The Bodhisattvapitaka

Its Doctrines, Practices and their Position in Mahayana Literature

Ulrich Pagel

T hesis Subm itted for the Award of Doctor of Philosophy

at th e School of Oriental and African S tu d ies

(University of London)

1992
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 Abstract

Abstract

This thesis aims to provide a comprehensive study of the Bodhisattvapitaka with specific
emphasis on the bodhisattva ideal. The content of the Bodhisattvapitaka indicates that its
exposition belongs to the earliest treatises on the bodhisattva. The practices and doctrines that
are expounded are invariably rudimentary and show little of the complexities that characterise
their discussions in later bodhisattva literature. The Bodhisattvapitaka’s inclusion into the
Mahdratnakuta rested probably on its pioneering account of the bodhisattvacarya. Being by
far the longest work on the bodhisattva in the whole collection, it expounds important
practices and constitutes the hub for the remaining bodhisattva writings in the Mahdratnakuta.
The study falls into five parts. The first chapter considers the position of the Bodhisattvapitaka
in Mahayana literature. It investigates the various usages of the term Bodhisattvapitaka, it
considers the relationship between the Bodhisattvapitaka mdAksayamatinirdesa and discusses
the scholastic affiliation of the Bodhisattvapitaka. In addition, exploring the contents and
evolution of the Mahdratnakuta collection, it establishes the scriptural context in which the
Bodhisattvapitaka is placed. The second chapter provides an analysis of the Bodhisattvapitaka.
It examines the structural and literary traits of the Bodhisattvapitaka, its chapter organisation
and some aspects of the bodhisattva path in the Bodhisattvapitaka. Chapter three discusses
the bodhisattva ideal in the Mahdratnakuta collection. It distinguishes between the various
categories of bodhisattva sutras in the Mahdratnakuta, it examines the bodhisattva practices
and investigates whether there is evidence of a premeditated design that might have influenced
the compilation of the Mahdratnakuta sutras into one collection. Chapter four considers the
bodhisattva doctrine as it is propounded in the Bodhisattvapitaka within the context of other
scriptural traditions. It discusses the evolution of the concepts of the cittotpdda, apramana,
paramitd and samgrahvastu and assesses the contribution of the Bodhisattvapitaka to that
process. Chapter five consists of a translation of the eleventh chapter of the
Bodhisattvapitaka.

3
 Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

I would like to express my gratitude to the following persons: to Tadeusz Skorupski, my

supervisor who provided me throughout my research with unfaltering support, inspiration
and guidance—without his patient and exacting supervision this thesis would have never
been completed; to Phillip Denwood, Peter Schreiner and Renate Sohnen-Thieme who taught
me Tibetan and Sanskrit over many years; to the members of the British Academy for
granting financial assistance; to Allan Bloxham and Christopher Lamb who corrected my
English; to my father whose continuing and generous financial support throughout the years
allowed me to devote all my time to my research; and, last but not least, to my wife and son
for their unfailing encouragement and support in times of difficulty when progress was slow
and especially for putting up with those times when the thesis took priority over everything
else, including family-life.

4
 A Note on Orthography

A Note on Orthography

With certain exceptions, all non-English terminology has been italicised. Words that have
not been italicised include proper nouns (e.g., Dharma, nikaya), classifications of Buddhist
practitioners (e.g., Sravaka, arhant, buddha/pratyekabuddha and bodhisattva) including
references to their respective vehicles that have also been capitalised and personal names
(including references to the historical Buddha).
Generally, Sanskrit forms have not been pluralised except in the few cases that found their
way into standard English vocabulary or where it seemed inevitable out of stylistic
considerations. Exceptions are the following words: buddha/pratyekabuddha,
bodhisattva/mahasattva, bhiksu/bhikkhu, sutra/sutta and Sastra. I have decided to take this
approach, because I do not wish to hybridise the Sanskrit word-forms. Although the hybridised
forms have become widely accepted, from the linguistic point of view such adaptation is
unfortunate since it denies Sanskrit the treatment that is given to Greek and Latin terms
whose plural forms are generally not anglicised.

5
 Table o f Contents

Table of Contents

Abstract 3
Acknowledgements 4
A Note on Orthography 5

Introduction 9

Chapter One: The Bodhisattvapitaka in Mahayana Literature

1. The Term Bodhisattvapitaka 15

2. The Bodhisattvapitaka and the AksayamatinirdeSa 31
3. The Scholastic Affiliation of the Bodhisattvapitaka 39
4. The Maharatnakuta Collection: 44
a. Topics Included in the Maharatnakuta 46
b. History of the Maharatnakuta: 50
1. Chinese Sources 55
2. Indian Sources 59
3. Tibetan Sources 61
4. Miscellaneous Sources 65
5. Conclusion 67

Chapter Two: Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

1. Structural and Literary Traits 70

2. The Bodhisattva Path 75
3. Chapter Organisation 78

6
 Table o f Contents

Chapter Three: The Bodhisattva Ideal in the Maharatnakuta Collection

1. Categories of Bodhisattva Texts 88

2. The Bodhisattva Vow and Doctrines 96
3. Literary and Structural Characteristics 107
4. Conclusion 112

Chapter Four: The Bodhisattva Doctrines and Practices in the Bodhisattvapitaka within the
Context of other Scriptural Traditions

1. The Thought of Enlightenment 116

2. The Four Immeasurables 125
3. The Perfection of Generosity 138
4. The Perfection of Morality 153
5. The Perfection of Patience 173
6. The Perfection of Vigour 191
7. The Perfection of Meditation 209
8. The Perfection of Wisdom: 230
a. Initial Phases in the Training of Wisdom 231
b. Perfect Wisdom and Skill 244
c. Practices That Conduce to Enlightenment 267
d. Acquisition of Wisdom 283
e. Phases in Perfect Wisdom 284
9. The Means of Conversion 299
10. Conclusion 304

Chapter Five: Translation of Chapter Eleven of the Bodhisattvapitakasutra

Introduction 311
1. Accumulation 314
2. Application 323
3. Seeing 325

7
 Table o f Contents

4. Emancipation 331
5. Skill: 333
a. Skandha, Dhatu, Ayatana 334
b. Satya 338
c. Pratisamvid 340
d. Pratisarana 345
e. Punya and Jnanasambhara 352
f. Smrtyupasthana 361
g. Bodhyanga 368
h. Aryastaiigamarga 370
i. Samatha and VipaSyana 374
j. Samyakprahana 376
k. Indriya 378
1. Bala 380
m. Ekayanamarga 381
n. Pratityasamutpada 382
o. Dharma 383
6. Prajna 385
7. Paramita 387
8. Benefits 388

Appendices

1. Forms of Learning in the B odhisattvapitaka and the AksayamatinirdeSa 3 93

2. Samadhi Lists in the Bodhisattvapitaka and the AksayamatinirdeSa 396
3. The Maharatnakuta Collection (A Bibliographical Guide) 400
4. Tibetan Text of Chapter Eleven of the Bodhisattvapitakasutra 415

List of Abbreviations 495

Bibliography 499
 Introduction

Introduction

The present dissertation aims at providing a wide-ranging study of the Bodhisattvapitaka.

In the course of my research two main areas of investigation have emerged as being particularly
important. First, there is the content of the Bodhisattvapitaka. Being one of the longest works
on the bodhisattva in Mahayana literature, it provides a wealth of information on the training
and dynamics in which the bodhisattvacarya unfolds. Second, I have examined the Bodhisat­
tvapitaka ’s doctrinal propositions in the wider context of Mahayana thought. While it is
possible to speak of these two aspects of my research as distinct targets, in practice they are
closely interwoven and often go hand in hand.
My interest in the Bodhisattvapitaka was aroused by the frequent references in Mahayana
sources to a text (or collection of texts) called Bodhisattvapitaka. As these references occur
in practically all strands of post-nikaya sources, extending from the very earliest Mahayana
sutras to the latest phase of tantric Buddhism, it occurred to me that the Bodhisattvapitaka
must be an important text that was esteemed by generations of Buddhists. Although referred
to in various contexts and for different purposes, practically all references to the Bodhisat­
tvapitaka recommend it for its treatment of the bodhisattva ideal.
Of course, I was not the first person to have come across these references. They have been
noted and duly recorded by a number of distinguished scholars, including Etienne Lamotte,
Jean Przyluski, Alex Way man and Anthony Warder. However, preoccupied with their own
particular research, none of them went beyond making some useful but rather general obser­
vations. The first attempts to collate and explore these references in the wider frame of
Mahayana literature were undertaken by Priscilla Pedersen and Nancy Schuster in 1975/76.
Both scholars, working primarily from Chinese sources, have collected a fair amount of
material and tentatively propose interpretations of its position and nature. However, as neither
of them attempts to produce a systematic study of the Bodhisattvapitaka the results of their
investigations are somewhat limited. Not having read through the Bodhisattvapitaka, they
differ in their evaluation of the references and disagree on the historical context in that they
belong.
The Bodhisattvapitaka is part of the Ratnakiita collection. The majority of the forty-nine
works included in the Ratnakiita are only extant in Chinese and Tibetan translations. In its

9
 Introduction

present format the Ratnakiita dates back to early eighth-century China. Its compiler, Bodhiruci,
was a monk from South India. At the end of the seventh century, Bodhiruci travelled to
China where he was commissioned by the T’ang Emperor Chung-tsung to translate the
forty-nine sutras into Chinese. It is said that he brought with him a complete Sanskrit copy of
the Ratnakiita. After several years of editing and translating, he produced the first complete
Chinese version.
Little is known of the history of the collection before Bodhiruci. While we have several
fifth and sixth-century accounts mentioning the Ratnakiita in conjunction with other well-known
sutra collections, nothing concrete is known about its early contents and structure. Ratnakiita
fragments found in Khotan, Tun-huang and Kucha indicate that its texts enjoyed particular
popularity in Buddhist circles of Central Asia. We have practically no knowledge about its
development in India. Tibetan historians say that it became greatly renowned by the second
century AD, but there is no independent evidence supporting this claim. Indeed, I know of no
reference to a collection bearing the name Ratnakiita anywhere in Indian literature.
The nucleus of the Ratnakiita collection is probably found in a relatively small body of
sufras that were put together sometime between the third and fifth centuries. The Buddhist
traditions of India, China and Tibet preserved several sutra lists where ten to fifteen Ratnakiita
works constantly appear en bloc. The earliest of these enumerations goes back to third-century
China. Although the origin of these lists is not known, their pan-Asian circulation indicates
that they might have come into existence with the expansion of Buddhism across Asia. This
would explain the complete silence of Indian sources and account for the difficulties in
tracing the genesis of the Ratnakiita beyond Bodhiruci to a specific geographical area and a
given historical context.
The hypothesis of a gradual formation would also accord with much of the content of the
Ratnakiita texts. There is every indication that they were carefully compiled in a process that
might have extended over several centuries. Its texts embrace a wide spectrum of Buddhist
thought and address practically every aspect of Mahayana spirituality. Within this broad area
of themes, the most frequently discussed topic is the bodhisattva ideal. Out of the forty-nine
texts, roughly one half is concerned specifically with the bodhisattva. The longest and most
important bodhisattva siitra of the Ratnakiita is the Bodhisattvapitaka. In volume, it occupies
roughly one seventh of the collection and is specifically dedicated to the paramita practice.
Its length and the fact that there is practically no other text in the collection that discourses on

10
 Introduction

the paramita in detail, place the BodhisattvapitaJca in the centre of the Ratnakiita’s discussion
of the bodhisattva. The Bodhisattvapitaka’s treatment of the paramita is supplemented by a
variety of material on the bodhisattva in the remaining Ratnakiita sutras that deal specifically
with the bodhisattva practice. The thematic complementarity of these works is such that their
propositions come close to representing a balanced cross-section of all major ideas in the
development of the bodhisattva doctrine.
While it is difficult to establish the precise relationship between the various texts due to the
uncertainties of their chronology, it is possible to distinguish several strands of bodhisattva
thinking within the Ratnakuta works. The oldest thought on the bodhisattva is contained in
sutras such as the Kasyapaparivarta and Ugrapariprcchd. Second-century translations of
these texts confirm their antiquity beyond any doubt. Next, we have works that seem to set
out to systematise the material that was introduced in these early sutras. The Bodhisattvapitaka
belongs to this category. Then, the collection contains several sutras displaying a high degree
of organisation in their expositions on the bodhisattva. One characteristic of these texts is the
meticulous implementation of the dasabhiimika scheme. Examples of this type are the Svap-
nanirdesa and Aksayamatipariprcchd. Finally, there are a number of rather advanced sutras.
These tend to show less interest in the practical aspects of the bodhisattva training, but focus
on doctrinal matters. Quite frequently, they represent the latest strand of Ratnakuta sutras
and include such works as the Srimaladevisimhanada and Pitdputrasamagama.
The above outline places the Bodhisattvapitaka among the earlier bodhisattva sutras of the
Ratnakuta. Its antiquity is supported by an array of internal and external evidence. First, there
is the close association between the Bodhisattvapitaka and the second-century Aksayamati­
nirdesa. Since the Aksayamatinirdesa is greatly indebted for its material to the Bodhisat­
tvapitaka, the origin of our sutra must predate that of the Aksayamatinirdesa. Second, we
have a number of references to the paramita discussion of the Bodhisattvapitaka in other
sutras. While some of these date back to the second century, others are third or fourth-century
compositions.
The most persuasive evidence is, however, found in the content of the Bodhisattvapitaka.
The relatively undeveloped nature of the practices and their rudimentary organisation point to
a period of composition when the thinking on the bodhisattva was still dominated by the
spiritual ideal of early Buddhism. Although clearly a Mahayana text in orientation, several of
the practices show traits that link them to the Sravakayana. The fact that in later times many

11
 Introduction

of these early elements were modified and adjusted to doctrinal developments further confirms
their antiquity.
If we compare the material that is included in the Bodhisattvapitaka with that of later
writings on the bodhisattva, we note two things. First, most of what is being said about the
bodhisattva in the Bodhisattvapitaka retained its validity and found its way into the scholastic
treatises of the fourth and fifth centuries. It is often possible to trace to the Bodhisattvapitaka
the individual building blocks of advanced works such as the Bodhisattvabhumi. Second,
some of the structures of its bodhisattva practices were adopted in later literature. The
internal divisions of the paramita, the blueprint of the ten cittotpada and the outline of the
wisdom-practices all had profound bearing on the development of the bodhisattva doctrine.
After consideration of all the evidence, there seems to be a strong case for not only placing
the Bodhisattvapitaka among the earliest works on the bodhisattva, but also for looking at it
as a text of fundamental importance to the evolution of the bodhisattva doctrine. Its pioneering
exposition of the perfections, the lasting influence this exerted on generations of Buddhist
thinkers and the frequent references to the Bodhisattvapitaka in a wide spectrum of Mahayana
works all seem to point in this direction.
In spite of the Bodhisattvapitaka’s influence, very little is known about its history and the
circumstances in which it was composed. The fact that several of the early Indian schools
possessed a collection of texts of this name alongside the traditional Tripitaka led some
scholars to surmise that the Bodhisattvapitaka might have sprung from a body of loosely
connected, but distinct works on the bodhisattva. Wayman, for example, proposed an association
with the Mahasanghika school by arguing that Mahasanghika followers “gradually built up
the theory of the bodhisattva modelled after the life and theoretical former lives of Gautama
Buddha” and thus produced the Bodhisattvapitaka as “the ultimate form of this effort”.1
While it is incorrect to link the origin of the bodhisattva ideal specifically with the Mahasanghika,
he is probably correct in seeing a connection between the Bodhisattvapitaka and the jataka-
genre. In the Bodhisattvapitaka itself we find included altogether fourteen accounts of the
Buddha’s former lives. Moreover, the jdtaka-genre probably provided the first impetus to the
formulation of the bodhisattva ideal and almost certainly inspired some elements of its
practice. Warder went so far as to suggest that the early schools actually included the Jataka
collection in their Bodhisattvapitaka.2While there is no real evidence to support this hypothesis,
1. Wayman, 1991, p. 9.
2. Warder, 1980, p. 357.

12
 Introduction

the importance of the ja.ta.ka to the bodhisattva doctrine in general and their presence in the
Bodhisattvapitaka in particular might not be coincidental.
Even if we accept the existence of such a link, leading eventually to the composition of the
Bodhisattvapitaka (either in the form of one unified text or a collection of independent works
on the bodhisattva), it tells us little about the place, time and circumstances in which the
Bodhisattvapitaka was conceived. Like Wayman, Warder also ascribes the origin of the
Bodhisattvapitaka to Mahasanghika circles in southern India. As evidence, he cites a pitaka
list in the Satyasiddhisastra that includes the Bodhisattvapitaka as one of the five sections of
the Buddhist canon. Since the Satyasiddhisastra is a BahuSrutlya text, he infers that the
Bodhisattvapitaka formed part of the Bahu&rutlya canon. The BahuSrutlya was of course a
sub-sect of the Mahasanghika that is known to have been widespread around Nagaijunikonda
in South India.
This line of argument, although perfectly sound by itself, does not take into consideration
either of two factors. First, the Mahasanghika themselves do not include a Bodhisattvapitaka
in their division of the canon. According to Hsiian-tsang, their scriptures consisted of a
Sutra-, Vinaya-, Abhidharma-, Samyukta- and Dharanipitaka.3 This alone does not disprove
the South Indian Mahasanghika connection—Hsiian-tsang was given this list at Rajagrha in
the seventh century AD—but it raises the question whether it is possible to ascribe the
Bahu£rutlya division to the Mahasanghika in general. Second, the only other sect that is
recorded to have been in possession of a Bodhisattvapitaka is a non-Mahasanghika sect,
namely the Dharmaguptaka.4 This is significant in two respects. On the one hand, it indicates
that we cannot speak of an exclusive Mahasanghika connection for the Bodhisattvapitaka.
Quite obviously, the Bodhisattvapitaka was known in Sthaviravada and Mahasanghika circles
alike. On the other hand, it throws doubt on South India as the place of origin of the
Bodhisattvapitalca. The little information we possess about the Dharmaguptaka indicate that
their sphere of influence was limited to North-West India, Central Asia and China. Although
the Dharmaguptaka might have adopted the Bodhisattvapitaka from the BahuSrutlya later, the
geographical separation makes a regular exchange of ideas (and texts) unlikely. Therefore we
have two conflicting scenarios for the origin of the Bodhisattvapitaka. One points to the
ancient Buddhist sites in southern India and the other to North-West India and possibly
beyond. Apart from a likely jataka content and a terminus ad quem in possibly the late
3. Beal, 1884, ii, pp. 164-5.
4. Bareau, 1955, p. 296.

13
 Introduction

second century AD, we know little else about the early history of the Bodhisattvapitaka.

14
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

Chapter One
The Bodhisattvapitaka in Mahayana Literature

The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

Throughout the centuries, in Mahayana literature the term Bodhisattvapitaka has been
applied in a number of distinct ways. There are indications that it originated in the early,
pre-Mahayana, schools. In later times, the term Bodhisattvapitaka was taken up by Mahayana
writers who altered its scope of application and imbued it with new connotations. Yet, even
in the later phases no single widely accepted interpretation evolved. In order to distinguish
and indicate the various ways of its use and application, I propose to divide our sources into
the following four working categories:

1. Treatises in which the term Bodhisattvapitaka is applied to Mahayana scriptures as a

whole.
2. Sources that identify the term Bodhisattvapitaka as a distinct collection of works on the
bodhisattva ideal.
3. Sources that associate the term Bodhisattvapitaka with the traditional six paramita and
related practices.
4. Mahayana texts that refer to a specific work called Bodhisattvapitakasutra.

Turning first to the question of its origin, there is no reference by which one could securely
date the original formulation of the term Bodhisattvapitaka. It was first employed by members
of the Dharmagupta and BahuSrutiya schools who included a Bodhisattvapitaka in their
Pahcapitaka. Here, the Bodhisattvapitaka is thought of as a body of literature and cited along
with the Sutra-, Vinaya-, Abhidharma- and Dharanipitaka. No details have so far emerged as
to the contents of their Bodhisattvapitaka. In all likelihood, these consisted of texts that
formed part of the early development of the bodhisattva path as an alternative career to that
of the arhant. Considering that both schools were part of the net-work of sects which belonged

15
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

to the proto-Mahayana movement, it is probable that the texts contained in their Bodhisat­
tvapitaka have served as a foundation for the later developments of the bodhisattva doctrine.
Unfortunately, as these texts are no longer extant we can only speculate on the role their
thought may have played in the evolution of the bodhisattva ideal.
In Mahayana literature, the first occurrence of the term Bodhisattvapitaka is found in
Lokaksema’s second-century translation of the Kasyapaparivarta (.Kp). Here, a text called
Bodhisattvapitaka is recommended as “a scripture that the bodhisattva should study”.1 It is
not clear, however, whether the expression Bodhisattvapitaka should be taken here to refer to
a collection of texts or an individual work. The passage itself is highly ambiguous and does
little to clarify this problem since, as Pedersen has observed, the Chinese expression p ’u-sa-
ts ’ang-ching can be read as “sutras of the Bodhisattvapitaka” and as “the” or “a Bodhisat-
tvapitakasiitra”.2 Leaving aside these particular intricacies, this reference clearly shows that
the term Bodhisattvapitaka was known already to the earliest Mahayana writers.
As I have stated above, the works that are included in the first category view the term
Bodhisattvapitaka as an overall designation of Mahayana scriptures in general. Six texts, in
particular, belong to this category.3 They are the Sravakabhumi, Bodhisattvabhumi (Bbh),
Mahayanasamgj'aha, Sutralamkara, Manjusrimulakalpa and a work found in the Tun-huang
collection but known only through its colophon. The authorship of the first four treatises is
traditionally ascribed to one person, Asanga.4 Hence, it is not surprising to find in them a
far-reaching concurrence of interpretations of the term Bodhisattvapitaka.
In the Bbh we learn that the Bodhisattvapitaka corresponds to the vaipulya-genre of the
twelve traditional branches of Buddhist scriptures.5 It is cited in the Dharma Study Chapter

1. Stael-Holstein, 1926, pp. 13-14, § 6.

References to the Bdp are taken from the twentieth-century reprint o f the sTog Palace hKah-hgyur,
entitled: The Tog Palace Manuscript o f the Tibetan Kanjur, 1979—Leh, Smanrtsis Shesrig Dpemzod. All
page/folio references and text specifications (length, chapters, structure etc.) that are drawn to Ratnakuta
sutras other than the Bdp refer (unless a Sanskrit version is available) to the Tibetan Tripitaka Peking
Edition (ed. by DT Suzuki, Otani University, Kyoto, 1956, vol. 22-24).
2. Pedersen, 1976, p. 25
Perhaps, this ambiguity reflects some uncertainty on part o f the translator who himself might have been in
doubt about the precise nature o f the reference.
3. There are a number o f other texts that, by implication, could be taken to fall within this category. In the
Sgm (Mahasamnipata, 5), for instance, “not hearing and not accepting” the Bodhisattvapitaka is cited as
one o f the four dharma that obstruct the Mahayana (T 397 (5), vol. 13, p. 630; ref. Pedersen).
4. This traditional attribution is only a working hypothesis as it involves a whole range o f uncertainties that
have, as yet, to be resolved. For a discussion o f the problematic in this assumption see: J. May, “La
Philosophic Bouddhique Idealiste”, Revue de la Societe Suisse d ’Etudes Asiatiques>xxv, 1971, pp. 279-301,
especially, p. 293.
5. Bbh, p. 96.1-5.

16
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

(dharmaparyesaka) alongside the Sravakapitaka and non-Buddhist treatises (bahyakani

sastrani); these include logic, medicine, grammar etc., besides arts and crafts of the world as
those areas of learning that the bodhisattva should become acquainted with. The association
of the Bodhisattvapitaka with the vaipulya-genre is by no means rare and is found in a
number of treatises.6 In most of these instances it is used quite cleary as a synonym to the
expression Mahayanapitaka.
In the Sravakabhumi, for instance, the Paramarthagatha opens with the following sentence:7

“Among the [deliberation of the meaning of the Buddha and of the meaning of
the versifications of the discourses] in the Vastusamgrahani and in the instruction
of the Bodhisattvapitaka I shall set forth extensively the deliberation of the
meaning of the discourses.”

Wayman remarks in a note to this passage that “it is a reasonable assumption that this
method of instruction (avavada) of this pitaka refers to the various aspects of the Yogdcdrabhumi
where Asanga has set forth the Mahayana, especially the bodhisattva doctrine.”8
In the Bbh, Asanga adds: “This Bbh is also called Bodhisattvapitaka-matrka and Mahdya-
nasamgraha',\ Then he gives an explanation of the term ‘Mahaydnasamgraha\ stating that it
bears this name because it includes the contents of “all subtle sutras that are included in the
Bodhisattvapitaka”. Elsewhere in the Bbh he enumerates eight characteristics essential for a
text to be called Mahdydnasamgraha.9 The first three factors are that (1) the text in question
must contain the instructions included in the Bodhisattvapitaka, (2) it has to reveal the real
meaning of all dharma included in the Bodhisattvapitaka and (3) it reveals all the inconceivable
powers of the buddhas and bodhisattvas that are in this Bodhisattvapitaka.
Asanga’s hitherto most explicit statement concerning the expression Bodhisattvapitaka is
found in the Sutralamkara:10

6. Akn-tikd, TTP, 104, p. 184.2.7; Bbh, p. 297.21

According to the Abhidhh-sam (R), p. 139, the reason for this identification is the Bodhisattvapitaka’s
exhaustive treatment o f the paramita, particularly with regard to their characteristics, order, number and
cultivation. In the same text, the adherence to the Bodhisattvapitaka figures among the principal marks o f
persons who subscribe to the Mahayana (op. cit., p. 147).
7. Wayman, 1961, p. 163.
8. Bbh, p. 298.3-5; cf. pp. 157.4, 180.16,274.21, 332.23.
9. Bbh, pp. 298.3-8, 409.11-410.1.
10. Msl, p. 53.16-18
See also: Przyluski, Le Concile de Rajagrha, 1926-8, pp. 357-9.

17
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

“Three baskets, this is Sutra, Vinaya and Abhidharma. If classed in terms of

Hinayana and Mahayana, the three baskets fall into two, the Srdvakapitaka and
Bodhisattvapitaka. ”

On the basis of such passages it becomes clear, I think, that Asanga considers the term
Bodhisattvapitaka synonymous with the notion of a Mahayanapitaka, that is, the Mahayana
literature in general.
Next, there are references to the Bodhisattvapitaka in the Mahjusrimulakalpa and in a
manuscript fragment found in Tun-huang. In both of them, the term Bodhisattvapitaka is
cited in connection with the Avatamsaka collection.
In the Mahjusrimulakalpa, the term Bodhisattvapitaka appears in two instances. First, it is
part of the overall title that runs, according to Chinese catalogues, as bodhisattvapitakan-
Mahjusrunulakalpa-mahdvaipulyasutra.11Second, it is mentioned in the formula that concludes
the individual chapters. Curiously, it does not appear in all formulae but figures only in the
later chapters.12
If we accept the results of Przyluski’s text-critical study that chapters one to three predate
the other chapters by several centuries, we are led to conclude that in the early phase of the
Mahayana the application of the term Bodhisattvapitaka was not particularly wide-spread.
Quite evidently, in this context, it was introduced to supersede the ancient formula patala-
visara—a term virtually identical in meaning. Its association with the Avatamsaka collection
indicates, according to Przyluski, that the term Bodhisattvapitaka was interpreted to stand for
Mahayana scriptures in general. Naturally, the Avatamsaka is part of these.
In the other source that cites the Bodhisattvapitaka in connection with the Avatamsaka, the
colophon o f the Tun-huang manuscript, we read: “Bodhisattvapitaka buddhavatarnsaka
Mahayanasutra'kramena arvajha jhdnakara nama dasabhumi nirdesa parivarta” Unfortu­
nately, this colophon is the only fragment extant of the text it names. On the basis of this

11. J. Przyluski, 1923, p. 302.

12. The formula runs as follows: bodhisattva pitaka avatamsakdn Mahayana sutram mahjusri mula kalpdc
caturthah \prathama pata vidhana visarah parisamdptah.
In chapters one to three, the phrase runs differently: iti bodhisattva patala visaran mahjusri kumarabhuta
mula kalpat trfiyo mandala vidhana parivartah.
13. Louis de la Vallee Poussin: Catalogue o f Tibetan Manuscripts from Tun-huang in the India Office
Library, Item Number 132, India Office Library, Oxford, 1962.

18
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

single statement, out of context, one can have no certainty as to the precise application of the
term Bodhisattvapitaka.
Nancy Schuster has suggested that it might point to a Bodhisattvapitaka section in the
Avatamsaka .14 She argues that the title Dasabhuminirdesa presumably corresponds to the
Dzsabhumika (Dbh) chapter (twenty-two or twenty-six) of the Avatamsaka and is here to be
interpreted literally as the ‘basket of bodhisattva practices’ in that collection. Her hypothesis
receives support from the Bodhisattvagarbhasthasutra; this lists the Bodhisattvapitaka in
connection with the Dbh in sixth position of an eightfold division of Mahayana scriptures.15
Apart from this reference, I have not been able to trace any further material in support of her
thesis. It may be better to assign it a provisional value until further evidence has come to light
in favour of her position, and meanwhile to take the term Bodhisattvapitaka to be a synonym
for Mahayanapitaka as in the case of the Manjusnmulakalpa.
There is one more reference that speaks of the Bodhisattvapitaka in terms of the Mahay ana-
pitaka. It is found in a text called Nandimitravadana and proposes a kind of catalogue of a
Bodhisattvapitaka. 16 This text contains a list of thirty-seven Mahayana sutras , including,
among others, such works as the Prajndparamita, Saddharmapundarlka, Buddhavatamsaka,
Sukhdvativyuha and Vimalakfrtinirdesa. Having listed these sutras, it says:17

“Pareils sutras du Grand Vehicule existe par centaines de myriades, distinguds

par groups et par categories. En outre, il ya le recueil (pitaka) du Vinaya du
Grand Vehicule et la multitude des groupes et des especes de recueil de 1*Abhid­
harma. Tout cela forme l ’ensemble du Recueil des Bodhisattvas (.Bodhisat­
tvapitaka).”

The second category of references to a Bodhisattvapitaka consists of a number of miscel­

laneous, apparently unrelated, literary documents. First, there are three works that classify
Buddhist scriptures on the basis of the religious practitioners who take recourse to them. In
all three, that is the Karundpundarlka, Mahakarunasutra and Ajatasatrukaukrtyavinodana,

14. Schuster, 1976, n. 110.

15. Link, 1961, p. 283.
16. For a French translation o f the Nandimitravadana, see: Levi; Chavannes: “Relation sur la Duree de la loi,
Enoncee par le grand Arhat Nandimitra” (JA, 8, 1916, p. 5 ff.). It is only extant in a Chinese translation
entitled Ta a lo han nan t ’i mi to lo so shuo fa chu chi (T 2030, 49, pp. 12-15; ref. Pedersen).
17. op. c it, pp. 19-20.

19
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

the term Bodhisattvapitaka is contrasted with the Srdvakapitaka and Pratyekabuddhapitaka.18

Second, there are five treatises that cite the term Bodhisattvapitaka in connection with the
more traditional threefold classification of Buddhist scriptures. In the Satyasiddhisastra, it is
listed as the fifth division, following the Sutrapitaka, Vinayapitaka, Abhidharmapitaka and
Samyuktapitaka.19 In the Dasabhumikavibhasasastra, the term Bodhisattvapitaka is cited in
connection with the traditional Tripitaka and a Matrka.20Paramartha also places the Bodhi­
sattvapitaka in fifth position, preceded by the Sutra, Vinaya,Abhidharma and Dharanlpitaka.21
In the Bodhisattvagarbhasthasutra, the Bodhisattvapitaka is referred to in combination with
the Sravakapitaka and Vinayapitaka}2 Curiously, Hsiian-tsang who carried out the earliest
translation of the Bodhisattvapitakasutra (Rkt 12) does not mention it in his discussion of the
classification of Buddhist scriptures current in Mahasanghika circles.23
Finally, there are two references which set the term Bodhisattvapitaka in the context of the
twelvefold classification of Mahayana scriptures:
In the Abhidh-sam, the Bodhisattvapitaka is included in the Sutrapitaka as a separate class
of scriptures. On the one hand, it distinguishes those sections of the Buddhist canon which
have traditionally been associated with early Buddhism, that is the Sutra, Geya, Vydkarana,
Gatha and Udana. On the other hand, there are the Vaipulya and Adbhutadharma portions of
the canon which the Abhidh-sam considers constituents of the Bodhisattvapitaka.24
In the Ratnagotravibhagasdsfra, a similar classification is employed.25 Here, the Bodhisat­
tvapitaka is contrasted with the Sutra, Geya, Vydkarana, Gatha, Udana and Nidana. While
these are dismissed because of their association with conventional truth (samvrtisatya), the
Bodhisattvapitaka is commended because it contains an exposition of the doctrine of absolute
truth {paramdrthasatya). To my knowledge, this is the only instance in which a classification

18. Yamada, 1968, p. 211; T 380, 12, p. 971b; T 626, 15, p. 386 respectively ( Taisho ref. Pedersen). In the
Karunap (pp. 14,15-6), this threefold classification is complemented by the introduction o f the Buddhapitaka
as the fourth and highest division o f Buddhist scripture. A text called Buddhapitaka is extant in both the
Chinese Tripitaka (T 653, vol. 15) and in the Tibetan canon (TTP 35, no. 886).
19. Bareau, 1955, p. 296.
20. Pedersen, op. cit., p. 33.
21. Bareau, 1955, p. 296.
22. Link, 1961, p. 282.
23. He cites the traditional Tripitaka, plus a Samyuktapitaka and Dharanipitaka serving as divisions o f the
Mahasanghika classification o f the Buddhist canon (Bareau, 1955, p. 296).
24. Abhidh-sam (R), p. 132
This division is found only in the Sutrapitaka since the type o f texts associated with the Vinaya and
Abhidharmapitaka, that is the Nidana, Avaddna, Itivrtaka, Jataka and Upadesa, are shared by both
M vaka and bodhisattvas.
25. Takasaki, 1966, p. 285.

