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Psychology of Phy - Lecture notes 10

m.p.ed (Visva Bharati University)

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Psychology of Phy.Edu
Psychology is a combination of two words psych means soul and logos means science. During the
development of psychology, it goes through different meanings like science of soul, science of mind,
science of consciousness and science of behavior. Let us look in that journey of psychology.
 Psychology as a Science of Soul: Greek philosophers Plato and Aristotle considered psychology
as a science of soul. During these time psychology is one of the branch of philosophy. The nature
of soul could not be defined in this time.
 Psychology as a Science of Mind: Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher one of the proponent of
this view. He failed to give an exact description to mind. Therefore, this view did not get
acceptance for long time.
 Psychology as a Science of Consciousness: During 19th century, William Wundt and William
James, argue that psychology is a science of consciousness. But if we consider psychology as a
science of consciousness we neglecting the other parts of mind like sub conscious and unconscious.
 Psychology as a Science of Behavior: During 20th century psychology deemed in the place of a
pure science. J.B. Watson is one of the major contributor for the same.
 R.S. Woodworth commended on the changes of definitions of psychology: “First psychology lost
its soul, then it lost its mind, then it lost its consciousness, it still has behavior of a sort”.
CONCEPT OF LEARNING
Learning refers to a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of past experience, either
produced incidentally or through institutional through teaching. Learning is a process by which the
individual acquires various habits, knowledge and attitudes to meet the demands of life. Learning as a
process of affecting a change in behavior which generally produces an improvement in our relations with
our environment. people agree that learning is important, but they hold different views on the causes,
processes and consequences of learning.
According to Crow & Crow (1973), “Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge and
attitudes. It involves new ways of doing things and it operates in an individual attempt to overcome
obstacles or to adjust to new situations. It represents progressive changes in behavior…. It enables him to
satisfy interests to attain goals.”
Hilguard (1958): “Learning is the process by which an activity originates or is changed through
reaching to an encountered situation, provided that the characteristics of the changes in activity cannot be
explained on the basis of native response, tendencies, maturation, or temporary states of the organism (ex:
Fatigue or drugs etc.)
Smith (1962), “Learning process involves a motive or drive, an attractive goal and a block to the
attainment of the goal.”
According to Munn (1966), “Learning is the process of being modified more or less permanently
by what happens in the world around us, by what we do or by what we observe.”
Kimble (1961), “Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality that occurs
as a result of reinforced practice.”

TYPES OF LEARNING:
Learning, defined as process of bringing about relatively permanent changes in the behaviors upon

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a) The domain or specific area of the behavior in which changes are introduced, or
b) in terms of the methods or techniques that are employed for the introduction or behavioral changes.
Gagne (1970) adopted for the purpose of classifying learning by considering a specific hierarchical order, into
the following types:
a) Signal Learning or Classical Conditioning:
This type of learning was developed by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov. In classical conditioning,
unconditioned stimulus (food) and conditioned stimulus (sound of the bell) are combined together and
presented to a dog a number of times with the result that when conditioned stimulus (sound of the bell) is
presented alone, it elicits saliva from the mouth of the dog. This change in the act or behavior which causes
salivation to the sound of the bell, is called conditioning or the learning of signal.
b) Stimulus- Response Learning (SR) or Instrumental and Operant Conditioning.
This type of learning was initiated by Edward Lee Thorndike with the puzzle box experiment in which a
cat was put and a dish containing food was kept outside the box. The cat in order to come out has to change
a leaver within the box, in which the manipulation of lever was response that is instrumental in producing
the reward, escape and food for this reason. This type of learning is called instrumental conditioning. B.F.
Skinner also conducted many experiments on different animals and generalized these principles and used
them in human learning.
c) Chain Learning or Serial Learning:
Serial learning is a learning situation in which the learner is presented with learning material which exhibits
some sequential or serial order. In this there are two types:
i) Verbal Changing is a matter of connecting together in a sequence two or more previously learned
stimulus responses.
ii) Motor changing, where many actions are sequenced to meet the result or goal.
d) Verbal Associate Learning:
Learning of this type helps in the acquisition of verbal behavior. The language we speak; the
communication device we use are the result of such learning. Rote learning and rote memorization are
types of verbal learning. Signs, pictures, symbols, words figures, sounds and voices are employed by the
individual as essential instruments for engaging in the process of verbal learning.
e) Motor Learning
The learning of all types of motor skills may be included in this type of learning, such as swimming, riding
a horse, driving a car, drawing a geometrical design are examples of such learning. Acquisition of various
skills through such learning helps in acquiring speed and accuracy in the field of operation of these
activities and creates a sort of confidence in the learner to perform with ease and satisfaction. These skills
are to be acquired through a systematic, planned acquisition and fixation of a series of organized actions or
responses by making used of some appropriate learning methods and devices.

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f) Concept Learning:
A concept in the form of a mental image denotes a generalized idea about things, persons or events. For
example, our concept of ‘Tree’ is a mental image that throws up the similarities or common proportion of
all the different trees we know. The formation of such concepts, on account of previous experiences,
training or cognitive processes is called concept learning; proves very useful in recognizing naming and
identifying things. Every behavior, verbal, symbolic, motor as well as cognitive are influenced by our
concepts.
g) Problem Solving:
Problem solving learning symbolizes a higher types of learning. This requires the abilities like reasoning,
thinking, the power of observation, discrimination, generalization, imagination, the ability to infer, etc. An
individual may be motivated to reach an unknown target or to unfold the mystery of an unresolved
problem. This type of learning contributes significantly to the progress and improvement of society.
h) Paired Associate Learning:
In this learning, learning tasks are presented are learned by reason of their associations. For example,
‘Ganga” a Girl’s name may become easy to remember in a paired association with the river Ganges. The
verbal or motor learning any be acquired or remembered by means of the techniques of paired multiple
association. The practice with such procedure then helps in building what is known as associate learning.
The matching items associated in the objective type of questions of the achievement test also emphasize
such learning.

THEORIES OF LEARNING:
Psychologists with the subject, of enquiry and investigation have resulted with a number of theories
that come in to existence. These theories are classified under classified under two major heads:
connectionist or behaviorist theories and cognitive theories.
Connectionist or behaviorist theories belong to the school of behaviorism. They interpret learning in
terms of connection or association between stimulus and response. The other theories included are
Thorndike’s theory of Trial and Error learning, Guthrie’s Continuity theory of Learning, Hull’s Drive
Reduction Theory of learning, Classical and Operant conditioning, etc.
Cognitive theories belong to the school of Gestalt Psychology and Cognitive psychology. In
place of purely mechanical or instrumental approach, these theories emphasize the role of purpose, insight
understanding, reasoning, memory and other cognitive factors in the process of learning. The other theories
under this category are, theory of insight learning by Kohler, Lewin’s Field. Theory of learning, Tolman’s
sign learning and others may be included.
.1 Thorndike’s Theory of Trial and Error.
The famous Psychologist, Edward L. Thorndike, (1874-1949) was the initiator of the theory of Trial
and Error learning which was based on the findings of his experiments on chickens, rats and cats. Based on
the experiments conducted, major theoretical principal was formed from the Thorndike’s theory of
learning. Thorndike propounded three Laws of Learning on the basis of his theoretical notions about
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learning process. These 3 laws - the Law the Readiness, The Law of Effect, and the Law of Exercise - are
significant in many kinds of learning in our life, as they apply with the proverb “practice makes a man
perfect”.
.2 Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning:
Russian Psychologist IVAN PAVLOV (1849-1936), who advocated the Theory of Classical
Conditioning, considers learning as habit formation and is based on the principal of association and
substitution. It is simply a stimulus-response type of learning, where in place of natural stimulus like food
water, sex, etc., an artificial stimulus like the sound of the bell, sight of light of a definite color, etc. can
evoke a natural response. A perfect association occurs between the types of stimuli presented together. As a
result, after some time the natural stimulus can be substituted or replaced by an artificial stimulus, which in
turn is able to evoke the natural response.
The Conditioning Theory of learning put forward by Watson and Pavlov involves the conditioning of
respondent behavior through a process of stimulus association and substation. The learner becomes
conditioned and behaves similarly to similar situations, as a result the new substituted stimulus behaves
like an original stimulus and is able to evoke the desired response.
.3 Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning:
B.F. Skinner (1948) conducted series of experiments with animals, put forward his theory of Operant
Conditioning for learning, which involves not only simple responses but also, for learning, the most
difficult and complex series of responses. The theory of Operant Conditioning advocates the emitting of a
desired response and its proper management through suitable reinforcement. The learner responds in a
certain way so as to produce the reinforcing stimulus. The subsequent reinforcement gradually conditions
the learner to emit the desired response and thus learn the desired act.
.4 Kohler’s Theory of Insightful Learning:
German psychologist Wolfgang Kohler (1887) originated a learning theory named Insightful
learning. It is concerned with the nature of perception; a learner perceives a thing as a whole. Gestalt
psychologists tried to interpret learning as purposive, exploratory and creative enterprise instead of trial and
error or a simple stimulus response mechanism. The term “insight” describes the perception of the whole,
situation by the learner, and his intelligence in responding to the proper relationships. His experiments on
chimpanzees demonstrated learning by insight. The theory of insightful learning made learning a
purposeful and goal oriented task.
.5 Hull’s Systematic Behavior Theory:
Clark L. Hull (1884-1952), a teacher in the universities of Wisconsin and Yale, is credited with putting
forth a systematic mathematical and scientific theory of human behavior based on conditioning and
connectionism of the earlier behaviorists. He built his theory on a logical structure of postulates and
theorems. His theory can be briefly summarized as:
Hull’s theory rejected the trigger like mechanism of stimuli-response advocated by Thorndike
and introduced the concept of intervening variables between stimulus and Response. The things within the
learner definitely act and react with what is received in terms of stimuli from the external environment,

