This chapter delves into the study of various theories of translation, review of concepts in

translation principles and problems, and the empirical review of past studies. Translating any text

is a complex task that requires following specific principles known as "translation theory." These

principles guide the translator in ensuring that the message of the source text is conveyed

accurately and effectively in the target language. By understanding these theories, translators can

produce high-quality translations that are faithful to the original text's meaning and style.

2.1 CONCEPTUAL REVIEW

Translation has become an imperative requirement for global development in education, social,

economic, scientific, technological and political domains to maintain international harmony and

cooperation.

Every community has its own language, speech community and cultural and linguistic heritage.

Translation serves as a medium to facilitate cross-cultural communication and comprehension. It

plays a crucial role in bringing diverse socio-cultural groups closer by promoting mutual

understanding and appreciation of their cultures and information. With the advancement of

technology, machine translation tools and software have become increasingly popular, but they

are not always dependable. Human translators, particularly those who are proficient in both

languages and have a profound understanding of the cultures involved, are still the preferred

choice for producing exceptional translations. Translation is a significant ability that necessitates

proficiency and dedication. It is a valuable tool for promoting communication, comprehension

and mutual admiration among various cultures and communities.

Juan (2005:1) states that the core goal of translation theory is to identify suitable translation

methods that can be applied to various texts or text categories. Translation theories are

conceptual models or frameworks that aim to elucidate the complex process of translating one
language to another. These theories provide a systematic approach to translation that can be

applied across different languages and texts. They help translators to understand the nuances of

the source text and convey its meaning and style accurately in the target language. By utilizing

these theories, translators can produce high-quality translations that are faithful to the original

text while also being appropriate for the target audience.

Mona Baker (2018) argues that the goal of translation theory is to understand the complex

process of translation, which involves more than just the transfer of meaning from one language

to another. Translation theory is a complex process that involves understanding the factors that

influence the translation process. Scholars such as Lawrence Venuti, Sherry Simon, Edwin

Gentzler, and Mona Baker have written about the core goals of translation theory. They all share

a common goal of promoting greater understanding and communication across linguistic and

cultural boundaries, and using translation as a tool for promoting cultural diversity, social justice,

and human rights. They also emphasize the importance of understanding the complex process of

translation and developing models and frameworks that can help translators produce high-quality

translations.

Translation theories provide translators with guidance and knowledge to make informed

decisions during the translation process. They offer a set of principles, guidelines, and rules for

translating texts and evaluating translations. Translation theory serves as a foundation for solving

translation problems. Juan's statement suggests that translation theory is not solely focused on

theoretical issues and solutions in semantics, linguistics, logic, and philosophy, but rather on

their practical applications in assisting the translator in resolving problems. She also notes that

there are two rival theories of translation. One emphasizes conveying the full meaning and force

of every word and phrase in the original text as accurately as possible, while the other aims to
produce a translation that reads as though it were written in the target language originally. A

good translator cannot ignore either of these approaches entirely. To be successful, a translator

must meet three essential requirements: accurately conveying the source text's meaning, style,

and register while producing a translation that is appropriate for the target audience. By

following these principles, a translator can produce a high-quality translation that is both faithful

to the original text and suitable for the target audience.

• Source language

• Target language

• Subject matter.

The translator's primary responsibility is to understand the meaning behind the forms in the

source language and convey that same meaning in the target language using its forms and

structures. Therefore, the translator must modify the form and the code while preserving the

meaning and message of the original text. Etienne Dolet, a French translator and humanist, was

one of the first to create a set of significant rules or principles for literary translation. In 1540, he

developed five essential principles of translation, which served as a reference point for

translators. These principles provide a practical guide for the translator to produce a successful

translation. By following these principles, a translator can produce a translation that is faithful to

the original text while also being appropriate for the target audience. The principles emphasize

the importance of accurately conveying the meaning of the source text, preserving the style and

tone of the original text, and adapting the translation to the target language's cultural and

linguistic norms. They also stress the importance of being faithful to the author's intentions and

conveying the message of the text in a clear and concise manner.

2.1.1 PRINCIPLES OF TRANSLATION

To ensure the accuracy of the translation, a translator must also adhere to certain principles. The

translator must also be aware of the audience for whom the translation is intended and adjust the

language and tone of the translation accordingly.

The fundamental principles of translation are;

• Meaning: A translator's primary goal is to ensure that the translation accurately conveys the

meaning of the original text. It is crucial to fully express the information of the original text

while also reflecting the author's original intention. Translators should be aware of cultural

nuances and avoid adding or omitting any information that could alter the original meaning.

However, in some cases, it may be necessary to transpose part of the meaning to ensure that the

translation is appropriate for the target audience.

• Faithfulness: When translating, it is essential to maintain the integrity and authenticity of the

original content while considering the cultural context of the target audience. The translation

must be faithful to the thought and connotation of the source text, and the translator must avoid

unilaterally changing the meaning of the text or misinterpreting the original meaning of the

author based on personal preferences. The translator should also preserve idioms, proverbs, and

other cultural references, as appropriate, to ensure that the translation is appropriate for the target

audience.

• Clarity: The main goal of translation is to ensure that the target audience can understand the

text without any ambiguity or confusion. This requires creating a translation that is clear and

coherent, accurately conveying the intended meaning of the original text. The translator should

strive to create a translation that is natural and easy to read in the target language, avoiding

awkward phrasing or unnatural constructions. By doing so, the translator can help ensure that the
target audience can fully understand and appreciate the meaning of the text, breaking down

language barriers.