20
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

involving the term Bodhisattvapitaka is explicitly based on doctrino-philosophical issues.26

The third category of sources is significant in two respects. First, these sources are the only
ones that associate the Bodhisattvapitaka with a well-defined set of spiritual practices. Second,
they represent some of the earliest strands of Mahayana literature and are therefore particularly
helpful in reconstructing the ‘original’ meaning of the term Bodhisattvapitaka.
As I have mentioned earlier, all texts of this group associate the Bodhisattvapitaka with the
bodhisattvacarya and, in particular, with an exposition on the six traditional paramita. Among
them the most prominent sutras are the Vkn, Kp> Samdhis, Ug and Prn. Although none of
these texts gives explicit information on the actual physical format of the Bodhisattvapitaka,
the context implies that it is a title for a collection of works relating to the bodhisattva, rather
than an independent treatise.
In the Kp, the term Bodhisattvapitaka is mentioned in connection with the training of a
bodhisattva who is admonished to:27

“Seek out the proper Sutra Dharma, the six paramita and the Bodhisattva­
pitakasutra and ail the vessels of the Buddha, [with a] heart free from anger
[and] respectfully serving all the people under heaven in the ten directions,
[whether] they are slave or great scholars.”

26. There is another reference to a division o f Buddhist scriptures featuring the term Bodhisattvapitaka that
deserves our attention. It is contained in the Kusalamulasamparigraha where the author places “this
Mahayana Dharmapitaka" side by side with “the sutras o f the Bodhisattvapitaka” (T 657, 16, p. 138a;
ref. Pedersen). To all appearances, this reference is pointing to some undefined, implied distinction
between Mahayana sutras and texts contained in the Bodhisattvapitaka. Unfortunately, we are left once
more with limited information as to its contents and can do little more than guess about its composition
and scope. Significantly, like the other references found in this source-category, it too refers to a Bodhisat­
tvapitaka as an autonomous, distinct body o f Buddhist scriptures.
27. I adopted Schuster’s translation {op. cit., n. 491) which is based on Lokaksema’s second-century Han
translation. There exist some differences between the various Chinese translations o f this passage. Also
the Sanskrit and Tibetan versions exhibit differences. The two remaining Chinese translations run as
follows:
Chin: “[A bodhisattva] delights in hearing the good Dharma, [and] does not delight in hearing false
Dharma, delights in the six paramita Bodhisattvapitaka. He has humble thoughts without pride towards
all beings” (op. c it).
Ch’in: “[A bodhisattva] renounces evil Dharma [and] seeks the True Sutra Canon, the six paramita
Bodhisattvadharmapitaka, with a heart free from pride towards all beings, entirely humbled” {Kp, p. 15).
Weller’s German translation, based on the Tibetan and Sanskrit version is: “Seitdem er sich so daran
machte, die Sammlung von Werken fur den bodhisattva als diejenige zu suchen, welche die sechs Vollkom-
menheiten enhalt, sucht er die gute Uberlieferung, doch die schlechte Uberlieferung sucht er nicht; und da
er gegen alle Wesen ohne Uberheblichkeit ist, gleicht sein Gemiit dem des Hundes” (Weller, 1962, p. 67).

21
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

In the Vkn we meet with the following definition of the term Bodhisattvapitaka:28

“The texts which are contained in the Bodhisattvapitaka are profound, of profound
aspects, difficult to perceive by the world, ... are marked with the seal of the
kings of formulae and texts, reveal the irreversible wheel of the Dharma and
originate in the six perfections. They teach the bodhipaksika dharma, compassion
and friendliness.”

The Samdhis adds that the bodhisattvas “should have courage, faith in and understanding of
the subtle doctrines of the true Dharma connected with the paramita of the Bodhisattvapitaka”29
In the Vasudharasutra we are told that “this sutra and other profound sutras are included in
the Bodhisattvapitaka and connected with the paramita”20In the Prn, a Ratnakuta sutra that
itself discusses the bodhisattva training in some detail we find the following definition of the
term Bodhisattvapitaka:

“Further, O Purna, bodhisattvas who do not hear appropriate bodhisattva

sutras—which means the sutras of the Bodhisattvapitaka, sutras that generate
the bodhicitta, sutras that attract to matters of bodhisattvas, sutras that are
linked to the six paramita,—because they do not listen to these, they do not
practice as instructed; since they are not instructed correctly, they will renounce
the Doctrine.”31

A further reference is contained in the Ug. It distinguishes between those who “teach the
sutras, those who keep the precepts and those who adhere to the Bodhisattvapitaka” and
admonishes those who adhere to the Bodhisattvapitaka to seek instruction in the paramita
and skilful means (upayakausalya).32

28. Lamotte, 1976, p. 259.

It is probably no coincidence that apart from the paramita, the bodhipaksika dharma, karund and maitri
are precisely those practices that figure most prominently in the Bdp (R,folio 649.2-679.5; 264.4-278.4).
29. Samdhis (&La), p. 131.26-28, § 9.3; see also: p. 133.11-12, § 10.2, p.140.9-12, § 18.5.
30. T 482,14, p. 666a; ref. Pedersen.
31. TTP, 23, p. 239.3.1-3.
32. op. cit.,p. 267.2.5-6
There are numerous other references which shed some light on the way in which the term Bodhisattvapitaka
is interpreted in Mahayana literature. The Lahkdv (p. 66.2-5), for instance, says:
“What is meant by abandoning the roots o f virtue? It refers to those who have abandoned the

22
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

At this point let us briefly review the collected evidence. The majority of sources examined
so far agree to assign the expression Bodhisattvapitaka the role of a scriptural classification
of Buddhist texts. In a number of treatises, it is taken to correspond to a body of sutras
comprising the totality of Mahayana writings. In others, it is more specifically associated
with the bodhisattva ideal, apparently with the aim of demarcating its teachings from those of
current orthodoxy. In this context it is probably best understood as a collection of teachings
preached to bodhisattvas.
We have practically no information as to the exact structure and content of that classification.
The majority of texts investigated correlate the term Bodhisattvapitaka to issues connected
with the bodhisattvacarya. Apart from its association with the six paramita, few details have
emerged, that clarify the nature of the practices included or their position in the evolution of
the bodhisattva doctrine. On the basis of the rather vague nature of the evidence available,
little can be said about the historical status of a collection of sutras called Bodhisattvapitaka.
The numerous references found in almost all strands of Mahayana literature suggest that it
must have been a widely known classification of scriptures over a fairly long period. However,
since none of the references so far examined contains any information as to its structure and
exact contents, we cannot exclude the possibility that the expression Bodhisattvapitaka may
have stood for the totality of scriptures that, in one way or another, deal with the bodhisattva
ideal. In this event, the question of its historicity is most delicate since the expression
Bodhisattvapitaka may have existed solely as a vague concept in the minds of a few people.

As already indicated above, my forth working category refers to a number of texts that
contain explicit references to a specific, individual text called Bodhisattvapitakasutra. It is to
these references that we shall turn next. In view of the heterogeneous nature of the sources
included in this fourth category, I propose to divide the material into two subcategories:
First, there is a number of canonical and paracanonical sources that contain citations of a
Bodhisattvapitaka. The most prominent texts of this category are the Siksasamuccaya {&iks),
Lokadharapariprccha (Lkdh) and Bodhisattvapitakasutra {Bdp) as well as three, as yet uni­

Bodhisattvapitaka, who make wrongful accusations that are not in conformity with the Sutra,
Vinaya and liberation.”
The Akn mentions the term Bodhisattvapitaka as part o f an enumeration citing eighty-four ways o f
learning. In the middle o f that list (no, 39) it differentiates between the way o f studying the pra-
jnaparamita, studying the Bodhisattvapitaka, studying the samgrahavastu, studying the upayakausalya”
(p. 50.5.5).

23
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

dentified, fragments found in the Tun-huang material.33

Second, there are the catalogues and compendia of the indigenous Chinese and Tibetan
Buddhist traditions. Here, particular use will be made of Nanjio’s catalogue, the Mahdvyutpatti
(Mvy) and, to a lesser extent, of Seng-yu’s Ch u san tsang chi chi.34
The greatest number of references to a specific text entitled Bodhisattvapitaka is found in
the Bdp. Here, the term Bodhisattvapitaka is mentioned sixty-four times. The majority of
these references refer to the Bdp itself. There are, however, instances that contain ambiguity
whether the reference in question points to a specific sutra or a vaguely delineated body of
texts considered above35 Since such instances are very few indeed and often appear in a
context in which it is virtually impossible to decide conclusively on their format, it seems
preferable to leave them untreated, at least for a moment.
Four brief quotations will suffice to convey some idea of the way in which the Bodhisat­
tvapitaka sees itself:

“Sitting in that seat, in order to benefit many sentient beings, the Tathagata will
explain a sutra (mdo sde) called Bodhisattvapitaka which advances the bodhisat-
tvacaryd and is commended as benefiting all sentient beings.”36

33. All three citations have been taken from, or are closely related to, the Bdp:
1. 705.2 (28) corresponds to R, folio 604.2-604.7
2. 705.2 (688) corresponds to R, folio 81.1, 86.1, 86.3
3. 635.32 bears close affinity in contents to chapter eleven o f our siitra. Amongst others, it discusses skill
in vijhana and jhdna, skill in the bodhipaksika and skill in neyartha and nitartha sutras and would
therefore seem to correspond to extracts from R, folio 631.4-673.6. As in many cases the manuscript is
almost unreadable, I have not succeeded in pinpointing all o f its contents. There is a fourth reference
(380.109) that cites a Bodhisattvapitaka. The content o f this fragment corresponds loosely in style and
topics to our sutra, but again, positive identification has not yet been possible.
34. For an analysis o f Seng-yu’s writings and his position in the Chinese Buddhist tradition, see: Link, 1957,
1960, 1961.
35. I base my conclusion, in addition to close contextual congruencies, on the following features o f the
Tibetan text. In the Bdp, the majority o f references cite the term Bodhisattvapitaka in conjunction with
demonstrative pronouns (Tib. hdi, de) which, in some cases, are reinforced by the reflexive pronoun
‘itse lf (Tib. hid). I take this emphatic use o f the demonstrative pronoun, which in Tibetan is quite
optional, as an indication that the author had a particular text in mind, most probably the Bdp itself, when
he refers to ‘this Bodhisattvapitaka’. Moreover, the context in which the references appear is always
intimately linked to the subject matter discussed in that very passage. In addition, the term Bodhisattvapitaka
is often supplemented by the syllables mdo sde whose principal meaning is, according to the compilers o f
the Mvy, sutra or sutranta (350, 805, 1412, 1435).
There are, however, instances in which the expression Bodhisattvapitaka appears to refer to a collection o f
texts. Furthemiore, the Tibetan term mdo sde can optionally also carry the meaning \snfra-class\ As I do
not feel confident to resolve this contradiction positively, I wish to draw attention to the possibility that,
originally, the Bodhisattvapitakasutra might have been comprised o f various texts which, in the course o f
time, grew into a homogeneous whole.
36. R, folio 76, 4-6.

24
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

“What are the riches of a bodhisattva’s teacher? It is the Dharma enunciation of

this Bodhisattvapitaka. When his teacher has recognised that the bodhisattva is
speaking gently in every respect, he instructs him in the Dharma-enunciation of
this Bodhisattvapitaka at great length. He teaches and proclaims it. He establishes
him in it and analyses it. He clarifies and propounds it. A bodhisattva who
abides securely in this Bodhisattvapitaka understands [how to] cut off poverty
forever and quickly realises perfect enlightenment.”37

“O Sariputra, bodhisattvas who desire to attain swiftly their prediction (vydkarana)

should listen to the Dharma enunciation of this Bodhisattvapitaka. They should
take hold of it and retain it. They should also propound it to others and teach it
at great length.”38

“If bodhisattvas take hold of this Bodhisattvapitaka and retain it, etc., they will
persist in order to perpetuate the lineage of the three jewels and will never be
separated from the four immeasurables. They will be training themsevles vigor­
ously in the six perfections and convert all sentient beings by means of the four
means of conversion. O Sariputra, this Dharma enunciation of the
Bodhisattvapitaka is the path of enlightenment. And why? Because supreme and
perfect enlightenment is connected to the Dharma enunciation of the Bodhisat­
tvapitaka,”39

The other sutra that unmistakably refers to the expression Bodhisattvapitaka as an individual
text is the Lkdh.40In his study on the Karunapmdarlka, Yamada suggests that it refers to the
Bdp.41 Whilst Schuster argues that there is not sufficient evidence to support such a view,421
do not know why she asserts this; in my opinion it is beyond any doubt that we are dealing
here with citations from the Bdp. The most conclusive example is found in chapter eleven of
the Lkdh that discusses the bodhisattvacaryd and its mental concomitants. Here, the title

37. R, folio 338, 2-5.

38. R, folio 717.3-6.
39. R, folio 735.4-736.3.
40. TTP, 34 p. 8.3.7—8; p. 7.46-7 and p. 32.1.3-4.
41. Yamada, 1968, p. 212 n. 3.
42 Schuster, op. cit., n 109.

25
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

Bodhisattvapitaka is quoted in conjunction with an elevenfold enumeration of a bodhisattva’s

skill. This corresponds closely to the Bodhisattvapitaka’s exposition on skill.43 The first six
and the eleventh type concur verbatim, while the remaining five agree in contents. Moreover,
the Lkdh reproduces several of the Bdp 's organisational irregularities. It cites, for instance,
‘skill in mindfulness’ when this type of skill is not mentioned in th eB dp’s introductory list
on skill itself, but then is freely included in the exposition.44It appears, therefore, very likely
indeed that we are dealing here with a reference to our sutra.45
The above finding has an important bearing on the historical status of the Bdp. So far, the
earliest reference to our sutra that can be dated with any security has been Hsiian-tsang’s
seventh-century translation. Apart from close textual affinities with the Akn, there has been
no evidence at all to confirm its existence prior to the seventh century. All this has changed
since we know from Chinese sources that the Lkdh already existed by the fourth century
AD.46 Therefore, we may now take the fourth century as the terminus ad quem for the
Bodhisattvapitaka's origin.
Next, there is a quotation in the &iks that Santideva (700-750 AD) attributes to a Bodhisat­
tvapitaka*1However, this quotation does not occur anywhere in the Bdp. This is not surprising,
as the devotional flavour of the quotation that details ways of honouring a Tathagata shrine is
stylistically out of kilter with the pragmatic, factual tone of the Bdp.
This apparent incongruence raises another important issue. If we accept that this citation
refers to one specific text (which is probable, considering its context and way of presentation),
43. In the Lkdh a bodhisattva’s skill is divided into eleven types:
1. Skill in aggregates; 2. Skill in sensefields; 3. Skill in elements; 4. Skill in dependent co-origination; 5.
Skill in the bases o f mindfulness; 6. Skill in the faculties; 7. Skill in the eightfold path; 8. Skill in
mundane and supramundane dharma; 9. Skill in conditioned and unconditioned dharma; 10. Skill in
investigating the marks o f all dharma; 11. Skill in obtaining the power o f recollection and a mind o f
investigating the sayings o f all teachings (34, p. 9.5.4-6).
44. R, folio 615.4-616.1; folio 649.2-662.3.
45. Apart from the list in the Lkdh which runs almost parallel, I have not found a single list which matches
exactly the B d p ’s scheme o f skill. Lists o f skill are by no means exclusive to the Bdp. However, in
general, they do not match in every respect and include several additional members. For references to
several o f these enumerations o f skill, see: chapter four, note 654.
46. The Lkdh is extant in two Chinese translations. The first was carried out by Dharmaraksa between 265 and
313 AD (T 481); the second by Kumarajlva between 402 and 412 AD (T 482).
47. The quotation runs as follows (Siks, p. 311.13-312.2; trsl. Bendall, p. 278):
“Again, in the holy Bodhisattvapitaka is described a way to increase merit: ‘He that cleans a
shrine o f the Tathagata, he attains four purities of aspiration o f perfection. And what are these
four? Perfect purity o f aspiration in form, in steadfast undertaking, in seeing the Tathagata, in
the multitude o f lucky marks.”
Again, in the same place it is said:
“One who lays a flower on the shrines o f the Tathagatas or anoints them attains eight things
without deficiency. And what ate these eight? No deficiency in form, enjoyment, surroundings,
virtue, tranquillity, knowledge, wisdom and aspiration.”

26
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

then there must have been at least one further sutra known under the title of Bodhisattvapitaka.
Against this it would have to be assumed that the text known as Bodhisattvapitaka has
undergone considerable internal change since the early eighth century. These questions will
be investigated next.
Chinese catalogues of the Buddhist canon enumerate five texts with the title Bodhisattvapitaka.
Nanjio, following the Ming catalogue, lists three texts in the Mahayana Vinaya section which
beside the Bdp have been known in the past as Bodhisattvapitaka.

1. A text called Bodhisattvapitakasutra (T 1491, N 1103). Its Chinese translation consists

of one fascicule only. This translation was carried out by Sanghabhara during the Liang
Dynasty between AD 506 and 524.
2. A sutra that is listed currently under the title Mahayanatrirdsiksamasutra (T 1493, N
1090). Alternative titles cited in Nanjio are Karmavaranapratisarana, Karamdvarana-
praticchedana, and Triskandhaka. The Taisho index lists it also under the name Karmd-
varanapratiprasrabdhisutra. It was first rendered into Chinese by Jnanagupta and Dhar-
magupta during the Sui Dynasty ca. AD 590.
3. A text which Nanjio lists as Sdriputraksamasutra (T 1492, N 1106). He adds that this
sutra is also known as Triskandhaka and that it is an earlier and shorter version of the
translations cited under N 1090 and N 1103. Its Chinese translation is attributed to An
Shih-kao who is said to have made it during the Eastern Han Dynasty between AD 148
and 170.

A text entitled Triskandhaka is also mentioned in the Mvy (1384) and by Bu-ston.48 In the
Mvy it is found in the sutra section of the Tibetan Tripitaka.49 A work of the same name is
further cited in the Siks and Ug.5QHere, the term Triskandhaka is mentioned primarily in a
liturgical context. Schuster has suggested that, like the Bodhisattvapitaka, the expression
Triskandhaka might also have had a twofold meaning, viz., that it might have referred to a
particular text bearing that name and to a category of presumably brief treatises describing
certain liturgical practices.51 Such a liturgical text would seem a likely candidate as the

48. Obermiller, 1931-32, i, p. 171.

49. Mvy 1384, TTP 950.
50. Siks, p. 290.1-2.
51. Schuster, op. cit., n. 99.

27
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

source for Santideva’s brief citation from a Bodhisattvapitaka on stupa worship in thQ$iks. If
the three translations cited in Nanjio’s catalogue (N 1090, 1103 and 1106) are approximately
identical in content and have a shared interest in liturgical practices we are probably dealing
here with texts that have little in common with our sutra.
There is one more text that has been referred to in the past as Bodhisattvapitaka. It is the
seventeenth work in the Ratnakuta collection and presently called Purnapariprccha or
Purnaparivarta.52 Its alternative title as Bodhisattvapitakasutra is attested in a number of
sources. Bodhiruci’s translation of the Ratnakuta, for instance, gives Bodhisattvapitaka as its
secondary title. Also Kumarajiva who rendered the Prn into Chinese between AD 402 and
409 referred to it under the title of Bodhisattvapitakasutra. His translation is the only Chinese
version that survived. Mochizuki, however, has discovered that the T’ang catalogue lists
Kumarajiva’s translation as the second translation.53 According to the same source, the first
translation (which also bears the name Bodhisattvapitaka) was made by Dharmaraksa at the
end of the third century AD.54 It is recorded as being a comparatively short text comprising
only three fasciculi. This earlier version is no longer extant. In the Taisho, the term Bodhisat­
tvapitakasutra is still employed as the secondary name of the Prn.55
In this sutra the Buddha discourses on the bodhisattva path to a monk called Purnamai-
trayaniputra. In the course of the exposition that culminates in a description of Puma’s
attainment of the stage of irreversibility, the Buddha explains the generation of the thought of
enlightenment, the manner in which an aspiring bodhisattva eliminates all enmity directed at
him by a hostile world, and how he should cultivate the ‘faculty of hearing’. Puma’s personal
quest is marred initially by his past exposure to evil influences that cause him to forget the
goal of enlightenment. At a later stage, however, after he has overcome his unwholesome
disposition he becomes successful in cultivating the four slla dharma that generate in him
roots of virtue, the resolve of ‘no-tuming-back’ and finally the state of enlightenment.
Structurally, the exposition of Prn has many features in common with other Ratnakuta
texts. It also makes an extensive use of tetrads as a particular means of explaining the
complexities of the bodhisattva training. In the Prn, the tetrad section is extraordinarily long
and covers roughly a quarter of the whole sutra. Large parts of this section are dominated by
52. TTP, 760.18, T 310. 17.
53. Mochizuki, 1931-36, p. 3441a 5-25; ref. Schuster, op. cit, p. 45, n. 100.
54. See also: Bagchi, 1927, i, pp. 83, 84 who confirms this information.
55. Seng-yu, in his Ch ’u san tsang chi chi, gives as its usual title Bodhisattvaptakasutra and cites
Purnapariprccha and Mahakarunacitta as two alternative names (Shih, 1968, p. 76, no. 65).

28
 The Term Bodhisattvapitaka

enumerative descriptions of the bodhisattva’s duties. Conceivably, it is its apparent preoc­

cupation with providing instructions relevant to the bodhisattvacarya that accounts for its
alternative title as Bodhisattvapitakasutra.
If we turn now to comparing the structure and content of the Prn with the references to a
Bodhisattvapitaka that are found in the various strands of Mahayana literature, a number of
important differences become apparent. As we have gathered from the quotations cited
above, the Bodhisattvapitaka is associated with the six paramita, updyakausalya, maitrl, and
with preserving and acquiring the Dharma. In the Prn these characteristics do not stand in the
foreground. Most importantly, the Prn does not include a systematic exposition of the paramita.
Naturally, they do receive some attention but are clearly not the raison d ’etre of its composition.
Hence, it seems improbable that when the sources refer to a Bodhisattvapitaka they actually
imply the Prn.
As already concluded above, in most cases the expression Bodhisattvapitaka served as an
umbrella title for a group of texts which dealt in one way or another with the bodhisattvacarya.
Judging by the numerous references to the six perfections, the treatment of the paramita must
have been the core of many of the sutras that were included in that collection. We cannot
exclude the possibility that the Prn was included among the body of such early bodhisattva
sutras. It is not probable, however, that the Prn can be indentified as the text such ancient
sutras as the Kp had in mind when they referred to a Bodhisattvapitaka.
Finally, there is a reference to a Bodhisattvapitaka in the Mvy.56Here, a Bodhisattvapitaka
is given as the fifth work in a list that enumerates one hundred and four Buddhist texts,
between the Avatamsaka and Lalitavistara. The Avatamsaka is a composite work. Its two
main recensions are divided into thirty-four and thirty-nine chapters, many of which are in
fact separate sutras that have been in circulation as independent texts. The Lalitavistara, in
contrast, is a more homogeneous text that narrates the lives of Sakyamuni Buddha. Perhaps,
by placing the Bdp between these two works, the authors of the Mvy intended to point to
some affinity in structure or contents between the three works. They may have regarded the
Bodhisattvapitaka as being composite in a similar way to the Avatamsaka. Alternatively, they
may have considered the presence of jataka-type stories in the Bdp to be a factor that links it
to the Lalitavistara. It is also possible of course that the arrangement of sutra titles bears no
relation to their respective content. Yet, the sequence of their enumerations seems to indicate
56. ref. Schuster.

29
 The Bodhisattvapitaka and the Aksayamatinirdesa

the implementation of a premeditated design.57

57. The lists commences with the Satasdhasrikaprajhaparamita, Pahcavimsatisdhasrikaprajndparamita and

Astasdhasrikaprajhaparamitd, followed by the Buddhdvatamsaka, Bodhisattvapitaka, Lalitavistara and
Samddhirdja. Considering the position assumed by these sutras in Mahay ana literature, the sequence
might indicate an arrangement in which the texts are ranked in order o f importance. The Ratnakuta is
cited in the thirty-ninth position.

30
 The Bodhisattvapitaka and the Aksayamatinirdesa

The Bodhisattvapitaka and the Aksayamatinirdesa

As part of the discussion of the Bodhisattvapitaka^ position in Mahayana literature, I shall

next explore the relationship between the Bdp and Akn.58
The main body of the Akn consists of a detailed exposition of eighty inexhaustible (<aksaya)
faculties and attributes of a bodhisattva. Here, many of the more important practices of the
bodhisattvacarya are discussed and set into an early Mahayana context.59 Significantly, only
the first ten of the eighty aksaya bear unmistakable marks of Mahayana thought. Virtually all

58. The earliest reference to the Akn is found in a Chinese catalogue o f the Buddhist Canon where it is listed
as an early fourth-century translation and is included as the twelfth section o f the Mahasamnipata {Li tai
san pao ki; 41.2a; Bagchi, i} pp. 90-91). This translation was carried out by Dharmaraksa in AD 307. The
work is still extant and catalogued as Taisho no. 397. According to Nanjio (no. 74, 77) it is in fact a
co-authoured translation carried out by Chih-yen and Pao-yun soon after 427 AD. The Akn seems to have
formed from the very outset a part of the Mahasamnipata collection which itself ranks among the earliest
collections o f Mahayana literature (Bagchi, i, p. 90). Bagchi lists the Mahasamnipata collection among
the early Mahayana sutras that were translated by Lokaksema during the second half o f the second
century AD (Bagchi, i, p. 43).
In the Tibetan Canon which does not know any collection entitled Mahasamnipata, the Akn has been
included in the ‘sutra section’ (TTP 34, no. 842). Judging by the remarks found in the prologue and
epilogue o f the Tibetan translation, it is clear that by the ninth century, at least, the Akn had become a part
o f the Indian Mahasamnipata collection. Wayman cites some internal evidence which suggest that the
Akn was composed by the same circle o f monks who composed the Satasahasrikdprajnapdramitd, Saptasa-
tikdprajndpdramita, Kusalamulaparidhara, Buddhapitaka and Saddhp (Wayman, 1980, pp. 212-214).
The greatest number o f citations from theAkn are contained in Siks. Altogether, it refers twenty-two times
to various sections o f the Akn. Other citations are found in the Sutrasammuccaya (TTP, 102, p. 85.1.2 ff);
in Sthiramati’s sub-commentary on the Mahdydnasutralamkara, that is the Sutrdlamkdravrtti-bhasya
(TTP 109, p. 48.2.2); in Candraklrti’s Prasannapada (La Vallee Poussin, 1913, p. 108.1-3) and in the
Mpps (iii, pp. 1245-50, 1272, 1716). For a list o f Akn quotations in Mahayana literature, see: Braavrig,
1989, pp. lvi-lxi.
Despite the A kn’s apparent popularity with the later Mahayana writers it seems unlikely that it belonged to
the very earliest strand o f Mahayana sutras. That is to say, it almost certainly postdates works such as the
Asia and Saddhp, but may have appeared in the second wave o f Mahayana texts alongside the Vkn or &gs.
First, its highly systematised and concise way o f dealing with the various aspects o f the bodhisattvacarya,
its main topic, indicates that it is not an early work. Second, there are some issues which await, as yet,
clarification. In the Prajnd Chapter (p. 56.2.6), for instance, there is a reference to a Yogdcdrabhumi,
saying: “Wisdom is attached to all places in the Yogacdrabhumisdstra” (p. 56.2.6). The general nature o f
this citation does not allow us to infer that it is a reference to Asanga’s Yogdcdrabhumi or to follow
Wayman’s suggestion that it is the Yogdcdrabhumi composed by Sangharaksa. If we take it to be a
reference to Asanga’s Yogdcdrabhumi, then we have to discredit the various entries found in the Chinese
catalogues which date the Akn's first translation to 307 AD, since we know that the Yogdcdrabhumi, in its
present form, is at the earliest a late fourth-centuiy work. On the other hand, Chinese sources do mention
a partial, late second-century translation o f Sangharaksa’s Yogdcdrabhumi. If we assume that it is this text
to which our citation refers, then the possibility o f the Akn belonging to an early literary phase o f the
Mahayana cannot be excluded (Demieville, 1954, pp. 395-396).
59. As Wayman has demonstrated, it is this list of eighty aksaya that was taken as a basis in the Sutralamkara
where the Akn is cited as authority for the twenty-two forms o f generating the thought o f enlightenment.
Cast into twenty-two similes in the Sutralamkara, they correspond in number and sequence to the eighty
aksaya listed in the Akn. The similes themselves, however, did not originate in the Akn, but stem from a
number o f sources, most notably from passages o f the early Prajhapdramitd literature. The list o f the
similes is, for instance, contained in three karika of the Abhisamaydlamkara (Conze, 1954, pp. 9-10).

31
 The Bodhisattvapitaka and the Aksayamatinirdesa

other practices cited fall within the scope of pre-Mahayana Buddhism and figured, in one
way or another, already in the suttas of early Buddhism.
A number of otherwise well-known Mahayana concepts are not included in the Akn, most
notably the theory of gotra, the fivefold path as propounded in the Abhisamaydlamkara and
the tenfold scheme of the bodhisattva’s career.60 Instead, more basic Mahayana concepts
such as the generation of the thought of enlightenment (bodhicittotpada), the cultivation of
the six paramita and the attainment of the stage of irreversibility {avaivartikabhumi) stand in
the foreground. This preoccupation with ancient elements of Mahayana thought seems therefore
to endorse the scriptural evidence found in Chinese catalogues that places the Akn in the
early, formative period of Mahayana thought.
Next, we turn to comparing the issues that are central to the Akn with those found in the
Bdp. In doing so, we note numerous themes which are common to both sutras. In a number
of instances, whole passages correspond word by word. Structural affinities are found also in
the internal design and logical sequence in which the dialogues are construed. But the overall
order of the practices differs in several respects. In the Bdp most of the concurrences are
found in the Prajnd Chapter, while in the Akn they are more evenly spread out over the
eighty aksaya. The reason for this lies in the differing concentration of bodhisattva practices.
In the Bdp, most of the practices are allocated to chapter eleven, while in the Akn no such
accumulation prevails.
Particularly striking is the frequent recurrence of long, almost identical, abhidharmic-type
lists enumerating the various qualities and practices associated with the bodhisattva. Clearly,
concurrences of that kind point either to the existence of some commonly accepted patterns
of exposition current a the time of their composition, or to a particularly close connection
between the Akn and the Bdp. Further below, I shall show at some examples that the direction
of this influence must have flowed from the Bdp to the Akn and not vice versa.61
When we turn to the practices, we note that in both texts, the paramita are treated individually

60. Obermiller, 1932, pp. 14-46.

In the opening passage o f the fourth aksaya, there is however one brief reference to ‘stages’ o f the
bodhisattva path. Since these are left undefined and do not seem to be part o f the Akn's overall scheme,
we may be dealing here with a later interpolation, attempting to include a reference to the Dbh into the
structure o f the Akn (p. 41.5.3). The Akn-tika interprets the bodhisattva practices in the Akn in terms o f the
ancient scheme o f the sambharamarga, prayogamdrga, darsanamarga and bhavanamarga. This scheme,
however, is not explicitly put forward in the root text.
61. For a detailed analysis, see: Pagel. “The Aksayamatinirdesa and Bodhisattvapitaka”. The Buddhist Forum.
iii. forthcoming.