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before emitting of an overt response. Hull provided the amended S-O-R formula in place of the traditional
S-R approach. He termed the environmental influences upon the individual as “inputs” and his responses as
“Outputs” and what goes from the learner as “processes”. He asserted that “input” and “output” can be
measured experimentally and therefore behavior in its processes and products can be subjected to
experimental verification.
Hull’s theory attached sufficient importance to the needs, drives, incentives reinforcement and
adequate motivations for achieving satisfactory results in the process of teaching and learning. The greatest
contribution of Hull’s theory lies in its emphasis on linking the learning to the needs of the learners. He
advocated the need based goals, curricula and methods of teaching.
.6 Lewin’s Field Theory:
German psychologist Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) put forward a theory named Lewin’s Field theory in
1917. Perception is the key issue in Lewin’s theory of learning. It takes learning to be a process of
perceptual organization or reorganization of one’s life space or field, involving insight.
According to Lewin, Learning is a relativistic process by which a learner develops a new insight or
changes the old views. The development of this new insight or change in the old views can be explained
through the structuring or restructuring of one’s life space i.e. the cognitive structure or field of one’s
perception and understanding.
According to Lewin, learning is nothing but a change in one’s cognitive structure which is needed
for achieving a particular goal or to meet the requirements or needs of an individual in a particular
situation. Learning is a process responsible for making the life space or field of perception as differentiated
as possible. The learner begins to make distinction between reality and unreality at different levels of his
life, space and try to act with the knowledge, of what leads to what.
.7 Tolman’s Sign Theory:
Edward Chace Tolman (1886-1959), an American psychologist propounded his theory as Tolman’s
Sign learning or Sign Gestalt learning, which stands midway between the behavioristic S-R theories and
cognitivist Gestalt or cognitive field theories.
Tolman’s theory truly represents an eclectic approach towards learning. He argues that all
learning is purposeful and goal oriented rather than response oriented. According to him, understanding
and map making rather than conditioning or building up S-R connections is the essence of learning. With
the number of trials in the way of learning, learner develops cognitive maps or mental representations (Sign
Gestalts) in perfect correlation with the goal, to achieve the environment, in which he has to strive. The
cognitive map becomes effective in influencing one’s behavior in meeting one’s need or purpose or in
getting reinforcement. Every learner acts according to his cognitive mapping of the environment to reach
his goal. The attempts made by him in this direction becomes significant, showing positive or negative
signs, as depending upon the type of reinforcement. Each sign leads to another, giving a clear indication of
what leads to what, thus the learner ultimately learns to proceed along with the correct path. The learner
realizing his ultimate goal learns the ways to problem solving within the given situation. The learner
reinforces by no other reward then the satisfaction of the learning itself.
.8 Gagne’s Theory of Learning:
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Robert Gagne, the famous American psychologist put forward a theory of learning and instruction
incorporating a behavioristic, eclectic approach to the psychology of learning and teaching.
According to Gagne, Learning is supposed to result in the enhancement of a person’s performance and
capabilities by acquiring new ways of behaving (gaining in terms of knowledge, understanding, skills and
change of attitudes, etc.). He declared that all types of human learning may result in the development of
human capabilities in terms of five components namely; Verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive
strategies, motor skills and attitudes. His theory of learning proposes a set of conditions or events for the
occurrence of learning and links them to a set of instructional events. His theory covers all aspects of
human learning and applies to the design of instruction in all domains of human behavior.
 Learning is defined as a process which brings relatively permanent changes in the behavior of
the learner through experience or practice. It can be classified into specific categories like trial
and error, conditioning, insightful learning, serial learning, associate learning, chain learning,
verbal learning, learning of motor skills, effective learning and cognitive learning etc.
Learning outcomes it helps in
 i) bringing desirable modifications in behavior;
 ii) attaining teaching learning objectives;
 iii) achieving proper growth and development;
 iv) seeking balanced development of the personality
 v) seeking proper adjustment and;
 vi) realizing the goals in life.
 GENERAL LEARNING PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS
•IMPROVEMENT
•CONSISTENCY
•PERSISTENCE
•ADAPTABILITY

Types of Learning Curves: Learning is a complex process governed by so many internals as well as
external factors. Consequently, we find a number of learning curves depending upon the nature of the
learner, the nature of the task or the learning material and the time available as well as the conditions under
which the learning takes place. It is difficult to classify these curves into some definite types.
However, Teacher Training Programme has come across the following three common types shown
in the diagram.
 Negatively accelerated learning cure or convex curve: Convex shaped is called a negatively
accelerated learning curve or simply as a convex curve. It rapid initial improvement in learning that
slows down with time. In the learning situations where the task is simple or the learner has had
previous practice on a similar task, we usually come across such learning curves.

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 Positively accelerated learning curve or concave curve: Concave shaped curve B is called a
positively accelerated learning curve or simply a concave curve. It depicts slow initial improvement
in learning that increases with time ultimately leading towards the mastery over the learning
material. These types of curves are often seen in the learning situating where the task is new or
difficult in the beginning or when the learner has not got any prior practice of performing such task.

 Combination type of curve or concave or concave-convex curve: The third curve C which
involves a combination of two – concave and convex curve is known as S – curve. Such curve may
take concave or convex shape in the beginning depending upon the nature of the learner, learning
material and the learning environment and are generally obtained in the situations where we study
the entire learning of a task from zero performance to its mastery

Usually there are fluctuations or ups and downs in the cure depending upon the variable
which influences the learning process.

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Basic Motivation Concepts

Motivation = “The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
toward achieving a goal”
• Intensity = how hard an employee tries
• Direction = should benefit the organization (i.e. quality of effort counts!)
• Persistence = how long can an employee maintain his/her effort?
 Note: the goal is an “organizational” goal
Early Theories of Motivation
Hierarchy of Needs (a.k.a. Maslow's Pyramid) 1954
Physiological
includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex and other bodily needs
Safety
includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm
Social
includes affection, belongingness acceptance, and friendship
Esteem
includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external
esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention
Self-actualization
the drive to become what one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one’s
potential, and self-fulfillment
 Note: An individual move “up the steps” of the hierarchy. “Lower order” needs are satisfied
externally (i.e. physiological and safety) while “higher order” needs are satisfied internally (i.e.
social, esteem, and self-actualization).

Theory X and Theory Y (1960)

Douglas McGregor proposed two distinct views of human beings: one basically negative, labeled Theory
X, and the other basically positive, labeled Theory Y.

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Theory X The assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility, and must be
coerced to perform. (Lower order needs dominate)
Theory Y
The assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise
self-direction. (Higher order needs dominate) McGregor believed Theory Y assumptions were more valid
than Theory X and proposed such ideas as participative decision making, responsible and challenging jobs,
and good group relations as approaches that would maximize an employee's motivation.

Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg, 1959)

Intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are related to job dissatisfaction.
• Hygiene factors = when these are adequate, workers “feel OK” (i.e. they are NOT dissatisfied).
Examples include quality of supervision, company policies and administration.
• Motivators = examines factors contributing to job satisfaction. Thus there are factors which lead to job
satisfaction and things that don’t (i.e. notice there is a difference between “non-satisfying” and
“dissatisfying factors”)

Contemporary Theories
Achievement Motivation Theory of Needs (McClelland's 1953)
The Need for Achievement: the drive to excel, achieve in relation to a set of standards, strive to
succeed.
The Need for Power: The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have
behaved otherwise.
The Need for Affiliation: The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory (Deci, 1989)
• Allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to
decrease the overall level of motivation.
Goal -Setting Theory (Edwin Locke. And Henne 1968)
The theory that specific and difficult goals lead to higher performance. Goals tell an employee what needs
to be done and how much effort will need to be expended. Specific goals increase performance; that
difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals; and that feedback leads to
higher performance than does no feedback.
Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalized goal of "do your
best." The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.
• Be sure to note the importance of goal commitment, self-efficacy, task characteristics, and
national culture on goal-setting theory.
Self-Efficacy Theory (A.B Bandura 1977)
Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. The higher your
self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task.
Reinforcement Theory (B.F Skinner)
A counterpoint to the goal-setting theory. In reinforcement theory, a behavioristic approach, which argues
that reinforcement conditions behavior. Reinforcement theorists see behavior as being behaviorally caused.
Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens to a
person when he or she takes some action. Because it does not concern itself with what initiates behavior, it

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is not, strictly speaking, a theory of motivation. It does however provide a powerful means of analysis of
what controls behavior.
Equity Theory (Adams 1965)
Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond so as
to eliminate any inequities. Equity theory recognizes that individuals are concerned not only with the
absolute amount of rewards for their efforts, but also with the relationship of this amount to what others
receive. Historically, equity theory focused on:
distributive justice or the perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among
individuals. However, equity should also consider procedural justice or the perceived fairness of
the process used to determine the distribution of rewards. Interactional justice is also important.
Expectancy Theory (Vroom 1964)
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that
the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the
individual. The theory focuses on three relationships: Effort-performance relationship or the probability
perceived by the individual that exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance. Performance-
reward relationship or the degree to which the individual believes that performing at a particular level will
lead to the attainment of a desired outcome. Rewards-personal goals relationship or the degree to which
organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those
potential rewards for the individual.
 Don’t Forget Ability and Opportunity
Performance = f (Ability X Motivation X Opportunity)

Attribution Theory (Weiner 1979)

 Stability
 Locus of causality
 Locus of control

Achievement Goal Theory (Nicholls 1984)

 Outcome goal orientation
 Task goal orientation
ERG Theory (C.D. Alderfer 1972)
 Existence need
 Related need
 Growth need

Cognitive dissonance theory

Suggested by Leon Festinger, cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual experiences some degree of
discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views on the world around them,
and their own personal feelings and actions.

Drive-reduction theory also known as homeostasis (1943)

Drive theory grows out of the concept that people have certain biological drives, such as hunger and thirst.
As time passes the strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon
satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced. Created by Clark Hull and further developed by Kenneth
Spence, the theory became well known in the 1940s and 1950s. Many
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of the motivational theories that arose during the 1950s and 1960s were either based on Hull's original
theory or were focused on providing alternatives to the drive-reduction theory, including Abraham
Maslow's hierarchy of needs, which emerged as an alternative to Hull's approach.
Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance, when preparing food, the drive model
appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and, after the food has
been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger. There are several problems, however, that leave the
validity of drive reduction open for debate.

Instinct Theory
Charles Darwin (1890), Williams James (1908) and Sigmund Freud as the chief proponent’s pf this
theory, proposed that organisms are motivated to engage in certain behaviours because of their genetic
programing and because these behaviors lead to success in term of natural selection. Instinct theory casts
motivation as essentially intrinsic and biological based.

MEASURING MOTIVATION
 Incentive Motivation Theory (Richard Birch. Alderman Veroff, Nancy L. Wood)
 Sport Achievement Motivation Test (M.L Kamlesh)
 Participation Motivation Questionnaire (Diane L. Gill, John B. Gross, Sheron Huddleson)
Anxiety
Anxiety is defined as an exaggerated feeling of apprehension, uncertainty and fear. It is an unpleasant state
of tension with an anticipation of imminent danger. The somatic manifestation of anxiety include fatigue,
dizziness, palpitation, headache, insomnia and excessive perspiration. It is associated with almost all
emotional disorder and frequently with physical illnesses. There is evidence that amygdala is responsible
for expression of anxiety or fear and prefrontal cortex plays a role in fear extinction by regulating by the
amygdale - mediated expression of fear although the molecular mechanisms underlying negative and
positive regulation of the anxiety are not fully understood many genes have been reported to affect anxiety
or fear. Anxiety is a
pervasive phenomenon the common denominator in most forms of mental disorder. Anxiety and mood
disorders account for the vast majority of individuals suffering from
mental health problems.

Types of Anxiety: Two types anxiety we seen in normal life

A) Cognitive Anxiety: “negative expectations and cognitive concerns about oneself, the situation at
hand and potential consequences”
B) Somatic Anxiety: “one’s perceptions of the physiological-affective elements of the anxiety experience,
that is, indications of autonomic arousal and unpleasant feeling states such as nervousness and tension”
(Morris et al., 1981).

We also analyzed two other anxieties in competition situation

1. Competitive State Anxiety: An Existing or current emotional state in competitive situation

characterized by feeling of apprehension and tension associated with activation of organism.

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2. Competitive Trait Anxiety: A tendency to perceive competitive situation as threating and response to
these situations.

APPLIED ANXIETY MANAGEMENT IN SPORTS

I) Cognitive Technique: The term "cognitive strategies" in its simplest form is the use of the mind
(cognition) to solve a problem or complete a task. A cognitive strategy is a mental routine or procedure for
accomplishing a cognitive goal. Goal directed and consciously controllable process that facilitates
performance may be termed as cognitive strategies. These techniques are
 Mental rehearsal
 Mental Imagery
 Visualization
 Visio-motor behavior
 Cognitive therapy
II) Somatic Technique: Somatic relates to the body, especially the body as considered being separate from
the mind. Interventions that are directed to deal with the physiological response to psychological stress may
be termed as somatic strategies. These are
 Progressive muscle relaxation
 Autogenic Training
 Imagery (Meditation)
 Biofeedback
a) Progressive Muscle relaxation:
Progressive muscular relaxation originated from the theory that a psychobiological state called
neuromuscular hypertension is the basis for a variety of negative emotional states and psychosomatic
diseases (Jacobson, 1938). Jacobson asserted that relaxation of muscles would lead to relaxation of the
mind, ‘‘as an emotional state fails to exist in the presence of complete relaxation of the peripheral parts
involved’’ (Jacobson, 1938). It entails minimizing tension in the muscles that are required for some
activity, whilst concurrently relaxing those muscles that are not necessary to the enactment of the skill.
B) Autogenic Training (Schultz, Luthe)
Autogenic training is a psycho- physiological form of psychotherapy using passive concentration and
certain combinations of psycho physiologically adapted stimuli (Kanji, 1997). Heaviness and warmth,
relaxed breathing and a cool forehead is elicited by mental repetition of brief verbal phrases directing
attention to specific bodily areas to achieve a relaxed state (Sadock and Sadock 2003). The verbal phrases
influence the subconscious in a relaxed state (Hillmann, 2002).
Autogenic training is a technique that trains a person to respond to verbal commands. These commands
help to relax and control breathing, blood pressure heartbeat, and body temperature. The goal of Autogenic
training is to achieve deep relaxation and reduce stress.
C) Imagery
Imagery, in the context of sport, may be considered “as the voluntary or involuntary creation or re-
creation of an experience generated from memorial information, involving quasi sensorial, quasi-
perceptional, and quasi-affective characteristics which may occur in the absence of the real stimulus
antecedents normally associated with the actual experience and which may have physiological and

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psychological effects on the imager” modified version of Morris, Spittle and Watt’s (2005) definition by
(Weibull, 2005). Watt, Spittle and Morris (2005) as cited in Morris et al., (2005) has defined imagery use
as “the manner in which people imagine themselves in ways that can lead to learning and developing skills
and can facilitate performance of those skills”. Imagery ability has been defined as “An individual’s
capacity of forming vivid, controllable images and retaining them for sufficient time to effect the desired
imagery rehearsal.” (Morris, 1997).
D) Biofeedback Training
It has been demonstrated that humans can voluntarily control functions of the autonomic nervous systems.
Biofeedback is a relatively modern technique that is based upon this principle. Biofeedback training uses
instruments to help people control responses of the autonomic nervous systems. For example, a subject
monitors an auditory signal of her own heart rate and experiments with different thoughts, feelings, and
sensations to slow the heart rate. Once the subject learns to recognize the feelings associated with the
reduction of heart rate, the instrument is removed and the subject tries to control the heart rate without it.