• Consistency: The translation must maintain consistency in terminology, style, and tone

throughout the entire text. In particular, translators should ensure that specific terms, phrases, and

concepts are translated consistently, especially in technical or specialized texts. This approach

helps to ensure that the translated text is coherent and professional.

• Localization: When translating a text, it is crucial to consider the cultural, social, and linguistic

differences between the source and target languages. During the localization process, the

translator must also pay attention to cultural sensitivities, customs, and norms to ensure that the

translated text is appropriate and relatable to the target audience. This helps to ensure that the

translated text is both accurate and culturally relevant, allowing the target audience to fully

understand and appreciate the intended message.

Juan (2005:2) has identified five major principles of translation that were formulated by Etienne

Dolet. These principles are as follows:

•The translator must possess a thorough comprehension of the message and intention of the

original author.

•The translator must possess extensive knowledge of both the source language and the target

language to ensure accurate and effective translation.

• The translator should avoid the temptation to translate word-for-word. Doing so can result in

the loss of meaning and the destruction of the original text's beauty and expression.

• The translator should employ the form of speech in common usage.

• The translator should use appropriate tone and create a cohesive overall effect through careful

selection and arrangement of words.

Translation theory aims to establish the relationship between thought, meaning, and language

while exploring the cultural, universal, and individual aspects of language and behavior. It also

investigates how texts are interpreted and how cultures are understood.

The most distinguished translation theorists, including Delishle, Newmark, Nida, Nord, and

Kussmual, concur with the principles outlined in Etienne Dolet's summary.

• Comprehension and interpretation of texts

• Re-wording (re-coding) through the use of appropriate techniques

• Assessment of the result, i.e., comparing the translated text with the original text to ensure

accuracy

Based on the above principles, the following qualities of a good translation are listed:

•A good translation should be transparent.

• It must be faithful to the original text.

• It should avoid word-for-word translation.

• It must not contain ambiguous sentences.

• The selection of words should be correct and adequate to capture the style and atmosphere of

the original.

• The translation should use commonly understood terms.

Although there are principles and guidelines to follow in the translation process, no two

individuals will translate a text in exactly the same way.

Mona Baker (2018) identifies several key principles of translation that are important for

producing accurate and effective translations. These principles include:

1. Equivalence: Translations must be equivalent to the source text in terms of meaning, style, and

tone.
2. Functionality: Translations must be functional and effective in conveying the intended

meaning to the target audience.

3. Acceptability: Translations must be acceptable to the target audience, taking into account their

cultural and social context.

4. Fluency: Translations must be fluent and easy to read, with appropriate use of grammar,

syntax, and punctuation.

5. Coherence: Translations must be coherent and well-structured, with appropriate use of

language and style.

6. Fidelity: Translations must be faithful to the original text, while also taking into account the

cultural and social context of the target language.

The most distinguished translation theorists, including translation theorists such as Lawrence

Venuti, Sherry Simon, Susan Bassnett, and Edwin Gentzler generally concur with the principles

of translation outlined by Mona Baker (2018). These principles include the importance of

equivalence, functionality, acceptability, fluency, coherence, and fidelity in producing accurate

and effective translations. Translation theorists also emphasize the importance of taking into

account the cultural and social context of the source and target languages, as well as ethical and

creative considerations, in the translation process. Overall, the principles of translation are

designed to ensure that translations are accurate, effective, and culturally appropriate, and that

they promote greater understanding and communication across linguistic and cultural

boundaries.

The principles of translation are designed to ensure that translations are accurate, effective, and

culturally appropriate, and that they promote greater understanding and communication across

linguistic and cultural boundaries.

2.1.2 TYPES OF TRANSLATION

In linguistics, the three types of translation are:

1. Interlingual translation: This type of translation involves translating a text from one language

to another. Interlingual translation involves a deep understanding of both the source and target

languages, as well as the cultural and linguistic nuances of both languages.

2. Intralingual translation: This type of translation involves translating a text within the same

language. Intralingual translation is often used to clarify or simplify complex texts for different

audiences or to adapt texts for different genres or media.

3. Intersemiotic translation: This type of translation involves translating a text from one semiotic

system to another. Semiotic systems include visual images, music, dance, and other

non-linguistic forms of communication. Intersemiotic translation requires a deep understanding

of the semiotic systems involved and the cultural and social contexts in which they are used.

2.1.3 TRANSLATORS AND INTERPRETERS

A translator is a professional who translates written text from one language to another, while an

interpreter is a professional who interprets spoken or signed language from one language to

another. Both translators and interpreters work to bridge language barriers and facilitate

communication between individuals or groups who speak different languages.

Translators typically work with written materials such as books, articles, legal documents,

business contracts, and technical manuals. They need to have excellent language skills in both

the source language and the target language, as well as a deep understanding of the cultures and

idioms of both languages. Translators may specialize in a particular subject area, such as legal,

medical, technical, or literary translation.

Interpreters, on the other hand, work with spoken language and may interpret in a variety of
settings such as conferences, business meetings, courtrooms, medical appointments, and

diplomatic events. Interpreters need to be able to listen and speak in both languages

simultaneously, while accurately conveying the meaning and tone of the speaker. Interpreters

may also specialize in a particular subject area, such as legal, medical, or diplomatic

interpretation.

Both translators and interpreters may work as freelancers or for organizations such as

government agencies, non-profits, corporations, or language service providers. They play a

critical role in facilitating communication and promoting understanding between individuals and

groups from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

2.1.4 APPROACHES TO TRANSLATION

There are several different approaches to translation, each with its own strengths and

weaknesses. Juliane House (2017) identifies several approaches to translation, which include:

1. The linguistic approach: It focuses on the structure of language and seeks to produce a

grammatically correct translation.