32
 The Bodhisattvapitaka and the Aksayamatinirdesa

and are not linked to any path structure. Also, the material that is employed under the
respective headings of the six perfections corresponds in many points. In the Ksanti Chapter,
a practically identical exposition on the nature of ‘highest patience’ is found.62 In their
Dhyana Chapters both texts cite a largely concurring list of about one hundred samddhi. In
their Virya Chapters, both sutras underline the importance that mental exertion assumes in
the bodhisattva’s training and provide an identical way of explication.63However, similarities
in contents go well beyond the paramita chapters. They are found in about eighty percent of
practices which occur in both works. Outstanding examples are provided by the discussions
of punya and jhdnasambhdra, the treatment of samatha, vipasyana, bodhyanga and
dryastahgamdrga. In fact, the Akn and Bdp are often so close that I found it possible at
several occasions to draw on the Akn-tikd to clarify obscure passages in the B d p 6*
The first person to point to the textual parallels between the Akn and Bdp was Alex
Wayman in an article published in 1980.65 Noting their association only in passing, he
acknowledged their common ground on many topics and correlated a few of their sentences.
Taking his article as a point of departure, I investigated the other areas in which the parallels
occurred. Leaving aside a handful of uncertain cases, we can distinguish three categories of
textual parallelism. First, there is a group of concurring enumerations. Second, there is a
large body of formulaic sections of text, so common in suttas of early Buddhism. Third, there
are several independent, non-formulaic passages that are shared by both works.
Of the three areas of parallelism, it is easiest to account for are the concurrences that appear
in lists. Altogether, I encountered far-reaching agreement in six enumerations. These include
a list of types of skill66, an enumeration of thirty-two pairs of mental vigour (cittavirya), the
samddhi list of the Dhyana Chapter and a catalogue of forms of learning. In theory, owing to
62 Bdp, p. 46.4.2-47.1.2\Akn, p. 45.3.3-4.8
In order to lend accuracy to the comparison between the relevant sections o f the Akn and Bdp, I adopt for
this section o f my work the readings in the Peking Tripitaka Edition (Suzuki, Tokyo-1956).
63. Bdp, p. 55.3.6-5.3; Akn, p. 48.1.5.
64. Wayman has drawn our attention to some, in his opinion, significant philosophical shifts in emphasis
between the Akn and the Bdp. However, on close examination of the respective passages in both sutras
and the Akn-tikd, these discrepancies seem to be of a rather minor nature. For details, see: Pagel, 1991, pp.
8- 1 2 .
65. A. Wayman. “A Report on the AksayamatinirdeSasutra’’. Studies in Indo Asian Art and Culture. 6, New
Delhi: 1980, p. 219.
66. In the Bdp, these include ‘skill’ in skandha, dhatu, ayatana, satya, pratisamvid, pratisarana, vijhana and
jhana, bodhipaksika dharma, pratityasamutpada and mdrga, (pp. 77.2.3-87.5.6). In the,4Aw, the list runs
as follows: ‘skill’ in skandha, dhatu, ayatana, satya, trikdla, ydna, pratityasamutpada and sarvadharma
(pp. 52.2.8-56.1.6). The five topics that do not appear in this context in the Akn are ‘skill’ in pratisamvid,
vijhana and jhana, bodhipaksika and ‘skill’ in the path. They are given elsewhere an independent treatment
(pp. 62.2.7-63.48; p. 64.2.4^3.5; pp. 66.4.3-70.4.3 and pp. 70.4.4-71.2.1 respectively).

33
 The Bodhisattvapitaka and the Aksayamatinirdesa

the tendency in oral traditions to adopt wholesale listings of any type for mnemonic purposes,
it is possible that this concurrence is ascribable to a third source and not to direct borrowing
between the Akn and Bdp. In spite of intensive research in this area, I have not been able to
trace any enumeration from which they might have stemmed.67
The second category comprises a number of parallel passages that are largely composed of
set expressions, turns of phrase and formulae. They prevail, above all, in the exposition of the
bodhipaksika dharma, in skill in aggregates, elements and sensefields and in the section on
the unique knowledge. While it was an easy task to identify them, it is virtually impossible to
determine the texts from which their particular set phrases were originally taken. Being well
acquainted with Buddhist sutras, the authors of the Akn and Bdp probably recited them from
memory without having in mind any specific work as point of reference. However, a number
of interpolations of non-standardised text elements such as connecting phrases in the Akn
shows beyond doubt that it was the Akn which drew on the Bdp.6*
Finally, the Akn and Bdp share a considerable number of non-formulaic text portions that
are kindred in spirit and almost identical in phrasing and hence appear to be unique to the
two sutras. As will become clear further on, it is precisely this uniqueness that indicates the
A kn’s indebtedness to the Bdp. The most interesting examples of this category are found in
the sections dealing with ‘skill’ in satya, ‘skill’ in dharma and ‘skill’ inpratisarana.
Amongst the six concurring enumerations, the most interesting example is the list detailing
the bodhisattva’s forms of learning. Wayman, noticing their agreement but not providing any
reasons, saw in the list of the Bdp a kind of prototype for that of the Akn. While, in principle,
I agree with his judgment, I wish to add precision to his observations and to corroborate them
with additional findings. For one thing, Wayman thought that we are dealing with two,
essentially identical lists. This is not the case. The first obvious variation is the difference in

67. See: Wayman. “The Samadhi Lists o f the AksayamatinirdeSasutra and the Mahavyutpatti”. A OH, 34,
1980, p. 305-318.
In his article on the samddhi lists (op. cit., p. 312) Wayman writes that the samddhi in the Akn were
adopted from the list o f the Bdp. Wayman does not give any reasons to substantiate his assumption but
he is probably correct in proposing this direction o f borrowing. O f the total o f one hundred and eighteen
samddhi in the Akn seventy-two occur also in the Bdp. For the most part the meditations that are common
to both texts appear in clusters o f six to ten samddhi each. Perhaps to account for changes in doctrine, we
have several Cases in which the samddhi titles appear in slightly altered versions in the Akn. What puzzles
me is the rationale behind the choice by which the Akn adopted samddhi from the Bdp. Why are o f one
hundred and one samddhi in the Bdp only seventy-two found in the Akn? What were the reasons for
excluding the remaining forty-six samddhi— some o f which bear well-known titles such as the Samadhiraja?
Neither the order in which they are listed nor the actual wording o f their titles appear to hold the key to
these questions. I have given a list o f both the Akn’s and B dp’s samddhi lists in Appendix ii.
68. Pagel, op. cit., pp. 5-8.

34
 The Bodhisattvapitaka and the Aksayamatinirdesa

the length of the lists. The A kn's enumeration gives eighty-four forms of learning, whereas
the Bdp knows of only seventy-two.69Furthermore, the Bdp contains thirteen items that are
not found in the list of the Akn, raising the number of variant items to twenty-five—roughly a
third of the sum total. This substitution of individual items suggests that one of the lists was
carefully edited. The greater length of the A kn’s list alone indicates posterity, because it is
doubtful whether the Bdp would deliberately reduce its scope. On the contrary, if one’s
experience with other texts is anything to go by, material is usually added in the process of
transmission rather than being taken away.
The majority of discrepancies that exist between the two lists are found in the second half
of the enumeration. Up to akara thirty-three, most items concur closely in both sequence and
contents. After that, apart from two codified sets of practice (no. 49-52, 53-55), the items are
generally ill-matched and display few parallels. Thus far, I have not managed to identify a
rationale behind this process of restructuring. Apart from some well-known standardised
groupings70, no scheme springs to mind when comparing the organisations of the two lists.71
Since both enumerations contain a remarkable comprehensive catalogue of practices, it is
tempting to conjecture that their purpose was to gather all known bodhisattva practices in a
single Abhidharma-tyipQ matrka, list. Their placement before the main thrust of the bodhisattva
practice adds weight to this theory.
In the other enumerations the situation is much clearer, since a close accord in number as
well as contents is shown. This agreement makes it of course more difficult to determine the
direction in which the borrowing took place. In these enumerations, the only clue is the
presence of numbering schemes in Akn that are not found in the Bdp. While the inclusion
of these schemes, taken on its own, is not sufficient to substantiate the view that the lists of
69. It is worth noting here that also Santideva’s quotation in the &iks o f the Akn enumeration is at variance
with the original. I suspect that these divergencies are not the result o f a consciously undertaken selection
but occurred inadvertently, since the number of items is very close (80) and does not show any new akara
(see: Appendix i).
70. E.g., Bdp item no. 49-52: four hallmarks of Buddhism (bkah rtags kyi phyag rgya bzi); item no. 53-55:
three gateways to liberation (trim vimoksamukhani); item no. 76-77: reliances (pratisarana); item no.
63-64: bodhipaksika dharma; no. 65-71: buddha-powers (buddhabala) etc.
71. As far as the individual items are concerned, one meets with a few inconsistencies that stand out at once.
First, there is the item called “study o f the Bodhisattvapitaka” (no. 39, 35). Its position in the list, next to
prajhdpdramita, samgrahavastu and upayakausalya, suggests that it was conceived of as a (set of) practice
and not as single text (or body o f scriptures) as it is interpreted elsewhere. Second, one notes the
discrepancy that exists between the title brahmavihdra given to item 42/38 in the list and its designation
in the text itself where these four practices are invariably referred to as the four apramana. While it is true
that one cannot speak o f a standard title for this set o f practices, the incongruence in their titles might
indicate that the list o f learning was implanted in the texts in a prefabricated form and does not stand in
any ‘organic’ relation to the exposition itself.

35
 The Bodhisattvapitaka and the Aksayamatinirdesa

the Akn were taken from the Bdp, a number of unambiguous editorial modifications suggests
this.
The most telling examples of this kind are found in the section which details the bodhisattva’s
accumulation of merit (punya) and pristine cognition (jndna). In the Bdp we meet here with
the statement that bodhisattvas of pure resolve “appear in all worlds”. In the Akn this sentence
has been altered to say that purity of resolve endows bodhisattvas with “power over all
worlds”.72
Now, it takes little acumen to see that this variation sprang from a shift in perception of the
‘model bodhisattva’. In all likelihood, it dates back to the period in which the early characteri­
sation of the bodhisattva as a human being was superseded by a more transcendental concept
of bodhisattvahood. Unfortunately, we have little information to indicate when this shift took
place. If one follows Harrison’s findings—based on the earliest Chinese translations of
Mahayana sutras—it did not occur before the third century AD.73 Other scholars, basing
their propositions either on iconographic evidence74 or by correlating the final stages of the
dasabhutnika path with the emergence of mythical bodhisattvas75, have suggested the second
century AD.76 Today, this view has been seriously challenged by Schopen in his masterly
(re)interpretation of the various rock and pillar inscriptions. He shows that in epigraphical
sources ‘mythical’ bodhisattvas are not attested before the 4th to 5th centuries AD.77 Thus,
without entering the intricacies of the controversy (which, in any event, is based on rather
slim documentation), there is enough reason to place the emergence of mythical bodhisattvas
in a rather later period than commonly assumed.78 In principle, this dating fits in with the
chronological order that I proposed for the Akn and Bdp.
Another variant reading that seemingly corroborates my theory is given in a tetrad enumerating
the means that aid the bodhisattva to increase his accumulation of knowledge (jndnasambhara).
In the Bdp, we learn in this connection of the following four paths. 1. The path of the

72. B d p ,p .% \A 2 \A k n ,p .6 5 3 .1 .
73. Paul Harrison. JIABS, 10, pp. 67-89.
74. V.S. Agrawala. “Dhyani Buddhas and Bodhisattvas”. JUPHS, 11(2), pp. 1-13.
75. See E. Conze. A Short History o f Buddhism. 1982, p. 49.
76. Gregory Schopen’s findings about the Kusana image of Amitabha has made this early date— by implica­
tion—unlikely (Schopen, 1987, pp. 111-125).
77. Schopen, op. cit., p. 119.
78. Epigraphic evidence and iconographic representations point to a considerable discrepancy between the
literary forms o f Mahayana'Buddhism (dating back to the beginnings o f our era) and their public manifes­
tations. There was virtually no popular support for the Mahayana before the 4th/5th century AD that is
documented in the various inscriptions, and even then it is chiefly of monastic origin and not by lay-supporters
(Schopen, op. cit., p. 124; Schopen, 1985 pp. 9-47; Schopen, 1979, pp. 1-19).

36
 The Bodhisattvapitaka and the Aksayamatinirdesa

paramita; 2. The path of the bodhipaksika dharma; 3. The noble eightfold path; 4. The path
that leads to the pristine cognition of all knowing.79
While this list is not particularly remarkable in itself, X\tQAkn reading of this tetrad contains
one interesting deviation. It replaces the third limb, the ‘noble eightfold path’, with the ‘path
of the stages’.80 Since the other three paths correspond to those of the Bdp, preference to the
scheme of stages indicates tangible doctrinal progress. It is plausible that the author of the
Akn felt compelled to account for this progress and consequently adjusted the Bdp reading
accordingly.81
Another interesting, though somewhat more ambiguous, variant reading is found in the
discussions of “reliance on the spirit and not on the letter” (arthapratisaranena bhavitavyah
na vyanjanapratisaranena). While, in the Bdp, we leam that the letter instructs the bodhisattva
“not to abandon any sentient being”, the Akn says that the letter teaches bodhisattvas “to
renounce all possessions”.82The Bdp s reading of this phrase is a reference to the bodhisattva’s
moral obligation to pursue actively universal liberation. Historically, it probably stemmed
from the thought contained in several early Mahayana scriptures that gives prominence to the
ideal of the grhapti bodhisattva over that of thepravrajita bodhisattva. Texts such as the Vkn
and (the early versions of the) Ug provide illustration of this literary strand. In contrast, the
reading of the Akn, advocating total renunciation of worldly possessions, belongs to a later
period. Its message is strongly reminiscent of the later trend that replaces the lay-ideal with
that of the pravrajita bodhisattva as ‘model bodhisattva’. The dating of Chinese translations
of Mahayana texts suggests that this reorientation to the mendicant model of early Buddhism
was well advanced by the fourth century AD. Again, this would accord with the proposed
chronology of the Akn and Bdp.
There exists, however, a second possibility of interpretation. Mahayana sutras of all ages
agree in propounding generosity (dana) as the cardinal virtue of the lay-bodhisattva. Generosity
epitomises his obligations and efforts, and is the principal means by which the grhapti

79. Bdp, p. 82.3.1.

80. Akn, p. 66.3.4.
81. Since their expositions o f the bodhisattva’s training, both in emphasis o f practice and structure, have
many elements is common, the time gap between the two works cannot have been very great. Both sutras,
for instance, do not employ the tenfold path structure although they must have been aware o f it, since it is
briefly referred to in several places. Had they originated wide apart, one could expect to meet with traces
testifying differences in doctrinal views o f the period that separated their formulation. But for three sets of
new practices and some minor shifts in emphasis this does not seem to be the case.
82. Bdp, p. 79.5.7; Akn, p. 63.5.6.

37
 The Bodhisattvapitaka and the Aksayamatinirdesa

bodhisattva becomes cleansed from the three root defilements. Indeed, pure giving is often
set forth on its own as a model for the grhapti bodhisattva’s middle way which fares between
affection and aversion—the two extremes against which he battles every day. Hence, the
Akn *s admonition could also be understood as referring to the grhapti bodhisattva’s obligation
to practice generosity at all times with the aim of universal liberation. In this event, the Akn
and Bdp would subscribe to the very same ideal. However, the A kn’s plea for a very severe
form of generosity—which in its radicalism is fundamentally incongruous with the well-
balanced middle way that is trodden by lay-bodhisattvas—renders this line of interpretation
possibly less convincing.

38
 Scholastic Affiliation

The Scholastic Affiliation of the Bodhisattvapitaka

At this stage I wish to offer some thoughts about possible scholastic affiliations of the Bdp.
The first translation into Chinese of the Bdp was carried out by Hsiian-tsang in AD 645. He is
reported to have undertaken it immediately on his return to China. The initial phase of his
translation activity is recorded as follows:83

“On the first day of the seventh month [of the year of his return in China], the
master started to translate the palm-leaf Sanskrit scriptures. At the beginning he
tra n s la te d the Bodhisattvapitakasutra, Buddhabhumisutra, San-
mukhadhdranisutra and Prakaranaryavacasdstra. He completed the translation
of the Sanmukhadharanisutra on that same day and finished the translation of
the Buddhabhumisiitra on the fifteenth day while the Bodhisattvapitakasutra
and the Prakaranaryavacasdstra were done by the end of the year.”

The translation of the Bdp won Hsiian-tsang great praise from the emperor T’ang T’ai-tsung.
In the same source we read:84

“The emperor also read the Bodhisattvapitakasutra which the master had submitted
to him, and he highly praised it and ordered the crown prince to write an
epilogue for this sutra.”

The passage concludes by relating how Hsiian-tsang’s translation of the Bdp had even
helped to bring about a change in the emperor’s disposition towards Buddhism which, so far,
had been marked by indifference.85
It is well known that Hsiian-tsang’s motivation for travelling to India was to acquire a copy
of the Yogdcdrabhumi. He managed to obtain this text and subsequently translated it between
AD 646 and 648 together with the Mahayandbhidharmasamyuktasangiti, Mahdyanasamgraha,
83. Li-Yung-hsi, 1959, p. 216 (ref. Schuster).
84. op. cit., p. 225.
85. op. cit., pp. 224, 225.

39
 Scholastic Affiliation

Mahdydnasamgraha-bhdsya and Prat!tyasamutpadasutra. Other texts, translated at a slightly

later date, included the Sanmukhadhdram, Prakaranaryavaca and Buddhabhumisutra.
If we consider the authorship and doctrinal affiliation of the texts that Hsiian-tsang had
chosen to translate first along with the Yogdcdrabhumi, we find that most of these texts are
closely associated with Yogacara thought. The Prakaranaryavaca and the Mahayanasamgraha-
bhdsya are attributed to Vasubandhu and so is a commentary on the Sanmukhadhdram;86
Furthermore, Bu-ston knows of a commentary on the Prafityasamutpadasutra which he
ascribes to Vasubandhu.87 Obermiller pointed to a doctrinal affiliation between the Bud­
dhabhumisutra and certain currents within the Yogacara school.88 The Mahaydndbhidhar-
masamyuktasahglti is attributed to Asanga while ASvabhasa is generally accredited with the
composition of the Mahdydnasutralamkdra.89
In the light of his preoccupation with Yogacara literature, it seems natural to raise the
question about the reasons lying behind Hsiian-tsang’s choice to translate first the Bdp. Does
the Bdp form a part of the Yogacara literary tradition? Did Hsiian-tsang know of some
evidence that links our sutra doctrinally or historically with the Yogacara school? If so, he
apparently regarded it as rather unimportant, since he does not mention it in any of his
writings. Neither his Si-yu-ki nor his various biographies seem to contain such a reference.90
As I shall discuss further below, Sthiramati is reported to have shown much interest in
some of the Ratnakuta works. Tibetan historians accredited him with the composition of the
Kasyapaparivartatika, the only surviving commentary of that text.91 The same sources attribute
to Vasubandhu two other commentaries on Ratnakuta texts, namely, the Amitabhavyuhatika
86. Obermiller, 1931-32, i, p. 146.
87. op. cit., i, p. 57.
88. op. cit, i, p. 127 and n. 1192-1197 on p. 178.
89. Warder (1980, p. 553) gives the title o f this commentary as Mahayanasamgrahopanibandhana (TTP
1598).
90. Schuster (op. cit., p. 55, n. 123) believes that his motive was o f a more mundane nature. She proposes that
he wanted to have the Bdp available as propaganda fide. Knowing in advance that he would be given an
opportunity to report about his extensive travels in foreign countries, he may have chosen to prepare an
easily intelligible text o f imposing dimensions which was previously unknown in China in order to
impress the emperor. She argues that Hsiian-tsang must have been well aware that any o f the other, more
philosophically oriented, texts would have achieved just the contrary.
One wonders, however, why he had chosen a text o f such an extraordinary length. He must have suspected
that the interest and patience o f the indifferent and increasingly ailing emperor would hardly suffice to
absorb a text o f such length. Other equally imposing but much shorter texts must have been amongst the
over six hundred works that he acquired on his travels. Furthermore, it seems improbable that Hsiian-tsang
resolved to translate a lengthy text o f little interest to himself for mere propaganda purposes at a time
when a large number o f works o f high personal interest were awaiting examination. The prospect o f an
audience with the emperor may have influenced the sequence in which he decided to translate the Indian
manuscripts, but it seems unlikely to have determined the nature of the texts themselves.
91. TTP 1523.

40
 Scholastic Affiliation

(T 1524) and the Ratnacudabhasya (T 1526). Paramartha knows of yet another Ratnakuta
commentary whose authorship he ascribes to Vasubandhu, this is, a commentary on the
Srimdladevisimhandda.92
Hsiian-tsang himself is known to have been a strong advocate of Yogacara thought.
Shortly after his return to China, he founded the Fa-hsiang school whose basic tenets are
derived from the Yogdcdrabhumi and other related works. Considering his personal interest
in Yogacara Buddhism, it seems plausible that he should choose to translate first those works
which bore closest affinity to Yogacara doctrines. Such a view is further supported when we
recall the two instances where the term Bodhisattvapitaka appears in conjunction with the
title Avatamsaka, a collection of texts that is traditionally associated with the Yogacara
school. Moreover, if we accept the hypothesis that the list of sutras found in the Mvy is based
on some premeditated scheme, the listing of the Bdp next to the Avatamsaka could be
interpreted to reflect some connection between our sutra and Yogacara thinking.
In the absence of any conclusive evidence, it is helpful to turn once more to the Akn, or
rather, to its commentary, the Akn-tika. On reading the Akn-tika, one discovers soon that it
interprets the Akn from a Yogacara standpoint. One meets repeatedly with concepts such as
dlayavijnana, cittamatratd, prajhaptimdtrata, trisvabhava and asrayaparavrtti even though
these concepts are not found in the sutra itself.93 The author of the Akn-tika, whether it was
Sthiramati or Vasubandhu (an issue that is not as yet resolved), regarded XhsAkn clearly as a
work belonging to Yogacara thought. In view of the close affiliation of the Bdp and Akn, this
assumption warrants some consideration when discussing the scholastic affiliation of the
Bdp. Furthermore, in chapter one of the Bdp we find recurring references to the term ab-
hutaparikalpa.94The concept of abhutaparikalpa is closely associated with Yogacara thought
and figures predominantly in works attributed to the advocates of its philosophy.
Finally, I propose to return to the history of the Bdp and its position in the formation of the
Mahayana. It has been argued by several scholars that the Akn belongs to the earliest strands
of Mahayana literature.95 The arguments cited most frequently in support of this view, are

92 The authenticity o f this reference is disputed. Wayman thinks that it is apocryphal, saying that it applies to
comments in the Buddhagotrasastra which is attributed in Paramartha’s Chinese translation o f the Bud-
dhagotrasastra to Vasubandhu (Wayman, 1974, p. 7).
93. In conjunction with ‘skill’ in the aggregates, we read for instance (p. 194.2.6 ff):
“The unwholesome aggregates are overcome by the change o f basis (asrayaparivrtti) in the
store-consciousness (dlayavijnana) at the time of reaching enlightenment.”
94. R, folio 36.1, 43.7, 44.1 ff.
95. Wayman, op. cit., p. 232.

41
 Scholastic Affiliation

based first on the contents of the Akn, second on its association with the Vkn96 (itself a very
early text) and third, on its inclusion in the Li tai san pao chi catalogue97, as having been
translated by Lokaksema in the second century AD.98As I do not wish to repeat the argument
in detail it should suffice to point out that so far no author has been able to bring forth any
compelling evidence in support of the antiquity of the Akn other than circumstantial testimony.
However, since the inferential grounds put forward are persuasive, I think it justifiable to
accept the A k n ’s comparatively early date of composition—perhaps in the first or second
century AD—as a working hypothesis.
Considering the nature of our findings about the relationship between the Akn and Bdp,
such an early date for the Akn affects, of course, the dating of the Bdp; until now this has
generally been held to be a rather late work.99To some extent this was due to the late date of
the Bdp's first Chinese translation, undertaken not before the middle of the seventh century
AD.100 Other factors that were cited in support of this theory range from its alleged systemati-
sation and use of comprehensive enumerations, including the presence of supposedly “fully
matured Mahayana thinking” in its exposition.101 Although myreading of the Bdp has left me
with a different impression, it is quite unnecessary tosubscribe to a discussion of such
difficult and subjective terms as ‘maturity’, ‘comprehensiveness’ or ‘systematisation’, since
our analysis has provided us now with much more powerful evidence. If we accept the
antiquity of the Akn, the tetminus ad quem for the Bdp is pushed back from 645 AD (the date
of Hsiian-tsang’s translation) and 265-313 AD (the dating of th oLkdh’s first translation) to
the final quarter of the second century AD, the time when the Akn is reported to have been
translated into Chinese.
Such early date of the Bdp would in many ways accord much better with the rather
ill-organised, inconsistent internal structure of the Bdp and account for the rudimentary
depiction that it gives of the bodhisattva career. In particular, it would validate my mdtrka-theory
for the list of seventy-two kinds of learning that I proposed in my paper on the Akn and Bdp.

96. Lamotte, op. cit., pp. lxxxvii; pp. 105, 197, 284.
97. Bagchi, 1927, pp. 43, 91.
98. Alex Wayman (op. cit., pp. 211-214) has farther enlisted the rather uncommon use o f the name Saradvatiputra
for the usual Sariputra in support o f the antiquity o f thoAkn.
99. E.g., Schuster, op. cit., pp. 48, 51.
100. This argument is rather weak, since we know o f several other early and important Buddhist works that
came only relatively late to the attention o f the Chinese translation teams. The Agama and Vinaya, for
instance, were all translated at a very late date (Demieville, L 'Inde Classique, ii, pp. 418-419).
101. Schuster op. cit., pp. 48-51.

42
 Scholastic Affiliation

Undoubtedly, enumerations of this kind were particularly susceptible to change and expansion
immediately after their compilation when the ideas they epitomised were still fluctuating.
This last point applies to the B dp's exposition as a whole. That is to say, the author of the
Akn would surely have shown greater restraint in modifying the wording of the Bdp had he
seen it to embody an advanced account of the bodhisattva doctrine. It is tempting to deduce—if
only by implication—that the Bdp stood more at the beginning of this evolution. Assuming
that the length of the Bdp as it is preserved today reflects its original size, its exposition of
the bodhisattva must have served as the foundation to many of the later bodhisattva treatises.
I shall demonstrate in chapter four when exploring the practices and doctrines that this
assumption is indeed borne out by the Bdp’s vision of the bodhisattva-ideal.
What is more, an early date of composition would also provide answers to a series of
questions that, so far, have been resolved in an unsatisfactorily manner. It would account, for
instance, for the references to a Bdp that are found in the Kp, Ug and Vkn—themselves
amongst the earliest Mahayana texts. The physical format of the Bodhisattvapitaka they refer
to is uncertain, but the fact that they associate it with the paramita, maitri and bodhipaksika
dharma—all themes that are discussed at great length in the Bdp—possibly indicates a
references to some early, composite version of the Bdp. We do not know what exactly
happened to the individual component parts, but it is conveivable that at a later stage these
were incorporated into the structures of the present Bdp. As I shall show, its organisation of
content and chapter divisions would certainly allow for this possibility. It would also explain
Hsiian-tsang’s selecting the Bdp out of over six hundred texts for immediate translation. He
was no doubt aware of its importance to the formulation of the bodhisattva ideal and so
decided not only to record the place when he obtained it, but also to give it priority over all
other texts in his translation work.

43
 The Maharatnakuta

The Maharatnakuta Collection

The Maharatnakuta (hereafter Ratnakuta) collection comprises forty-nine sutras of varying

doctrinal orientation and literary affiliation.102As a collection of Buddhist texts it is considered
to be one of the most popular and important Mahayana works, along with the Buddhavatamsaka
and Prajndpdramita sutras. As for the date of its compilation there is a certain disagreement
among modem scholars of Buddhism. The antiquity of many of the texts it contains, however,
has been established beyond any doubt. The collection as it stands today has been preserved
in Chinese and Tibetan translations with only a few texts extant in the original Hybrid
Sanskrit and Middle Indo-Aryan Prakrit idiom.
The sutras included in the Ratnakuta cover a wide range of Buddhist thought. Most of its
forty-nine texts share a common interest in the bodhisattva path. Indeed, it is argueable that
this shared concern with the proper execution of the bodhisattva practices occasioned their
inclusion into one collection. Although a certain thematic unity is provided by the incorporation
of almost all basic Mahayana concepts, a tone of heterogeneity prevails. It is this very
heterogeneous nature that may reveal the compiler’s intention of presenting a cross-section of
Mahayana thought. One is left with the impression of a deliberatedly arranged overview of
Mahayana doctrines.
By the time of its initial compilation the principal Mahayana tenets were evidently well-
established in most of the Buddhist communities of northern India. Yet, some of the (earlier)
Ratnakuta texts seem to derive their religio-philosophical message from what might be called
the phase of transition between the early strata of Buddhist thought (fundamentally based on
the teachings of the historical Buddha) and those introduced in later centuries. In many
instances these early teachings are skilfully incorporated into the Mahayana frame of reference,
thereby producing sutras of great literary beauty.
The path and ideal of the bodhisattva are central to many of the works included in this
collection. Some sutras are wholly dedicated to the new ideal and provide detailed instructions
on the pattern by which an aspiring bodhisattva should pursue his spiritual training. Other
102 As a collection o f texts it is also referred to as Ratnakuta, Maharatnakuta, Mahdratnakiitasutra, Mahdrat-
nakuta-dharmaparyaya or Maharatnakuta-dharmaparyayasatasahdsrikd-grantha (Stael-Holstein, 1926,
pp. vii-x).

44
 The Maharatnakuta

texts integrate the teachings on the bodhisattva in an otherwise more philosophical exposition.
The lay and mendicant ideal are treated in a rather partisan fashion in a number of sutras.
In many instances, the respective positions are put forward with great conviction. But judging
by my own reading, both ideals are advocated with equal strength. On the one hand, some
texts as our Bdp unequivocally propose a monastic, celibate environment as the only appropriate
framework for the bodhisattvacarya. On the other hand, there are numerous sutras that place
the bodhisattva ideal firmly within the reach of non-celibate lay folk.103
The topical references to the bodhisattva path prompted several scholars to conclude with
Friedrich Weller that "the ethics of the bodhisattva career is just what all the forty-nine texts
of the Ratnakuta sutra have in common”104or with Schuster, "that it is this (common element),
above all, which binds them together and gives them a recognisable identity”105.
In India, the title ‘Ratnakuta’ was initially associated with the Kp, a text that at present is
included as Rkt 43.106 The question arises concerning the grounds and the circumstances by
which this title came to be applied to the entire collection. Sthiramati, the author of one of the
major commentaries on Ratnakuta works107 who is cited by both Bu-ston and Taranatha
offers the following explanation: “The title Ratnakuta was bestowed on the sutra because
this Dharmaparydya comprehends all the jewels of the Mahayana”, Then, Sthiramati lists
sixteen Mahayana ‘jewels’ or virtues, for example, right conduct, and points to their presence
in the Kp, calling it Ratnakuta.108 The Kp, as the majority of other Ratnakuta texts, sets these
virtues in the context of the bodhisattvacarya and so intrinsically relates them to the bodhisattva
training. Similar lists are found in the Bdp, Ug, Rp and Bhadra-vy to mention only a few of
the more well-known Ratnakuta works. In many instances, these lists are structured in such a

103. Among the texts that belong to this second category figure most prominently the Sms (Rkt 49), Ug (Rkt
19), Asokadattavyakarana (Rkt 32) and Gangottarapariprccha (Rkt 31).
104. Weller, 1965, p. 19.
105. Schuster, op. cit., p. 36.
106. Chinese catalogues list another text that includes the title Ratnakuta in its name. It is called Ratnakutasutra
and was first translated into Chinese during the Eastern Han Dynasty in the second century AD. In the
Taisho Tripitaka it is listed under the name o f Buddhasita-ratnakutasamddhi-mahjusri-bodhisattva-
pariprcchd-dharmakayasutra (T 356). It was retranslated at the beginning o f the seventh century bearing
the title Ratnakutasutra. Although it is not included among the forty-nine Ratnakuta works proper, it is
nevertheless contained in the group o f texts that the authors o f the Taisho apparently considered to be
related to the Ratnakuta (Lancaster, 1979, pp. 93-94).
107. He is accredited with the composition o f a work that, in the Chinese translations, bears the name Maharat-
nakutasutra-sdstra (Stael-Holstein, 1926, p. xv). The Tibetan tradition refers to it as Arya-maharatnakuta-
dharmaparydya-parivarta-satasdhasrika-kasyapaparivarta-tikd (Schiefner, 1868, p. 131). Stael-Holstein
has convincingly shown that this commentary refers only to Rkt 43 and not to the whole collection (op.
cit., pp. xiv-xv).
108. Stael-Holstein, op. cit, pp. 2-7.

