tumours initiate in the cells
responsible for sperm or ovum production and can appear in
various body locations, potentially being benign or malignant.
 Neuroendocrine Tumours: These tumours arise from cells that
secrete hormones into the bloodstream in response to nervous
system signals. They may lead to a wide range of symptoms due
to the excessive hormone production.
 Carcinoid Tumours: Carcinoid tumours, a subset of
neuroendocrine tumours, typically grow slowly and are
commonly found in the gastrointestinal system. In some cases,
they can metastasize to the liver or other body parts
 Symptoms of Cancer
Cancer can present with a variety of signs and symptoms, which
may vary depending on the specific area of the body that is
affected. To help better recognize potential warning signs, here is
a list of common indicators that are not exclusive to cancer but
should prompt you to seek medical attention:

 Changes in Bowel or Bladder Habits:

Look out for unexplained changes like
persistent diarrhoea or constipation, frequent urgency when
urinating, or any other unusual bowel or bladder irregularities.
 Non-Healing Sores:
It's important to pay attention to any sore on the body that
doesn't seem to heal as expected.
 Unusual Bleeding or Discharge:
Any unexplained bleeding or discharge, such as blood in urine,
stool, between menstrual periods, vomit, or cough, should be
investigated.
 Thickening or Lump:
If you notice any unexplained lump or thickening in any part of
the body, you should consult a medical professional promptly.
 Nagging Cough, Breathlessness, or Hoarseness:
Medical advice should be sought if one has a cough or experiences
breathlessness for more than two weeks, or if you notice blood in
the phlegm.
 Fatigue or Unexplained Swelling:
Keep an eye out for fatigue that doesn't improve with rest, or
areas of swelling that can be felt under the skin.

 Weight Fluctuations:
Significant unintentional weight loss or gain should be
investigated.
 Skin Changes:
 Changes in the skin, including yellowing, darkening, redness, non-
healing wounds, or alterations in existing birthmarks, require
medical attention.
 Persistent Indigestion After Eating:
If one experiences on going discomfort or indigestion after eating,
they should consult a healthcare professional.
 Unexplained Persistent Fever or Night Sweats:
Prolonged, unexplained fever or night sweats should not be
ignored.
 Unexplained Persistent Muscle or Joint Pain:
One should seek medical evaluation for persistent, unexplained
muscle or joint pain.

*If someone experiences any of these symptoms, it's

essential for them to consult their doctor promptly. The
doctor will ask questions, perform physical examinations,
and may recommend further diagnostic tests. If cancer is
suspected, the patient may be referred to one of the
best oncologists in India for specialised evaluation and
treatment.
 Common Causes of Cancer
The primary cause of cancer is mutations, or alterations in the
DNA within an individual's cells. These genetic mutations may
either be inherited or acquired after birth due to exposure to
certain substances and environmental factors.

Carcinogens, which are substances known to increase the risk of

cancer, can be categorised into three main groups:

 Physical Carcinogens: These encompass exposure to

radiation and ultraviolet (UV) light, like that from the sun, which
can be harmful to the skin.
 Chemical Carcinogens: Examples include cigarette smoke,
asbestos, alcohol, air pollution, and certain chemicals found in
contaminated food and drinking water. These are substances that,
when encountered, can potentially lead to cancer.
 Biological Carcinogens: This category involves viruses,
bacteria, and parasites that are linked to an increased risk of
cancer development.

Risk Factors of Cancer

The risk of developing cancer is influenced by various factors, and
understanding these risk factors is crucial. Some common risk
factors that can increase the likelihood of developing cancer
include:

 Tobacco Use: Smoking and the use of tobacco products

significantly elevate the risk of various types of cancer.
 High Alcohol Consumption: Excessive alcohol intake is
associated with an increased risk of certain cancers, including
those of the mouth, throat, and liver.
 Lack of Physical Activity: A sedentary lifestyle can be a risk
factor, as regular physical activity has been shown to reduce the
risk of certain cancers.
 Exposure to Air Pollution: Prolonged exposure to polluted air,
especially in urban areas, may contribute to cancer risk,
particularly lung cancer.
 Exposure to Radiation: Occupational or medical exposure to
radiation, such as X-rays and certain treatments, can increase the
risk of cancer.
 Unprotected Exposure to UV Light: Excessive and unprotected
exposure to UV light, like sunlight and tanning beds, is linked to
skin cancer.

How Does Cancer Grow and Spread?

 Abnormal Cell Division: Normal cells grow, divide, and replace
damaged ones according to their life cycle. Cancer, caused by DNA
mutations, disturbs this process. Mutations allow cells to survive
when they should die and create unnecessary new cells, resulting
in uncontrollable growth and tumour formation.
 Creation of Tumours: Tumours can pose health problems, but
not all are cancerous. Benign tumours remain localised, while
malignant tumours invade neighbouring tissues, potentially
causing more severe issues.
 Metastasis: Metastasis involves cancer cells spreading through
the bloodstream or lymphatic system. Metastatic cancers are
more advanced and challenging to treat, often associated with
higher fatality rates.
 Diagnosis of Cancer
Various methods and techniques are employed to identify the
presence of cancer cells and tumours in the human body. When
seeking the best cancer hospital in India for diagnosis and
treatment, it's essential to consider the hospital's expertise in
utilising these methods.