2. The communicative approach: It emphasizes the communicative function of language and

seeks to produce a translation that is not only grammatically correct but also conveys the

intended meaning and purpose of the original text.

3. The sociocultural approach: This approach considers the social and cultural context of

language use and seeks to produce a translation that is culturally appropriate and sensitive to the

norms and values of the target audience. In this project, the literary text “Bright spot” is being

translated from English to Igbo. It is important that the translation is not only accurate but also

culturally appropriate and relevant to the Igbo- speaking audience, given that Igbo is a language
with a unique cultural text. By using the sociocultural approach, the translator can ensure that the

translation is sensitive to the cultural norms and values of the Igbo-speaking audience and is

therefore more likely to be well-received.

4. The functional approach, which focuses on the purpose of the translation and seeks to produce

a translation that meets the needs and expectations of the target audience.

5. The cognitive approach, which recognizes the role of the translator's cognitive processes in the

translation process and seeks to understand how translators make decisions and solve problems

during translation.

Each of these approaches offers a different perspective on translation and can be useful in

different contexts and for different purposes. By understanding these different approaches,

translators can choose the most appropriate approach for a given translation task and produce a

translation that is accurate, effective, and culturally appropriate.

A skilled translator selects the most appropriate approach or combination of approaches to

produce a high-quality translation that meets the needs of the intended audience while

maintaining the integrity and meaning of the source text.

2.1.5 TYPES OF LITERARY TRANSLATION

Literary translation is a specialized field within translation that focuses on translating literary

works such as novels, poetry, plays, and other creative texts. There are several different types or

genres of literary translation, each with its own unique characteristics and challenges. Here are

some common types of literary translation;

1. Prose translation: This type of literary translation involves translating novels, short stories, and

other forms of prose fiction. It is normally made up of story, plot, characterization, setting and
dialogue of the original text while maintaining the style, tone, and mood of the original work.

Prose fiction translation often requires careful attention to cultural references, idioms, and

wordplay, as well as preserving the author's unique writing style. (Iwuchukwu 2009:21). In

translating the prose, the translator has to consider the setting, the characters and the language

(the expression, proverbs, irony, pun i.e., the figures of speech).

2. Drama translation: This type of literary translation involves translating plays, scripts, and other

theatrical works. Drama is a penetration of life through artificial means. It is an imitation of an

action. It is a type of story that exists mainly in action and performed on the stage by different

characters (Iwuchukwu, 2009:25). The origins of drama are likely to be found in early religious

ceremonies and festivals. This aspect of literature entertains, teaches moral lessons and helps to

bring into focus life-in-action outside our immediate environment. In drama translation, proper

names are retained. Drama being part of the literary family of texts, share some elements in

common with prose and poetry texts. It is to be noted that the same drama text can contain

elements of poetry as well as elements of prose. A character's speech can appear in the form of

verse when he speaks with emotion, passion, sentimentality or sensation. His speech can equally

take the form of a narrative when he narrates a story or explains a point. It requires not only

translating the dialogue and stage directions but also conveying the dramatic structure, tone, and

style of the original work. Drama translation often requires careful consideration of cultural

nuances, as well as understanding the dynamics of performance and audience engagement in the

target culture.

3. Poetry translation: Translating poetry is a complex and challenging form of literary translation

as it involves capturing not only the meaning but also the rhythm, meter, rhyme, and other poetic

elements of the original text. Poetry is a piece of writing in verse, containing images, rhymes and
sometimes has an emotional tone. Wordsworth in Iwuchukwu (2009:8) defines Poetry as an

overflow of spontaneous emotions recaptured in tranquility.

Poetry is the most difficult to translate when compared to other genres of literature. This is

because it is difficult to achieve style and meaning as depicted by the poet. Poetic translation

requires sensitivity and imagination on the part of the translator. Since poetry aims at

communicating sentiments and not a catalogue of events, the translator may compose a new

poem

which will elicit the same sentiment of the source language text. The translator needs to balance

between literal accuracy and creative adaptation to convey the intended emotional and aesthetic

impact of the poem in the target language. Poetry translation often requires a deep understanding

of the cultural and literary context of both the source and target languages.

In conclusion, literary translation is a rich and diverse field that requires not only linguistic skills

but also creativity, cultural understanding, and a deep appreciation for the nuances of literature.

Translators specializing in literary translation often develop their own unique approach and style

to bring the beauty and richness of literature from one language to another.

2.1.6 PECULIAR PROBLEMS OF LITERARY TRANSLATION

The problem of translation refers to the challenges and complexities involved in accurately

conveying meaning from one language to another. It encompasses various linguistic, cultural,

and contextual factors that can affect the accuracy and fluency of translated texts.

Okolie argues that one of the main challenges of translation is the difficulty of conveying the

meaning of words and phrases from one language to another without losing their original sense.

This is because languages have different structures, idiomatic expressions, and cultural contexts

that can be challenging to translate accurately. For example, some words or phrases in one
language may not have an exact equivalent in another language. Additionally, the translator's

own biases and cultural background can influence their interpretation of the text, which can lead

to inaccuracies in translation. Therefore, to overcome these challenges, translators must have a

deep understanding of both the source and target languages, as well as the cultural contexts in

which they are used. They must also be skilled in interpreting the nuances of language and

cultural expressions, and be able to convey them accurately in the target language.