45
 The Maharatnakuta

way as to form groups of tetrads. Just as in other, predominantly early, Buddhist writings
these tetrads served as mnemonic devices to facilitate the memorisation and recitation of
complex texts. In the Ratnakuta the frequency of their reccurrence and their typical association
with the bodhisattvacarya suggests that they became also guidelines for a wide range of
practical training aspects. It is therefore likely that, as Schuster says, “the name Ratnakuta
originally referred to the teaching of the bodhisattva conduct, epitomised in series of tetrads
... for the edification of all those dedicated to the bodhisattva career”109.
In order to convey some general idea of the principal doctrinal issues involved in the
Ratnakuta texts, I have drawn up a tabulated list of the most salient points discussed in the
collection.110 This survey is not intended to provide a comprehensive analysis of all the
forty-nine texts included, but aims to show the major interests and themes that are common
to many Ratnakuta sutras.

Topics included in the content of the Ratnakuta literature:

1. Texts that discuss predominantly the nature, training and dangers associated with the
lay-bodhisattva path: Rkt 16, 18,19, 24, 27,28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36, 38,45, 47, 48.

2. Sutras that propound the monastic environment as the preferable setting for a bodhisattva’s
training: Rkt 1, 12, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 43, 44,45, 49.

3. Siitras that focus in their discussion of the bodhisattva’s training on the distinction
between ordinary or worldly and transcendental morality: Rkt 3, 18, 19, 38, 41, 45, 47,
49.

4. Discourses containingyatafoj-type accounts and similar tales: Rkt 12, 14, 16, 17, 18, 37,
44.

5. Texts that include into their elaborations miraculous and magical elements such as
charms or wonders: Rkt 3,18, 21, 38,43.

109. Schuster,op. c/7., p. 37.

110. I am indebted to Nancy Schuster for suggestion of this type o f tabulation.

46
 The Maharatnakuta

6. Texts that elaborate on mythological buddha-fields and their buddhas: Rkt 1,2, 5, 6, 13,
14, 15, 18,47.

7. Sutras that deal with caitya rituals, veneration of all buddhas or with vision of all
buddhas: Rkt 1, 12, 15,18,19,24,25, 38, 43, 44.

8. Sutras propounding the ideal of the female bodhisattva: Rkt 30, 31, 32, 33, 40,48,

In addition, there are several sutras that merit special attention because they contain important
doctrinal discussions:

1. Trisam varanirdesaparivarta: on the affliction of clinging to the belief in the

reality of the self.

3. Tathagatacintyaguhyanirdesa: on self-sacrifice and the impermanence of the

body.

5. Sukhavativyuha: on the resolves of the bodhisattva Dharmakara

and the formation of his buddha-field.

6. Aksobhyatathagatasyavyuha: on Aksobhya’s buddha-field, (mental) disposi­

tions required for rebirth there, on stupa cult and
on self-annihilation by one’s own fire-element.

12. Bodhisattvapitaka: the chief bodhisattva text of the entire collec­

tion; famous for its treatment of paramita,
jdtaka accounts and avenika dharma.

13. (AJnandagarbhavakrantinirdesa:

47
 The Maharatnakuta

on rebirth, pregnancy and the notion of garbha.

14. Ayusmannandagarbhdvakrantinirdesa:

16. Pitdputf'asamagama: on the virtues of meditation, the impermanence

of the elements and the ‘empty’ nature of
dharma.

17. Purnapariprccha: on the cultivation of the bodhicitta, avaivartikac-

itta, kusalamula and abhijna.

18. Rasp'apalapariprccha’. on the virtues of the monastic (bodhisattva)

path, self-sacrifice and aspirations to enlighten­
ment.

19. Ugrapariprccha: on dana as the foundation of the bodhisattva

training, sunyatd, the virtues of grhapti bodhisat­
tvas and caitya worship.

21. Bhadramayakaravydkarana: on magic as a vehicle for the updya of the

Buddha and as a valid means for facilitating the
comprehension of doctrinal matters.

24. Updlipariprcchd: on serious misdeeds, the liturgy of the thirty-

five buddhas, the code of conduct for (grhapti)
bodhisattvas and its disagreements with the code
of conduct of Sravaka.

25. Adhydsayasamcodanasutra: on proper conduct for mendicant monks and

recluses.

28. Viradattapariprccha: a meditation manual for the bodhisattva, contem-

48
 The Maharatnakuta

plation of the body and its vileness, (also known

as Yogacdrabhumisutra).

41. Maitreyapariprcchddharmasta: on the eight ‘profound’ dharma which are to be

realised if bodhi is to be attained; it also deals
with the cult of Maitreya.

43. Kasyapaparivarta: discussions of bodhisattva ethics, concepts of

sunyatd and aryagotra and bodhisattvacarya.

44. Ratnardsisutra: elaborations on spirit and observance of monas­

tic conduct, significance of the monastic robe
and the spiritual benefits of forest life.

45. Aksayamatipariprccha: on the significance of proper and genuine

motivation for giving, the ten stages of bodhisat­
tva, meditation, dharani explanations.

46. Saptasatikaprajnaparamita'. a concise discussion on what is essentially

prajhapdramitd thought.

47. Ratnacudapariprccha: on the significance of mindfulness and the

training thereof for both monks and lay-
followers; it provides a detailed treatment of the
bodhipaksika and paramita.

48. Srrmaladevisimhandda: on the tathdgatagarbha doctrine, ekayana

doctrine, the (favourable) position of the lay
spirituality in the Buddhist scheme of salvation.
(Apparently one of the later sutras in the
collection).
 The Maharatnakuta

49. Rslvyasapariprcchd'. on forest-life, alms and dana.

The History o f the Maharatnakuta Collection

On the whole, rather little is known about the history of the Ratnakuta collection.111 Keeping
with Buddhist tradition, each of the forty-nine texts is attributed to the Buddha. A brief
prologue (nidana) of the circumstances accompanying the formulation of the discourses is
provided in their respective introductory sections. Thirty-five of the forty-nine sutras are said
to have been composed on either Mount Grdhrakuta, near Rajagrha, or in the garden of
Anathapindada, in the Jeta Grove in the vicinity of Sravastl. Both locations are well known in
Buddhist accounts and are frequently given as sites for the various sermons of the Buddha.
As for its original compiler, no reference is found in either the sutras themselves or in the
Chinese and Tibetan commentarial literature that would point to any specific person. None of
the forty-nine texts contains any cross-references to the other texts included except for the
unresolved references to the Bdp. Both Chinese and Tibetan sources point to a later date of
compilation.112It seems probable that the Ratnakuta collection as it is known to us, represents
a rather later development of Buddhist literary activity. Yet, despite the fact that its compilation
may have taken place as late as the early eighth century AD, many of the sutras it comprises
are of considerable antiquity and belong to the earliest strata of Mahayana Buddhism. This is
evidenced by the doctrinal orientation of the texts in question and the early date of many of
111. Considering the comprehensive nature o f this collection and the antiquity o f many o f its texts it is rather
surprising to discover how little scholarly attention it has so far attracted. Out o f the total o f forty-nine
works only twelve have been the object of academic investigation. These are the Sukhdvativyiiha, Rastrapa-
lapariprccha, Kasyapaparivarta, Sap tasatikaprajhapdr am ita, Ratnardsi, Vinayaviniscaya-
Upalipariprcchd, Ugrapariprccha, Srimdladevisimhanada, Updyakausalyaparivarta, Mahjusribud-
dhaksetragunavyuha and Bhadrakdravyakarana. For details on the authorship, as well as the date and
place o f publication o f the respective studies, see: Appendix iii. To date, the best discussion o f the history
o f the Ratnakuta collection is found in: Schuster, 1976, pp. 1-42. Other useful material has been collected
by Stanton-Pedersen (1980).
112 Otani bKah-hgyur Catalogue, p. 231, n. 1 (folio 123a), where we are told that the (Tibetan translation of
the) Ratnakuta collection was compiled on the basis o f Indian originals, complemented by Khotanese and
Chinese sutras during the second half o f the eighth century. In Taisho Daizokyd (vol. 11, pp. lb 20-2b 6;
see: BTI, no. 28, p. 6), the early eighth century AD is given as the date o f compilation o f its Chinese
translation.

50
 The Maharatnakuta

their first Chinese translations.

The majority of sutras included in the Ratnakuta collection are designated, according to
their Sanskrit titles, questions {pariprccha) or elucidations (nirdesa). Thirty-four of the forty-
nine texts fall into these two categories. Of the remaining texts, six are called predictions
(vydkarana) or arrays (yyuha).m Many of these texts are comparatively brief and resemble in
structure the suttas of the Pali nikaya. Often they are composed in a stereotyped question-
and-answer format and lack the elaborations and grandeur of the more voluminous Mahayana
vaipulya sutras. The group of texts that contain the terms pariprccha and nirdesa in their
titles includes most of the sutras translated into Chinese during the second and third centuries
AD.114
It is noteworthy that some of the works included in the Ratnakuta collection occur also as
parts of other vaipulya sutras (in the Chinese canon) or, by virtue of their content, are
incorporated into other sections of the Tripitaka. The Saptasatikaprajhaparamitd, for instance,
is a prajhaparamita text that is also found in the Mahaprajnapdramitd Section of the Chinese
canon (T 232).115 A translation of the Ratnacudapariprcchd (Red) is also included in the
Mahasamnipata collection (T 397). Other texts, such as Rkt 1, 23, 24, and 44 bear strong
resemblance to Vinaya texts. So, too, Rkt 13 and 14 exhibit close parallels to a section of the
Mulasarvastivada Vinaya.116
In the Taisho Tripitaka, the bulk of the forty-nine Ratnakuta sutras is followed by a large
number of texts that were apparently considered to be closely related to the collection proper
by Taisho compilers who base their opinions on older traditions (Ming, 1368-1644 AD).
Among them are five translations of the Sukhdvativyuha (T 360-364), nine texts related to
the themes found in the Sukhdvativyuha, such as the Smaller Sukhdvativyuha and the Am-
itdyurdhyana (T 365-373), two translations of the Ratnakuta(samadhi)siitra (T 355, 356),
three versions of the Sarvabuddhavisaydvatarasutra, as well as a few miscellaneous earlier
translations of Ratnakuta works, such as the Aksobhyatathagatasyavyuha (T 313),Dasadhar-
makasutra (T 314) and Mahjusribuddhaksetragunavyuha111 It therefore cannot be ruled out

113. Several o f its titles contain references to well known personalities from the nikaya. The best known
examples are Ugra and Ratthapala (Rkt IS, 19). Others are addressed to figures who were among the very
first converts o f the Buddha at Varanasi (Rkt 17,26, 33).
114. Bagchi, 1927, pp. 40-44, 86-114.
115. Lancaster, 1979, p. 7.
116. Lalou compares both versions with their corresponding passages found in the Vinaya section o f the
Tibetan Canon, noting divergencies between the three texts (Lalou, 1927, pp. 240-243).
117. Lancaster, 1979, pp. 24-27

51
 The Maharatnakuta

that, at some stage, the collection may have comprised more, or at least different, sutras than
those which are currently included.
The oldest (Chinese) translations of some of the Ratnakuta sutras, according to the Taisho
index, date back to the later years of the Eastern Han Dynasty (202 BC-AD 220).118They are
the Sukhdvativyuha (Rkt 5), Aksobhyatathagatasyavyuha (Rkt 6), Ug (Rkt 19),
Maitreyapariprcchddharmasta (Rkt 41) and Kp (Rkt 43). Records show that their translations
were done between AD 150 and AD 185. Rkt 6, 19 and 43 are attested as Han translations by
the oldest surviving catalogue of the Chinese Buddhist canon, the Ch ’u san tsang chi chi of
Seng-yu (T 2145), written in AD 515.119A further seventeen to nineteen sutras were rendered
into Chinese between the fall of the Han (AD 220) and the fall of the Western Chin Dynasty
in AD 317.120 Considering that three further sutras among those which had already been
translated during the Han Dynasty were retranslated within one hundred years, there must
have been a sizeable interest among early Chinese translators in several of the Ratnakuta
texts.121
One of the main protagonists in this early translation period was a monk called Dharmaraksa
(AD 230-308). Bom in Tun-huang of a Yueh-chih family, he was primarily active in Chang-an
between AD 266 and 304.122There, he translated at least thirteen Ratnakuta sutras.™ Dharma­
raksa is not known to have travelled to India, but most of his translations are based on
Sanskrit versions that he acquired in Central Asia. Although in the years following his death
various translators continued to engage in the translation of Ratnakuta texts, there can be
little doubt that in China the era of greatest interest in the collection was during Dharmaraksa’s
lifetime. During the fourth and fifth centuries interest in Ratnakuta texts must have waned as

For a complete list o f these texts see the respective entries in Appendix iii.
118. Lancaster, 1979, pp. 27-34.
119. Schuster, op. cit., p. 4; Link, 1958, p. 18.
120. According to the Ch ’u san tsang chi chi, the number is seventeen while the Taisho Daizokyd lists nineteen
texts whose earliest (Chinese) translations fall within this period (Lancaster, 1979, pp. 24-35).
121. The Sukhavativyuhasutra was rendered into Chinese at least four more times, the Ug at least twice and the
Kp once.
122 Dharmaraksa dominated the Buddhist communities of his time at Tun-huang and Chang-an. He is accredited
with the translation o f over one hundred and fifty Buddhist texts, with the foundation o f monasteries and
with the propagation o f Mahayana thought. Although bom and educated in Tun-huang, he spent most o f
his time at Chang-an, the Chinese capital o f that period. He remained there at work with a great number of
disciples until he was driven out shortly before his death by invasions and warfare at the beginning o f the
fourth century AD (DemiSville, L 'Inde Classique, p. 414; Shih, 1968, pp. 33-37).
123. The Taisho Daizokyd attributes the following sixteen Ratnakuta translations to Dharmaraksa while others
accredit him only with thirteen: Rkt 3, 4 (?), 5 (?), 10,13, 15, 19, 21, 30, 32, 33, 36, 37 (?), 38, 42 (?) and
47. Those marked with a question mark have been contested. For further details see: Renou, 1953, § 2074;
Schuster, op. cit., p. 3, n. 14; Bagchi, 1927, pp. 83-114.

52
 The Maharatnakuta

only a few texts are known to have been translated in that period. In all, twenty-two Ratnakuta
had been rendered into Chinese by the end of the fifth century.124No doubt, the frequency of
their translation allows for inferences to be drawn about the importance that was assigned to
these sutras during the centuries when Mahayana Buddhism made major inroads into Chinese
society.
The earliest reference in the Chinese canon to a Ratnakuta collection consisting of forty-nine
sutras dates back to the T’ang dynasty (AD 618-907). It gives an account of a South Indian
Brahmin called Bodhiruci (AD 571-727) under whose supervision a team of translators
edited and partly rendered the Ratnakuta into Chinese.125 On his arrival in China in AD 693,
Bodhiruci is said to have been in possession of the Sanskrit originals.126 These texts came to
form the foundation of the collection as it is known to us. At first, however, Bodhiruci’s
assistance was sought by Siksananda who was then engaged in the translation of the Bud-
dhavatamsaka (AD 695-698). Thus it was only in AD 706 that Bodhiruci set to work on the
Ratnakuta. Out of a total of forty-nine sutras Bodhiruci is accredited with the translation of
twenty-six texts, apparently considering the remaining twenty-three (then extant) translations
as being satisfactorily executed.127 The translations which he incorporated into his edition of
the Ratnakuta had been translated by a total of fifteen scholars from different backgrounds
over a period of more than four hundred years.128Bodhiruci retranslated fifteen texts that had

124. The .number o f texts cited in the Taisho index is higher. It lists twenty-six Ratnakuta translations that were
undertaken in the second to the fifth centuries. However, this list does not seem to take into consideration
duplicate translations. We are told o f six translations of the Ug to have been completed by ca. AD 425, for
instance, yet only three are extant and can be accounted for (Bagchi, 1927, p. 391).
125. The Ta pao chi ching (in the Taisho Shinshu Daizokyd edition o f the Chinese Tripitaka, ed. by J.
Takakusu et al., no. 310 in vol. 11, p. la l-659a 27) contains an Imperial preface (hsu) by Jui-tsung dated
AD 713 (p. la 1-b 19). It refers to a collection o f forty-nine sutras called Pao chi pu {Ratnakuta section)
which have been translated between AD 706 and 713 by a team o f translators led by a certain Bodhiruci
(BTI, 28, pp. 5-6).
126. There is agreement among Buddhist scholars that by the time Bodhiruci arrived in China a Ratnakuta
collection o f some form must have been in existence in India. Wayman writes that “Bodhiruci, a native o f
South India, who arrived in China in AD 693 ... brought with him the Sanskrit text o f the Ratnakuta
collection o f individual Mahayana sutras” (Wayman, 1974, p. 9).
Lu Ch’eng (1971) goes even further, stating that “Bodhiruci had brought to China a new (sic.) Sanskrit
text o f this [Ratnakuta] sutra” and that “he took advantage of the special structure o f the Maharatnakuta
sutra ... making suitable adjustments in compiling and translating it”. Unfortunately, Lu Ch’eng does not
document such an important statement by referring to his sources. In any event, he seems to be suggesting
that on Bodhiruci’s arrival in Loyang he was already in possession o f a well-structured collection o f
forty-nine Sanskrit texts which he then improved and rendered into Chinese. He does not say whether at
that time the collection already bore the name under which it came to be known or whether it differed
significantly from Bodhiruci’s edition. He also does not speak about the circumstances o f its origin. See:
Bagchi, 1938, pp. 541-543.
127. From among the already existing translations he selected the following works which included in his
edition: Rkt, 1,2, 3, 4, 8, 9 ,1 2 , 14,15, 1 6 ,1 7 ,1 8 ,1 9 , 23, 26, 32, 33, 36, 38, 39, 46, 47,44.
128. For their names and biographical data, see my notes in Appendix iii.

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 The Maharatnakuta

apparently been badly done or were incomplete, and rendered for the first time into Chinese
eleven texts that had so far not been translated. Thus he cast the collection into the form in
that it exists today.129 He received the official request to engage in the translation of the
Ratnakuta in AD 706 from the Emperor Chung-tsung. Supported by a team of assistant
scholars of largely Indian origin, he was able to report on the completion of his task after
seven years in AD 713.
The Tibetan Buddhist tradition appears to have modelled its version(s) of the Ratnakuta
collection on that of Bodhiruci. The overall arrangement in all Tibetan editions corresponds
closely to the structure of the Chinese version. Several of the sutras included in the dKon-brtsegs
(.Ratnakuta) section appear to have been translated directly from the Chinese, thus giving
further testimony to a close relationship between the Sino-Tibetan literary traditions.130 The
vast majority of the Tibetan translations, however, are based on Sanskrit originals. Many of
them had already been translated during the so called ‘first diffusion’ of the Buddhist faith in
Tibet (AD 641-838) and were revised and rearranged at a later date into a collection of
forty-nine texts.
When we consider the number of sutras included in the various Tibetan editions of the
Ratnakuta and their respective listing in the catalogues we find certain minor differences.
The Ratnakuta version of sDe-dge edition seems to correspond most closely to the collection
as compiled by Bodhiruci. It too lists forty-nine sutras and the sequence of the texts is
identical with those of the Chinese Ratnakuta. The Peking and sNar-than editions, by contrast,
contain irregularities. Although both of them comprise the forty-nine texts found in Bodhiruci’s
edition, they do not agree in their sequence.131
129. Bodhiruci’s translation o f the forty-ninth parivarta, the Rsivyasapariprccha, breaks o ff abruptly shortly
before the end. Roughly three hundred characters (tzu) are missing (ref. Schuster). The missing passages
are easily restored from an earlier, still surviving, translation o f the text in question (T 354). The question,
however, remains whether this omission is simply the result o f (accidental) mishandling, or whether it
reflects a sudden change o f mood in the minds of the royal sponsors. Clearly, after AD 716 the atmosphere
at the court became more adverse to the translation efforts o f possibly too ambitious monk-scholars. In
AD 717, for instance, Subhakarasimha’s request for royal support in his translation o f Sanskrit Dharani
texts was silently rejected by the emperor.
130. At least seven o f the forty-nine texts had been translated directly from the Chinese.
The sNar-than edition o f the Tibetan Tripitaka refers to the Varmavyuhanirdesa (Rkt 7), (A)nandagarbha-
vakrantinirdesa (Rkt 13) and Darikdvimalasraddhdpariprccha (Rkt 40) to have been translated by Chos-grub
(Fa-cheng) directly from the Chinese. Recent research has established that the Rasmisamantamuktanirdesa
(Rkt 11), Ayusmannandagarbhavakrantinirdesa (Rkt 14), Purnapariprchd (Rkt 17) and Vidyut(prdp-
ta)pariprccha (Rkt 20) are also based on Chinese sources (Sakurabe, “Tibetto-yaku Dai-Hoshaku-kyo no
Kenkyu”, Otani Gakuho, 11, p. 550).
131. Six sutras are in particular affected: the (A)nandagarbhdvakrantinirdesa (Rkt 13), Ayusmannanadagarbha-
vakrdntinirdesa (Rkt 14), Purnapariprchd (Rkt 17), Rastrapdlapariprccha (Rkt 18), Ratnarasi (Rkt 44)
and Aksayamatipariprccha (Rkt 45). In both editions their position in the overall scheme o f the collection

54
 The Maharatnakuta

Lalou pointed to three further documents that exhibit irregularities concerning the composition
of the Tibetan Ratnakuta P 2 First, there is the table of contents of the Peking bKah-hgyur
which records only forty-four texts as belonging to the Ratnakuta. Second, there is a bKah-hgyur
manuscript held in the Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin which cites only forty-seven sutras.133
Third, there is the catalogue of the ‘Lhan-dkar collection’ commissioned by Khri-gtsugs-lde-
brtsan (815-838 AD). According to its table of contents, as preserved in the Peking edition,
the Saptasatikaprajhaparamita (Rkt 46) is not part of the Ratnakuta collection, but belongs to
the Prajhaparamita Section.134 Despite such anomalies, the actual number of texts included
in all editions of the Tibetan canon is forty-nine.
The history of the collection prior to Bodhiruci has not been subject to any systematic
research. Uncertainty prevails with regard to the date, place and historical circumstances in
which the Ratnakuta collection may have been shaped. The source material can be grouped
into four major working categories. First, there is a sizeable body of Chinese translations of
Indian Buddhist writings, including some indigenous exegical material. Second, there are
Buddhist texts of Indian origin, usually in their original Hybrid Sanskrit idiom. Third, there
are Tibetan translations of Sanskrit texts, commentarial and historical documents. Finally,
there exists a small, but potentially significant, group of (fragmented) miscellaneous works of
Khotanese, Singhalese and South Indian origin.

Chinese Sources

The earliest reference to a collection of sutras bearing the name Maharatnakuta is contained
in the Dasabhumikavibhasasastra (Dbh-v), a commentarial work traditionally ascribed to
Nagarjuna. No Sanskrit or Tibetan versions of the text are known to exist. The only Chinese
translation extant was done by Kumarajiva between AD 402 and 415, entitled Shih chu p 7

differs. While in the sNar-than edition the (A)nandagarbhdvakrantinirdesa follows upon the Ayusman-
nanadagarbhavakrantinirdesa, the Rastrapdlapariprccha upon the Purnapariprchd and the Aksayamati-
pariprccha upon the Ratnarasisutra, the reverse order is found in the Peking edition.
132 Lalou, 1927, p. 237.
133. See: Hermann Beckh. “Verzeichnis der Tibetischen Handschriften”. Die Handschrifien-verzeichnisse der
Koniglichen Bibliothek zu Berlin, xxiv, 1914, pp. 16-25.
134. TTP, 127, fol. 352a-373a (item no. 25-72; ref. Lalou)
Lalou. “Les texts Bouddhiques au Temps du Roi Khri-sron-lde-bcan”. JA, 241, 1953 , pp. 320-21.

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 The Maharatnakuta

p ’o sha lun.ns Here a reference is made to a chapter (hui) of the Ratnakuta, called Kasyapa-
parivarta.136 It also cites a text called Aksayamatipariprcchd as belonging to the same collection.
Another reference to an Aksayamatipariprcchd as forming a part of a Ratnakuta is found in
the Chinese rendering of the Mahdprajndparamitdsdstra (.Mpps).137Both works are contained
in Bodhiruci’s edition of the Ratnakuta collection, occupying the forty-third and forty-fifth
position respectively. In addition, Japanese scholarship has shown that quotations in the
Dbh-v from the Ug and the Vimaladattapariprcchd correspond to texts contained in the
Ratnakuta under the same names (Rkt 19 and Rkt 33 respectively).138 Also, the twelfth sutra
of the Ratnakuta, the Bdp, is quoted in the Dbh-v. All this suggests that Kumarajiva was
aware of some Ratnakuta collection. Since both works were produced in Kucha, such a
collection was probably available in Central Asia. If we allow some time for the process of
transmission, this evidence suggests the existence of a Ratnakuta collection during the fourth
century AD. Yet very little can be said about its structure and content, except that it included
the Kp and Aksayamatipariprcchd and possibly the Bdp, Ug and Vimaladattapariprcchd.139

135. T 1521.
136. This way o f reference to the individual sutras o f the Ratnakuta collection was subsequently adopted by
Bodhiruci. In the place o f sutra (ching), he employed the term hui meaning assembly (or section, chapter),
probably because he perceived the individual sutras as forming a part in an overall scheme. This usage
contrasts the terminology employed by the authors in the translations o f individual sutras executed in the
preceding centuries. Here, as a rule, the term ching meaning sutra is applied. Indeed, Kumarajiva’s rather
unusual terminology could be taken to indicate that by the late fourth century AD some o f the previously
unassociated Ratnakuta sutras had become a part o f an overall structure.
137. M pps,pp. 1245, 1272j 1762.
138. Kajiyama, Y. 1968, p. 197; Hirakawa, A. 1963, p. 98 .
139. In the light o f its importance for illuminating the earliest known literary form o f our collection a closer
examination o f the history o f the Dbh-v (T 1526) seems appropriate. It has already been mentioned that its
authorship was ascribed to Nagaijuna by Kumarajiva. Modern scholarship has cast some doubts on its
authenticity since the ideas put forward do not seem to correspond to those normally associated with
Nagarjuna.
This fact was for the first time highlighted in an influential article published by A. Hirakawa in 1957 (IBK
5, 2, pp. 504 ff) where he challenges the claim o f authenticy.Lamotte, on the other hand, holds the view
that it has been composed by the founder o f Madhyamaka thought (see: Lamotte, op. c it, p. xcvii).Ruegg,
a well-known authority on Madhyamaka literature, takes a more cautious position by pointing to the need
o f further detailed research on this matter (see: Ruegg, 1982, p. 29, n. 67).
A number o f Chinese sources clearly accredit this work to the founder o f the Madhyamaka. In the Chinese
translation o f the Suvikrdntavikramapariprccha Prajhaparamitasutra, for instance, it is listed among the
works attributed to Nagaijuna (cf. Hikata, R., 1958, pp. lii, sq. lxxii sq where it is mentioned along with
the Mulamadhyamakakdrika, Ta-chi-tu-lun and Bodhisambhdrasastra). Chinese catalogues include it under
the title o f P'u sa hui kuo ching amongst the texts o f Nagarjuna allegedly translated by Dharmaraksa
between AD 265 and 313 at Chang-an (Bagchi, 1927, i, p. 100).
Lamotte (pp. cit., p. xcvii) points to passages in the C h’u san tsang chi chi (T 2145, ch. 2, p. 8b 17), a
commentarial work composed in the first half o f the sixth century, and the Li tai san pao chi (T 2034, ch.
6, p. 63a 23) both o f which note the translation and remark: “The colophon says that it is an extract from
the Dasabhumikavibhdsasdstra o f Nagaijuna” (trsl. Lamotte). In any event, the fact that one o f the
translations o f the Dbh-v is firmly accredited to Dharmaraksa highlights the possibility that it was extant
as early as the third, or possibly the second century AD. This suggests a new, as yet hypothetical, terminus
ad quem for the existence o f our collection.

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 The Maharatnakuta

The first reference to the Ratnakuta as being established amongst the major Buddhist
scriptures is found in the Li tai san pao chi.140 Here we read how the Gandharan translator
Jnanagupta (arrival in Chang-an in AD 559) relates that the following twelvefold division of
Buddhist scriptures was established in the south-east of the country of Che-chu-chia (modem
day Karghalik): the Mahdsamnipata, Avatamsaka, Vaipulya, Ratnakuta, Lankavatara, Lalita-
vistara, Sariputradharani, Puspakutadharani, Tusaragarbha, Mahdprajhaparamitd, Pra-
jhdpdramitd in eight sections and Mahameghasutra.141 This division places the Ratnakuta
(collection) alongside the titles of other well-known major works. Jnanagupta’s account not
only suggests a Ratnakuta collection in some form as early as the beginning of the sixth
century, but also allows for inferences about its geographical area of circulation.
The first reference before the times of Bodhiruci that points to a Ratnakuta collection of
considerable length and popularity is found in the biographies of Hsuan-tsang.142 On New
Year’s Day in AD 664, he is said to have been approached by a group of scholar-monks who
requested him to translate the Ratnakuta collection. He declined on the grounds that the
collection was as long as the voluminous Mahdprajhdparamitasutra (T 220), whose translation
he had just completed. At his advanced age he saw little prospects of mustering the strength
required to complete such a formidable task. He eventually opened his manuscript after
repeated appeals and began to translate a few lines, only to resign a few minutes later.143
Three conclusions can be drawn from this account. First, some forty years before Bodhiruci’s
A major problem is the reliability o f our sources when they comment on events which took place several
centuries before their compilation. The C h’u san tsang chi chi, composed between AD 502 and 557 by
Seng-yu, writes about events which reportedly took place two hundred and fifty years earlier. This
time-span is even greater in the case o f the 2 / tai san pao chi which was compiled by Fei Ch’ang-fang in
AD 597. See T 2154-537a:27 and T 2154-624:16 respectively (Lancaster, 1979, p. 366).
One cannot assert with certainty whether the version translated by Dharmaraksa in the third century AD
was identical with that rendered into Chinese by Kumarajiva one hundred and fifty years later. As
Lancaster says, Sanskrit manuscripts had the tendency to undergo considerable changes in the course o f
their history, reflecting doctrinal shifts in emphasis which mark all living religious traditions (Lancaster,
1975, pp. 32 ff.). Furthermore, Kumarajiva is known to have interpolated his translations frequently with
his own thoughts without indicating such course of action (Hikata, 1958, pp. lii-ixxxiii; Link, 1961, p. 89;
Lamotte, 1973, pp. 41-49). Therefore to conclude that the references contained in Kumarajiva’s translation
must have been included already in Dharmaraksa’s version lacks the desired foundation. Nevertheless,
interesting possibilities are suggested.
140. T 2034 (ref. Stanton-Pedersen).
141. The titles o f the texts have been conjectured from the Chinese sources by Stanton-Pedersen. Nanjio’s
catalogue contains a work called Sariputradharani (N. 353). I have not been able to locate a Puspakutadharani
or Tusaragarbha in any o f the catalogues.
142 See: Waley, 1952, p. 126; Bagchi, 1927-38, ii, pp. 542-543. Stanton-Pedersen, 1980, p. 64, cites the
following Chinese sources as containing the complete account: Ta-t’ang-ku-san-tsang-Hsuan-tsang-fa-
shih-hsing-chuang (T 2052, vol. 50, p. 219a), and Ta-tz’u-en-ssu-san-tsang-fa-shih-ch ’uan (T 2053 vol.
50, p. 276c).
143. See Ta-tz'u-en-ssu-san-tsang-fa-shih-ch'uan (T 2053, vol. 50, pp. 236a, 254a and 258a, ref. Schuster, op.
cit., p. 22; cf. Mochizuki, 1954, pp. 3418a, 25b, 26).