Biopsy
A biopsy is a medical procedure where a sample of tissue is
collected from the suspicious area and examined under a
microscope. Pathologists analyse the tissue sample to check for
the presence of cancer cells, helping to confirm the diagnosis.

Histopathological Studies of Tissue

Histopathological studies involve the microscopic analysis of

tissue samples. Pathologists study these samples to detect
abnormal cellular changes that are indicative of cancer. This
technique is crucial for understanding the characteristics of
cancerous tissues.

Radiography Techniques

Radiography techniques, such as X-rays, are often used to capture

images of affected areas in the body. These images help in the
identification of abnormalities, including tumours or irregular
masses that might be indicative of cancer.

Computed Tomography (CT)

Computed Tomography, commonly known as CT or CAT scans,

provides detailed cross-sectional images of the body. It aids in the
detection and localization of cancerous growths. CT scans are
particularly valuable for visualising solid organs and bones.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

 MRI is another imaging technique that provides high-resolution
images for the assessment of cancer, especially in soft tissues. It
offers excellent contrast and is highly effective in identifying
abnormalities in various parts of the body.

Molecular Biology Techniques

Advanced molecular biology techniques have revolutionised

cancer detection. These methods involve the analysis of genetic
and molecular markers to identify cancer-related mutations and
abnormalities. By studying the DNA and RNA of cells, scientists
can pinpoint specific genetic changes associated with different
types of cancer.

Cancer Stages
Cancer staging systems play a pivotal role in guiding healthcare
providers as they chart a course of treatment and offer patients a
prognosis, or an anticipated outcome. Among the various staging
systems, the TNM classification is the most widely employed. It
simplifies the complex reality of cancer progression into three key
factors:

 T represents the primary tumour.

 N indicates lymph nodes and signals whether the cancer has
extended to these vital components of the immune system.
 M is for metastasis, indicating the spread of cancer to distant
parts of the body.
 Most cancer types are categorised into four primary
stages. The specific stage assigned to a patient depends on
several factors, including the tumour's size and its location
within the body:
 Stage I: At this stage, cancer is confined to a small, localised area,
without any evidence of spreading to nearby lymph nodes or
other tissues.
 Stage II: Cancer has experienced some growth, but it still remains
localised and hasn't extended to other areas of the body.
 Stage III: Cancer has grown larger, possibly involving nearby
lymph nodes or adjacent tissues.
 Stage IV: This advanced stage indicates that cancer has spread to
other organs or distant areas of the body, a condition often
termed metastatic cancer.

*In addition to these four primary stages, there's

also Stage 0, which characterises the earliest phase of
cancer. In Stage 0, the cancer is restricted to the site where
it originated, making it highly treatable. Many
practitioners categorise Stage 0 cancers as precancerous,
indicating their potential to progress if not addressed.
 Treatment of Cancer
Cancer treatment is a collaborative effort that involves various
approaches, each tailored to address specific aspects of the
disease. In this comprehensive guide, we will explore the primary
methods of cancer treatment, their objectives, and how they
contribute to the well-being of cancer patients.

Surgery
The primary goal of surgery is the complete removal of malignant
tissue, whenever possible.

Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy employs drugs to target and eliminate cancer cells.

Radiation Therapy
Radiation therapy uses high-energy rays, such as X-rays or
protons, to obliterate cancer cells.

Bone Marrow Transplant

A bone marrow transplant, also known as a stem cell transplant,
involves using either the patient's own bone marrow stem cells or
those from a donor to restore healthy blood cell production.

Immunotherapy Procedure
Immunotherapy, a biological treatment, leverages the body's
immune system to combat cancer. It addresses the challenge
where the immune system fails to recognize cancer as a threat,
allowing it to proliferate unchecked.

Hormone Therapy
Certain cancers, such as breast and prostate cancer, are
influenced by hormones. Hormone therapy works by removing
these hormones from the body or blocking their effects, thereby
halting the growth of cancer cells.

Targeted Drugs
Targeted drug therapy focuses on specific abnormalities within
cancer cells to inhibit their growth.

Radiofrequency Ablation
Radiofrequency ablation uses electrical energy to heat and
destroy cancer cells. A doctor inserts a thin needle through the
skin or an incision in the cancerous tissue, and radiofrequency
energy is applied to the needle to heat the tissue, causing the cells
to die.
 Bibliography
For successfully completing my project, I have taken help
from the following websites and book:-

1. Maxhealthcare.com
2. Cancer.gov
3. About.com
4. Healthtap.com

I have used my BIOLOGY NCERT textbook as well for

information.