III) Psychological Skill Training

 Imagery
 Goal setting
 Self-talk
 Relaxation

Measuring Anxiety Test: Rainer Martens (1977) drew up the first Sport Competition Anxiety Test
(SCAT). After using this tool in several studies, he saw the need to make a scale aiming at the
measurement of states of anxiety specifically in competitive situations. State Anxiety Inventory (SAI) by
Spielberger (Spielberger, Gorsuch and Lushene, 1970) then chose those 10 items which were the most
sensitive to changes in the sport field from the SCAT and Therefore, Martens, Burton, Rivkin and Simon
(1980) took the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI) to measure the sport-specific state-anxiety.
This tool evolved into the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory 2 (CSAI-2) two years later.
The first CSAI-2 (Martens, Burton, Vealey, Bump y Smith, 1990) included scales to measure not only
somatic and cognitive state anxiety but also fear to physical harm and general anxiety. To start with, a set
of 102 items were produced and these were assessed by three experts on the basis of syntax, grammatical
clarity and contents validity. Also Cognitive Somatic Anxiety Questionnaire (Schwartz, Davidson &
Goldman)
 Sport Anxiety Scale –Smith, Small & Schitz
 Profile of Mode State –McNair, Lorr & Droppleman 1971
Rowlay, Landors Kylo & Etneir 1995
 Individual Zone of Optimal Functioning—Hanin 1997
 Test of Attentional and Interpersonal States—Nideffer 1981

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AGGRESSION:
Aggression is the violent behaviour with total disregard to reasoning. Aggressive behaviour can be physical
or mental or emotional and alt of them together in a systematic manner. In general sense where aggression
is referred to in life situations or in connection with group dynamics; it has no positive role. However,
when it comes to sporting competitions, aggression has always a positive role. This is especially true in
dual games or competitions. In a war situation, a soldier is to destroy his enemy before the enemy kills him.
Likewise, in a dual sporting competition, the competition is to resort to violent attack against his opponent
and inflict upon him a moral advantage which is likely to last throughout the remaining competition thus
leading to victory. In the process, the sportsperson shall not succumb to the sentiments if he is process to
win.
TYPES OF AGGRESSION: Psychologists classify aggression as instrumental and hostile.

Instrumental aggression is aggressive behaviour intended to achieve a goal. It is not necessarily intended
to hurt another person e.g. a soccer player who knocks a teammate down as they both run to stop the ball
from reaching the opposing team’s goalpost is not trying to hurt the teammate.
Hostile aggression, on the other hand, is aggressive behaviour whose only purpose is to hurt someone. It
includes physical or verbal assault and other antisocial behaviours. Most studies of aggression are geared
towards hostile aggression. There have been several attempts to distinguish between types of aggression
based upon antecedent conditions i.e. conditions that precede or lead up to the aggressive behaviour.

Types of Aggression Examples

Physical-active-direct Stabbing, punching, or shooting another person

Physical-active-indirect Setting a booby trap for another person; hiring an

assassin to kill an enemy

Physical-passive-direct Physically preventing another person from obtaining

a desired goal or performing a desired act (as in a
sit-in demonstration)

Physical-passive-indirect Refusing to perform necessary tasks (e.g. refusing to

move during a sit-in)

Verbal-active-direct Insulting or derogating another person

Verbal-active-indirect Spreading malicious rumors or gossip about another

person

Verbal-passive-direct Refusing to spread to another person, to answer

questions, and so on

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Verbal-passive-indirect Failing to make specific verbal comments (e.g.,

failing to speak up in another person’s defense when
he or she is unfairly criticized

Source: Baron, 1977; Based on Buss, 1971.

THEORIES OF AGGRESSION

Psychoanalytical theory: This school assumes that aggressive energy is constantly generated by our
bodily responses. Freud believed that man is born with two basic instincts “EROS” the life instincts and
“THANTOS” the death instincts. Neo Freudians (Storr, 1968 and Lorenz, 1966) deny the reality of death
instincts and urge for existence of distinct aggressive drive. According to them the aggressive people are
healthy and they are adapted to realities of environment of human beings.
Instinct theory of Aggression by Lorenz (1966) According to Lorenz, aggression springs from instincts
that man shares with non-human species. This was developed during evolution as instincts serving
territoriality, food etc. This explains the presence of drive force in humans to achieve something and this
motive can be directed constructively with the help of education.
Frustration-Aggression Theory: Dollard et al. (1939) suggested that Frustration lead to aggression
(Relative-Deprivation Model). Berkowitz (1993) considered that anger refers to an emotional state
presumably resulting from frustration, which congruent with suitable cue instigates aggressive responses.
He showed that anger does not always lead to aggression, but requires the presence of appropriate cues
(Berkowitz, 1989) whereas, Buss (1971) and Scott (1958) demonstrated aggression in absence of anger.
The revised frustration aggression hypothesis sets frustration as an externally elicited drive. Frustration
creates readiness to respond in an aggressive manner. This theory suggests that certain cues in our
environment have become strongly associated with aggression and aggressive behavior i.e. they have
aggressive cue value. Wisconsin studies reveal that witnessing and aggressive oriented movie lower’s once
inhibition against behaving aggressively. Thus certain stimuli have greater cueing value in triggering
frustration (Primary accessibility).
General Arousal and Excitation Transfer Theory by Zilmann: This emphasizes the role of arousal
generated by events contributing to aggression. Research also establishes link between sexual and
aggressive drive (Montagu, 1976). Researches show that being exposed to sexually arousing pictures can
make people more aggressive or can actually reduce aggressive tendencies (Moyer, 1976).
Social Learning Theory: Bandura (1971) suggested that aggression is acquired through watching others.
Learner acquires new form of behavior (observational learning effect) through modelling. Modelling can
inhibit or encourage behavior. Bandura (1973) concluded that certain parents by behaving aggressively
provide models for children. Baron (1977) has suggested that exposing children to violent movies leads to
aggression. The social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the
behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. Thus it focuses on learning by observation and
modeling. The theory originally evolved from behaviorism but now includes many of the ideas that

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cognitivists also hold; as a result, it is sometimes called social cognitive learning. Social learning theory
talks about how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and
behavior. It focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from
one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling.
Script Theory: Huesman (1998) proposed that when children observe violence in mass media, they learn
aggressive scripts. Once the script has been learned it may be retrieved at some later time; thus these are
sets of particularly well-rehearsed highly associated concepts in memory (Singer and Singer, 1981). These
script rehearsals can change an individual’s social behavior and attitudes (Anderson and Bushman, 2001).
Social Interaction Theory: This theory interprets aggressive behavior as social influence behavior. This
social interaction theory thus provides an explanation of aggressive acts motivated by higher level goals
and provides an excellent way to understand recent findings that aggression is often result of threats to self-
esteem. It also forms basis to instrumental aggression i.e. goal oriented aggression (Bandura and Walters,
1963)

Cognitive Theories: Huesmann (1998) gave a Cognitive Script Model for Aggression. He interpreted
ambiguous event as an act of aggression. Dill & Anderson (1995) gave a “Hostile Attribution Model” for
Aggression and later on developed classification of reactive and proactive aggression-reactive similar to
hostile and proactive similar to instrumental aggression.

Cognitive Neo-Associationist Theory: Berkowitz (1989, and 1993) proposed that aversive events such as
frustration, provocation etc. can produce negative effects. This theory also includes high order cognitive
processes such as appraisal and attribution; thus it only subsumes earlier frustration-aggression hypothesis
but also provides a causal mechanism for explaining why aversive events increase aggressive inclinations.

General Aggression Model: The General Aggression Model (GAM) provides an integrative framework
for the study of aggression. It incorporates social-cognitive and developmental theories and has an overall
view of aggression that includes situational, individual and biological variables (Anderson & Bushman,
2001). The GAM proposes that when certain proximate causes or inputs are experienced (individual traits,
values and beliefs; biological factors; environmental/ situational cues), outcome (action/behavior) is
affected by the way of interactive routes (current affective state, cognitions, appraisal, and
evaluation/judgment). The final outcome is then recycled as a part of the social interaction and becomes a
part of one’s life experience and, therefore, the input relative to the next encounter.

ASSESSMENT OF AGGRESSION:
 Buzz-Durkee Hostile Inventory---Brenda Bredemeier 1975
 The Sport Aggression Questionnaire---Mark Thompson 1989
 Collis Scale of Athletic Aggression----Martin L. Collis 1972
 Sport Aggression Questionnaire---Buss Perry
 Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire

SELF-CONCEPT:
There are several terms that are synonymous with self-concept. Among them are "Self-image"; "The ego";
"Self-understanding"; "Self-perception"; "Self-esteem" and "Phenomenal self". The term self-concept is a
person's image about his own self, his beliefs, feelings, attitudes, fears, hopes etc. James (1902) put it in a

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nutshell when he called it the "Sum-total of all that he can call his own". It is mainly a function of the
interaction of an individual with the outer world. Phenomenists explain that perceptual field determines all
behaviour and an individual's private world or life space becomes the determinant.
THEORIES OF SELF-CONCEPT
(a) Identity Theory of Self-Esteem: According to this theory the self is composed of multiple identities
that reflect the various social positions that an individual occupies in the larger social structure (Cast &
Burke, 2002).
(b) Cognitive Theory of Self-Esteem: It is also known as bottom up theory of self-esteem which holds
that evaluative feedback (e.g., success or failure, interpersonal acceptance or rejection), influences self-
evaluations, and that self-evaluations determine feelings of self-worth and global self-esteem. (Crocker &
Wolfe, 2001)

c) Neo-Psychodynamic theory of Self-Esteem:

The emphasis of this theory is on awareness and experience perception i.e. one first develops awareness of
self and then a need for positive regard.