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 The Maharatnakuta

translation Chinese scholar-monks knew of the existence of the Ratnakuta collection of a

length comparable to that of the Mahdprajndparamitasutra. This raises the possibility that by
then it already comprised many of the texts presently included in the Ratnakuta. Second, the
Ratnakuta must have had great renown. Otherwise would such a venerated but aged Tripitaka
master have been selected for the task of translating it at a time when other capable translators
were at hand? Third, Hsiian-tsang seems to have been in possession of some Sanskrit version
of the Ratnakuta, presumably brought from India.
Unfortunately, neither Hsiian-tsang’s biographers nor his Si-yu-ki mention the place where
Hsiian-tsang might have procured the Ratnakuta texts. Only the acquisition of the Bdp is
recorded. He received this text in the monastery of Shih-fei-to-pu-lo (Svetapura), located on
the river Ganges some eighty to one hundred li south of Vai£all. About the monastery and its
inhabitants he reports that it was inhabited by Mahayana monks who paid close allegiance to
the spirit and letter of both the Dharma and Vinaya.144
Of all six hundred and fifty works he brought home, the Bdp is one of the few texts that
Hsiian-tsang gave details about the place and circumstances of its acquisition. It was also
among the few texts that he chose to translate immediately on his return to China. Clearly,
this suggests that he either held the Bdp personally in high esteem, or that it must have
enjoyed great renown in India or, locally, in Svetapura monastery.145
The texts that Hsiian-tsang brought from India but remained untranslated at his death (AD
664) were deposited in the Tzu-en temple in Chang-an. Their translation was held in abeyance
after the master’s death. If our sources are correct, a copy of the Ratnakuta collection, or at
144. Li Yung-hsi, 1959, p. 98 and Beal, 1981, pp. 75,76.
145. His travel account, commissioned by the Emperor, does not contain any indications that Hsiian-tsang was
aware o f the Bodhisattvapitaka as forming a part o f an overall collection, although his knowledge o f a
collection o f texts bearing the name Ratnakhta is recorded in his biography, in connection with his
translation attempt in AD 664, twenty years after his return from India. The time elapsed between these
two events prompted Schuster to speak about the possibility whether “the compilation o f the Ratnakuta in
forty-nine sections might not have been accomplished in China between AD 645 and 664, by putting
together forty-nine texts from among the six hundred odd which Hsiian-tsang had brought with him from
India”.
She concedes that this leaves us with several other problems. First, the collection’s Chinese origin seems
irreconcilable with the (Chinese) account o f Bodhiruci bringing a complete copy o f the Ratnakuta from
India in AD 693. Second, how likely is it that Hsiian-tsang knew o f the precise extent o f Dharmaraksa’s
translation activity at Chang-an between AD 265 and 308? Without such knowledge he could have hardly
matched up his selection with those thirteen Ratnakuta texts Dharmaraksa had rendered into Chinese four
hundred years earlier and leave out those texts he could not correlate with the Indian manuscripts in his
possession. Is it really conceivable that the scrupulous Hsiian-tsang, who went to such lengths in order to
acquaint himself with genuine Indian Buddhism, conspired to create a new collection o f sutras? Acceptance
this theory means that one would have to discount the evidence provided by the Tibetan Buddhist tradition
that points to an Indian origin o f a (basic) Rattiakuta collection. I think that we can thus safely rule out the
possibility o f Hsiian-tsang’s compilership o f the Ratnakuta.

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 The Maharatnakuta

least large parts of it, would have been kept in the Tzu-en temple from 665 AD onwards.146
As I already observed, Chinese traditions maintain that on his arrival in China Hsiian-tsang
had the entire collection in Sanskrit in his possession. However, no reference is made at any
point to its structure or contents, nor are there indications of what happend to his Sanskrit
collection after it had been deposited in the Tzu-en temple in our sources. If the Chinese
traditions are correct, then by AD 630-644 (Hsiian-tsang’s period of travel) there must have
been in some part of India a literary tradition associated with the Ratnakuta collection,
perhaps even as it stands today. Schuster says that Bodhiruci’s biographer makes it sound as
if he might have been requested to bring a full copy with him to the Chinese capital.147 If
credence is to be given to this account, we may infer that by the late seventh-century
Hsiian-tsang’s Ratnakuta Sanskrit version was either not available to the court translators, or
that it had never been a complete one.

Indian Sources

The other major category of sources relevant to our research are, of course, the texts
belonging to the Indian Buddhist tradition. These consist in the following (fragmented)
Sanskrit versions of Ratnakuta texts: Sukhdvativyuha (Rkt 5), Mahjusnbuddhaksetragunavyuha
(Rkt 15), Rp (Rkt 18), Vinayaviniscaya-Updlipariprccha (Rkt 24), Kp (Rkt 43), Ratnarasisutra
(Rkt 44) and Saptasatikaprajndpdramita (Rkt 46)148. Since these works represent but a small
fraction of the total body of the collection, by themselves they do not provide much ground
to assess the manner of the collection’s formation or its date of compilation.
Besides these seven works, a number of quotations of Ratnakuta works have been preserved
in later Buddhist literature. Most of them are contained in the Sifa and Ms/.149 Other short

146. There are several other recorded cases where the scriptures of deceased Chinese scholar-travellers were
deposited in local temples for safe-keeping. One such account tells o f the texts that Wu-ching collected in
India towards the end o f the seventh century. After his death—he never reached his homeland as he died
on the journey from Northern India— these were brought by his disciples to the Hua-yan temple. There,
they were taken up in AD 716 by &ubhakarasimha for study. No such resumption o f study o f Hsiian-tsang’s
material is known to have taken place (Hodge. The Buddhist Forum, forthcoming, pp. 9-10).
147. Schuster, op. cit., p. 13.
148. Almost all o f these texts have already been the object o f detailed studies. For the authorship, date and
place o f publication, see Appendix iii.
149. Seventeen out o f the total o f forty-nine works are referred to by name and quoted in these two texts. No
mentioning, however, is made by either Asanga or ^antideva o f them as belonging to any kind o f a
collection (&iks, p. 367-371; Msl, p. 165).

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 The Maharatnakuta

quotations o f Ratnakuta texts are contained in the Ratnagotravibhaga,150 in Prajnakaramati’s

commentary on the Bodhicaryavatara}51 in Candraklrti’s Prasannapada152 and in the Bud-
dhagotrasastra attributed to Vasubandhu.153 While these quotations are valuable from the
philological point of view, they do not reveal any information on the history or structure of
the collection as a whole. The exception to this is possibly the Sifo. It contains a large
number of quotations from the Ratnakuta taken from a total of fifteen texts. Although
Santideva does not associate them with any overall collection, the mere fact that they are
frequently referred to en bloc in doctrinally related contexts suggests that he was probably
aware of their interconnection. However, we must conclude that the Ratnakuta was not
widely known in India since he does not refer to them as being part of an established
collection.
In the past there has been some confusion with regard to the origin of some of his quotations
from the Ratnakuta. In seven instances the Siks says that they were taken from a work called
Ratnakuta}5* Initially, this reference was taken to mean that &antideva was aware of a
collection of that name on which he drew for canonical quotations. Baron von Stael-Holstein
corrected this misunderstanding at the beginning of the twentieth century. He positively
established that all quotations referred to by Santideva as belonging to the Ratnakuta were
taken from a work which was known already to the Tibetan translators as the K p}55
Due to Santideva’s way of referring to the Kp, it is up to the present day that it is frequently
referred to as the ‘old Ratnakuta\ 156Despite having given rise to some confusion, &antideva’s
usage of the title Ratnakuta throws light on the role played by the Kp in the history of the
collection. Frequently, the Kp is taken to have formed the nucleus of the Ratnakuta collection.
150. The quotations contained in the Ratnagotravibhaga are primarily taken from the &ms. They have been
collected, arranged in the order o f their appearance and published by Ui, H. in Hoshoron kenkyu, 1959,
Tokyo.
151. La Vallee Poussin, 1901-1914, pp. 147, 153^1, 526, 527.
152 La Vallee Poussin, 1913, pp. 53.7-54.4, 121.4-122.2, 155.1-12, 191.2-9, 234.10, 256.12-258.5,
348.14-349.2, 408.10-409.6, 429.4-430.4, 474.7-10.
153. Stanton-Pedersen, 1980, p. 62.
The text most frequently cited is here the Kp. For an array o f references to the Kp in Mahayana sources,
see: Mpps, pp. 1845-6.
154. See, for instance, pp. 54.11-14, 55.3-5. There we read: “.. .how this comes to pass is described in the
Ratnakuta” or “the way to avoid the loss o f the thought o f enlightenment is still more clearly set forth in
this same work, the Ratnakuta” (other references are found at pp. 52.12, 58.17,146.4,148.8, 196.11).
155. Stael-Holstein, 1926, p. xvi.
The Tibetan equivalent o f the title Kdsyapaparivarta is hphags p a hod sruns kyi lehu ie s bya ba theg p a
chen pohi mdo.
156. Japanese scholars, in particular, seem to favour this term. In Bodhiruci’s edition, this work has been
retitled Samantaprabhdsabodhisattvapariprcchd. Apparently this alteration was made in order to avoid
confusion with the Mahdkdsyapasahgitisimhanada, Rkt 23 in the Ratnakuta collection.

60
 The Maharatnakuta

Santideva’s mode of reference (also adapted by the Ms/) seems to support such a view.
Starting from such an assumption, the Kp would have become already at an early stage a kind
of doctrino-literary ‘flagship’ of the entire collection. In fact, large sections of it give a
well-balanced doctrinal cross-section of Ratnakuta thought.157 As a literary document it is
undoubtedly worthy of the title Ratnakuta (‘accumulation of jewels’).158A similar development
seems to have occurred in other collections. One only needs to reflect on the role of the Asta
among the many texts that comprise the Prajnapdramitd literature. Chronologically, an early
version of the Kp might well have been among the first texts to be included in the Ratnakuta
as it was among the very first texts to be translated into Chinese.159

Tibetan Sources

Tibetan sources are of minor importance for research into the history of the Ratnakuta.
Although the meticulously executed translations of the forty-nine sutras are invaluable for
determining the respective doctrinal positions, they yield little relevant data on the historical
processes that shaped the collection as a whole.
O f far greater interest are the accounts composed by the Tibetan historians Bu-ston and
Taranatha. In his Chos-hbyuh, Bu-ston observes that though the Ratnakuta consisted originally
of one hundred thousand chapters, only forty-nine were still extant at his time.160 Since he
makes similar remarks on almost all other major Mahayana scriptures, claiming that in their
present form they represent only a fraction of their ‘original’ size, caution should be exercised
about the historical value of his statement. It seems likely that the motivation behind his
statement was a pious wish to exalt Buddhist scriptural heritage rather than scholarly exactitude.
Bu-ston and Taranatha’s descriptions of the circumstances in which the ‘one hundred
thousand books’ came to be known are of greater significance. The books are said to have
first appeared at the time of the Third Buddhist Council organised by King Kaniska at around

157. See, in particular, Kp, pp. 50-68, 92-100.

158. In the Asokavadana, we read o f an island called Ratnakuta. The location o f this place is o f course not
known. According to this legend it is reached via the Magadha port o f Tamralipti (Przyluski, 1923, p.
104).
159. Stael-Holstein, 1926, p. iii; Tao-hsiian (Ta t ’ang nei den lu, T 2149-223c: 18) according to whom it was
first translated in AD i 79 by Lokaksema.
160. Obermiller, 1931-32, p. 169 (ref. Schuster).

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 The Maharatnakuta

AD 100 in Kashmir.161 The same sources inform us that the diminution of the collection to its
present forty-nine texts took place in the years between the life-times of Matrceta (second
century AD) and Asariga (AD 290-350) “in a period when Buddhism endured a general
decline in northern India”. So far I have not been able to locate any third-party accounts
which would confirm these details. Bu-ston and Taranatha do not cite their sources. Existing
archeological evidence and historical accounts contain little to indicate that there was a
general decline in the fortunes of the Sangha during the second and fourth centuries.162 And
yet, if credence is given to their reports, one would have to place the origin of our collection
in India, in the early centuries AD.
Elsewhere in the same source Bu-ston relates that “this teacher (Sthiramati) has studied the
Ratnakuta up to the forty-ninth chapter and composed a commentary on it.” 163 A similar
statement is contained in Taranatha’s account.164 The commentary in question has been
preserved in both the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist traditions.165Frauwallner, in his brilliant
article “Landmarks in the History of Indian Logic”, places the dates of Sthiramati between
AD 510 and 570.166 Japanese scholars have suggested even earlier dates, setting his period of
activity between AD 470 and 550.167 Apparently, we have here a reference that places the
dates of an Indian version of our collection as early as the fifth century AD.
Again, a more cautious approach seems to be in order if we consider the following factors.
First, as mentioned above, when Sthiramati and other Indian Buddhists mention or quote
from the Ratnakuta they usually refer to the Kp. Second, the compilers of the Mvy appear to
have been unaware of a collection of texts called Ratnakuta. Although they enumerate as
independent sutras fourteen of the texts contained in Bodhiruci’s edition, they do not mention
them as being part of a collection.168 Third, the catalogue of the sDe-dge edition of the
Tibetan Tripitaka explicitly states that the Ratnakuta collection, consisting of forty-nine

161. Obermiller, 1931-32, pp. 169,170; Schiefner, 1868, pp. 63, 98.
162. La Vallee Poussin. Dynasties et Histoire de Tlnde depuis Kanishka jusquax invasions musulmanes. Paris:
1935, pp. 7-71. Renou; Filliozat. LTnde Classique. i, pp. 237-256.
163. Obermiller, 1931-32, ii, p. 148.
164. Schiefner, 1868, p. 130.
165. Chinese: (T 1523), translated by Bodhiruci (the younger) between AD 508 and 535; Tibetan: TTP 5510.
166 WZKSO, 5, 1961, pp. 136-137.
167. WZKSO, 1968-69, pp. 194-199.
168. Mvy 1355 (Rkt 3), 1330 (12), 1381 (15), 1333 (16), 1361 (18), 1396 (19), 1393 (26), 1407 (28), 1394 (37),
1364 (43), 1400 (45), 1391 (46), 1363 (47), 1392 (49).
In the Mvy, a work called Ratnakuta is listed in position thirty-nine (Mvy 1364). There is, however, no
evidence indicating that the authors may have associated this sutra with our collection.

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 The Maharatnakuta

works, was compiled by putting together sutras from India, China and Khotan.169 It seems
that both Bu-ston and Taranatha formulated their statements about the Ratnakuta on the
grounds of a misinterpretation of Sthiramati’s usage of the term Ratnakuta.
The majority of Tibetan texts included in the Ratnakuta were translated during the first half
of the ninth century. They were translated by translation teams that often comprised Sanskrit
scholars from India, Bactria and Tibet working together, using Indian manuscripts. Apparently
they did not hesitate to consult Central Asian or even Chinese copies of the text in questions
in the event of doubt.170
Many of these scholars participated also in the compilation of the Mvy. Written prior to the
translation-work proper, the Mvy does not contain a complete list of the sutras that, in due
course, came to form the bKah-hgyur. Among the sutra titles included there is a long list of
works that form part of the present Ratnakuta collection. Interestingly, there appears to be far
reaching agreement between the list contained in the Mvy and those found in the Indian
Buddhist Sanskrit literature of the eighth century AD. In the &iks, for instance, we find
thirteen of the fifteen Ratnakuta works that occur in the Mvy.m Of these thirteen, eleven are
also mentioned by Bu-ston in his Chos-hbyun, ten of which appear also in the Mvy.
A great number of texts common to both the Siks and Mvy are also found among the
Tibetan documents of Tun-huang. Altogether, these manuscripts contain twenty fragments of
Ratnakuta sutras. In a few instances, entire texts have been preserved while in others little
more than a brief citation or a reference in the colophon is extant.172Ten of these texts concur
with those quoted by Santideva while six accord with the Ratnakuta sutras enumerated in the
Mvy. The selection of the texts itself does not seem to reflect a premeditated choice. And
again, there is no evidence to indicate that this group of nineteen texts was conceived of as a
169. Otani bKah-hgyur Catalogue, p. 231, n. 1, folio 123a; (ref. Kajiyama).
170. Ch’en, 1946, pp. 53 ff.
171. Santideva quotes from the following eighteen texts: Rkt 3, 9,12 (?), 15, 16, 18, 19, 24, 25, 28, 29, 37, 38,
43, 44, 45, 47, 48. See also Candraklrti’s Prasannapada which refers to seven Ratnakuta works: Rkt 3, 16,
24, 25, 43, 45, and 47 (Vallee-Poussin, 1903-1913). Note that all o f these seven texts are also among
those quoted by Santideva.
172 References to following Ratnakuta sutras are contained in the various collections the Tibetan manuscripts
from Tun-huang:
Amitdyurvyiihanirdesa (Rkt 5), Dharmadhatuprakrtyasambhedanirdesa (Rkt 8), Dasadharmakasutra (Rkt
9), Rasmisamantamuktanirdesa (Rkt 11), Bdp (Rkt 12), Hymn addressed to Puma (Rkt 17?), Rastrapalapa-
riprccha (Rkt 18), Mahapratiharyanirdesa (Rkt 22), Maitreyasimhanada (Rkt 23), Vinayaviniscaya-
Updlipariprccha (Rkt 24), Adhyasyasamcodana (Rkt 25), Viradattagrhapatipariprccha (Rkt 28), Suma-
tidarikapariprcchd (Rkt 30), Gangottarapariprcchd(Rkt 31), Simhapariprccha (Rkt 37), Maitreyapariprcchd
(Rkt 42), Kp (Rkt 43), Ratnarasisutra (Rkt 44), Ratnacudpariprccha (Rkt 47) and a certain text called
Maharatnakutasutra which may be a reference to the Kp (Rkt 43). For their respective listing see: Lalou,
M. Fonts Peliiot Tibetain, Paris, 1927, and La Vallee Poussin, Oxford, 1962.

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 The Maharatnakuta

part of a greater collection or even to represent some cross-section of the latter. Since it is not
possible to establish the exact period in which these documents were deposited in the Tun-huang
caves, few chronological inferences can be drawn.173Nonetheless, judging by the large number
of references found to Ratnakuta sutras in its materials, it is clear that the Ratnakuta must
have been a popular collection in Central Asia.
Considering that &antideva’s list itself comprises only eighteen Ratnakuta citations, the
degree of concordance with those of the Mvy and the Tun-huang material is very high. In
none of these three source categories is there any explicit reference to a greater collection of
which these texts might have formed a part. Therefore we may infer the existence of fluctuating,
but commonly accepted, sutra lists in circulation in Northern India during the eighth and
ninth centuries AD.174In due course, these were transmitted to the Buddhist circles of Central
Asia and perhaps played a role in the formation of the Tibetan Tripitaka}15
The earliest inventory of the Tibetan canon dates back to the beginning of the ninth
century. Known as the catalogue of the ‘Lhan-dkar collection’ commissioned by Khri-gtsugs-
lde-brtsan, it speaks of a Ratnakuta consisting of forty-eight texts. The exact circumstances
in which this inventory was compiled are obscure, though it seems certain that it was drawn
up as part of the conversion efforts by the royal family to establish Buddhism in Tibet. The
authenticity of the Lhan-dkar listing is well established. Lalou has shown that the dating and
bibliographical details (e.g., names of translators, locations, etc.) correspond to what we
know from other sources about the initial translation activity in Tibet.176
The authors of this catalogue carefully distinguish between translations that were done
from the Sanskrit originals and those based on Chinese versions. Of the forty-eight Ratnakuta
173. There is no conclusive evidence when the caves themselves were sealed. Pelliot suggested that this may
have taken place during the first half o f the eleventh century while Uray proposed a date as early as 1002
AD. Tibetan literaiy activity itself appears to have diminished in the Tun-huang area in the first half o f the
ninth century (Rona-tas, Acta Orientalia Hungarica, 21, pp. 381-3).
174. Considering that Buddhist scholars from Central Asia and Bactria frequently participated in these translation
teams, one cannot exclude the possibility that such lists might have even existed in Central Asian Buddhist
circles other than those o f Tun-huang. So far, however, I have not been able to trace any evidence which
would support this thought.
175. Even if we accept this compilation mechanism, several question remain unanswered. Why, for instance,
did the Tibetan compilers o f the hKah-hgyur adopt the Chinese model o f the Ratnakuta and, at the same
time, fail to grant equal treatment to the Mahasamnipatal The first attested reference to the compilation o f
the Mahasamnipdta in its present format goes back to AD 594. Given the popularity o f this collection in
China, the fact that more than two hundred years separated this date from the first wave o f organised
translation activity in Tibet and the adoption o f the Ratnakuta format, one would expect to find this
collection also in the hKah-hgyur. This, however, is not the case although all o f its texts are included on
an individual basis in the ‘Sutra Section’. On the compilation o f the Mahasamnipata, see: L Tnde Classique,
ii, pp. 437-438.
176. Lalou, 1953, pp. 315-16.

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 The Maharatnakuta

translations listed in this catalogue not a single text is identified as going back to Chinese
translations. This indicates that the seven Chinese-based Ratnakuta translations we possess
today were composed at a later date. Either the early Sanskrit-based translations had vanished
during the years of civil strife or they were too poorly executed to warrant inclusion in the
manuscript collections of the thirteenth century. Apart from the omission of the Saptasatika-
prajnaparamita, the contents and structure of the Lhan-dkar Ratnakuta collection agrees
closely with Bodhiruci’s edition. Thus, the earliest period for which we can affirm the
existence of an almost complete Tibetan version of the Ratnakuta collection is the first half
of the ninth century AD.
It is worth noting that this period coincides with the epoch in which a cautious revival of
Sino-Tibetan relations after the signing of the peace treaty in 821/23 AD took place. This
chronological concurrence is perhaps yet another factor in favour of our hypothesis that the
formation of the Tibetan Ratnakuta was based on, or at least influenced by, Chinese editions.
For, there can be little doubt that the political rapproachment which took place in that period
between China and Tibet was accompanied, if not preceded, by a renewal of contacts in the
cultural sphere. For even during years of bitter enmity cultural contacts with Tibet’s most
powerful neighbour never appear to have been totally severed.

Miscellaneous Sources

The texts that comprise our fourth category of sources belong to a number of apparently
unrelated literary traditions. Sthaviravada sources, for instance, associate a certain Ratnakuta
(whether the sutra or the collection is uncertain) with Buddhist schools prevalent in South
India.177 The Nikayasamgraha, a fourteenth-century text of the Singhalese tradition on the
history of Buddhism in India and Sri Lanka, speaks of three classes of non-orthodox literature
that, after their origin in India, were brought at a later stage to Sri Lanka.178 These texts, it
says, were doctrinally close to the Vaitulya and Vajiriya schools and included works embodying
the ‘sciences’ such as the Ratnakuta. The same source relates that Ratnakutasastras were
composed in the Andhaka schools (along with the Ratthapalagajjita which may have been
177. Adikaram, E.W. 1946, p. 99 ff.
178. Nikayasamgraha: composed by Devaraksita (Dliarmaklrti). Ed. by de Silva, A.; Gunasekera; Gunawardhana,
Sri Lanka Government Press, 1907. Trsl. by Fernando, Sri Lanka, Govt. Press, 1908.

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 Conclusion

the doctrinal predecessor of the Rp, Rkt 18 in Bodhiruci’s edition).179

The oldest surviving manuscript fragments of the entire Ratnakuta collection have been
preserved in a Khotanese document. It is a manuscript discovered in the Khotan area at the
beginning of the twentieth century by group of Japanese scholars. Fragments of it were
identified and published by Kuno Horyu in 1938.180 They contain passages of the Kp which
correspond to sections of the ninth-century Sanskrit manuscript edited by Stael-Holstein one
decade earlier.181 It is assumed to have been composed sometime between the third and fifth
century AD.182
Finally, I should mention a number of early South Indian inscriptions that are indirectly
relevant for the study of Ratnakuta literature. They are found chiefly at the celebrated
Buddhist sites of Amaravati and Nagaijunikonda in the Andhra country. As Wayman has
shown in his study of the Srimdlddevfsimhandda, many of these inscriptions are of importance
since they allow us to infer the historical context in which the texts appeared.183For the Sms,
they allowed him to pinpoint the period and location of its origin with some precision to
South India of the third century. By implication, many of Wayman’s findings on the Sms
might be equally applicable to Ratnakuta sutras of similar orientation, most notably Asoka-
dattdvydkarana and Vimaladattapariprcchd which show close affinity in contents and setting.

179. Nikayasamgraha, 1907, pp. 8 ff.

180. Bukkyo Kenkyii, iii, 2, 1938, pp. 1-40.
181. Stael-Holstein’s manuscript, damaged and some pages missing, was discovered in the 1890’s in Khotan
and purchased by the Russian consul at Kashgar. To the present day it is kept in the State Library o f the
Leningrad Academy o f Sciences. See: Mimov, N.D. : Catalogue o f Indian Manuscripts A t Leningrad,
Catalogi Musei Asiatici, i, St. Petersburg, 1914 (chapter xi, p. 333).
182. Another Ratnakuta text o f which early fragments have been discovered in Central Asia is the Ratnardsi.
Published by Hoemle in 1916 it has been tentatively dated to the fifth to sixth century AD (op. cit., p.
xii-xxxi). Finally, there are a number o f references to Ratnakuta sutras in the Book o/Zambasta (Emmerick,
1968). These are the Bhadra-vy (p. 10), Vup (p. 189) and again the Kp (p. 139). In one fragment, well over
twenty pages long, Maitreya appears as main-protagonist alongside the Buddha (pp. 53-76). Although not
positively identified, we have o f course several texts in the Ratnakuta that seem to have been inspired by
the cult o f Maitreya (Rkt 23, 40, 41). While all o f these postdate the Kp and Ratnardsi fragments by
approximately four centuries, they are testimony to the Ratnakuta’s enduring popularity in Central Asia. It
is difficult to determine just exactly for how long this popularity lasted. It is striking, however, that in the
same source the Ratnakuta does not figure in a section that gives three o f the four major sutra collections
o f the day, that is, the Prajhdpdramita, Buddhavatamsaka and Mahasamnipdta (p. 187). This seems to
suggest that it was more the individual sutras o f the Ratnakuta and not the collection itself which enjoyed
popularity in Central Asia.
183. Wayman, A. 1974, pp. 1-16.
In his study on the Sms (Rkt 48), Wayman utilises archaeological evidence discovered at these sites to
place the date o f composition o f the Sms tentatively within the Iksavaku rule o f the third century AD. He
then cites inscriptions o f the second and third centuries AD that have been found at the same locations.
They indicate the presence o f the PurvaSaila and UttaraSaila, two late sub-sects o f the Mahasanghika
school, and that o f the Mahasanghika sub-sect called Caitya from which they issued. These data and
doctrinal parallels found in the Mvu, a text o f the Mahasanghika-Lokottaravada, prompted him to associate
the Sms with the Mahasanghika school o f the third century AD (Wayman, 1974, p. 3).

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Conclusion

In the light of the available information and the wealth of its documentation, a few concluding
observations seem appropriate.
The Ratnakuta collection as it stands today was edited at the beginning of the eighth
century in China by Bodhiruci, a South Indian Tripitaka master. In addition to compiling the
collection, he participated significantly in the translation of the texts. Before Bodhiruci the
history of the collection is rather obscure, though there is evidence to suggest that it must
have existed in a similar form some fifty years earlier. At that time it was esteemed by
scholars as an important collection which enjoyed considerable prestige.
Little can be said that is conclusive about the earliest phases in the formation of the
‘original’ collection. It seems certain that the Ratnakuta was shaped in India. There is evidence
that suggests that already from very early on (perhaps because of similarity in contents)
certain Mahayana texts came to be informally grouped together. This group, which may have
comprised as many as twenty or more sutras, was rendered into Chinese in the third century
by Dharmaraksa. &antideva and other Buddhist writers of later centuries called on them as
scriptural authorities. It is probable that by the time Hsiian-tsang visited India in the seventh
century AD they had already assumed the shape of a formal collection entitled Maharatnakuta.
However, owing to the fact that Santideva, Candrakirti and Asanga seem unaware of it, one
suspects that, in its earliest phase, the collection had been restricted to some local tradition.
A number of sources point to South India, during the early centuries of our era, as the
cultural context in which the Ratnakuta may have been originally compiled. However, little
sound evidence has been uncovered to support such a view. Several texts that are currently
included in our collection appear to have been of South Indian origin, and Bodhiruci, the
person who played a major role in shaping the collection as it stands today, was a native of
this area. Yet, no source apart perhaps from the relatively late Nikayasamgraha actually
confirms South India as the place of its compilation. The fact that Hsiian-tsang acquired the
Bodhisattvapitaka in northern India would seem to suggest that the Ratnakuta collection had
gained some wider circulation by the first half of the seventh century. Similarly, no evidence
has as yet been produced that would associate the formation of the Ratnakuta with any
specific personality. By the time Bodhiruci received the request for translating the Ratnakuta

67
 Conclusion

sutras, its overall structure had probably already been determined.

The South Indian origin of several of the texts included in the Ratnakuta and their doctrinal
affinity to what appears to have been early Mahasanghika thought, point perhaps to some
connection between the Ratnakuta sutras and the Andhra schools.184 The Rp, for instance,
appears originally to have been part of the literary tradition of these early South Indian
schools.185
The earliest references to a collection of sutras bearing the name Maharatnakuta are found
in Chinese translations of Indo-Buddhist commentarial literature. There is a certain disagreement
among modem scholars with regard to the authenticity of their Indian originals. In any event,
their Chinese translations of the early fifth century AD contain several references to a Ratnakuta
collection, consisting of at least five works from among those currently included. The bulk of
the first translations were executed between the second and third centuries in Chinese Central
Asia, suggesting that the Ratnakuta was an apparently well-known body of scriptures possibly
as early as the third century AD. In this event, it would have been among the first Buddhist
texts to have reached Central Asia and China, thus forming a part of the earliest cross-cultural
expansion of Buddhist thought. Manuscript remains of early Ratnakuta texts found in the
Khotan area support such a view.
Undoubtedly, the corpus of Ratnakuta sutt'as enjoyed particular popularity in Central Asian
regions. Not only has its oldest surviving manuscript been rediscovered in Central Asia but
Chinese sources emphatically point to its wide circulation among Central Asian Buddhist
communities.
The forty-nine sutras comprising the Ratnakuta literature cover practically the complete
spectrum of (early) Mahayana thought. The impression gained is that the collection may have
been compiled as part of an early conversion activity, with the aim to provide a well-balanced
cross-section of Buddhist thought. Such a motive for its compilation would account for the
almost complete absence of evidence on the formation and existence of an Indian Ratnakuta
collection. If this is the case it would strengthen its ties with those Central Asian areas where
184. The following five sects are usually listed as the principal schools o f ‘Andhra Buddhism’: the Caitika (an
offshoot o f the BahuSrutiya), the Purva Saila, the Apara Saila, the Rajagirika and the Siddharthika. These
are reported to have originated during the reign o f Satavahana Emperor Meghasvati (or -svadi) in the first
century BC (HIB, p. 310).
185. Warder suggests, that “as to their (i.e., the Andhra schools’) literary expression, some o f the early (short)
Mahayana sutras long afterwards collected in the ‘Great’ Ratnakuta group may have been taken over
from the Andhra schools”. However, he goes on to concede that in many instances these may have been
modified in ways that would be hard to trace (Warder, 1980, p. 329).

68
 Conclusion

the earliest traces of the Ratnakuta literature have been discovered.

Doctrinally, large sections of the Ratnakuta are dominated by expositions on the path and
ideal of the bodhisattva. Particular emphasis is laid on the cultivation and actual implementation
of the practices that mark his spiritual progress. While the philosophy of sunyata has evoked
immense attraction among generations of scholars and intellectuals, it was the teachings
about the bodhisattva that made the Mahayana successful as a religion across Asia. Not only
could it easily win admiration, but being adjustable to an infinite variety of human circumstances
the bodhisattva doctrine could also be taken as the basis for immediate action. As a central
component of Mahayana spirituality, the bodhisattva concept was therefore an integral part
and comer stone of all missionary activity. Naturally, one would expect this doctrine to play
a major role in a corpus of texts apparently compiled with the intention of serving as both the
spiritual inspiration and doctrinal authority in such a conversion process.

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

Chapter Two
Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

The Bdp is the twelfth of forty-nine texts included in the Ratnakuta. As already shown, the
exact historical circumstances in which the Ratnakuta sutras were first collected are difficult
to determine. From the viewpoint of historical analysis, we can only assume that it was
compiled in the middle of the first millennium AD. Due to the lack of independent evidence
the place of compilation and the motive for their being assembled remains uncertain.
Since external evidence is unsatisfactory and scarce, I propose to shift the focus of attention
to the material that is included in the Ratnakuta sutras themselves. Thereafter, we should be
able to identify the rationale behind the Ratnakuta*s structure and learn something about the
interconnections holding its sutras together. Our evaluation, though not exhaustive, will
furnish us with sufficient data to gain a clear idea of the principal concerns expressed in the
Ratnakuta, and particularly of its vision of the bodhisattva.
The most suitable starting-point for the analysis of the bodhisattva ideal is undoubtedly the
Bdp itself. Not only it is the sole text in the collection entirely devoted to the bodhisattva by
title and in content, but it is also the longest of the forty-nine texts, containing the most
comprehensive treatment of bodhisattva training. While other Ratnakuta sutras discuss the
bodhisattvacarya, none of them goes to such lengths in listing its principles and setting out
how they should be implemented.
Because of the special position held by the Bdp in the Ratnakuta collection, I propose to
begin with a structural analysis of its contents. The main-objective is to establish the framework
in which the bodhisattvacarya is mapped out and to uncover the literary expedients that are
employed to that end.