Literary translation may be said to have the greatest number of peculiar problems. Problems in

literary translation largely depend on who is translating and what he knows (Kolawole and

Salawu, 2008:1). They list the problems of literary translation to include: cultural, linguistic,

psychosocial, deceptive cognates, equivalence, and style.

1. Cultural Problems: Literary works often contain cultural references, idioms, and wordplay that

are specific to the source language and culture. Language and culture are closely related and one

is indispensable to the other. In fact, language acquires its meaning from the country’s culture. A

single language may cross several culture borders. For instance, English and French are

Indo-European languages but belong to different cultures. Culture is a complex collection of

experiences which condition daily life. These include history, social structure, religion, tradition

and customs, and everyday usage. Such things as culture, environment, status and so on

influence one’s writing. The process of transmitting cultural elements through literary translation

is a complicated and hazardous task. Unless there is a cultural overlap between the source

language and the target language, the translator will find it difficult to carry out such translation.

He must also make the reader understand the sense as it is understood by the reader of the

original.
For a translator to do justice to his work, he must have a deep understanding of both the source

and target cultures to capture the essence of the original work.

2. Linguistic Problems: Different languages have unique grammar rules, syntax, and vocabulary,

which may not always have a direct equivalent in the target language. This can result in

difficulties in finding appropriate translations for certain words, phrases, or idioms, leading to

loss of meaning or misinterpretation. These linguistic problems are syntactic, semantic and

phonological in nature.

3. Syntactic Problems: Each language has its unique syntax arrangement. The structure of the

source language (SL) does not always follow that of the target language (TL). For instance, Igbo

and English languages have different structures. Unlike English, Igbo language does not have

articles such as "the" and "an". Instead, Igbo uses demonstratives and numerous conjunctions.

English requires articles for clarity, including "the" and "a". Each language selects its predicate

structure from the universal grammar, and the differences in these choices between languages

explain why languages have distinct structures.

4. Semantic Problems

Every language has its unique way of expression, which is referred to as its "genius for

expression." Therefore, anyone involved in translation will immediately notice the significant

differences in how different languages express the same or corresponding concepts. In addition

to this challenge, a translator must also deal with translating exotic idioms or figurative

expressions. Idioms are highly respected, and their structures should not be altered, or their

meanings will be distorted. Some idioms do not have the same meaning in both languages. For

instance, the idiom "It rained cats and dogs yesterday" might not be an idiomatic expression in

the target language.

5. Phonological Problems

Languages have different ways of expressing their sounds. When ideas, sounds, and colors

cannot be fully conveyed in the target language, it results in the omission of tone, mood, and the

beauty of the original text.

6. Psychological Problems and Deceptive Cognates: A Translator often struggles to comprehend

the author's intention, particularly with deceptive cognates. Deceptive cognates are words that

are similar in spelling and form but have different meanings. For instance; “Bank" - He is going

to the bank. When translating the sentence "He is going to the bank," a translator requires

additional information to determine whether the word "bank" refers to a riverbank or a financial

institution. Similarly, in Igbo language, "Ada Eze" could mean "Eze's first daughter," "the

daughter of Eze," or "a princess," depending on the context.

​7. Equivalence Problem: Translation is the process of replacing written material in one

language with an equivalent text in another language. The original text is considered

independent, while the translated text is viewed as a version derived from the original. The two

texts are said to be equivalent, but equivalence should not be equated with identity. This is

because there can never be a one-to-one relationship between a source text and a particular

translation text. Instead, a particular source language text can have many different translations

that can be considered equivalent to the source text in various ways, depending on how similarity

of message or function is interpreted.

​One of the debates surrounding translation is whether, and to what extent, the translator should

reflect the syntax or form of the original language. While all translators agree on the importance

of accurately conveying the message of the original text, they do not necessarily agree on the
strict adherence to the form of the original. This has given rise to two types of equivalence:

formal and dynamic equivalence.

​8. Formal equivalence: Formal equivalence is a translation approach that attempts to convey the

message of the original text by translating it as literally as possible, including the structure and

form of the original language. However, this approach can sometimes lead to awkward and

difficult-to-read translations. Etienne Dolet argued that a word-for-word translation could destroy

the meaning of the original text and ruin the beauty of the expression. Therefore, he advised

translators to avoid this tendency. For example;

Igbo English

Anya ga-amunye obodo ọkụ Eyes that will set cities ablaze

9. Dynamic Equivalence: This approach is also known as functional equivalence or

communicative translation. According to Mona Baker(2018) dynamic equivalence is a

translation approach that seeks to produce a translation that conveys the same effect on the target

audience as the original text had on the source audience. The aim of dynamic equivalence is to

produce a translation that is not only accurate but also natural and readable in the target

language. In other words, the translator is not only concerned with the linguistic form of the text

but also with its communicative function. The translator must take into account the cultural and

linguistic differences between the source and target languages and produce a translation that is

appropriate for the target audience. The goal of dynamic equivalence is to produce a translation

that is faithful to the meaning and intent of the original text while also being natural and effective

in the target language.

The dynamic equivalence approach aims to convey the message of the original text without

necessarily adhering to its form. According to Gordon, most contemporary linguists prefer this

approach in theory, although they may be disappointed by attempts to produce a good translation

using it. The reason for favoring dynamic equivalence is that all languages have their own

syntax, and if we try to reproduce the formal syntax of the source language, we may end up with

abnormal and distracting forms in the target language.

However, dynamic equivalence also has its own challenges. For example, a translator who is not

bound by the grammatical forms of the original language may be more likely to produce a

translation that is not accurate, in an attempt to make it sound natural in the target language.