Assessment of Self Concept:

 Tennessee Self-Concept Scale ---W.H Fitts 1965
 The Body Esteem Scale –S.L. Franzol & M.E Herzog 1986
 Physical Self-Efficiency Scale ---R.M. Ryckman, M.A. Robbins, B Thorton &
P. Cantrell 1982

Leadership
Many theorists have defined the concept of leadership. An analysis of the definitions by different
thinkers brings out the meaning and nature of leadership.
According to Good's dictionary of education Leadership is the ability and readiness to inspire,
guide, direct or manage others.'
In the words of Bartky and Ralph M.Stogdill, Leadership is a process of influencing the activities of
an organized group in the tasks of goal setting and goal achieving.'
Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich state leadership as the art or process of influencing people so that
they will strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group goals. Ideally, people
should be encouraged to develop not only willingness to work but also willingness to work with zeal and
confidence. Zeal is ardor, earnestness and intensity in the execution of work. Leaders act to help a group
attain objectives through the maximum application of its capabilities. They do not stand behind a group to
push and prod; they place themselves before the group as they facilitate progress and inspire the group to
accomplish organizational goals.'
Cattell, R.B defines a leader as a person, who has a demonstrable influence upon group syntality and
leadership is measured by the magnitude of the syntality change (from the mean) produced by that person,
i.e., by the difference in syntality under his leadership and the syntality under the leadership of the average
or model leader.'

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According to Halen H. Jennings, the superior characteristics of leaders are not necessarily causes
of leadership. Only when these superior characteristics are used to guide superior performances in a group
are these meaningful.'
Fiedler views leadership as, a process of influencing others for the purpose of performing a shared task.'
The ability of organizing the group with the support of the team is the foremost quality of the leader. By
means of organizing capabilities, it is possible for a leader to attain the organizational goals. Miss. Follett
states that a leader not only influences his group but is also influenced by it. She calls this reciprocal
relationship 'circular response' and emphasizes upon the following three types of leadership
 Leadership of position, i.e., the leader holds a position of formal authority.
 Leadership of personality, i.e., the leader holds forceful personal qualities.
 Leadership of function, i.e., the leader holds both position and personality.
According to Follett, only those who possess functional knowledge lead in modern
organisations.

Leadership Styles
The behaviour exhibited by a leader during supervision of subordinates is known as leadership style. On
the basis of exercise of power, there are four basic styles of leadership
(i) autocratic style,
(ii) democratic style,
(iii) laissez faire style and
(iv) paternalistic style.

Autocratic Style
This is also known as authoritative or directive style of leadership. In this style, the entire authority is
concentrated in the hands of the leader. He decides all policies. He gives orders to subordinates and
demands complete obedience from them. He withholds rewards or inflicts punishment on those who
disobey.

Democratic Style of Leadership

This is also known as participative or consultative style of leadership. In this style, the leader allows the
subordinates to participate in the decision making process. All policies and decisions are arrived at through
group discussions. The communication flows freely and is multi- directional.

Laissez Faire Style

It is also known as free rein style of leadership. In this style, the leader gives complete independence to the
subordinates in their operations. He allows them to set their own goals and achieve them. In other words,
this style involves complete freedom for group or individual decision with little or minimum participation
of the leader. His only job is to supply various materials and information asked by the subordinates.

Paternalistic Leadership Style

According to this leadership style, a 'father-like" role is played by the leader towards his followers. Just as a
father takes care of the problems of the family, the leader takes care of the problems of his followers. The
paternalistic leader assumes his responsibility to the fullest extent. A paternalistic leader is a hard task
master and advocates the policy of "work hard
and I will take care of you" to his followers. His hard attitude towards his followers

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is generally compensated by the rewards, concern, love and sympathy he shows

towards his followers.

Theories of Leadership
The important theories of leadership such as trait theory, behavioural theory, situational theory are

1) The Trait Theory

Chester Barnard, Ordway Tead, Miller, Appleby and Schell advocated this theory. According to this
theory, leaders are not made but are born and a person becomes a leader because of the traits possessed by
him. Leadership is largely a matter of personality.
According to Mann, traits like intelligence, adjustment, dominance, extraversion, interpersonal sensibility,
masculinity and conservation are associated with leadership.
Stogdill viewed leadership in a different perspective and according to him the following factors are
associated with leadership.
i) Achievement (knowledge, scholarship)
ii) Capacity (alertness, intelligence)
iii) Participation (Cooperation, activity)
iv) Responsibility (dependability, initiative)
v) Situation (objectives to be reached, needs and interests of followers)
vi) Status (socio-economic, position, popularity)

2) Behavioural theory
According to this theory, there are certain behaviours which distinguish a leader from followers. Chiefly,
the orientation of leadership is based on leaders' behaviour with reference to
i) individuals and
ii) task or production.
a) Iowa University Leadership Studies (1930)
According to Iowa University Leadership Studies, though work motivation was more in democratic style
of leadership work done was more in autocratic groups. It seems as if autocratic style is more efficient as it
produces high degree of performance. But the overall performance of the group was very much affected by
high level of (Kurt Lewin, Ronald Lippit & Ralph white) hostility and rivalry and low morale within the
work group. Therefore, democratic behaviour was thought to be more productive oriented ultimately.
Laissez-faire leadership was considered less efficient than democratic leadership.
b) Ohio State University Studies (1945)
The study conducted at the Ohio State University is the best example for behavioural theory.
According to the study, the effectiveness of leadership is decided by two aspects of leader, namely,
initiating structure (directive type) and consideration (participative type)

c) Michigan University Leadership studies (1946)

This study visualized leadership behaviour as production centred and employee centred. Production-
oriented leaders viewed employees as the tools to accomplish the goals of the organization and they closely
monitored the work of subordinates, explaining work procedures and demonstrating a strong interest in

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performance. Employee-oriented leaders were very much concerned about inter personal relationship and
cared for the personal needs of the employee.

d) Likert's Four Systems of Management Leadership (1961)

System-1 leader is exploitative - authoritative Decisions are taken by the leader and imposed on
the followers.
System - 2 leader is benevolent authoritative Such leader imposes orders but the followers have
some freedom to comment on them.
System - 3 leader is consultative. The followers are given the freedom of deciding about how to
perform the tasks and they feel free to discuss with superiors all work related matters.
System-4 leader is democratic and allows the followers to set goals and work for their
achievement. Final decisions are made by considering the suggestions and ideas of the followers.
 Democratic style is said to be the most effective style.
e) Managerial Grid (1964)
Managerial Grid was developed by Robert Blake and Jane Mouton to explain leader's behaviour. The
study was aimed at evaluating leader behaviour along two variables like concern for production and
concern for people taken along the X axis and Y axis respectively.

3. Situational Theory
The essence of this theory is that the leadership is influenced by situational variables and changes
from situation to situation. Leadership is interpreted as a dynamic interaction between a number of
variables like the group leader, the nature of followers, the task situation, the environment and so on.
Leadership, no doubt is multi-dimensional in nature.

I) Continuum of leadership Behaviour or styles (1958):

This theory was revised in 1973 by Robert Tannenabaum and Warren Schmidt and according to
them, the key to successful leadership is the ability to determine accurately what leadership style would be
most effective for a given situation and they described a continuum of leadership or what they call
manager-non manager behaviour.
The style of leadership changes according to the situations. When the size of the work group,
geographic spread of the work group and the time available to take decisions are greater, then conservative
style of leadership is preferred. On the other hand, if the work group is more effective and cohesive and if
the problem is more complex, then liberal style of leadership is preferred.
II) Contingency Theory of Leadership (1967)
Fred E. Fiedler and his associates proposed a contingency theory of leadership. According to this
theory, people become leaders not only because of the attributes of their personalities but also because of
various situational factors and the interactions between leaders and group members.
Three factors, according to Fiedler determined the extent of favorableness of the situation.
1) Leader-member relations: When relations are good, leader finds it easier to exercise influence and
authority. It tells about the degree of confidence, trust and respect members have on their leaders.
2) Task-Structure contributes to situational favorableness. A structured task is simple, routine,
unambiguous and very easily understood whereas an unstructural task is complex, non-routine and

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ambiguous. The leader in unstructural task is required to guide direct subordinates which makes it more
unfavorable.
3) The third factor speaks about position power of the leader arising from organizational authorities and
clarifies how the leader can exercise his power over so many variables like, salary hike, promotion,
assignment of work, reward and punishment etc.