Structural and Literary Traits

The structure of the Bdp is lucid in its overall presentation, but somewhat obscured by the
disagreement in its translations on the number and scope of the chapters. In Hsiian-tsang’s

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

seventh-century translation (T 310.12) the contents of the Bdp is divided into twelve chapters,
each of which forms a logical, in substance well-delineated discussion of the assigned prac­
tices.1 This contrasts with the ninth-century Tibetan (P 760.12) and eleventh-century Sung
(T 316) translations, both of which contain only eleven chapters. For no good reason they
merge chapters eleven and twelve, making the prajnapdramita. chapter final and leaving
Hsiian-tsang’s last chapter without a title.2
Without a Sanskrit original, there is no immediate explanation for this, since Hsiian-tsang’s
more coherent lay-out is overshadowed by the Tibetan and Sung translations. On closer
examination of the content and colophons of the individual chapters it becomes clear, however,
that it is the twelvefold chapter division of Hsiian-tsang’s translation that has the soundest
claim to originality.
To begin with, in Hsiian-tsang’s translation the contents of each chapter clearly mark in
discrete sections identifiable aspects of the bodhisattva training. All major practices are given
individual treatment and assigned to separate chapters. In all but the last chapter this pattern
is also adhered to in the Tibetan and Sung translations. Here, the controversial final chapter
inappropriately combines a lengthy, partially philosophical exposition of the Perfection of
Wisdom, several sets of bodhisattva practices, a brief description of the means of conversion
and a detailed account of &akyamuni’s prediction of enlightenment. Such disarrangement of
topics runs in marked contrast with the otherwise strictly observed thematic division.3
Furthermore, the merging of topics is inconsistent with the path profile that is given at the
beginning of chapter five.4 We learn here that a discourse on the bodhisattva training should
comprise three successive areas of practice, that is, the pursuit of maitrt (presumably standing
for the four immeasurables5), practice of the pdramita and the cultivation of the samgrahavastu.
In view of the importance of this thematic outline (it is the only of its kind in the whole text),

1. Hirakawa, A., “Bosatsuzo-kyo to Hojakukuyo”, SK, 45-2, 209, 1971, pp. 1-26; Ono Gemmyo, Bussho
Kaisetsu Daijiten, Tokyo (Daito Shuppansha) 1933-36 (ref. Pedersen).
2. R, folio 695.1
For a comparison o f Hsuan-tsang’s translation and Dharmaraksa’s eleventh-century Sung version, see:
Pedersen, 1976, pp. 15-23.
3. There is, however, one line o f reasoning that might explain the merging o f the prajnapdramita and samgra­
havastu sections. According to the Bbh (p. 213.4-7), the samgrahavastu form a part o f the training in
prajnapdramita. Assuming that this proposition gained acceptance in Indian Buddhist circles (but I have
found no other sources that hold this view) it could possibly account for the fusion o f the two chapters in
the later manuscripts on which the Tibetan and Sung are based.
4. R, folio 264.5-6.
5. In the Yogacarabhumi o f Sangharaksa the apramana are actually equated with maitri-bhavana (Demieville,
1951, pp. 359-363).

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

it is surely uncharacteristic that the text should not have been structured into the separation of
practices by chapters, especially since even practices of lesser significance have been conscie-
niously kept apart.6
Taking these organisational traits into account, it is improbable that the discrepancies that
distinguish Hsiian-tsang’s well-structured version from the convoluted Tibetan and Sung
renderings are due to negligence on part of the translators. Rather, the relative proximity in
date of the latter two translations and their shared structural details suggest that they may
derive from a later, possibly corrupted, Sanskrit manuscript of a different reading.7 On the
basis of these thoughts, I therefore propose to adopt Hsiian-tsang’s division into twelve
chapters as the original design of the Bdp.

The length of the twelve chapters varies considerably, ranging between fifteen and one
hundred and sixty folios. Broadly speaking, we can differentiate three categories.
First, there is a group of short chapters each of which consists of no more than twenty
folios. The subject matter that is included in these chapters is treated very succinctly. They
are generally free from lengthy narratives or strings of examples and are reasonably easy to
grasp. Chapters two, three, five, six and eight belong to this category.
Second, there are three chapters of moderate length, averaging fifty folios each. These are
chapter one, ten and twelve. Their style is less concise than that of the first category and
some recourse is taken to narratives and stereotyped literary expressions. Nevertheless, their
contents are easy to follow and undue digressions are kept to a minimum.
Finally, there are four chapters of well over one hundred folios, namely, chapters four,
seven, nine and eleven. The unmethodical arrangement of contents of some of these chapters
obscures the otherwise unconvoluted exposition of the Bdp. Individual discussions are spread
over many pages filled with examples, peripheral digressions and lengthy narrations so that

6. See, for instance, R, folio 671.4-679.6

Matters are further complicated by the disagreement that exists between the Tibetan and Sung translations.
While Tibetan translations lack chapter headings for the sections on the Perfection o f Wisdom, means o f
conversion and Sakyamuni’s prediction (but nevertheless refer to a twelfth chapter at the very end o f the
discourse proper (R, folio 737.5)), the Sung translation treats the discussion of the Perfection o f Wisdom as
a separate, fully identified chapter. Yet, like the Tibetan it does not assign a chapter title to the section on
the means o f conversion and Sakyamuni’s prediction.
7. We find similar parallels in contents between the Tibetan and Sung translations o f the Kp. Here too, it is the
Tibetan and the tenth-century Sung versions that correspond most closely among all extant versions (see:
Weller, 1965, pp. 8-9).

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

thematico-logical connections tend to vanish in the wealth of material.8 Moreover, their

expositions repeatedly fail to match the outlines of contents, leaving the reader confused over
the direction of the discourse.9 Disorder and inconsistency increase in relation to the length
of the chapters.
From the literary viewpoint, all twelve chapters are reasonably homogeneous and share
many characteristics. All chapters, except for one, contain both prose and verse sections.10
The verse portions are regularly incorporated in the prose to summarise or restate in poetic
form the. issues previously raised. Also, verses are frequently (though not invariably) employed
in direct speech, especially when it is addressed to the Buddha. The verse metre most
frequently employed consists of seven syllables per line. This is followed closely by a metre
consisting of nine syllables per line.11 While these two types of metre are generally kept
apart in distinct verse clusters, they do intermingle in some rare instances.12
The prose sections of the Bdp are dominated by a rather rambling narrative style. In the
most common pattern of exposition the Buddha discourses on a selected theme in response to
a brief question posed by the interlocutor. In the course of his discourse the Buddha switches
freely between the first and third persons indicative singular, assuming the role of persons
appearing in the narrative portions. Since the concise dialogue-format characterising the
majority of Ratnakuta texts is found only in some isolated places, there are very few passages
that contain well-defined and succinct statements. The narrative style with its wealth of
examples tends to interfere with the flow of conceptual links between individual topics.
In some chapters, this situation is redressed by the incoiporation of sets of mnemonic-type
lists summarising the bodhisattva’s practices. The most frequent numerical configuration is
that of tetrads followed by lists of tens and fives. All lists appear regularly in clusters, making
up larger groupings and often provide the back-bone for the exposition. In chapters six and
seven, for instance, lists of bodhisattva ethics stand at the very heart of the discussion and
these constitute practically the only section dealing with the proclaimed theme.13 In the

8. This applies, in particular, to chapter seven and nine. In chapter nine see, for instance, the portion o f the text
that describes the exploits o f the two brothers, Samvara and Samvarasthiti (R, folio 486.2-513.6).
9. Compare, for instance, the heading that is given in chapter eleven (R, folio 615.6-616.1) with the actual
contents o f the subsequent exposition (R, folio 616.2-685.5).
10. The only chapter that has no verse section is chapter five (R, folio 262.1-284.5). Chapter eight contains
only one short cluster o f verses (R, folio 413.4-414.3).
11. For a discussion o f the verse metre in Tibetan translations of Buddhist texts see: Michael Hahn, 1971, pp.
50-65 and 1985, pp. 201-206.
12 See, R, folio 381.5-382.7; folio 493.7-495.1; folio 497.2^198.2.
13. In chapter six: R, folio 286.6-292.5; in chapter seven: R, folio 368.6-371.6.

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

longer chapters, they have the additional function of providing the framework in which the
exposition unfolds. In view of the B dp’s length, such lists become valuable structural expedients
for breaking up the contents.
A common feature is that the internal chapter organisation is poorly systematised. While
there is every indication that the overall structure of the Bdp follows a well thought-out plan,
no obvious outline is followed in the chapters themselves. In the shorter chapters this lack of
systematisation has less importance. Elsewhere, however, it challenges the reader’s ability to
absorb and link the individual points of argument.
This situation arises from two factors. First, the issues that are raised in the discussions are
poorly linked. This is especially evident in the longer chapters where sets of practices are
only peripherally related and lack logical connection. Chapter nine, for example, though
nominally on the perfection of vigour, deals with a broad spectrum of issues many of which
have little direct bearing on virya.u This is further aggravated by the extensive use of
examples and parables. Again, most of these are found in the longer chapters, particularly in
the ninth. While it is of course true that the extensive use of stock-phrases, picturesque
language and many examples forms an integral part of the Indian literary heritage generally,
there are only a few texts where they dominate the exposition to such an extent as in the Bdp.
The factor chiefly accountable for this internal intricacy is the frequency of references to
jataka-type stories.15 In all, we can distinguish fourteen samples of jataka stories. Most of
these are found in chapter nine. There are no jataka references anywhere before chapter
five—this is interesting because it is in this chapter that the instructions on the bodhisattvacarya
begin.16All the following chapters with the exception of ten and eleven contain references to
the previous lives of the Buddha.17 It is important to note that they are generally used to

14. In other chapters the situation is not very different. In chapter seven we meet with indiscriminately arranged
descriptions o f the bodhisattva’s moral conduct in the form o f listed norms o f conduct. Since the style in
which these attainments is presented is predominantly descriptive and non-technical, I conclude that, apart
from their primary task o f defining the scope and nature o f the bodhisattva training, their function was to
serve as inspiration and to encourage others to take up the bodhisattva training.
15. A summarised account o f the various rebirths o f Sakyamuni in the Bdp is contained in Bu-ston’s Chos-hbyuh
(Obermiller, 1931-32, i, p. 125).
16. Compare this point o f departure for the jataka with the account that is given in the Mvu where we are told
thatjataka related to the Buddha do not go back further than the eighth stage (Senart, 1882, p. 105.6-14).
17. The following references are given in the Bdp to previous buddhas: 1. Mahaskandha (R, folio 262.5); 2.
Kuhanachanda (hchos mos?) (R, folio 295.5); 3. Prasamgraha (R, folio 297.4); 4. Varasambhara (R, folio
379.2); 5. Salaraja (R, folio 385.4); 6. Vipa^yin (R, folio 448.1); 7. Abhyudgataraja (R, folio 486.3); 8.
Uttaptavlryata (R, folio 504.5); 9. Sucarita (R, folio 508.2); 10. Dipamkara (R, folio 519.5); 11. Padmottara
(R, folio 539.3); 12. Ratnagarbha (R, folio 542.6); 13. Atyuccagamin (R, folio 546.7); 14. Mahavirya (R,
folio 549.3).

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

illustrate a particular aspect of the teaching, rather than to retell the events of his lives.18Nor
is the Buddha always the main-protagonist in these stories. Frequently, the impression one
gains is that recourse to jataka-type settings was solely taken to lay down some historical
frame of reference.
From a structural viewpoint their incorporation enhances the overall coherence of the
exposition. They furnish the discourse with a temporal framework since all jataka references
appear in strict chronological order.19 As a result, the treatment of the bodhisattvacarya
receives a sense a continuity and even dynamic purpose matching the Buddha’s career as a
graded progress across his previous existences.20The narrative framework and graphic style
of presentation also simplifies the lines of argument. Many sections of the text are given an
unmistakably descriptive flavour in which abstract thought-pattems are kept to a minimum.

The Bodhisattva Path

Having dwelt on the literary character of the Bdp, I now propose to look at the thematic
structures by which the bodhisattvacarya is explained. In the foregoing section I pointed to
the loose internal organisation that prevails in most of the B dp’s chapters. The impression
prevails that the individual practices serve to exemplify a greater scheme. The contribution of
the jataka-type narratives to this ‘sense’ of coherence has already been mentioned. There are
also more important factors in play and I shall turn to these next.
The most powerful device for achieving the effect of continuity is without doubt the
adoption of the traditional sequence of the paramita. Practically all treatises on the bodhisattva
from early on have incorporated this scheme into their visions of the path so that it became
soon accepted as the fundamental structure of the training.21 The training scheme of the Bdp

18. The exception is the account o f Sakyamuni’s prediction to buddhahood at the end o f chapter twelve (R,
folio 698.7-735.3) that seemingly serves no other purpose than to retell the actual event in M l.
19. Much o f the course o f Sakyamuni’s career is traced in the Bdp, starting in his legendary encounter as Prince
Caritavirya with the Buddha Mahaskandha and ending with his prediction to buddhahood by Dipamkara.
Also the references that are drawn to events between those two cornerstones purport to follow the chronological
order o f their occurrence. This can be deduced from the cosmic dates that are assigned to the periods in
which the events are placed. For references, see the passages in which the various buddhas are introduced.
20. It is important to bear in mind that this impression rests largely on factors that are associated with the
historico-temporal plane. Except in chapter eleven, no such continuation is evident, although later treatises
on the bodhisattva propose certain models o f internal, conceptual continuation for the individual practices
raised in the Bdp. I have discussed these schemes in chapter four.
21. The sixfold training structure is already attested in the Asta (pp. 163 ff; 292-93; 310, 322; 412-13) and Vkn

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

is thus cast in the mould of a well-established pattern; the traditional order of the perfections
is kept and they are dealt with in individual chapters.
Apart from following the pdramita sequence, we have other hints that point to the imple­
mentation of a particular overall plan. First, there are several passages in the text itself that
outline the order in which the bodhisattva training should proceed. The most important is
found in a section belonging to chapter five that sets out the description of the path as
follows:22

“O lord, what is the path to enlightenment? O Prince, the path to enlightenment

comprises benevolence towards all sentient beings, striving after the perfections
and compliance with the means of conversion. This is the path to enlightenment.”

The order in which the practices are cited in this passage corresponds to the order in which
they appear in chapters five to twelve of the Bdp. Other references suggesting a successive
conceptual interconnection between the individual perfections are given in chapters seven
and eight.23
It is hence apparent that the text is not moulded in such a way as to depict the bodhisattva
career on the scheme of the ten stages.24 An explanation for this might be that the Bdp
predated the formulation of the tenfold design.25 Other scholars have suggested that because
of some geopolitical isolation at the time of its composition, the author was not aware of the

(pp. 17-18, 29, 96-7, 108, 130, 157, 167, 216, 240, 259). But, in neither o f these two works has it been
implemented or does it become the guiding principle for the organisation o f the bodhisattva training.
Rather, it is only referred to in passing without having any significant impact on the structure o f the
exposition. Considering the very early date o f both texts, this is perhaps not surprising. Other early works
that give greater importance to the structural role o f the six perfections in the organisation o f the bodhisat-
tvacarya are XhsAkn (pp. 42.3.1-55.2.7) and/?c</(pp. 231.4.7-236.2.7).
22. R, folio 264.4—5
The description o f the training proper ends on folio 698.7, just before the account o f Sakyamuni’s prediction
to buddhahood begins. Thus, we note the following training structure: (1) cultivation o f the apramana
(chapter five); (2) pursuit o f the sadpdramita (chapter six to eleven); 3. practice o f the samgrahavastu (first
part o f chapter twelve). This path scheme occurs also on folio 582.6-584.4 where it includes the bodhipaksika
dharma, samatha and vipasyna that dominate much of chapter eleven.
23. R, folio 302.2-7; folio 408.3; folio 409.7^ 10.2.
24. In his Chos-hbyuh (Obermiller, 1931, i, p. 125), Bu-ston suggests correlating chapters six to twelve o f the
Bdp to the first seven stages o f the Dbh scheme. While it is not difficult to see why Bu-ston chose to draw
these parallels (chapter six deals with danapdramita, hence stage one; chapter seven with silaparamitd,
hence stage two, etc., up to chapter twelve devoted to prajhdpdramita), it is important to note that this
proposition is purely conjectural and not supported by the text itself. The Bdp contains no reference that
would suggest that its exposition o f the bodhisattva training follows the tenfold scheme o f the Dbh, or
indeed any other linear order.
25. Wayman, 1980, p. 218.

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

existence of such a scheme. Today we can discount both hypotheses since I have found
several instances in the text itself where explicit reference is made to the tenfold scheme.26
But this does not resolve our problem. We still do not know why our text favoured the basic
scheme of the six perfections over the ten stages, especially since indications are that the ten
gained rapid acceptance in Mahayana circles.27
The best explanation for the present is that at the time of the B dp’s composition the tenfold
scheme had not yet won universal approval. This might indicate that the acceptance of the ten
stages might not have been as swift as generally assumed. In fact, there are several other
early Mahayana works that refer to the tenfold scheme in passing but do not implement it in
their description of the bodhisattvacarya. There must have been for quite some time a
substantial faction within the Sangha unconvinced of its merits. If we interpret the growing
circulation of the Dbh as a sign of the increasing acceptance of the scheme, it was probably
not until the second/third century that this indecision was resolved28 The fact that the Bdp
refers to the tenfold scheme on two occasions and even distinguishes the scope of the
individual stages places its date of composition in the period that immediately preceded the
formulation of the tenfold plan.29 At any earlier time the Bdp would have been unfamiliar

26. The relevant passages on the bodhisattva stages run as follows:

“The bodhisattva who abides on the eighth, ninth or tenth stage, this bodhisattva is o f great
wisdom. He dwells on the great stage (,mahabhumi)” (R, folio 123.3-4).
“When he has acquired these three states (viz., the state o f Cakravartin, Indra and Brahma), he
accomplishes the ten stages o f the bodhisattva” (R, folio 294.1).
27. The earliest reference to the ten stages of the bodhisattva that can be dated with some degree o f certainty
goes back to 188 AD. It is found in the appendix to a siitra called P ’u sa nei hsi liu po lo mi ching ‘Sutra on
the Bodhisattva’s inner Practice o f the six Perfections’ (T 778) which was rendered into Chinese by Yen
Fo-T’iau o f the Eastern Han Dynasty (Rahder, 1929, p. 15) After that, the scheme gained prominence
quickly and it became the major scheme to grade the bodhisattva’s spiritual progress. Early references to
the tenfold scheme are found in the Mvu (pp. 63-157) and Dbh (Dasa-bh, pp. i-xxvii, pp. 11-99). At a later
stage, it was incorporated into the works o f the Prajhaparamitd literature, most notably in the Pahca (pp.
225, 379); while it is not found in the Asta itself, it is also mentioned in the &sp (pp. 1454-73) and in the
Astadasasah (T 220 ch. 490-91, pp. 490b^497b; ref. Rahder). A similar, though not identical scheme is put
forward in the Gv (pp. 369-374). In the fourth century, it was adopted and refined in the Bbh (pp.
367-371). Finally, in the seventh century, it was taken up again by Candraklrti in his Madhyamakavatara,
where it serves as the structural framework for the exposition of the bodhisattvacarya.
28. The first Chinese translation o f the Dbh was carried out in 297 AD. Beyond that, we have no firm evidence
about the period in which it might have been written. Modern scholarship has come up with a variety o f
dates for its composition. The earliest dating (by Conze) suggests a date as early as 100 AD. Rahder thinks
to have identified certain sections o f the Dbh in the Tathagatavisesanasutra (N 102); a text whose first
translation goes back to 147-168 AD (Rahder, 1926, p. xxi). Other scholars have been less daring, allocating
it to the late second or early third century. Whichever the precise date o f composition, its doctrinal position
indicates that it must have emerged some time after the Vkn and before the compilation of the Yogacarabhumi.
29. If we accept the logic behind this argument, we would have to place the composition o f the Bdp at the latest
in the middle, or perhaps at the end, o f the third century. However, since the earliest attested reference to
the ten stages is already found in a work o f the second century, it cannot be ruled out that the Bdp *s date o f
composition might also go back to the second century. The latter estimate would match the date that was
proposed by Wayman for the Bdp. He allocated its origin to ‘around 100 AD’ (Wayman, 1991, p. 9).

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with its structures, but at a later if it was not contemporary with it, it would have adopted
them.

Chapter Organisation

In order to give an overview of the material included in the Bdp, I shall provide at this point
a synopsis of the principal issues being raised. Since the content of the practices is discussed
separately in chapter four, I limit myself here to the structures that underlie their presentation.
Chapter one essentially provides an introduction to Buddhist spirituality. Convinced of the
vanity of conventional ways of perception, the Buddha identifies the principal failings of
worldly existence and discourses on the illusory and conditioned frames of reference in
which life takes place.30After the portrayal of reality the Buddha states the fundamentals of
Buddhist doctrine by pronouncing a series of definitions of key terms, such as renunciation,
knowledge and liberation.31 The chapter concludes with a brief sermon on the three root
evils.
Chapter two opens with the prediction to buddhahood of the yaksa Kumbhira. He is the
chief deity at the location where the Buddha is about to preach, and so entrusted with the
setting.32Next, there follows a picturesque account of the local scenery of the preaching site
and the preparations that precede the Buddha’s arrival. From the doctrinal point of view, this
chapter is the least interesting. We learn practically nothing about the bodhisattva’s training
or the doctrinal context in which it is pursued. Like chapter one, its main concern is to
introduce the reader to the Buddha’s discourse.
Chapter three introduces the main topic of the Bdp. It begins with a string of questions on
the conditions and circumstances in which bodhisattvas attain supreme enlightenment. What
follows next is essentially a characterisation of the thought of enlightenment (bodhicitta) and
an evaluation of its intent {asaya)}1As in chapter one, so also in this chapter the exposition

' 30. R, folio 13.7-51.2.

31. R, folio 51.5-56.2.
32. The only other reference 1 have found to the yaksa Kumbhira is located in the Mahdsamajasutra. Here too,
he is said to abide in the city o f Rajagrha on the Vipula mountain and to be in control o f many thousands o f
yaksa. No more information is given (Waldschmidt in: Bechert, 1980, pp. 154, 162). See also: D II, pp.
253-62 for the Pali version o f this text.
33. R, folio 82.2-87.3.

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

concludes in a brief independently conceived discourse on a set of Buddhist fundamentals.

Here, however, it is more in harmony with Mahayana thinking, spelling out its interpretation
of impermanence, suffering, non-self and nirvana.
Chapter four, entitled ‘On the Inconceivable Nature of the Tathagata’, is entirely taken up
with a description of the buddha-qualities. Structurally, it is the best systematised chapter,
since it utilises the highly stylised mode of enumeration in which the buddha-qualities are
traditionally presented. The description itself is exhaustive by all standards, detailing the
Tathagata’s pristine cognition, morality and meditation, his physical perfection, wonder­
working powers, tenfold powers, four assurances, compassion, enlightenment and the eighteen
exclusive buddha-qualities.34
Structurally, this chapter is important in three ways. First, it lays down the foundation for
the successful completion of the bodhisattva training, that is, faith in the nature and powers
of the Tathagata. Indeed, in the passage immediately following this chapter we learn that it is
only after the bodhisattva has generated this faith that he qualifies to embark on the path.35
Second, it is important since buddhahood constitutes the ultimate goal of every bodhisattva’s
aspiration. In this respect, a description of the Tathagata’s qualities and powers must surely
have been expected to have an inspiring, reassuring and strengthen impact on the bodhisattva’s
resolve while advancing on the path. Third, bearing in mind that tathagatahood constitutes
the fulfilment of the bodhisattva training, the Buddha might have thought it advantageous to
define its scope and attributes as a benchmark for all other spiritual achievements. In this
role, chapter four serves to set out the goal-post for the bodhisattvacarya.
With the end of chapter four we have come to an important break in the contents of the
Bdp. So far, all we have learned about the bodhisattvacaiyd has revolved around preparatory
exploits. In chapter five, we are introduced to the training proper. This is placed in the
context of a jataka narrative and also spelled out independently. This correspondence lends a
personal note to the exposition and contrasts with the rather formal, detached tone of later

34. The impression o f systematisation is reinforced by the fact that the whole chapter (which is the longest o f
the entire work) is organised into ten sections or limbs, each spelling out one o f the ten Tathagata-qualities.
The sequence runs as follows: (1) body (folio 100.7); (2) roar (folio 106.3); (3) pristine cognition (folio
110.1); (4) radiance (116.6); (5) moral conduct and meditation (folio 123.5); (6) wonder-working powers
(folio 136.2); (7) ten powers (folio 143.7); (8) four assurances (folio 196.7); (9) great compassion (folio
215.4); (11) eighteen exclusive buddha-qualities (folio 235.1).
35. R, folio 262.1-5
In chapter three a similar idea is expressed, postulating faith as a paramount prerequisite for the spiritual
advance o f bodhisattvas in general (R, folio 86.3-88.4).

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

works on the bodhisattva. Since the jataka reference is the first of its kind it establishes a
connection between the teaching and the Buddha’s personal spiritual advance. Both topics
run parallel from now on and become progressively inseparable.
The common point of departure and thematic concurrence between the bodhisattva and
jataka underlines the significance of jataka references, for there could be no better illustration
of the bodhisattvacarya than the Buddha’s own past spiritual experience. Such linkage not
only gives authority to the discourse, but also highlights the role played by the jdtaka-genrQ
in the formulation of the bodhisattva doctrine.36In view of this connection, it is not surprising
that training phases are nowhere mentioned. Since schemes of the path do not figure in the
jataka themselves, it makes sense that the accounts of the bodhisattvacarya that are modelled
on the path of the historical Buddha should forgo these structural expedients. Following the
opening passage, laying down the major areas of practice, the training proper begins with a
discussion of the four immeasurables. Structurally, this section is of little interest since it
presents the apramana in a standard fashion and does not define their role in the general
pattern of practice. Chapter five is thus a section that may demonstrate internally few intriguing
structural features, but nonetheless is extremely important from the viewpoint of the overall
composition.
Examination of chapter six reveals two points of structural significance. First, it formally
initiates the discussion of the perfections and accordingly represents the first limb of the main
body of the B dp’s exposition.37 Judging by the length of the various chapters, one would
assume that the treatment of the perfections varies greatly in detail. This impression is
misleading, since the space that is actually given to the paramita is not always in proportion
to the total length of the chapters. This is particularly true of chapter nine, that includes a
wide range of practices that are only indirectly related to the pursuit of vlrya. If one were to

36. Today, there is widespread agreement among scholars that the roots o f the bodhisattva doctrine go back to
the earliest strands o f Buddhist thought. In particular, the jataka have been the focal-point o f several
investigations. To quote Warder (1983, p. 9) on this matter: “It would seem that between these stray
references in the jataka and Theragathd and the full-fledged enumeration in the Buddhavamsa the doctrine
(of the perfections) had been systematised as the ‘principles which make the Buddha’ (buddhakara dhammct,
Bv, ii.l 16).” Elsewhere, he argues that “this intrusive note (on pre-Mahayana practice) only strengthens the
impression that the Theravada tradition on the perfections o f the bodhisattva developed independently o f
Mahayana very likely from a common and pre-Mahayana origin in the jataka tradition o f the third century
BC” (op. cit.. p. 18). In the nikaya, these early doctrinal predecessors are particularly evident in the jataka
accounts o f Sakyamuni’s previous lives. But there are also other early works that contain isolated traces of
the bodhisattva doctrine. Besides the well-known expositions o f the Buddhavamsa and Cariyapitaka, a
good picture o f these early notions on the bodhisattva is found in the Nidanakathd, the introduction to the
jataka commentary (i, pp. 16-25, 45-7, 74).
37. R, folio 285.1.

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

purge it of all secondary issues, the relevant material would amount to little more than a third
of its original length.
Another prominent feature of chapter six is that it introduces summaries of bodhisattva
practices in the form of mnemonic-type lists. While lists of various types occurred already in
earlier portions of the Bdp (most notably in chapters one and four38), it is only in this chapter
that they assume the mnemonic, stereotypical character.39 The lists themselves occur rarely
in isolation, but tend to appear in clusters forming larger groups.40Usually neither the order
in which their items are enumerated nor the succession of the lists displays any particularly
thought-out pattern of arrangement. Hence, the scope and items of the lists overlap at several
points with factors cited elsewhere.41
The custom of tabulating individual practices figures prominently in chapter seven. At one
stage tetrads make up a section of well over twenty folios.42By reason of the frequency with
which enumerations recur, the impression is given that the entire exposition of chapter seven
is founded on these lists. Although this is clearly not the case (there are numerous sections
which dispose of lists altogether), from a structural point of view their incorporation is
undeniably its most outstanding feature.
The conceptual organisation of chapter seven contains three major, largely independent,
segments. The first section introduces the chapter’s principal theme, viz., the bodhisattva’s
moral conduct, and expounds its spheres of application in the context of the doctrine of
non-self.43 Other central elements are a list of ten mental factors and ten kinds of the thought
of enlightenment,44 Since the relations between these three elements are reciprocal with each
one of them conditioning the other two, the first part of chapter seven is conceptually
coherent and largely independent.
The second part of chapter seven consists of numerous lists itemising the benefit accruing

38. R, folio 28.5-34.1.

39. R, folio 285.7-288.4.
40. op. cit.\ R, folio 368.1-371.6.
41. A good example o f such overlapping is found in chapter seven amongst the moral precepts (R, folio
368.1-371.6).
4 2 R, folio 341.1-364.6
Despite the fact that all the practices enumerated in these lists are in some way related to the bodhisattva
and his moral training, they do not seem to form a coherent whole. While some itemise little more than
incentives (simultaneously, inspiring and reassuring in nature), others iterate the qualities, powers and
insights that the novice can expect to gain by embarking on the bodhisattva path (R, folio 368.1-371.6).
43. R, folio 300.6-306.1.
44 The mental factors encompass three broad categories. (1) Faith in the Dharma; (2) Veneration o f the
teacher; (3) Inclination to follow resolutely the path (R, folio 306.1-4).

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

from reverence and moral integrity.45 Culminating in an enumeration of sixty examples of

pure moral conduct, it represents the core of the whole chapter.
In the third section, priority is given to those factors that impede moral conduct.46 In
keeping with Buddhist fundamentals, the text singles out desire (raga) as the most devastating
force.47Inspired by Mahayana reasoning, it is argued in the text that the best way to overcome
this peril is to see its manifestation from the perspective of sunyatd.
Chapter eight, much in contrast to chapter seven, displays a conceptually highly unified and
coherent exposition. In part, this coherence is due to brevity. The points that are put forward
are developed in logical sequence and build upon each other. The topic itself is introduced by
means of a brief, definitive statement on the nature of the bodhisattva’s patience. This gives
way to a discussion of the various spheres and manifestations of patience. Essentially, the
text distinguishes three kinds of patience, that is, conventional patience, bodhisattva patience
and highest patience.481 have shown in chapter four that the actual contents of these types of
ksanti are far more intricate than their basic division would suggest.
In structure and organisation, chapter nine exhibits several features that distinguish its
exposition from all preceding chapters. To begin with, it contains relatively few structural
devices that punctuate so effectively the discussions in the other chapters. Therefore, it is
rather difficult to break up its contents and to identify the individual teachings. But, it is
second to none in the wealth of examples by which its postulates are illustrated. Since I have
dwelt already on the effect these have on the comprehensibility of the text, it is sufficient
only to draw attention to the particularly strong influence they have in chapter nine.
Next, we notice the astonishing diversity of material included in this chapter. So far, most
chapters have been dominated by their main topics. With a few exceptions (most notably in
chapter seven), they contained no significant digressions from the principal subject-matter.
Chapter nine, in contrast, contains a great number of issues with ostensibly little bearing on
the practice of vigour. Amongst the points raised we come across such seemingly unrelated

45. The nature o f the qualities cited leaves little doubt that it is he rather than other people who chiefly benefits
from these attainments. Most o f them spring from the recognition o f his previous faults and active training
in teacher veneration.
46. R, folio 375.7-403.6.
47. It dedicates well over twenty folios to the various manifestations o f desire during which the pitfalls o f
sexual desire figure most prominently (R, folio 375.7-403.6).
48. (1) conventional patience (R, folio 407.7-417.7); (2) bodhisattva patience (R, folio 418.1-420.5); (3)
highest patience (R, folio 420.6-423.3).