Therefore, translators must strike a balance between reproducing the meaning of the original text

and producing a translation that is natural and idiomatic in the target language, while also taking

into account the cultural context in which the translation will be read.

Dynamic equivalence translations have the potential to be more natural and accurate than formal

equivalence translations, but they also have the potential to be inaccurate. In literary translation,

the main challenge is achieving exact equivalence, which is impossible. For example;

Igbo English

Ura ga-eju onye nwuru anwu afọ A dead person shall have all the

necessary sleep

Gịdị gịdị bụ ụgwụ eze Unity is strength

Chọọ ewu ojịị ka chi dị Make hay while the sun shine
Adapting proverbs to fit a specific culture is a common practice. This process is known as

traditional equivalence, which involves translating a proverb from one culture to another while

still preserving its original meaning and cultural context. For example;

Igbo English

Ọ bù ọbọgwụ She is a duck

10. Problem of Style: Style refers to the way in which the original source text is rendered or

expressed in the target text while maintaining its intended meaning and purpose. It involves

making choices in terms of vocabulary, grammar, syntax, tone, register and all other linguistic

and cultural elements to ensure that the target text conveys the same style or tone as the source

text.

Every writer has a unique style and tone, which adds to the literary richness of their work.

Translating these elements while preserving the author's voice can be difficult. The translator

must strike a balance between staying faithful to the original style and making the translation

sound natural and engaging in the target language.

Xiaoshu and Dongming (2003:2) argue that reproducing the original style is a challenging task,

but it does not hamper interlingual communication. They attribute the relative feasibility of

interlingual communication to the semantic similarities between languages, which arise from the

shared human experience and the fundamental similarities in the syntactic structures of language

at the core level. They recommend that to reproduce the original style satisfactorily, one should

adopt a macroscopic point of view, that is, a view of the whole, and then a microscopic point of

view, that is, a linguistic point of view. During the translation process, it is crucial to carefully

examine all paragraphs, sentences, and words to select the best expressions that accurately
convey the original thought, feelings, and style. Style is a product of the harmony between

paragraphs, sentences, and words. Even if some individual sentences or words are not translated

adequately, they do not affect the overall style of the work. Language is an integral part of style,

and paragraphs, sentences, and words are essential components of it. Sentences are constructed

from words, paragraphs from sentences, and an entire work from paragraphs. The excellence of a

work depends on the flawless construction of its paragraphs, sentences, and words. In literary

translation, poems are the most challenging to translate since they require achieving both style

and meaning. Translating poetry is challenging because it involves reproducing the form,

rhythm, meter, tonality, and meaning in the target language as in the source language. When

translating poetry, the translator can take artistic liberties to arrive at the target text. However,

Bassnett (1980:14) warns that the translator should exercise independence only if it is done for

the sake of the original to reproduce it as a living work.

In conclusion, literary translation is a complex and multi-faceted process that goes beyond mere

word-for-word translation. It requires a deep understanding of language, culture, history, and

literature to faithfully convey the essence of the original work in a different language, while also

making it engaging and meaningful to the target audience. Translators face numerous challenges

in capturing the essence of the original work while making it engaging and meaningful in the

target language, while also respecting the author's style, tone, and intentions.

2.1.7 IMPORTANCE OF LITERARY TRANSLATION

Literary translation plays a crucial role in fostering cross-cultural understanding and promoting

global literary diversity.

• Emily Apter (2013) argues that literary translation is a crucial tool for fostering cross-cultural

understanding and dialogue. She suggests that literary translation is a form of cultural diplomacy

that can help to bridge linguistic and cultural divides. According to Apter, literary translation is

not simply a matter of transferring meaning from one language to another, but also involves

negotiating cultural differences and engaging with the complexities of language and style. She

emphasizes the importance of literary translation in promoting cultural exchange and challenging

dominant cultural narratives.

•House (2009:1) argues that translation is not solely a linguistic act but also a cultural one that

facilitates communication across cultures. This means that translation transcends linguistic and

cultural boundaries, and literary translation plays a crucial role in enabling cross-cultural

communication. Literary texts that contain information about a particular culture written in a

specific language can be translated into another language, thereby raising awareness of that

culture in the target language.

• Mona Baker (2018) highlights the importance of literary translation as a means of promoting

intercultural communication and understanding. She argues that literary translation is not only a

linguistic activity but also a cultural and political one, involving negotiation and mediation

between different languages and cultures. Baker emphasizes the role of literary translation in

promoting cultural diversity and challenging linguistic hegemony. She also discusses the ethical

and political dimensions of literary translation, including issues of power, representation, and

censorship. Overall, Baker's work highlights the importance of literary translation as a vital

component of cultural exchange and understanding.

• Literary translation can facilitate the cross-fertilization of languages, resulting in the

enrichment of vocabulary through loaning and adaptation.

• Translation involves adapting a product or service for use in a different language, making it

appear as if it originated in the country where it will be sold and used. Literary translation is

instrumental in adapting this product for use in another language.

• Literary translation enables readers to access ideas and experiences that would otherwise be

unavailable because they are expressed in an unfamiliar language. Despite being represented

indirectly, literary translation makes it possible to share these ideas and experiences with a wider

audience.

• Translation can be compared to building bridges or expanding horizons, emphasizing its

constructive and empowering role. Like bridges that remove transportation obstacles, literary

translation removes communication barriers.

Here are some reasons why literary translation is important:

1. Cultural Exchange: Literary translation allows for the exchange of ideas, stories, and

perspectives between different cultures and languages. It enables readers to access works of

literature from around the world, providing insights into different cultures, histories, and ways of

life. It promotes intercultural understanding and empathy, bridging gaps between people from

diverse backgrounds.