III) Path-Goal Theory of leadership (1970-71)

This theory was developed by Martin Evans and Robert House. This theory is based on expectancy
theory of motivation. The behaviour of a leader according to Robert House, should clearly define goals to
be reached and remove obstacles that stand in the way of employees achieving the goals. The path-goal
theory identifies four types of leadership.
1. Supportive Leadership: The leader is more concerned about subordinates and interacts with them more
freely. In the case of employees, who work under stress, frustrating and dissatisfying tasks, supporting
leadership will be more effective.
2. Directive Leadership: It gives specific direction.and guidance in planning, organizing, co-ordinating
and controlling to subordinates. This leadership achieves results when dealing with subordinates indulging
in ambiguous and ill-defined tasks.
3. Participating Leadership: It involves consultation with subordinates and sharing of information with
them. This leadership is successful when the employees are ego-centric in decision - making process and
when the task is ambiguous.
4. Achievement Oriented Leadership: This behaviour suggests setting challenging goals for subordinates
and developing confidence in their ability to meet challenging tasks. Leader behaviour is determined by
two situational variables like characteristics of the subordinates and effect of the work environment.

IV) Three dimensional model of Leadership (1970)

William Reddin views leadership style as consisting of a task and a relationship orientation along with
'effectiveness' dimension. There are four leadership styles such as
i) low task and low relationship
ii) low task and high relationship
iii) high task and low relationship and
iv) high task and high relationship.

V) Life Cycle Theory of Leadership (1970)

Hersey and Blanchard developed a model according to which the leader behavior depends on the
maturity of the followers. By maturity is meant (1) the Groups capacity to said high and attainable goals (2)
the group members' willingness and ability to accept responsibilities for their actions and (3) the group's
level of experience or training. The leader's behaviours are as explained by the Ohio State University
Studies, consideration dimension and structure dimension.
Life - Cycle theory predicts a curvilinear relationship between maturity of the followers and
appropriateness of the leader's behaviour.

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GROUP DANAMIC

According to Kurt Lewin --- Coined the term group dynamic to describe the way group and individual
act & react to changing circumstance.

According to William Schultz (1958) Looked at interpersonal relations from perspective of three
dimensions
1. Inclusion
2. Control
3. Affection

Bruce Tuckman (1965) proposed 4 stages model

1. Forming: Pretending to get on or get along with others
2. Storming: Lifting down the politeness barriers and trying to get down to the issues even if temper
floored up
3. Norming: Getting used to each other’s and developing trust and productivity.
4. Performing: Working in a group to a common goal on a highly efficient and cooperative basis
Peck Describe the stages of a community as: -
1. Pseudo-Community
2. Chaos Community
3. Emptiness Community
4. True Community

Hinz (1991,1992,1995) suggested that three explanations of these group and individual goal choice
differentness
1. Social Comparison
2. Anticipate Evaluation
3. Group Decision process

THEORY OF GROUP DANAMICS:

1. Social Identity Theory: - Tajfel (1982), Abrahams & Hogg (2001)

Supported the expectation that performing in group will be a positive experience provided that a group
member fells an attachment to the group.

2.Social Combination Theory: -Steiner (1972)

 First taxonomy
1. Unity Task Those which cannot be broken down and group member work together on one
single task.
2. Divisible Task Are things that can be broken down into smaller part and individual group
member assigned to specific component of the largest task.
 Second Taxonomy
1. Maximization refers to task that require quantity from each team members.
2. Optimization referring to task that need quality and precision from each team member.
Steiner classify group task into 5 specific groups which organized and explains the type of groups and
individual contribution is necessary.

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1. Addictive Task: - They require the sum of individual contribution (Rugby Scrum)
2. Disjunctive Task: - One group solution which could be achieved by one or any number of
group member (Mountaineering Expedition)
3. Conjunctive Task: -These task require every individual in the group to complete a given
task individually in order for it to be finished collectively. (Relay race)
4. Compensatory task: - These task is dependent on an average of each member’s
contribution. (Ice Skating, Judgments)
5. Discretionary Task: - These task involves group members collaborating and combining
efforts in order to achieve a task or reached a final solution (Treasure Hunt)
3. Social Facilitation Theory (Strauss 2002)
4. Social Exchange Theory (Homans 1961)
 People are motivated to exert minimum effort for maximum reward. This is also known as the
Allocation Strategy.

Team Cohesion
Team Cohesion: How well group operates as a working and complete unit it’s also called Group
interaction.
Social Cohesion: How well team members like each other’s.

Task: - What performance goals need to be achieved.

Carron (1982) is proposed the key figure is studying team cohesion and identify four key factor of team
cohesion that contributed to the development of a highly cohesive team.

1. Situational/Environmental Factor: - Size of team, organizational orientation, geographical

variables, contractual responsibility, narrative pressure and intergroup conflict.
2. Personal Factor: - Personal attributes of team member including gender, maturity level, shared
perception individual satisfaction, similarity among other team member and all other personal
attributes.
3. Leadership Factor: - Coach, captain and other leadership position behavior and style,
communication, coach to athlete relationship and leadership decision making style.
4. Team Factor: - intergroup relationship, task characteristics, ability, achievement orientation,
homogeneity, intergroup cooperation, experience level, group norms, stability, and team maturity.
Measuring Team Cohesion
1. Sports Cohesiveness Questionnaire---Martens, Landers & Loy 1972
2. Team cohesion Questionnaire—Joseph Gruber& Gray.R. Gray 1982
3. Multidimensional Sports Cohesion Questionnaire—David Yukelson, Robert
Weinberg & Allen Jackson
1983
4. Group Environment Questionnaire—Widmeyer, Brawley & A.V. Carron 1985

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Comparison of Growth and Development

Growth refers to physiological changes. Development refers to overall changes in the

individual. It involves changes in an orderly and
coherent type towards the goal of maturity.

Changes in the quantitative respect is termed as Development changes in the quality along with
growth. quantitative aspect.

Growth does not continue throughout life. Development continues throughout life.

Growth stops after maturation. Development is progressive.

Growth occurs due to the multiplication of cells. Development occurs due to both maturation and
interaction with the environment.

Growth is cellular. Development is organizational.

Growth is one of the part of the developmental Development is a wider and comprehensive term.
process.

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SUBJECT: Psychology of physical education (Chapter 4) Noorkalam sekh

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From VIP talent Hub
FACTORS AFFECTING HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1) Hereditary Factors:- Heredity exerts an influence on human development. The child carries genetic
endowments from his/her parents. It is genetically transmitted characteristics from one generation to the
next. The physical characteristics like height, weight, eye color etc. and psychological characteristics such
as intelligence, personality, creativity and so on are innately determined and hereditary. The genetic code
provides the base on which brain and body grow and manifest in observable appearance and behavior.
2) Environmental Factors:- Another important factor of human development is the environment where
an individual lives. The child lives and grows in his environment. Environment consists of a wide range
of stimuli and it provides the necessary input and experiential base for development of the child.
Enrichment or impoverishment of the environment would produce differences in his abilities. For
example, a child may have inherited music talent from his parents through transmission of genes, but he
may not excel in music field if he does not get the proper environment and support to develop his innate
ability.
3) Home Environment: - Home environment exerts tremendous influence on child’s understanding of the
external world. It builds self-concept and prepares him to face the external world. The child begins to
acquire knowledge through interaction with parents and other family members. During his early years of
development, the behaviours of the child are modulated by the home environment. The environment of
the family can be supportive or stressful for the child. If it is supportive, warm and harmonious
environment, the child develops normally. In unsupportive and stressful home environment, broken
families or uncaring parents in the family, children may develop as maladjusted persons.

4) Cultural Factors: - Culture refers to a system of beliefs, attitudes and values that are transmitted from
one generation to the next. It is a product of past human behavior and is also a shaper of future
aspirations. The development of the child is influenced by family as well as by the society. The child
learns the habits, beliefs, attitude, skills and standards of judgment through the socialization processes.
The socialization processes of the child take place according to the culture, customs and traditions of the
society. For example, greeting someone is a familiar experience but behavioral experiences are different
in different cultures. In Indian culture, people greet others by saying namaskar, folding hands or lying
down near the feet but in Western culture, people greet by handshake or kissing or saying hello etc.
5) Socioeconomic Status (SES):- Socioeconomic Status plays a pivotal role in human development. The
index of socioeconomic status is determined by parental education, occupation and income. The children
of low socioeconomic status may develop as mal-nourished, suffer from lack of knowledge in many
aspects and their normal development may get hampered. The parenting in high socioeconomic status
families would be different from low socio-economic status families. Children of the high socioeconomic
groups of the society get better social opportunities, are nurtured with better nutrition, good medical
treatment and are exposed to more intellectual stimulation than low socioeconomic group.
6) Normative influences:- Normative influences occur in a similar way for majority of people in a
particular group. These influences may be biological or environmental. For example, biological events
like sexual maturity or deterioration in old age. Environmental events, like entering the school at about 6
yrs of age, parenthood etc. have the same influences on individuals. Most of the people of the same age,
at same place and time and generation have common biological and environmental influences such as
floods, famines and other natural disasters. Non-normative influences include the unusual life events in an
individual‟s life. For example, death of a parent when a child is young or birth defects etc.