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

subjects as the future-destiny of the Dharma49, contempt of the Doctrine50, failings of grhapti
and pravrajita bodhisattvas51, avarice52, self-sacrifice53 and Dharma-teaching.54 The perfec­
tion of vigour figures expressly only in one section of the text.55 Having said this, it is
important to note that some effort has been made to relate the secondary issues to the
perfection of vigour. Several of the examples that are cited to illustrate these secondary
issues are configured to match both the issues they are supposed to elucidate and also the
vlryaparamita.
Chapter ten displays few structural peculiarities that have not been met elsewhere in the
Bdp. Its rhetoric is filled with recurring statements, parallel phrasing, rich imagery and
stereotyped lists of the kind I described in the foregoing sections. Structurally, it follows the
internal organisation of the sets of practices it describes; enumerating and analysing in due
order the four dhydna, five super-knowledge, the interplay between means and knowledge,
etc. As chapter ten makes only sporadic reference to examples and dispenses altogether with
narratives, its exposition is rather methodical and orderly.
From the viewpoint of our structural analysis, the most interesting part is its concluding
verse section.56Unlike its counterparts in the other chapters, it does not summarise previous
issues, but introduces new material in the form of a list of one hundred and one samadhi. The
style of presentation of these meditations is rather perfunctory. Apart from the title and a few
general attributes virtually no data of any significance are revealed. Since the verses are only
vaguely related to the prose in both content and style, the whole section might have been
composed independently.
In spite of its title, chapter ten has actually very little to do with the practice of meditation.
While we learn a lot about the benefits resulting from meditation, we are told little about the
practical and theoretical aspects of meditation itself. To all appearances, the chapter was
designed primarily to spell out the significance of meditation in the bodhisattva training, to
inspire faith in the workings and, above all, in the powers of meditative processes.
Conceptually, this preoccupation is borne out by the priority given to the ways in which

49. R, folio 429.5-448.1.

50. R, folio 448.2-453.1.
51. R, folio 477.7-483.4.
51 R, folio 483.4-513.6.
53. R, folio 515.5-526.6.
54. R, folio 538.3-548.7.
55. R, folio 468.1-476.6.
56. R, folio 587.1-590.1.

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

meditative attainments benefit the bodhisattva’s spiritual advance. Particular attention is paid
to the role that is played in this process by the five abhijna. Their explication spans over
more than two thirds of the whole chapter and dominates the exposition more than any other
practice.57 Again, as in the case of meditation practice, little is said about the psychic
processes lying at the heart of their operation. Instead, much stress is laid on their effects and
on the role they assume in the training.
Chapter eleven, entitled ‘On the Perfection of Wisdom’, contains some of the most interesting
thought in the Bdp. As I shall discuss its content and structure at length in chapter four, I
shall limit myself here to a few general remarks. Like chapter ten, it dispenses with all
narrative and incorporates only a limited number of examples. Its verse sections are very few
and generally rather short. Particularly striking, from the organisational viewpoint, is the
frequent use of lists and sets of practices that organise its contents into well-delineated
sections. Owing to the lack of picturesque language, its exposition is rather technical and
displays only thought that is of immediate relevance to the Perfection of Wisdom.
The contents of chapter eleven falls into three technically distinct, but doctrinally interrelated
portions. The first section is given over to propound the basic phases in the process of
cognition, that is to say, the factors leading to the acquisition of wisdom and the attainments
that spring from them. The most notable feature in this section is a list of seventy-two types
of learning. Next, a series of practices intimately connected with wisdom is expounded.
These include right view (.samyagdrsti), correct seeing (yoniso darsana) and correct penetration
(yoniso pravesa). There are several indications that the discussion of these attainments is
structured to reflect the first four phases of the Buddhist path, that is, the sambharamdrga,
prayogamarga, darsanamdrga and bhavandmarga.
The second section defines in greater detail those practices particularly relevant to mastery
over Perfect Wisdom. Formally embedded in a list of ten types of ‘skill’ are included,
amongst others, the pratisamvid,pratisarana,punya andjndnasambhara, bodhipaksika dharma
as well as samatha and vipasyana. As in section one, most of these practices were conceived
of in relation to each other and represent a continuation of the cognitive processes initiated
through the seventy-two forms of learning. The attainment of wisdom itself is marked by
‘skill’ in all dhatma that signals true cognition of reality.
Turning to the structure of this tenfold division of ‘skill’, we notice certain ‘irregularities’
57. R, folio 551.5-572.4.

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

in its organisation. First, the sequence in which the individual ‘skills’ are listed in the
introductory outline of contents corresponds only approximately to the succession in which
they are actually raised in the text. While it is true that all items are included, they do not
comply with the proposed order. ‘Skill’ in discursive insight (yijnana) and direct knowledge
(jndna), for example, figure as a subcategoiy to ‘skill’ in pratisarana rather than (as announced)
as an independent ‘skill’.58In addition, the text discusses ‘skill’ in the accumulation of merit
and knowledge and ‘skill’ in the bases of mindfulness as principal ‘skills’, even though they
do not figure in the heading.59 It is perhaps worth noting that all irregularities occur in the
mid-section. Whatever the reason behind these modifications, it is clear that their impact on
the overall scheme is negligible. It could even be argued that they reinforce the coherence of
the exposition, since training in the smrtyupasthana andjnanasambhara is certainly of advantage
(if not altogether indispensable) to the generation of wisdom.
Approaching its conceptual climax, chapter eleven goes then on to define the exact cognitive
contents of the perfection of wisdom.60 For this purpose, it deconstructs the word pra-
jnapdramita in its component parts and discusses the nature of prajnd and paramitd separately.
In spite of this formal division, the two strands of analysis run largely concurrent and
correspond in much detail.
Chapter twelve comprises two major sections. It begins with a comparatively brief exposition
of the four means of conversion. Proportionally, their elucidation accounts for little more
than a tenth of the chapter’s total content.61 It will be recalled that the means of conversion
stand at the very end of the B dp’s path scheme. However, it is left open as to whether this
positioning was meant to grade them as the culmination of the path, or whether they were
placed there out of structural convenience. While the exposition itself contains some interesting
propositions, organisationally it is rather unremarkable.
The second part of chapter twelve consists of the well-known jataka episode describing
Sakyamuni’s meeting with Dipamkara and the subsequent prediction to buddhahood.62Unlike
preceding jataka used to illustrate the bodhisattva practice, this story serves no other purpose

58. R, folio 634.7-636.5.

59. R, folio 649.5-662.3; folio 639.7-649.2.
60. R, folio 685.7-690.1.
61. R, folio 695.1-698.7.
61 R, folio 699.1-737.4.
An identical version o f the narrative o f Sakyamuni’s prediction is found in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya
(Bareau, 1966,1-16).

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 Analysis o f the Bodhisattvapitaka

than to relate the events of the narrative. Since its incorporation has no practical bearing on
the bodhisattvacarya (it contains virtually no information of any value on the training itself)
apart from signalling the completion of the path, the whole point of it telling it here is
perhaps simply to keep the tradition of the event alive.
Two considerations might have led to its placing at the end of the discourse. In an exposition
that is largely dedicated to the training of the bodhisattva but frequently deployed in the
context of the Buddha’s former lives, there could hardly be a more appropriate way of ending
it than by retelling the final phases of Sakyamuni’s exploits. This stratagem not only brings
the series of jataka stories to its logical conclusion, but asserts the viability of the whole
enterprise in an incontestable way. By singling out this ending, the Bdp not only re-enacts the
context in which the bodhisattva training unfolds, but more importantly, sets it within a
mythological frame of reference, thereby drawing ultimate authority from the experience of
the Buddha himself.

86
 The Bodhisattva Ideal in the Mahdmtnakuta

Chapter Three

The Bodhisattva Ided in the Maharatnakuta Collection

In our survey of the content of the Ratnakuta in chapter one we have learned of the wide
range of topics included in its forty-nine sutras. It soon became apparent that many of them
show a common interest in the bodhisattva. While examining the texts, I began to wonder
whether this shared concern might have occasioned their being assembled into one collection.
In chapter two, I investigated the structural and literary features of the Bdp. Taking the
findings of this analysis as point of departure, I shall now assess the structure and presentation
of the bodhisattvacarya in the Ratnakuta. Particular consideration will be given to the role
played by the B dp’s teachings amongst these sutras. The reasons for this emphasis are
twofold. First, while many Ratnakuta sutras contain material on the bodhisattva ideal, the
Bdp is virtually the only text practically exclusively dedicated to the bodhisattva. Second, no
other text in this collection provides a similar wealth of detail on the bodhisattva as that
found in the Bdp. In length alone, it eclipses all other bodhisattva texts many times over. This
raises the distinct possibility that its teachings might also have been invested with special role
in the description of the bodhisattva ideal.
Taking into account the size and diversity of the collection a detailed analysis of all
forty-eight texts would constitute a task so vast as to take it well beyond the scope of this
thesis. Therefore, I have selected twenty-three sutras that are of particular relevance to the
study of the bodhisattva ideal. Amongst these texts I include several sutras that may contain
little new in terms of practice, but exhibit intriguing and seemingly unprecedented perspectives
of the path.
Let me stress, however, that this selection is not to imply that the remaining twenty-five
works ignore the bodhisattva ideal. On the contrary, among them there are several sutras
containing some interesting insights. Generally, though, they treat other subjects more exten­
sively and place the bodhisattva practice in a subordinate role or refer to it only in passing,
and so are of minor importance to the present investigation.

87
 The Bodhisattva Ideal in the Maharatnakuta

Categories o f Bodhisattva Texts

As already indicated I shall analyse only those sutras containing most of the data on the
bodhisattva. For this purpose, I distinguished two text groups. First, there are twenty-three
sutras that place the bodhisattva ideal in the centre of their exposition.1 Since these works
hold most of the relevant evidence, they become the bedrock for this study. Second, there is a
group that comprises five texts containing isolated points of interest, but typically these refer
to the bodhisattva ideal only in passing.2
For the sake of organisation, I propose to subdivide further the first text category by
differentiating between:

1. Sutras whose aim is the explication of the bodhisattva ideal.

2. Sutras that discuss bodhisattva practices and attributes.
3. Sutf'as that focus on the bodhisattva doctrine.

The following ten texts belong to the first sub-category:3 The Rdsp-apdlapariprcchd,
Ugrapariprccha, Kasyapaparivarta, Svapnanirdesa, Updyakausalyaparivarta, Sumatidar-
ikapariprccha, Vinayaviniscaya-Updlipariprccha, Ratnacudapariprccha, Aksayamati-
pariprcchd and Darikavimalasuddha.
The second sub-group consists of eight works:4 The Vimaladattdpariprcchd, Acintyabud-
dhavisayanirdesa, Bhadramdydkaravyakarana, Mahapratihdryopadesa, Susthitamatidevapu-
1 These are the Svapnanirdesa (Rkt 4), Purnapariprcchd (Rkt 17), Rdsp-apdlapariprcchd (Rkt 18),
Ugrapariprccha (Rkt 19), Vidyutpraptapariprccha (Rkt 20), Bhadramaydkdravyakarana, (Rkt 21),
Mahapratihdryopadesa (Rkt 22), Vinayaviniscaya-Upalipariprccha (Rkt 24), Subahupariprccha (Rkt 26),
Suratapariprccha(Rkt27), Viradattagrhapatipariprccha (Rkt28), Sumatidarikapariprcchd(Rkt 30), Gahgott-
arapariprccha (Rkt 31), Asokadattavyakarana (Rkt 32), Vimaladattdpariprcchd (Rkt 33), Susthitamatideva-
putrapariprccha (Rkt 36), Updyakausalyaparivarta (Rkt 38), Darikavimalasuddha (Rkt 40), Kasyapapari-
varta (Rkt 43), Ratnarasi (Rkt 44), Aksayamatipariprccha (Rkt 45), Ratnacudapariprccha (Rkt 47) and
Srimdlddevisimhanada (Rkt 48).
2. The most prominent examples o f this group are the Trisarnvaranirdesaparivarta (Rkt 1) Tathagatdcintyagu-
hyanirdesa (Rkt 3), Dasadharmakasutra (Rkt 9), Pitaputrasamagama (Rkt 16) and Acintyabuddhavisaya-
nirdesa (Rkt 35).
3. Besides the Bdp, it is only the Ug (colophon o f T 323), Pm (attested in the T ’ang catalogue; Mochizuki,
1931-36, p. 3441a 5-25; ref. Schuster) and Rp (pp. 59.20-60.2) that contain references to the bodhisattvacarya
in their title.
4. In most cases, the relevant section is introduced by shifting the focal point to the bodhisattva training. See:
Prn (23, pp. 2 3 1 .3 -3 2 .5 .4 ) Vimaladattdpariprcchd (24, pp. 108.5.1-111.3.8), Susthitamatidevapu-
trapariprcchd (24, pp. 130.4.6-134.1.4), Bhadramaydkdravydkarana (23, pp. 7.3.3-9.3.7). In other cases,
however, the distinction becomes more blurred with sets o f practices being freely interpolated in the
description o f the main topic, e.g., Viradattagrhapatipariprccha (24, pp. 84.2.2-85.1.3) and Mahaprdti-
haryopadesa (24, pp. 19.5.1-20.31; 20.3.5-21.3.7; 22.4.5-23.4.8).
 The Bodhisattva Ideal in the Maharatnakuta

trapariprcchd, Subahupariprccha, Viradattagrhapatipariprccha and Purnapariprcchd.5

The third sub-category is comprised of three sutras". The Srimdlddevisimhanada, Asokadat-
tdvyakarana, Gangottarapariprccha and the Suratapariprccha.6
Besides these twenty-one texts, there is one more sutra that seemingly places the bodhisattva
in the centre of its exposition. This is the Ratnarasisutra. The reason why I declined to
allocate a place in either of these categories to this sutra is simple. It does not mention the
bodhisattva. The Ratnarasisutra discusses the conduct and practice of the religious practitioner
(,sramana) in what is formally a Mahayana frame of reference, but curiously does not refer to
him as bodhisattva. Since the centre of interest is the Vinaya observing monk, it is clear that
the text presupposes the monastic environment as framework for the spiritual training. On the
basis of eye-witness reports, we know that in practice bodhisattvas were bound to the spirit of
the monastic code and often pursued their careers in monasteries.7 Thus, it seems that the
disciplinary reprimands that are voiced in the Ratnarasisutra are directed at ail practitioners
partaking in the monastic training and so apply also to the bodhisattva.
Like practically all Mahayana sutras, the Ratnakuta’s bodhisattva texts operate within the
gnoseologic parameter of Mahayana ontology. This is most ostensibly borne out by the
frequency with which they draw connections with its axioms of emptiness (sunyatd), sameness
(samatd) and inapprehensibility {anupalambha) that most accept as the philosophic substratum
for their expositions. The extent to which these principles come to play a role in the bodhisattva
training varies greatly from text to text. While some sutras refer to them only in passing8,
others assess the whole practice in strict accordance with these axioms. Frequently, it is
achieved by defining every bodhisattva activity in terms of sunyatd from the very outset.9
5. In chapter one, I pointed out that in an early T ang catalogue the Prn carries the alternative title Bodhisat­
tvapitaka. While it is true that virtually all portions of its exposition have some bearing on the bodhisattva
ideal, it is only a relatively small part that contains explicit information on the bodhisattva training itself.
Most o f these data are found in its first chapter, entitled ‘On the bodhisattvacarya\ However, since this
chapter is extremely short, spanning barely ten out o f one hundred and fifty folios, even this part o f the Prn
does not provide much information on the training. Hence, I did not include the Prn amongst the ten
Ratnakuta works whose centre o f interest is the bodhisattvacarya.
6. For the most part, these texts contain no explicit references to the bodhisattva training p e r se. Their
importance lies chiefly in the doctrinal frame in which they set the pursuit o f the bodhisattva ideal. This
allows often for inferences about the theoretical dimensions o f the bodhisattva doctrine as contrasted with
the more practical aspects o f its implementation in the training itself.
7. Our knowledge o f monastic customs is chiefly based on the reports we have from Chinese pilgrims who
travelled to India and Central Asia around the middle o f the first millennium AD. For details on the
prevailing state o f affairs in Buddhist monasteries, consult: Beal, 1884; Legge, 1886.
8. The siitras belonging to this category are most prominently the Rp, Ug, Svapnanirdesa and Ratnarasi. In
these, no attempt is made to link the tenets o f Mahayana ontology with the practice itself. Thus, their
teachings on the bodhisattva assume invariably a very realistic, urgent perspective.
9. This applies in particular to the Vup, Sumatidarikapariprcchd and Updyakausalyaparivarta. A similar

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Owing to this somewhat defiant system of reasoning which challenges the validity of action
in general, the bodhisattva thought inevitably becomes less persuasive.10
Let me stress, however, that the texts that use unmitigated philosophical reasoning throughout
are in a clear minority.11 The vast majority display an astonishing measure of spiritual
pragmatism in their vision of the bodhisattva. This emphasis on practical concerns is best
exemplified by the weight that many give to the ethical dimensions of the career. In addition,
great heed is consistently shown to the more religious facets of the training, including
concepts such as faith, veneration, discipline, vigour and purity.

Sutras whose Aim is the Explication o f the Bodhisattva Ideal

Broadly speaking, in this category we can distinguish four different approaches in the
discussion of the bodhisattva ideal.
First, there are sutras that display a high degree of informality and structural liberty in their
description of the bodhisattvacarya. Since they often belong to the oldest parts of the collection,
their style of exposition is non-technical and lacks many of the elaborate subtleties that
prevail in later strands of bodhisattva works.12There is every indication that they present the
early ideas of the Mahayana movement. Since, at this stage, the finer points of the bodhisattva
doctrine had yet to be worked out, priority is given to more fundamental, inspiring considerations
about the general scope and nature of the bodhisattva training.
The most prominent works of this type are the Rp and K p f Both texts contain numerous
though less systematised line o f reasoning is adopted in the Bhadra-vy, Kp, Sms and Susthitamatidevapu-
trapariprccha.
10. This approach is found, above all, in those sutras that I included for their indirect contributions to the
bodhisattva doctrine. More will be said about the ways in which it affects the presentation o f the bodhisattva.
11. The best-known o f the more philosophical Ratnakuta works are the Trisamvsranirdesaparivarta, Saptasati-
kandmaprajndpdramitd, A cintyabuddhavisayanirdesa, Pitaputrasamagama, Mahjusribuddhaksetra-
gunavyuha, Samantamukhaparivarta. Other less known works are the Vidyutpraptapariprccha and, perhaps,
the Gangottarapariprccha.
12. The uncomplicated form o f presentation corroborates details that we extricated from Chinese sources about
the early date o f their composition. Chinese translations o f these texts attest that several o f them go back to
the early centuries o f the Christian era. Two o f them were first rendered into Chinese during the second
century AD and many others followed suit in the third and fourth centuries. Altogether we know o f five
Ratnakuta sutras that reached China during the earliest phase o f the translation activity in the late Han
dynasty. O f these, two are linked to the devotional strands o f Pure Land Buddhism (Rkt 5, 6), one is
associated with the cult o f Maitreya (Rkt 41) and two fall in the first category o f bodhisattva sutras (Rkt 19,
43). For an exemplary analysis o f the characteristics that mark the relationship between the date, style and
contents o f these works, see: Weller, 1965, Einleitung, pp. 5-58.
13. Other examples from this category o f works o f inspiration are the Red, Prn and, o f course, the Bdp.

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bodhisattva practices and disclose ways in which these interrelate. Apparently in order to
distinguish the bodhisattva’s qualities from those of other religious practitioners, a marked
effort has been made in both sutras to describe the virtues and attributes particular to the
bodhisattva. In the Kp, this process of delineation is cast in a somewhat negative mould,
since the text invites conclusions by ‘rhetorically’ listing traits that fall well short of the
bodhisattva’s high standards. Standing alone, this indirect mode of reasoning might indicate
an early date of composition for the Kp at a time when the bodhisattva doctrine was still in its
formative period and evolved in reaction against previously existing ideas.14
If we survey the practices that are included in these early sutras, we note that most texts
accentuate the principles of early Buddhist practice and, in particular, the ethical side of their
production. Mahayana practices such as the pdramita or upayakausalya are relegated to the
background and figure only sporadically. What is more, none of the texts proposes any
formal scheme for the bodhisattva training. The practices are cited either on an individual
basis or otherwise are loosely drawn together in tetrads.15
Second, we have siitras that display a high degree of organisation in their discussion of the
bodhisattva. It would seem plausible that these texts were included to balance the structural
latitude of works like the Kp and Rp. Two siitras, in particular, stand out for their well-structured
outlines of the training, that is, the Svapnanirdesa and Aksayamatipariprccha.
In the Svapnanirdesa, more than half of the exposition is dedicated to showing the interplay
that links the diverse attainments of the ten stages.16 Priority is given to those factors that
specifically correlate the notion of practice with that of progress along the path. The path-scheme
itself emulates the tenfold design of the Dasabhumika. The picture drawn of the career is
rather sterile, since it is locked into the formal structure of the path and swerves nowhere
from its linear order. This close adherence to the successive training-phases may point to the

14. This is also true o f the Rp, since it too sets out to define the nature o f the bodhisattva in opposition to the
qualities o f the Sravaka (Ensink, pp. v-xvi).
15. There is ample room for speculation as to the reasons that led to this structural laxity. First, there is the fact
that both works belong to the earliest strand o f bodhisattva siitras not only in the Ratnakuta, but probably
in the Mahayana as a whole. Texts containing such early thought might be expected to be less organised in
their presentation than those o f later centuries when the bodhisattva doctrine had fully matured. Second,
being conceived as works o f inspiration, they might never have intended to provide a systematic description
o f the training. We know o f several other Mahayana works where clarity and logical coherence are
sometimes disregarded in favour o f ‘emotional’ subject matter aimed at the more imaginative traits o f the
human mind. Thus, it might have well been thought that a terse, systematised style o f exposition would
inevitably diminish the appeal o f texts whose chief function it was to attract following to newly formulated
idcfls
16. 22, pp. 97.2.8-109.2.8.

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rationale behind the sutra’s incorporation in the Ratnakuta; namely, to furnish the collection
with a text that systematically classifies, and sets in a well designed scheme practices that are
elsewhere haphazardly cited.
In the Aksayamatipariprccha, this sense for order is heightened to the point of practically
encompassing the whole breadth of the bodhisattva training. It involves an abridged, highly
systematised presentation of all major practices and phases of the bodhisattva’s career, including
the bodhicittotpada, pranidhana, the ten stages and affiliated perfections, meditations and
magic spells.17 From the structural point of view, the Aksayamatipariprccha *s presentation
of the bodhisattvacarya excels all other path schemes in the Ratnakuta. Beginning with the
cittotpada and concluding in the bodhisattva’s acquisition of quasi-magical, buddha-like
powers, it follows not only the chronological order of the career, but also points to the
interrelationship between the successive attainments. The pdramita are closely linked to the
ten stages; the meditations are generated by sets of vows and, in turn, lead to the acquisition
of magical powers.
Third, we have texts that are wholly dedicated to a specific set of bodhisattva pratices.
Good examples of such texts are the Vup and Updyakausalyaparivarta.18 As their titles
indicate, the bodhisattva’s code of discipline in the Vup and skilful means in the Updyakausa­
lyaparivarta lie at the heart of the discussion. While the Vup explores the foundations of
moral integrity and its manifestations in the bodhisattva’s conduct, the Updyakausalyaparivarta
explicates the operations of skilful means in the bodhisattva’s fulfilment of his pledge to
universal liberation. Both practices are of cardinal importance to the completion of the
career. The reluctance shown in both texts to discuss any topic not closely linked to their
causes testifies to the enormous prestige of the practice of slla and upayakausalya.
Fourth, there are sutras that lay stress on the factors separating the lay path from that of the
mendicant ideal. The most prominent sutras of this class are the Ug and Sumatidar-

17. On reading the Aksayamatipariprccha, it becomes immediately evident that every effort was made to cast
its account o f the bodhisattva path in the mould o f the scheme o f the ten stages as codified by the Dbh. In
structure and terminology both works exhibit close parallels and it certainly looks as if most, perhaps even
all, o f its lay-out has been borrowed from the Dbh. Apart from this structural similarity, there is otherwise
little substance that connects the two, since the Aksayamatipariprccha is an infinitely shorter work and
does not take up most o f the detail that is set out in the Dbh.
18. Other texts dominated by individual practices are the Ratnarasi and, albeit to a somewhat lesser extent, the
Red. In the Ratnakuta, this phenomenon o f devoting whole sutras to one concept only is not limited to
expositions on the bodhisattva. There are several other texts that focus on a limited range o f thems, most
notably the Bhadrapalasresthipariprceha, Rasmisamantamuktanirdesa, Ayusmannandagarbhdvakrantinird-
e'sa, Aksobhyatathagatasyavyuha and, o f course, the Amitabhavyuha.

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ikapariprccha.19First, both texts go to considerable lengths to present a complete picture of

the nature and aptitude of grhapti bodhisattvas. Further, neither encourages the outright
condemnation of its opposing ideal. Even in the passages where they directly contrast the
qualities of grhapti bodhisattvas with those of its pravrajita counterpart, an amicable tone is
maintained.
The Ug is most explicit in this matter and postulates that the highest form of bodhisattva
practice consists in a combination of the virtues of both ideals.20That is to say, it proposes to
join the compassion, dedication and altruism of the grhapti bodhisattva with the discipline
and renunciation of the recluse. The practices and attainments advocated in the Ug coincide
with those qualities traditionally associated with the two schemes; for the lay path it is faith,
generosity and reverence, whereas for the recluse it is contentment, concentration and deep
understanding.

Sutras that Discuss Bodhisattva Practices and Attributes

I now propose to widen our investigation and to consider those sutras containing specific,
if sporadic, discussions of bodhisattva practices and attributes. Since they appear generally
out of context or are crudely integrated into the plot they serve to illustrate, it seems to me
that many of these passages could indeed be interpolations of later times. Amongst the eight
texts to be considered here, we can distinguish two principal currents of exposition.
First, there are texts where the passages focus quite specifically on the bodhisattva practice.
These are primarily ‘action-oriented’ and contain only few references to the bodhisattva’s
qualities or attributes. This is particularly evident in the Mahapratihdryopadesa and Prn. In
the Mahapratihdryopadesa a long section is taken up by a detailed, itemised description of
the mechanisms behind the practices themselves.21 There is virtually no reference to the

19. Other texts o f this category are the Asokadattdvydkarana, Viradattagrhapatipariprccha, Gahgott-
arapariprccha and philosophically, the &ms.
20. As the Ug is a composite work whose focal-point shifted over the centuries, its conclusions were also
subject to change. In the words o f Schuster: “The three Chinese translations, the Tibetan and the Sanskrit
fragments preserved in Site, do not represent the same recension o f the text. All translations o f the text
present similar pictures o f the lay and recluse bodhisattvas. Yet there is a radical difference o f opinion
between the oldest version o f the Ug (T322) and all the others about what is the superior bodhisattva
vocation, and why” (Schuster, op. ch., pp. 79, 315).
21. 23, pp. 11.4.4-23.4.5.

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immediate fruits that would result from such practices.22 In the Prn, too, an entire chapter is
devoted to the bodhisattva training and the individual practices pursued in its course.23 It is
structured in tetrads that allow for only brief comments on the practices themselves, unlike
the corresponding passage in the Mahapratihdryopadesa that contains much more detail.24
Second, we have several sutras where the focal-point shifts towards descriptions of the
bodhisattva. Here, emphasis is placed on the qualities of the bodhisattva rather than on the
practice itself. Even the most outstanding practices, such as the pdramita or samgrahavastu,
do not appear in their expositions. The main objective is no longer to explain the practical
concerns of the training, but forge a new ideal from traditional collections of religious
maxims. Generally, they do not investigate the way these were accomplished in the first
place. Examples of this shift in emphasis are contained in the Darikavimalasuddha and, to a
somewhat lesser extent, in the Subahupariprccha,25 The Darikavimalasuddha places specific
bodhisattva attributes and powers in the foreground, whereas the Subahupariprccha presents
the bodhisattva ideal in subtly inspiring but more general terms. Apart from this difference in
tone, both sutras were clearly based on similar assumptions that place them side by side
amongst the Ratnakuta works.

Sutras that Focus on the Bodhisattva Doctrine

Much of our attention so far has been directed at the practical facets of the bodhisattva
training. This is appropriate in view of the predominantly ‘action-oriented’ nature of most
Ratnakuta sutras. This feature however is not shared by all texts, as some concentrate on the
theoretical perspectives of the bodhisattva ideal. These I have grouped together as sutras that
deal with doctrinal issues or contain only indirect references to the bodhisattva. They are

2Z 24, pp. 15.5.7-16.3.5

The fruits and bodhisattva qualities that spring from the training are iterated separately towards the end o f
bam-po two (pp. 19.5.1-20.3.1) and again in the middle o f bam-po three (pp. 22.4.5-23.4.8).
23. This is chapter one. Incidentally, this chapter, entitled: ‘On the bodhisattvacarya', is the only o f all
forty-nine texts (except the Bdp) that bears a title which is immediately related to the bodhisattva training
(23, pp. 231.1.6-232.5.4).
24. The other texts containing passages that focus on the more active or dynamic aspects o f the bodhisattva
ideal are the Bhadra-vy (24, pp. 7.3.3-9.3.7), Vimaladattdpariprcchd (24, pp. 108.5.1-111.3.8) and Susthi-
tamatidevaputrapariprccha (24, pp. 130.4.6-134.1.4).
25. The third text which belongs to this category is the Viradattagrhapatipariprccha (in particular, pp.
84.2.2-85.1.3) and, o f course, the Bdp.

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separately examined further below, so it will suffice to note just two of their characteristics
here.
First, all of them pass over the practical aspects of the bodhisattva training and include only
a few statements immediately relating to the vision of universal liberation. At first glance,
they do not seem to be of great import to the bodhisattva ideal. On closer examination, we
find this is misleading. The Sms is the text where such philosophical priority is most conspicuous.
The work abounds with allusions to the doctrinal background of the various career-phases. It
not only adds new thought, but also draws parallels with several other Mahayana works and
traces correlations with their propositions.
Second, practically all sutras in this category endeavour to highlight the issues separating
the attainments of the Sravaka from those of the bodhisattva, often over many pages. These
discourses assume an overwhelmingly theoretical flavour with little illustrative material and
not much interest is shown in the practical application.

On the basis of this preliminary investigation, it is now possible to venture some opinion on
the motives behind the inclusion of the Bdp in the Ratnakuta. In chapter one, I pointed to
textual evidence that suggests that the Bdp was widely esteemed for its treatment of the
perfections. This finding is corroborated by the results from our survey of its contents,
showing that the pdramita stand at the centre of the Bdp.26
So far very little has been said about the pdramita in the context of the Ratnakuta. The
reason for this omission is that the Bdp is practically the only text in the entire collection that
treats the six perfections with more than passing reference.27 This is astonishing, considering
the great attention that is given to the bodhisattva in every other detail in the Ratnakuta.
Without the Bdp its depiction of the bodhisattvacarya would lack the most prominent set of
bodhisattva practices.

26. I know o f no other Mahayana sutra that propounds the pdramita in quite the depth that the Bdp does. Even
texts that are intimately linked to the bodhisattva’s cause mention them only in passing. In the Dbh, for
instance, the perfections appear only briefly at the end o f each stage (Dasa-bh, p. 30; cf. Sgs, pp. 141-150).
Likewise, in the Vkn they are cited only twice in full and also there little attention is given to their
implementation (pp. 96-7, 157). Even in the voluminous Panca, we find only sporadic discussions o f the
pdramita altogether amounting to little more than a tenth o f its exposition (e.g., pp. 263-67, 400-4,
453-64, 488, 509-526). One is led to conclude that the perfections were either considered to be very
elementary and therefore required no specific explanation, or (and this seems much more likely) that
behind the Vkn and texts like it there might have been well-known sutras where the pdramita were
propounded in detail so that to discuss them once again would have been otiose.
27. The only exception is perhaps the Red, since in this work the perfections do receive considerable attention
at the beginning o f the discourse (24, pp. 231.4.7-236.2.7).