2. Preserving Cultural Heritage: Literary works often carry the cultural heritage of a particular

language and society. Translating literature helps in preserving and promoting the rich cultural

heritage of a language by making it accessible to a wider audience. It ensures that valuable

literary works are not lost or forgotten, and contributes to the preservation and dissemination of

cultural knowledge and traditions.

3. Broadening Literary Horizons: Literary translation introduces readers to a diverse range of

literary styles, genres, and voices from different parts of the world. It expands readers' literary
horizons beyond their native language and exposes them to new literary traditions, perspectives,

and aesthetics. It enriches the literary landscape by bringing in new voices and fresh

perspectives.

4. Encouraging Dialogue and Understanding: Literature is a powerful tool for fostering dialogue

and understanding among different cultures, religions, and communities. Through literary

translation, readers can engage with different narratives, explore diverse viewpoints, and gain

insights into other4. cultures, fostering mutual understanding, empathy, and tolerance.

5. Promoting Literature and Authors: Literary translation provides opportunities for authors to

reach wider audiences beyond their native language markets. It helps in promoting literature and

authors by making their works accessible to readers in different countries and languages,

potentially expanding their readership and recognition internationally. It also encourages literary

exchange and collaboration among writers and translators from different cultures.

6. Enhancing Language Learning: Literary translation can be a valuable resource for language

learners, as it provides authentic and engaging content for improving language skills. It exposes

learners to different linguistic structures, styles, and vocabularies helping them develop language

proficiency and cultural competence.

8. Inspiring Creativity and Innovation: Literary translation can inspire creativity and innovation

among translators, encouraging them to find creative solutions to linguistic and cultural

challenges. It can also inspire new works of literature by serving as a source of inspiration for

writers to create adaptations, re-imaginings, or responses to translated works, sparking literary

innovation and creativity.

In conclusion, literary translation is of paramount importance in promoting cross-cultural

understanding, preserving cultural heritage, fostering dialogue and empathy, broadening literary
horizons, promoting literature and authors, enhancing language learning, and inspiring creativity.

It serves as a vital bridge between different cultures and languages, enriching the global literary

landscape and contributing to a more interconnected and diverse literary world.

2.1.8 METHODS OF SOLVING PROBLEMS OF LITERARY TRANSLATION

Literary translation can present various challenges, but there are several methods that translators

can use to address and solve these problems. Here are some common approaches:

1. Close Reading: Translators often engage in close reading of the source text to fully understand

its nuances, themes, and literary techniques. This involves analyzing the text at different levels,

including its grammar, syntax, vocabulary, and cultural references. Close reading helps

translators to capture the intended meaning and tone of the source text, which is crucial for an

accurate translation.

2. Research: Translators may need to conduct research to better understand the cultural,

historical, and social context of the source text. This can involve studying the author's

background, researching cultural references, and familiarizing oneself with the historical and

social context of the work. Research can help translators to accurately convey cultural nuances

and references in the target language, ensuring that the translation retains the original context and

meaning.

3. Collaboration: Translators often collaborate with other translators, editors, or experts to

overcome translation challenges. Collaborative efforts can provide valuable insights, feedback,

and suggestions, leading to more refined translations. Collaborating with authors or experts in

the field can also help to clarify ambiguities, resolve language-specific issues, and ensure

accuracy in the translation.

4. Adaptation: In some cases, translators may need to adapt the source text to make it more

suitable for the target language and culture. This can involve finding equivalent cultural

references, idioms, or metaphors in the target language, or making changes to the structure or

style of the text to make it more accessible to the target audience. However, care must be taken to

ensure that the adaptation does not distort the original meaning or intent of the source text.

5. Creative Solutions: Translators often need to find creative solutions to linguistic and cultural

challenges in the source text. This can involve using footnotes, glossaries, or annotations to

provide explanations or clarifications for cultural references or concepts that may be unfamiliar

to the target audience. Translators can also use creative techniques such as transcreation, where

the translator recreates the text in the target language while retaining the original spirit and intent

of the source text.

6. Continuous Learning: Translation is a constantly evolving field, and translators need to engage

in continuous learning and professional development to enhance their skills and knowledge.

Staying updated with the latest linguistic, cultural, and literary trends, attending workshops,

conferences, or training programs, and engaging with other translators can help in overcoming

translation challenges and improving translation quality.

In conclusion, solving problems in literary translation requires a combination of close reading,

research, collaboration, adaptation, creative solutions, revisions, and continuous learning.

Translators need to approach each translation project with careful consideration of the source text

and the target audience, and apply appropriate methods to ensure accurate, nuanced, and

culturally-sensitive translations.

2.1.8 TRANSLATION TECHNIQUES

Vinay and Darbelnet (1976:4) propose seven translation techniques, which are categorized into

two groups: direct and indirect (oblique).

1. Direct translation includes loan, calque and literal translation.

2. Indirect or oblique translation includes transposition, modulation, equivalence and adaptation.

Though we have different techniques in translation, the ones to be used depend(s) on the text.

(1)​ Direct Translation

• Loaning: This refers to the process of borrowing words or phrases from one language and

incorporating them into another language. This usually occurs when one language lacks a

specific term or concept and adopts a word or phrase from another language to fill that gap. Loan

words is also known as ‘borrowed words’. For instance, the English word ‘sushi’ and ‘Karaoke’

are Liam words borrowed from Japanese. In Igbo language, a lot of words have been borrowed

from other languages

For examples;

Igbo English

Fulawa Flower

paịnapụlụ Pineapple

Eprel April

Fọnọlọgi Phonology

Chịịfụ Chief
One outstanding rule with Igbo is that the orthography and sound of the language must be used

in writing the word borrowed. Therefore, in writing Igbonized words, loans should follow the

Igbo (C) VC structure (SPILC 1949:8).