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7) Education and Training:- Each child is equipped with certain abilities which need to be nurtured
through proper education and training. Therefore, the first and foremost step is to identify and recognize
the ability
Characteristics of Biological Influences on Human Growth and Behaviors: -
The human growth and behaviors can be understood from the characteristics mentioned below:
1) Behaviors are Reproduced in Successive Generations: Behaviors in species are handed over from
generation to generation. In other words, the particular behavior continues over several generations. For
example, goats live to move in flock.
2) Change in Biological Process determines Change in Behaviors: The changes in human growth and
behaviors are determined by changes in biological processes. If there is a change in biological structure or
process that leads to changes in human growth and behaviors also. For example, if there is damage in a
particular area of the brain of a person, the behaviors of that person may change as he may express more
aggressiveness or emotionality. Similarly, the intake of certain drugs may change the brain chemistry
which have produced behavioral changes of human beings.
3) Behaviors run in families/ Behaviors are transmitted in families: It has been observed in families that
if a person in the family has mental disorder, other members of the same family may have same problem
to some extent because they carry some similar genes which are transmitted over generations.
4) Genes are Evolutionary: Behavioral changes occur through evolutions of genes. The genes of
chimpanzees and human beings are almost similar. So, chimpanzees are closest to human beings and their
characteristics and behaviors are more or less similar to humans which can be traced on the basis of
history of evolution of genes.

DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES
FREUDIAN MODEL OF PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES
According to Sigmund Freud there are five stages of development. Freud believed that personality is
formed in first three stages which includes first few years of life, as children deal with conflicts between
their biological, sexually related urges and the pressures of the society. At each stage there a change in the
main source of gratification. Each stage is characterised by a typical pleasure gaining behaviour as well as
a conflict due to the social pressures. These stages are named according to the source of pleasure at the
particular stage.
(i) Oral Stage (birth to 18 months): It begins at birth and extended till 12 to 18 months. In this stage the
mouth is the primary organ of giving pleasure . The experience of the child and mother relationship has
an impact on unconscious mind of the child. This stage relates to the activities like feeding, crying,
teething, biting and thumb sucking, etc.

(ii) Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years): The child gets sensual gratification from withholdings and
expelling feces during this stage. Anus is the chief source of pleasure. The child‟s real experiences during
this stage have an impact upon the unconscious and behaviours. Pleasure derived from body parts are the
centre of the world during this stage.

(iii) Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years): During this period the child derives pleasure from genital region. Many
of the normal sexual behaviour of human personality develop in this period. The child‟s sexual longing is
intensified at this time. This is the stage in which conflicts related to reproductive issues are resolved.

(iv) Latency Stage (6 to Puberty): This stage is a stage of learning skills rather than a psychosexual
stage. There is no sexual development takes place during this period. This is the time of relative calm

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between more turbulent stages. Previous experiences, fears and conditioning have shaped many of the
child‟s feelings and attitudes

(v) Genital Stage (Puberty onwards): This the time of mature adult sexuality. In this stage many
hormonal and physical changes take place. Children are engaged in sex-related thoughts and feelings.
Narcissism takes place during this stage.

ERIKSON MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

Erikson defines it as the courage to envisage and pursue valued goals. Children can then develop into
adults who combine spontaneous enjoyment of life with a sense of responsibility. Those who cannot
resolve this crisis may become repressed. If initiative dominates, they must continue to believe. Erikson’s
last stage is ego-integrity. The virtue of this stage is wisdom.

Stage One – Trust vs Mistrust

The first stage of the Erikson stages starts from infant to about 18 months. At this stage, infants must
learn how to trust others, particularly those who care for their basic needs. They should feel that they are
being cared for and that all their needs are met. Small babies are new to this world and may view the
outside world as threatening. Depending on how they are treated by people around them, the sense of
threat can be replaced by trust. When this happens, they gain a sense of security and begin to learn to trust

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people around them. The first and most important person to teach an infant about trust is usually the
parents. Parents are expected to take good care of their children and attend to their needs. For example,
the parents of a baby provide him with food, shelter, sustenance and make him feel very comfortable and
secure.
Stage Two – Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt
At stage two of the Erikson stages, children should be taught the basic ways of taking care of themselves,
including changing their clothes and feeding themselves. If a child can’t take care of his own basic needs
and continue to rely on others to take care of him, he may feel shameful when he sees that other kids of
his own age are able to perform tasks such as feeding themselves.

Stage Three – Initiative vs Guilt

As children continue to grow up, they like to explore and do things on their own. At stage three of the
Erikson stages, children can learn new concepts introduced in school and are expected to practice these
lessons in real life. They know that they can accomplish these tasks on their own, but if they fail
to do so and end up asking for assistance from others, they may feel a sense of guilt.
Stage Four – Industry vs Inferiority
At Erikson’s psychosocial stage four, children mature and their level of self-awareness increases. They
understand logical reasoning, scientific facts, and other matters that are typically taught in school.
Children also become more competitive during this Erikson stage of development. They want to do things
that other children of the same age can do. When they make the effort to perform a task and succeed, they
develop self-confidence. However, if they fail, they tend to feel that they are inferior to others.
Stage Five – Identity vs Role Confusion
During adolescence, young people are expected to develop their sexual identity. This is gained through
the discovery of oneself and in the course of finding meaning to their personhood. They may also
experience identity crisis as a result of the transition from childhood to adulthood. Some adolescents may
feel confused and are unsure whether an activity is age-appropriate for them. Crisis at this stage may also
be brought about by expectations from themselves and from people around them, e.g. their parents.
Stage Six – Intimacy vs Isolation
Stage six of the Erikson stages is very apparent for young adults who are in their 30s. People at this stage
become worried about finding the right partner and fear that if they fail to do so, they may have to spend
the rest of their lives alone. Young adults are most vulnerable to feel intimacy and loneliness because
they interact with a lot of people in this phase of their lives. It’s not always a success story for every
young adult to find someone with whom they can share a lifelong commitment. Some may choose to
spend the rest of their lives as singles.
Stage Seven – Generativity versus Stagnation
Adults who are in their 40s and 50s tend to find meaning in their work. They feel like at
this point in their lives, they should be able to contribute something meaningful to the society and leave a
legacy. If they fail to achieve this, they feel like they have been an unproductive member of the society.
Stage Eight – Ego Integrity vs Despair
At the last stage of the Erikson stages, people are in their 60s or older who are typically retirees. It is
important for them to feel a sense of fulfillment knowing that they have done something significant

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during their younger years. When they look back in their life, they feel content, as they believe that they
have lived their life to the fullest. If they feel that they haven’t done much during their life, it’s likely
that they will experience a sense of despair.

PIAGET’S MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, he described four stages of cognitive
development.

Sensorimotor Stage
Children at the sensorimotor stage are explorers. They want to see, hear, taste, and touch everything
around them. They generally don’t appear to be thinking about what they do – no obvious rationale
underlies their motives. Children at this stage are reveling in sensory experience and enjoying their
rapidly-improving abilities to move around and take in new experiences. They use language to catalog
objects in their environment (e.g. “doggie!”, “horsey”) and make demands of their caregivers. Sensory
stimuli are paired up with voluntary motor responses, and sensory/body coordination is established.
Syntax and grammar have not yet been developed, and relations between concepts are vaguely understood
at best. During the late sensorimotor stage of cognitive development, children begin to learn the concept
of “object permanence”. In other words, they learn that objects still exist even if they cannot see them.
Preoperational Stage
Around age two, children enter the preoperational stage where they learn how to think abstractly,
understand symbolic concepts, and use language in more sophisticated ways. During this
stage of cognitive development, children become insatiably curious and begin to ask questions about
everything they see. They can imagine people or objects that do not exist (such as a lizard with wings)
more readily than younger children, and they like to make up their own games. According to Piaget’s