• Calque: It refers to the type of borrowing in which a word or phrase from one language is

translated literally, often word-for-word, into another language. It is also a translation technique

involving the formation of compounds or phrases by directly translating from one language into

another.

For example, the English term "skyscraper" is a calque of the German word "Wolkenkratzer,"

which literally translates to "cloud-scraper." In this case, the English term has been directly

translated from German, retaining the same structure but using English words. Similarly, the

English expression "toothpaste" is a calque of the French word "dentifrice," with "dent" meaning

"tooth" and "fice" derived from "frotter" meaning "to rub."

Okeke (1995:231) as quoted in Ezeuko (1997:34) sees it as a form of loaning. For example;

Igbo English

Eprel fuulù April fool

Ezi Ista Happy Easter

Calques can sometimes lead to awkward or ungrammatical constructions in the target language,

as they may not follow the natural rules of word order, grammar, or syntax. However, they can

also enrich a language by introducing new words or expressions that may not have existed

otherwise. Calques are common in language contact situations where there is frequent interaction
between different linguistic communities, such as in areas of language borrowing, translation, or

second language acquisition.

• Literal translation: It is also known as "word-for-word" or "formal equivalence" translation,

this technique focuses on translating each word and phrase in the source text to its closest

equivalent in the target language. It aims to maintain the original structure, syntax, and literal

meaning of the source text as closely as possible, often prioritizing fidelity to the original over

naturalness in the target language.

For example;

Igbo English

M na-ejè isi nri I am going to cook

Ugbọla ahụ That car

(2)​ Indirect or Oblique Translation

• Transposition: This technique involves changing the grammatical category or structure of a

word or phrase from the source text to the target language. For example, translating a noun in the

source text to an adjective in the target language, or converting a passive sentence to an active

sentence, and vice versa. Transposition can be used to maintain the meaning and style of the

source text while adapting it to the target language's linguistic conventions.

For example;

Igbo. English

Ha. bù. ndì. ara They are. crazy. people

Pronoun. Verb Det. Noun Pronoun Verb. Adjective Noun

• Modulation: It refers to a type of translation technique where the meaning or expression of a

text is altered or adjusted in the process of translation to adapt it to the target language or culture,

while still conveying the intended meaning of the original text. Modulation involves changing

the form, style, tone, or structure of the text to make it more suitable or natural in the target

language, while maintaining the essence or intent of the source text.

Modulation can occur at different levels in the translation process. It can involve changes in

word choice, syntax, grammar, or cultural references, as well as adjustments in style, register, or

tone. For example, a metaphor or cultural reference in the source text that may not be familiar to

the target audience can be modulated to a more culturally relevant or understandable expression

in the target language. Similarly, a formal text in the source language may need to be modulated

to a more informal or colloquial style in the target language to reflect the appropriate register or

tone.

Modulation is often used to overcome linguistic and cultural differences between the source and

target languages, and to ensure that the translation is fluent, accurate, and culturally appropriate

for the intended audience. It requires the translator to have a deep understanding of both the

source and target languages, as well as the cultural nuances and context of both languages.

Modulation is a dynamic process that requires the translator to make decisions based on the

meaning, purpose, and target audience of the translation, while also taking into consideration the

constraints and conventions of the target language and culture. It allows for creative adaptation

of the source text while preserving the core meaning and intent, making it an important tool for

producing high-quality translations that are effective and natural in the target language
According to Vinay and Darbelent (1976:7), modulation refers to a shift in perspective. This shift

may be necessary or discretionary. When a text cannot be translated literally or transposed,

modulation can be used as a translation technique. For example;

Igbo English

Mmadu nile na-ele m anya All eyes are on me

Ndu gi agáahị abà urù Your life will not worth a beetle

Ọ gbụru nwọke ahù She killed the man

• Explicative modulation: It involves using expressions that are inherently clear and easy to

understand. By employing this technique, the intended message or sentence becomes more lucid

and comprehensible.

For example;

Igbo English

Ndụ gị agaghị abá úrù Your life will not worth a beetle

• Diluted unit: This technique involves translating a single word using a group of words

For example;

Igbo English

ka ọ dị ugbu a Meanwhile
 Ma ọ buru If

• Equivalence: It refers to the concept of capturing the essence, meaning, style, and artistic

elements of a source text in a target language while maintaining the integrity and artistic value of

the original work. It involves producing a translation that is equivalent in terms of its overall

effect, impact, and aesthetic appeal to the original, while accounting for the differences between

the source and target languages, cultures, and literary traditions. Ezeuko (1997:36) defines it as

depicting a relationship of equal value. It implies idiomatic expressions and proverbs. Here you

do not have the same style, but you have something that can give or is similar in arriving at the

same meaning

Equivalence can be approached at different levels in literary translation. It can involve Dynamic

Equivalence and formal equivalence. Dynamic equivalence allows for creative adaptation and

interpretation of the source text in the translation process, taking into consideration the cultural,

linguistic, and contextual differences between the source and target languages.

Unlike formal equivalence, which aims for a word-for-word or literal translation, dynamic

equivalence emphasizes the target language audience and their understanding of the text. The

goal of dynamic equivalence is to produce a translation that is natural, fluent, and

communicatively effective in the target language, while still conveying the intended meaning,

tone, and style of the source text. This approach recognizes that languages are not always

directly equivalent, and that translation involves more than just transferring words from one

language to another, but also adapting the text to the cultural and linguistic conventions of the

target language.
Dynamic equivalence allows for flexibility and creativity in the translation process. It may

involve rephrasing, paraphrasing, or rearranging the text to make it more understandable or

culturally relevant in the target language, while still preserving the core meaning and intent of

the source text. It also allows for the use of cultural equivalents or substitutions, where

appropriate, to convey the same cultural references or concepts in the target language.

Dynamic equivalence is often used in translating literary, poetic, and expressive texts, where

capturing the artistic elements, tone, and style of the source text is as important as conveying the

meaning. It is also commonly used in translating texts for a broader audience, such as marketing

materials, advertisements, or multimedia content, where cultural adaptation and communicative

effectiveness are crucial.

For example; Formal Equivalence

Igbo English

Anyị ga-amunye obodo okụ We will set cities ablaze

Dynamic Equivalence

Igbo English

E mee ngwa ngwa è meghara odàchị A stitch in time saves nine

Eze mbe sị na ọlụ ọha dp mma, mana The tortoise said that many hands at

ọrịrị ọha na-aka ahu work is enjoyable, but many mouths to

feed can be embarrassing

 Ọ na-abu a si nwata wuba ahu, o saba Tell a child to wash his body, he washes

afo ya his stomach

• Adaptation: This technique involves making cultural or contextual adjustments to the source

text in order to make it more understandable or relatable to the target audience. It may involve

substituting culturally-specific references, idioms, or metaphors with equivalent ones in the

target culture, or making changes to reflect the social, historical, or political context of the target

audience.

For example;

Igbo English

Aluminiom Aluminium

kemikalụ Chemical

2.3 THEORETICAL REVIEW

Translation theory refers to the study of the principles, methods, and techniques involved in

translating written or spoken language from one language to another. Translation theory is an

interdisciplinary field that draws on a range of disciplines, including linguistics, philosophy,

psychology, literary studies, and cultural studies, among others.

There are several different theories of translation, each of which offers a unique perspective on

the translation process. Some of the most important translation theories include:
1. Equivalence theory: This theory posits that the goal of translation is to achieve the closest

possible equivalence between the source text and the target text, in terms of both meaning and

form.

2. Skopos theory: This theory emphasizes the importance of considering the purpose or function

of the translation, rather than simply aiming for equivalence. The translator must take into

account the intended audience, the context in which the translation will be used, and the

communicative goals of the translation.

3. Descriptive translation studies: This approach focuses on the analysis of actual translations,

rather than prescriptive rules for translation. It seeks to identify patterns and strategies in the

translations produced by professional translators.

4. Polysystem theory: This theory views translation as a product of the larger cultural and literary

systems within which it takes place. It emphasizes the importance of the translator's position

within these systems and the role that translations play in shaping cultural and literary discourse.

There are many other theories of translation as well, each with its own strengths and limitations.

Ultimately, the choice of theory will depend on the particular translation task at hand and the

goals of the translation project.

2.4 SUMMARY

Etienne Dolet was one of the first to establish a set of fundamental principles for literary

translation. These principles, which were proposed in 1540, have been widely accepted by

prominent translation theorists such as Newmark, Nida, Taber, Juan, Darbelnet, Cartford, and

others. The principles emphasize the importance of understanding the author's content and intent,
having a thorough knowledge of both the source and target languages, avoiding literal

translations, using common speech forms, and producing an overall effect with the appropriate

tone. These principles have been tested and found to be effective in translation exercises.

Vinay and Darbelnet (1976:4) proposed seven translation techniques, which they classified as

either direct or indirect. The techniques include loaning, calquing, literal or direct translation,

transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation.

Some translators, such as Kirkup, Kolawole and Salawu, Manjeet, Lakshminath, Krishna, and

Shi, have utilized these principles and techniques in their work.

Kolawole and Salawu (2008:6) criticized Kirkup's translation of Camara Laye's L'Enfant Noir as

Black Child. They argued that the English title is overly literal and, more importantly, that the

adjective "Black" carries a negative connotation that alters the author's intended meaning. They

contend that this color adjective is misleading and misrepresents the author's intention.

Kirkup later changed the title to African Child, which more accurately reflects Camara Laye's

intended meaning. In his translation, Kirkup employed various techniques, including dynamic

equivalence, formal equivalence, modulation, transposition, and explication, to identify suitable

contextual equivalence.

Translators such as Kirkup, Kolawole and Salawu, Manjeet, Lakshminath, Krishna, and Shi have

also encountered the issues of literary translation identified by these theorists. For example,

Manjeet faced the challenge of equivalence when translating Lakshminath's Indian fiction into

English. This is because many Indian idioms have no direct equivalent in English. Additionally,

he encountered a problem with style, as Lakshminath has a distinct writing style that is integral

to his narrative. To address these issues, Manjeet employed a combination of transliteration and

maintaining the integrity of the narrative, while also making necessary adjustments to ensure the
translation reads well in English. These approaches demonstrate the use of both formal and

dynamic equivalence.

Manjeet also faced cultural challenges while translating Indian language fiction into English, as

the historical context in India did not allow English to become a common language. As a result,

English idioms and imagery were culturally unfamiliar to Indian literary traditions. To address

these cultural differences, one must adapt a particular cultural activity to fit within the context of

another culture.

Krishna's translation of Dominique La Pierre's lengthy work on the Bhopal tragedy in India was

successful due to his proficiency in three Indian languages. This highlights the importance of

having a good understanding of both the source and target languages in translation.