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theory of cognitive development, children at this stage understand object permanence, but they still don’t
get the concept of conservation. They don’t understand that changing a substance’s appearance doesn’t
change its properties or quantity. In one experiment, Piaget poured the exact same amount of water into
two identical glasses and asked children whether the glasses contained the same amount of water. The
children said that both glasses contained the same amount of water. Piaget then poured the water in one
glass into a tall, narrow beaker and repeated the question. This time, the children said there was more
water in the cylinder because it was taller.
Concrete Operational Stage
By the time they are 7 years old, children can understand much more complex abstract concepts, such as
time, space, and quantity. They can apply these concepts to concrete situations, but they have trouble
thinking about them independently of those situations. As Jean Piaget pointed out in his theory
of cognitive development, the children’s ideas about time and space are sometimes inconsistent at this
stage, but a basic logic is present that governs their cognitive operations. Children can learn rules fairly
easily, but they may have trouble understanding the logical implications of those rules in unusual
situations.
Formal Operations Stage
Starting at around 11 years old, children become capable of more abstract, hypothetical, and theoretical
reasoning. They can apply rules to a variety of situations, and engage in counterfactual “if-then”
reasoning. “Counterfactual” refers to the fact that the “if” is known to be untrue. For example, “if dogs
were reptiles, they would have cold blood.” Children at the formal operations stage can accept this as
valid reasoning, even though the premise is obviously false. At this stage of cognitive development,
formal logic becomes possible and verbal explanations of concepts are usually sufficient without
demonstration. Strategy-based games become more enjoyable, whereas rote games like “chutes-and-
ladders” become repetitive. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development has been the subject of
some criticism over the years, particularly from cross-cultural psychologists who question whether
Piaget’s stages are unique to Western children. However, it has fared considerably better than Freud’s.
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development have been the basis for a number of other famous psychological
ideas, including Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.

KOHLBERG’S MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

According to Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development, there are 6 stages of moral development,
separated into 3 levels
 Pre-conventional
 Conventional
 Post-conventional
Age ranges of these levels are considerably more vague in Kohlberg’s stages of moral
development than in Piaget’s stages, as children vary quite significantly in their rate of moral
development

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: Pre- Conventional Morality

At the pre-conventional level, children are only interested in securing their own benefit. This is their idea
of morality. They begin by avoiding punishment, and quickly learn that they may secure other benefits by
pleasing others. No other ethical concepts are available to children this young. This
Kohlberg’s stage is a parallel of Piaget’s sensorimotor stage – for a child whose conceptual framework
does not extend beyond their own senses and movements, the moral concepts of right and wrong would
be difficult to develop.

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Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: Conventional Morality

According to Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development, the conventional level is the stage at which
children learn about rules and authority. They learn that there are certain “conventions” that
govern how they should and should not behave, and learn to obey them. At this stage, no distinction is
drawn between moral principles and legal principles. What is right is what is handed down by authority,
and disobeying the rules is always by definition “bad.” This level is split into two stages:
First stage: Children are interested in pleasing others and securing the favor of others.
Second stage: Children extend the principle to cover the whole of their society, believing that morality is
what keeps the social order intact.
Kohlberg believed that many people stay in this stage of moral reasoning for their whole lives, deriving
moral principles from social or religious authority figures and never thinking about morality for
themselves.
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development: Post- Conventional Morality
At the post-conventional level, children have learned that there is a difference between what is right and
wrong from a moral perspective, and what is right and wrong according to the rules. Although they often
overlap, there are still times when breaking a rule is the
right thing to do. Post-conventional moral principles are either utilitarian principles of mutual
benefit (closely related to the “social order” stage, but universal and nonauthoritarian in nature)

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BRONFENBRENNER’S MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

The Urie Bronfenbrenner model organizes contexts of development into five levels of external influence.
The levels are categorized from the most intimate level to the broadest.

The Bronfenbrenner Model: Microsystem

The microsystem is the smallest and most immediate environment in which
the child lives. As such, the microsystem comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group or
community environment of the child. Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal
relationships with family members, classmates, teachers and caregivers, in which influences go back and
forth. How these groups or individuals interact with the child will affect how the child grows.
The Bronfenbrenner Model: Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which the developing
child finds himself in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between
home and school, between peer group and family, or between family and church. If a child’s parents are
actively involved in the friendships of their child, invite friends over to their house and spend

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time with them, then the child’s development is affected positively through harmony and like-
mindedness. However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the
child experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, probably affecting his development
negatively.
The Bronfenbrenner Model: Exosystem
The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which may
not contain the developing child but affects him indirectly nonetheless. Other people and places which the
child may not directly interact with but may still have an effect on the child, comprise the exosystem.
Such places and people may include the parents’ workplaces, the larger neighborhood, and extended
family members.
The Bronfenbrenner Model: Macrosystem
The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the child that still
exercises significant influence on the child. It is composed of the child’s cultural patterns and values,
specifically the child’s dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems. Children in
war-torn areas, for example, will experience a different kind of development than children in communities
where peace reigns.
The Bronfenbrenner Model: Chronosystem
The chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change
and constancy in the child’s environment. The chronosystem may thus include a change in family
structure, address, parent’s employment status, in addition to immense society changes such as
economic cycles and wars.
HAVIGHURST’S MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

Havighurst did propose a list of common critical developmental tasks, categorized into six stages of
development which offers a rough picture of what these specific developmental tasks are. Below is a
partial list of Havighurst’s developmental tasks.

Infancy and Early Childhood – birth to 5 years

 Learning to walk
 Learning to control bodily wastes
 Learning to talk
 Learning to form relationships with family members

Middle Childhood – 6 – 12 years

 Learning physical skills for playing games
 Developing school-related skills such as reading, writing, and counting
 Developing conscience and values Attaining independence

Adolescence – 13 – 17 years
 Establishing emotional independence from parents
 Equipping self with skills needed for productive occupation
 Achieving gender-based social role
 Establishing mature relationships with peers of both sexes

Early Adulthood – 18 – 35 years

 Choosing a partner

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 Establishing a family
 Managing a home
 Establishing a career

Middle Age – 36 – 60 years

 Maintaining economic standard of living
 Performing civic and social responsibilities
 Relating to spouse as a person
 Adjusting to physiological changes

Later Maturity – over 60 years

 Adjusting to deteriorating health and physical strength

 Adjusting to retirement
 Meeting social and civil obligations
 Adjusting to death or loss of spouse

VYGOTSKY’S MODEL OF DEVELOPMENT

Vygotsky’s main assertion was that children are entrenched in different sociocultural contexts and their
cognitive development is advanced through social interaction with more skilled individuals. The
Vygotsky theory of cognitive development is mainly concerned with the more complex cognitive
activities of children that are governed and influenced by several principles. Believing that children
construct knowledge actively, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory is also one of those responsible for laying
the groundwork for constructivism.

Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky is most recognized for his concept of Zone of Proximal Development or ZPD pertaining to the
learning of children. Children who are in the zone of proximal development for a specific task can almost
perform the task independently, but not quite there yet. However, with an appropriate amount of
assistance, these children can accomplish the task successfully The lower limit of a child’s zone of
proximal development is the level of analysis and problem-solving reached by a child without any help.
The upper limit, on the other hand, is the level of additional responsibility that a child can receive

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with the support of a skilled instructor. As children are verbally given instructions or shown how to
perform certain tasks, they organize the new information received in their existing mental schemas in
order to assist them in the ultimate goal of performing the task independently. This emphasis on
the concept of Zone of Proximal Development made by Vygotsky underscores his conviction that social
influences, particularly instruction, are of immense importance on the cognitive development of children.
More Knowledgeable Other
Children are entrenched in a sociocultural backdrop (e.g. at home) in which social interaction with
significant adults, such as the parents, plays a crucial factor that affects their learning.
These adults need to direct and organize the learning experiences to ensure that the children can master
and internalize the learning.
According to the Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, any person who possesses a higher skill level than the
learner with regard to a particular task or concept is called a More Knowledgeable Other or MKO. This
person may be a teacher, parent, an older adult, a coach or even a peer.
Scaffolding
Vygotsky’s concept of scaffolding is closely related to the concept of the zone of proximal development.
Scaffolding refers to the temporary support given to a child by More Knowledgeable Others, usually
parents or teachers, that enable the child to perform a task until such time that the child can already
perform the task independently.
Scaffolding entails changing the quality and quantity of support provided to a child in the course of a
teaching session. The more-skilled instructor adjusts the level of guidance needed in order to fit
the student’s current level of performance. For novel tasks, the instructor may utilize direct instruction.
As the child gains more familiarity with the task and becomes more skilled at it, the instructor may then
provide less guidance. Children who experience more difficulty in task performance are in need of greater
assistance and guidance from an adult. When the child has learned to complete the task independently, the
scaffolds are removed by the adult, as they are no longer needed.

A major contribution of Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development is the acknowledgement of the

social component in both cognitive and psychosocial development. Due to his proffered ideas, research
attention has been shifted from the individual onto larger interactional units such as parent and child,
teacher and child, or brother and sister.

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