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With the Bdp ■s exposition of the pdramita, the picture becomes complete. Indeed, there is
then practically no aspect of the bodhisattva training that is not discussed or touched upon at
least once in the forty-nine texts. We find works of inspiration that provide general information
on the scope of the training and extol the qualities of the bodhisattva’s accomplishments;
texts that explore the major practices to be cultivated by bodhisattvas; sutras that instruct in
the order that the practices are to be undertaken and demonstrate how they interact with each
other; works that propound especially selected practices warranting exclusive treatment; texts
that address the controversy of the lay/mendicant distinction and lay down the frameworks
for their respective training; and finally siitras that give the bodhisattva ideal a more philo­
sophically ‘objective’ treatment through examination of the theoreticl principles lying at the
heart of its doctrine. Clearly, in view of this thematic completeness, the notion that the
Ratnakuta might have been compiled on the basis of a premeditated scheme now seems less
absurd. On the contrary, it might well be argued that without a calculated plan such extraordinary
degree of balance in diversity could not have been achieved.
The high standing of the bodhisattva in Ratnakuta works is confirmed by the multitude of
practices that are introduced in the course of their expositions. Since I discuss many of these
in the context of the Bdp in chapter four, I shall investigate here the extent to which they
convey a complete picture of the bodhisattvacarya. In particular, I shall probe whether their
arrangement manifests any indications why they were included in the Ratnakuta collection.

Bodhisattva Vow

Adopting the order of the career progress, I suggest to look first at the ways in which the
texts describe the bodhisattva’s vow (pranidhana ). The most advanced expositions of the
bodhisattva vow are given in the Sms and Aksayamatipariprccha. In both texts the vow is
divided into ten component parts each of which addresses one specific training-perspective.28
In the Aksayamatipariprccha , the enumeration follows the succession of the ten pdram ita
with each vow containing a pledge to practice the corresponding perfection. Its presentation
is accordingly very formal. In the Sms the situation is different. Here, the pranidhana is
embedded in the narrative and designates a specific point in Srimala’s spiritual advance. As a
28. 24, pp. 204.1 2 -2 4; 24, pp. 252.1.5-5.2.

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result, the description is very much alive and vibrates with her yearning for enlightenment.
The contents of the individual limbs do not seem to follow any formal design, but reflect the
underlying vision of the bodhisattva. Genuine desire for universal welfare is also displayed in
the vow that is set out in the Ug. As in the Sms and Aksayamatipariprccha, it is cited at the
beginning of the discourse and introduces the spiritual quest of the main protagonist, in this
case the householder Ugra. Yet, in contrast to the former two, its formulation is rather archaic
and may well belong to the earliest examples of its kind.
All other sutras containing references to the bodhisattva vow relate its function to a specific
purpose or mention it only in passing. Good examples are given in the Asokadattavyakarana,
Bhadra-vy and Rp. While none of these works discusses the bodhisattva vow in detail, all
uphold its cardinal importance for the bodhisattva career. In the Asokadattavyakarana, for
instance, it is listed amongst eight dharma that remove blemish from household life—an
issue of foremost concern to its defence of the lay path.29 The Bhadra-vy and Rp give
somewhat less attention to the bodhisattva vow. It appears inconspicuously halfway through
a long sequence of tetrads spelling out all sorts of bodhisattva practices.30 No attempt is
made to set the vow apart from the principles cited next to it. Neither is the reference itself
very explicit, since it broadly correlates the fulfilment of the vow to the accumulation of the
roots of virtue and learning.31
Then, we have several sutras that either build conceptually on the vow or allude to its
scope and effects. First, there are those texts where it constitutes the rationale behind many of
29. 24, pp. 101.2.5-3.3.
30. Bhadra-vy, pp. 43, 96 (§ 103); Rp, p. 14.11-12.
The vows themselves are very similar in contents and represent variations on what must be considered the
simplest and perhaps earliest form o f the bodhisattva’s pranidhana.
In the Bhadra-vy, the bodhisattva pledges (1) to abide in samsara until he has saved all sentient beings; (2)
to strive to learn the disposition o f all beings so that he can instruct them in a suitable manner; (3) to
acquire wholesome dharma, to defeat Mara and to accomplish enlightenment; and (4) to teach the Doctrine
to the world in just one word.
In the Rp the vow is vaguer (Ensink, op. cit., p. 15):
“There is no salvation, no refuge nor relief whatever for the world that errs on the way o f the
conditioned. I must release all beings, therefore I make my vow to attain the highest enlighten­
ment.”
Both are conspicuously similar to the vows that are included in the Asia and Mvu; these are probably the
oldest o f their kind. In theA sta (trsl. Conze, 1973, p. 254) it runs:
“We have crossed over, we shall help beings to cross over. Freed, w e shall free them.
Recovered, we shall help them to recover. Gone to Nirvana, we shall help them to go to
Nirvana.”
In the Mvu (p. 138.16) the vow is given in precisely the same form as in the Asta. In this profile it is also
found in the Saddhp (pp. 122-3).
31. In the Rp there is another reference to the bodhisattva vow. This time it is made by prince PunyaraSmi
when he pronounces his willingness to follow the Buddhist path. Although very similar in contents to the
former, it is less accentuated and easily overseen (p. 44.17 ff).

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their propositions. The best-known examples of this kind are the Vup and Upayakausalyapari-
varta, where the fulfillment of the vow is fundamental to their theses.32 Second, there are
works that assimilate its significance, scope and implications without incessantly going back
to the vow itself. A good example of this kind is the Ug. This text places the vow at the very
heart of its teaching by linking its concomitants of altruism and selfless service with the
moral and disciplinary zeal of the recluse.33

Bodhisattva Practice

Broadly speaking, the training that leads to the implementation of the vow is composed of
two categories of practice. First, it includes a number of principles that were adopted from
the earlier strands of Buddhist practice. Although with the advent of the Mahayana these
practices were ‘officially’ relegated to the background, many survived as the very bedrock of
the bodhisattva training. Second, we have practices that were developed in the Mahayana
itself. The most prominent amongst these are of course the pdramita. It is their treatment in
the Ratnakuta that I shall consider next.
The Ratnakuta sutras approach the perfections in three different ways. First, there is one
text that places the pursuit of the paramitd in the centre of its exposition. This is the Bdp.
However, one should also mention the Aksayamatipariprccha and Red since both contain
some material on all six (or ten) perfections. In the middle section of the Aksayamatipariprccha,
the pdramita are briefly discussed and, thereafter, recur in connection with the various
path-stages.34 And yet, since the sutra is an extremely short work and does not explain the
training in the pdramita beyond a number of attributes, we learn little about how to pursue
them.35 In the Red, the situation is not very different.36 Here too, we have a work that

32. Vup, pp. 108-114, § 33-40.

33. In the Ug, by being placed at the very beginning o f the discourse, the vow is employed in a very effective
way. In a few lines it sets out the gist o f the whole work and is easily memorised. Like those o f the Rp and
Bhadra-vy, it is early in both format and orientation and very close to that o f the Asta and Mvu. It runs as
follows (23, p. 259.3.1-2):
“I shall liberate those who have not yet been liberated, and release those who have not yet
been released. Those who have not yet been comforted, I shall comfort. Those who have not
yet been freed from affliction, I shall bring about their freedom from affliction.”
34. 24, pp. 204.2.6-205.4.7.
35. In the Peking edition o f the Tibetan Canon the whole text extends barely over seventeen folios (24, pp.
203.3.7-206.5.4).
36. Besides Sthiramati’s commentary on the Kp and Chinese commentaries on the &ms, the Red is the only text

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considers all perfections, but does not place them in the centre of its exposition.37 Instead, it
is the bodhipaksika dharma that become the focal-point of much of the discourse.
Next, there are works that contain partial discussions of the pdramita. In some of these,
treatment is only nominal and rarely exceeds a few lines. This is the case in the Kp, Prn, Sms,
Suratapariprccha and, perhaps, the Bhadra-vy. Typically, they refer to the six pdramita only
in passing or allude vaguely to their implementation. The Kp goes furthest by simply referring
to another text for a more detailed exposition of their contents.38
A limited treatment of selected perfections is also found the Sumatidarikapariprccha and
Rp. Here, however, the perfections are not explicitly referred to by name, but are implied by
the nature of the practices. It is worth noting that the practices that occur with greatest
frequency in this connection are those constituting the bodhisattva’s moral training
{adhisilasiksd). That is to say, they are dana, sila, ksanti and also, according to some,
virya. 39
Finally, there are several texts that discuss only one of the six (or ten) perfections. The
selected the pdramita is invariably explored at great length and stands at the centre of the
discourse. This is the case in the Ug, Vup and, of course, in the Updyakausalyaparivarta.
Each of them treats its selected perfection in exhaustive detail and looks at it from a number
of perspectives, with very little overlapping between the discussions. The Ug explores dana,

o f our twenty-one bodhisattva sutras that is furnished with a commentary. It is called Ratnacudasutracatur-
dharmopadesa (T1526) and exists in Tibetan and Chinese translations. Tibetan sources attribute it to
Vasubandhu, but the validity o f this authorship has been challenged. Demieville (BEFEO, 44, p. 391, n. 5),
however, says that this commentary is not extant in Tibetan.
37. The Red begins with a discussion o f the six paramitd (24, pp. 231.4.7-236.2.7) which is immediately
followed by a lengthy exposition on the bodhipaksika dharma (24, pp. 236.2.8-244.2.8). Its total volume
spans well over one hundred folios (24, pp. 229.5.1-251.1.8).
The positioning o f the bodhipaksika in the middle of the discourse and the detail with which they are
treated indicates that they were thought to stand at the very heart o f the bodhisattva’s training; probably
right next to the paramitd. The description o f the individual factors is carefully phrased and a lot more
exhaustive than all other references to the bodhipaksika elsewhere in the Ratnakuta. Hence, it becomes a
distinct possibility that just as the Bdp was seen as the authority on the perfections, so the Red might been
held in high esteem for its contribution on the bodhipaksika dharma and therefore warranted inclusion in
the Ratnakuta.
3& 24, p. 189.2!6-7
For text-critical comments on the passage in which the Kp refers to the Bdp for the practice o f the
perfections, see: Weller, op. cit., p. 67, § 6.1 (n. 5, 6). Other Ratnakuta internal references to the Bdp are
found in the Ug (p. 267.2.5-6) and Updyakausalyaparivarta (p. 162.1.7-2.8).
39. The dhydnapdramita corresponds to the adhicittasiksd and theprajhapdramita represents the adhiprajhasiksa.
The allocation o f the viryaparamita is less clear-cut and varies from author to author, some associating it
with the adhicittasiksd and others with the adhisilasiksd. This threefold division o f the paramitd was
widely accepted in Mahayana circles and probably represents attempts to reconcile the practices o f the
bodhisattva to those o f early Buddhism. Amongst others, it is spelled out in the Msg, Bbh and Madhyamakd-
vatdra. sGam-po-pa propounds a similar scheme (Guenther, 1971, p. 149). For further references to this
scheme see: Eimer, 1976, pp. 113 ff.

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the Vup expounds sila and the Updyakausalyaparivarta explains upayakausalya. Generally,
the chosen perfection is treated on its own and not linked with other practices.40
Treatment o f the practices that complement the bodhisattva’s training in the pdramita is
generally rather uniform. But for shifts in emphasis (largely due to varying contexts in which
the ancillary practices are called upon), few texts exhibit any substantial differences in their
choice and discussion of these practices. Repeatedly, our attention is drawn to the pancasila,
apramana, samgrahavastu, rddhipada, abhijna, dhutanga and bodhipaksika dharma, to men­
tion just a few of the more frequent principles.41 Besides these well-established sets, one
meets also with a fair number of individual, less codified practices, such as reverence,
eloquence, self-sacrifice, selfless service, faith and learning.
Also the framework in which these practices are embedded is remarkable uniform. Generally,
they are summed up in mnemonic-type lists of the kind I have already discussed in connection
with the Bdp. In view of this consistency, it is tempting to conclude that many of these better
known principles might have been based on some ancient, uniform stock of practices. What
is surprising, however, is the extent to which the texts exhibit similarities in style and tone. It
has been generally assumed until now that the concise sutra style is particular to the early
phase of Mahayana literature. In the Ratnakuta, however, these features are shared by early
and late works alike.42

40. The exception is the Updyakausalyaparivarta. Here, a specific practice, viz., the perfection o f skilful
means is related to numerous other training aspects to which it becomes the frame o f implementation.
Hence, although priority is given to showing how skilful means influences the training as a whole, it is set
repeatedly in contexts that disclose its application to specific practices. At the beginning o f the exposition
(24, pp. 151.4.8-152.1.8), for instance, it is shown how upayakausalya affects the practice o f the pdramita.
In section two and three (24, pp. 156.2.3-167.5.8) it is taken to account for the Buddha’s inexplicable past
conduct. Thus, although upayakausalya is the focal-point that determines the perspective for all other
practices, it is not the sole topic o f the Updyakausalyaparivarta.
41. As complete sets o f practice, these are found above all in the Ug, Suratapariprccha, Ratnarasi, Red, Rp and
Kp. In other texts, commonly just one or two aspects o f these categories are cited or else the respective
principles are not discussed under the official headings but listed on their own merits. This is particularly
the case in the Bhadra-vy (§ 79-121), Asokadattavyakarana and Sumatidarikapariprccha.
42. Compare, for instance, the style o f exposition o f such early works as the Kp, Ug, Maitreyapariprcchadharmasta
(trsl. second century) or Red (trsl. third century) with that o f the Aksayamatipariprccha (trsl. eighth
century), Sms or Pps (trsl. fifth century). It will be noted that, although doctrinally far apart, all seven
works show affinity in literary style and share a conspicuous preference for concision in the presentation o f
their cases.

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Bodhisattva Path

When discussing the types of bodhisattva expositions existing in the Ratnakuta, I have
pointed to the Svapnanirdesa and Aksayamatipariprccha as two sutras whose descriptions of
the bodhisattvacarya emulate the dasabhumika scheme. Identification of the tenfold design
caused no difficulty, since the expositions of both texts are firmly locked into their structures.
There are, however, Ratnakuta works where the path-design is less clear.
A good example is the dasabhumika scheme that is found in the Sms. Being essentially a
philosophical work, the Sms displays few clear-cut statements on the bodhisattva path. Much
of what we know about its vision of the bodhisattva path is therefore based on exegetical
works.43 A key passage pointing to the adaptation of the tenfold design is contained in the
second chapter where Srimala speaks of the bodhisattva’s successive renunciation of body,
life-force and possessions.44 Although, at first glance, no specific design emerges in this
reference, it shows parallels with other works where the three types of renunciation are
related to the ten stages. We learn in the Mahdvastu that from the eighth stage onwards
bodhisattvas begin to renounce their property and take up the mendicant path.45 This ties in
with what the queen, says: by renunciation of the body, bodhisattvas attain the buddha-body
(presumable the transcendental body first attained on the acaldbhumi)\ renunciation of the
life-force settles bodhisattvas in Dharma-activity (by common consent on the sadhumatibhumi),
and by renouncing all possessions they are certain to receive honours from all beings (at the
dharmameghabhumi when the bodhisattva is encircled by the Sahgha).
Further evidence of the adoption of the dasabhumika scheme is found in a series of
references to four kinds of merit (guna).46Of these, the Rgv links ‘limitless merit’ (gunapram-
eyata) to the seventh stage, ‘completeness of merit’ (gunasarvata) to the eighth stage; ‘incon­
ceivable merit’ (gunacintyata) to the ninth stage; and ‘pure excellence of merit’ (gunavisud-
dhiparamata) to the buddha-stage.47
There are yet more passages in the Sms that allude to a scheme for grading the progress of
the bodhisattva. These propose to divide the bodhisattva path into two major phases. According
to the Msl, quoting a passage from the Sms, the practitioner goes first through a ‘progress-phase’
43. For a list o f commentaries that were written on the Sms in China, see Wayman, 1974, pp. 9-11.
44. 24, pp. 255.5.3-256.1.5.
45. Mvu, p. 105.11-14 (ref. Wayman).
46. 24, p. 254.3.8-4.2.
47. Rgv, pp. 264-265 (ref. Wayman).

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comprising the attainments of the §ravaka, pratyekabuddha and ‘newly-set-out’ bodhisattva.48

Then he passes through the ‘fulfilment-phase’ that is set by the ‘three stages of the body
made of mind’.49 These, Queen Srimala associates with the advanced bodhisattva. Although
the three path-stages are raised at several occasions in the Sms, at no point it is made fully
clear to which phases they actually correspond.50Also the commentaries do not offer conclusive
advice. Instead, they cite references to three stages in other Buddhist scriptures.51
The &ms belongs probably to the later strands of the Ratnakuta. This might have influenced
the rather complex picture that it draws of the bodhisattva path. Our next example, the Ug, in
contrast belongs to the earliest bodhisattva sutras. Hence, it is not surprising that, like the
Bdp, it does not follow any ‘prefabricated’ path scheme, but develops a plan of its own.52 In
essence, many of its teachings revolve around the factors that distinguish the training of the
pravrajita bodhisattva from that of its lay counterpart. While the controversy surrounding
these two ideals is an old one, its conclusions are remarkable and warrant closer investigation.
At several places in the Ug we are told quite clearly that the paths of the grhapti and
pravrajita bodhisattva represent nothing but two consecutive career stages that eventually

48. Ms/, p. 70.3-10

The quotation itself is however not found in the Sms.
49. Wayman associates the so-called ‘body made o f mind’ to special cases o f perception, to their reflected
image in the three realms and to birth. Starting from these assumptions, he concludes that it must refer to a
duplicate o f the coarser body; and that indeed the ‘body made o f mind’ is assigned to the ‘nonfluxional
realm’ with its reflected image in the coarser body assigned to the ‘fluxional three realms’. I must admit
that I am not certain that I understand his terminology and the reasoning behind his argument. Since it is
only o f minor import to our present discussion, I shall not digress, but refer to the passages in which
Wayman develops his case; that is: Wayman. 1974, pp. 29-31.
50. 24, p. 254.3.8-5.4, pp. 255.4.2-257.4.5.
51. Chinese commentaries (Chi-tsang, p. 173) point, for instance, to an account that is given in the Lahkdv that
arranges the ‘three bodies made o f mind’ alongside the ten bhumi, correlating the first body to stages one to
five, the second body to stages six and seven and the third body to the eighth, ninth and tenth stages (pp.
211-214).
52. The clearest indications o f such scheme are found in a section on stupa rites:
“When shall I [the bodhisattva] renounce the filth o f household-life? When shall I abide and
fare just in this way? I shall generate, just so, the thought o f wishing to go forth to mendicant
life, o f no longer remaining in household-life at all and to pursue the conduct o f supreme
enlightenment. All those who go forth to mendicant life and hasten to the empty forest of
solitude realise perfect enlightenment” (23, p. 265.4.6-5.2).
For further details, see: 23, pp. 265.5.3-267.1.6 and p. 270.3.2-4. These statements on the path phases are
corroborated by the sequence in which the individual aspects of the bodhisattva training are cited in the Ug.
The first section sets out to define the nature and training o f the lay bodhisattva. It describes the typical lay
attributes o f faith, generosity, morality and veneration (HIB, pp. 67-84), each of which is then individually
taken up in section two to six (§ 2, morality; § 3, healing; § 4, home; § 5, generosity; § 6, stupa worship).
Next, departing from the ideal o f the householder, section seven lays out in detail the practices o f the
aryavamsa. In part, these are taken up again in section eight that deals with secluded dwelling. As in all
preceding sections great stress is laid on the reasons lying behind the individual practices and, above all,
justifying the renunciation o f household-life in favour o f forest seclusion. Finally, towards the end o f the
discourse, the training schemes o f the lay and mendicant ideals are merged and five dharma are put
forward that characterise the training o f the new, combined path (23, pp. 272.3.6-4.7).

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come together in the ideal of the ‘accomplished bodhisattva’.53 While it is the grhapti
bodhisattva who comes closest to the realisation of buddhahood54, he cannot achieve this
without having first gone through the phases of renunciation and discipline of the mendicant
path.55
The text distinguishes three path-phases. First, there is the phase of the superbly motivated,
though technically ill-equipped, householder. He has raised the thought of enlightenment and
proceeds on the path to buddhahood, but his progress is hampered by lack in purity and
understanding. Then follows a phase in which the bodhisattva spends his days as a recluse in
the forest, exerting himself to attain the degree of insight and purity required to implement
his resolution with utmost success. Finally, in the third phase of his training, the bodhisattva
returns to the world of the householder and resumes his task of liberating all sentient beings.56

Householder and Recluse

Out of the twenty-three bodhisattva works in the Ratnakuta, seventeen take up this somewhat
controversial issue. Of the seventeen, eight57 uphold the training of the grhapti bodhisattva
and nine58 endorse the pravrajita bodhisattva as the higher ideal. Numerically, there is
almost parity between the two groups. But before rushing to conclusions, let us look at the
ways in which the texts argue their cases. As in previous instances, I have selected from each
group one sutra that is particularly well-suited to serve as an example.
The Asokadattavyakarana is in many ways representative for the advocates of the lay

53. Ug, 23, p. 272.3.7-4.7.

54. 23, pp. 272.5.7-73.1.6.
55. 23, p. 270.2.4-4.6.
56. 23, p. 271.2.7-3.1:
“And furthermore, O householder, in accordance with the Buddha’s instructions the pravrajita
bodhisattva must live in the forest abode, thinking to himself: “In this place I shall accomplish
all virtuous practices. Having adhered to it by reason of roots o f virtue, afterwards, I shall go
to towns and villages to preach the Dharma,”
A similar concept in found in chapter nine o f the Bdp where the bodhisattva is encouraged to withdraw into
solitude prior to promulgating the Dharma (R, folio 540-41).
57. These are the 1. Sms, 2. Sumatidarikapariprccha, 3. Asokadattavyakarana, 4. Vimaladattapariprccha, 5.
Gahgottarapariprcchd, 6. Susthitamatidevaputrapariprccha (24, pp. 139.3.3-142.2.3 only), 7. Viradatt-
agrhapatipariprccha, 8. Ug (in the Ug the position is less clear as it changed over the centuries). O f these
seven works, number 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 endorse also the potential of the female bodhisattva.
58. These are the Bdp, Rp, Susthitamatidevaputrapariprccha, Bhadra-vy, Ratnardsi, Suratapariprccha, Kasya-
paparivarta, Aksayamatipariprccha and Purnapariprccha.

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ideal.59First, it belongs to those texts in which the gphapti/pravrajita distinction is vehemently

brought to the fore and thus is probably the main reason for its composition. Like most of the
sutras propounding the lay ideal, it is rather short and deals with few other issues. Second,
there is its vivid description of the challenge launched at even the most senior monks by
Princess ASokadatta. This is commonplace in this type of text, where the dialogue is typically
sharp and full of irony. At the end (and this too is characteristic for the householder/recluse
debate in the Ratnakuta), it draws up a set of practices that bridge the differences between the
two ideals to produce the ideal of the ‘accomplished bodhisattva’ very much along the lines
of the Ug. Doctrinally, this is achieved by merging the maxims of purity, insight and meditation
of the recluse with the compassion, selfless service and self-sacrifice of the householder.60
Our second example, the Ratnardsi, is less accommodating to the householder. It advocates
strict observance of the monastic code of conduct and encourages the revival of the mendicant
ideal. The reasons standing behind these concerns are well-known from the early suttas.
First, it is concerned with the personal benefit that accrues to the religious by way of physical
and mental purity.61 Second, it wishes to ensure the Sangha’s continuing ability to provide
fields of merit for lay followers, as a loss might damage its financial standing.62 In order to
kindle a desire for purity, the Ratnardsi extols the benefits that spring from meticulous
adherence to the Vinaya and praises those who genuinely withdraw into seclusion.63
The assumption behind this commitment to a monastic-type discipline is that lay life is
inevitably defiled and thus not suited to spiritual purification. Like the Bdp, the Ratnardsi
warns of the worldly evils of desire, greed and conceit and goes to great length to contrast
them with the virtues of the disciplinarian framework of mendicant training.
59. 24, pp. 96.2.4-103.2.8.
60. The points include (1) to purify the body and gain faith in enlightenment; (2) to generate kindness and
compassion; (3) to master all worldly affairs because of/with compassion; (4) to be able to give up one’s
life and to achieve ingenuity; (5) to be able to make infinite vows; (6) to accomplish the perfection o f
wisdom and become detached from all views; (7) to develop unwavering, infinite courage and vigour; (8)
to acquire unhindered pristine cognition as a result of attaining the realisation o f the non-arising o f dharma
(24, p. 101.2.5-3.3).
61. 24, pp. 207.1.2-5.6.
62. 24, pp. 207.5.7-208.1.6; 208.3.5-209.1.5.
63. That is to say, it is to adopt wholeheartedly the practices that are included in the aryavamsa and to pursue
the various meditative practices out o f genuine desire for purification (24, pp. 208.1.6-4.2, 214.3.3-5.8).
There is reason to believe that these ideals had not always been fully upheld, since the texts abounds with
examples that illustrate how the monk should not conduct himself (24, pp. 210.1.1-211.5.5). In keeping
with Vinaya tradition, these episodes are presumably cited on the basis o f some true occurrence and might
well reflect the state o f the Sangha at the time o f the composition o f the Ratnardsi. On evidence o f moral
laxity in the Buddhist communities o f Central Asia during the fourth century where fragments o f the
Ratnardsi have been found, see: L Tnde Classique, ii, p. 415. For further evidence o f criticism o f indiscipline
in early Mahayana sutras, see Kp, pp. 162-171, § 111-120.

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Two issues warrant particular attention, since they disclose rather conclusively what the
Ratnardsi considered an ideal environment. First, (and this is accentuated throughout the
text) no monk should expose himself unnecessarily to contact with the laity. Every interaction
between lay followers and bhiksus has to be sanctioned by the monastic community and must
strictly serve its interests.64
The training that such isolation was intended to advance consists of two main components.
On the one hand, we have a strictly regulated monastic regime of intense supervision and
willing submission.65The one issue that recurs constantly is the principle of personal account­
ability. Although it is applied to practitioners of all levels, it is argued that it is especially
mandatory for those who hold a leading office in the monastic precinct.66
The Ratnardsi also spells out the less regulated path of the recluse. Since this career is
beyond immediate control of monastic sanction and depends on the practitioner’s willingness
to honour the norms of the Dharma, the sutra’s tone changes from the prescriptive to a
descriptive one. Rather than postulating strict rules of conduct, it gives practical advice and
describes the kind of conduct that benefits a recluse’s progress. In essence, these take the
form of guidelines in combining the spirit of the Vinaya with the practicalities of forest-dwelling.
As forest life is described after the monastic training, it could be argued that the Ratnardsi
proposes, like the Ug, some stratification in the training. At first, the practitioner is expected
to subscribe to the disciplinarian rigour of monastic training. During this period he is being
schooled in the fundamental precepts of Buddhist spirituality. Then, having mastered the
concept of non-self and achieved a high degree of mental and moral stability, he is allowed to
withdraw into seclusion in order to internalise what he was taught in the monastery during
prolonged periods of meditation. Let me stress, however, that while such a succession of
training phases would accord with the principles of spiritual purification and seems corroborated
on contextual grounds, it is not explicitly proposed in the Ratnardsi.
The practices themselves build largely on the aspiration and training of the arhant-ideal.67
Valid for the recluse and monk alike, they centre on the general categories of sila, samadhi

64. This implies meticulous observance o f the pratimoksa mles in general and, in particular, the strict adherence
to those Vinaya precepts that regulate the moments when monks and laity come into contact with each
other, viz, on alms-round,while travelling, at public ceremonies and so forth. For details on these rules see
the Pavaranakkhandhaka and Kathinakkhandhaka sections o f the Culavagga in the Khandhaka o f the Pali
Vinaya.
65. 24, pp. 211.5.6-213.2.3.
66. 24, pp. 212.5.2-213.2.2.
67. See, in particular, 24, pp. 206.5.5-208.3.5.

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and prajhd and the seven sets of bodhipaksika dharma. But what is perhaps more surprising
than the absence of specific bodhisattva practices, is the general indifference of treatment to
the bodhisattva’s chief aspiration of universal liberation. Except for one cluster of practices
that encourage a generally positive disposition towards people, no explicit commitment to
their liberation is made. Clearly, this disinterest in the fate of other beings and the implicit
refusal to open the monk’s aspirations to the laity points to an early origin of the Ratnardsi.68

Bodhisattva Doctrine

These findings lead us to our next topic of examination, that is, the position of bodhisattva
works in the Ratnakuta in the overall development of the bodhisattva doctrine. I have already
pointed to four Ratnakuta sutras (5, 18, 19, 43) that have features linking them with the
earliest strands of the bodhisattva doctrine. Since they typically abound in lengthy descriptions
of the bodhisattva qualities, I have called them works of inspiration. The earliest attested
translations of these sutras go back to the second century AD. While in at least two cases
these have been subject to modifications, much of their original thought belongs without
doubt to the earliest phase of the bodhisattva doctrine.69
Next, we have several sutras where the links with early Buddhist practice are less evident.

68. There are several factors that might have accounted for the RatnarasVs unusual doctrinal orientation and
the weight that it gives to the observance o f monastic precepts. First, one will have to consider the time o f
its composition. The terminus ad guern o f the Ratnardsi is the end o f the third century AD since one o f its
Chinese translations (T 310.44) goes back to this period. Beyond that, we know little about its literary
history. Other clues that might be o f relevance to the Ratnardsi's historical evaluation are given in a few
manuscript fragments that were discovered at the beginning o f this century in Central Asia. The language
o f the fragments is Sanskrit written in the Upright Gupta script (Hoemle, 1916, pp. ix-xxxii, 116). The use
o f the Upright Gupta script raises the possibility that the manuscript might date back to the fourth or fifth
century AD (Hoemle, 1916, p. xiii). While this alone can scarcely be regarded as sufficient evidence for a
secure dating, it is in line with the date o f the earliest Chinese translation o f the Ratnardsi. For details on
the language o f surviving manuscript fragments o f the Ratnardsi, see: Hoemle, 1916, pp. 116-121. There is
yet another hint to be gleaned from the few surviving lines o f the Central Asian manuscript. This is the
Ratnardsi's area o f circulation. It will be recalled that we have evidence o f the Ratnakuta s popularity in
Central Asia. Most o f these had been discovered in the caves o f Tun-huang. The fragments o f the Ratnardsi
were located near Kucha, in the extreme north-west o f present-day China. The geographical distance that
separates both places underlines the Ratnakuta’s wide dissemination in Central Asia. More importantly,
however, Kucha tells us about the Ratnarasi’s sectarian affiliation. Hsiian-tsang, in his report on Buddhism
in Kucha, refers to Kucha explicitly as a town that was under strong Sarvastivadin influence (Beal, 1884, i,
pp. 19-20). Clearly, an affiliation with one o f the prevailing sects of early Buddhism would account for the
hinayanistic orientation o f the Ratnardsi’s exposition. It would make good sense for Sarvastivadins to take
on travels in foreign lands those sutras which teach the basics o f Buddhist spirituality and lay down the
framework in which it is to be pursued.
69. See: Weller, op. cit., pp. 8, 9 ,1 4 -1 5 ,1 7 -2 3 ; Schuster, op. cit., pp. 79-82, 325-334.

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These embrace Mahayana thought more wholeheartedly and venture beyond the concepts of
the early suttas. In these texts we meet with what were probably the first attempts to tackle
the newly evolving thought in a systematic fashion. Much of their ‘pioneering spirit’ is
directed at the bodhisattva practice itself which is typically reduced to its component parts.
The most important works of this class are the Bdp and Red. Both contain detailed descriptions
of individual bodhisattva precepts and set tentatively out to reinterpret Sravaka practices. Yet,
they do not draw up a scheme of the path or disparage the maxims of the mendicant ideal.
Then, we have a group of sutras that seemingly take such basic matter for granted and shift
the centre of their interest to subtler issues.70 For the most part, they define the ways in
which the bodhisattva path differs from that of the Sravaka. Another trait they have in
common is the dexterity with which they employ Mahayana philosophy to defend their views
on the bodhisattva. This is most graphically carried out in the Asokadattavyakarana and
Vimaladattdpariprccha; two texts in which all controversy about the need for purity and
restraint is dissolved into Emptiness.
Other advanced bodhisattva sutras place organisational concerns in the centre of their
exposition. In them, the issue that receives most attention is the search for an ordered scheme
to grade and allocate the practices to path-stages. This coordination is executed most effectively
in the Aksayamatipariprccha where practically all major practices are given a place on the
path. The nature of the practices themselves is of little concern in these texts.
Finally, there is a small group of sutras that include doctrinally the most advanced thought
on the bodhisattva. The complexity of their content indicates that, by then, all the fundamental
components of the bodhisattva doctrine were in place. Here, we find few references to the
actual bodhisattva training, since familarity with it is apparently taken for granted. The
best-known exponent of this category is the Sms.

Literary and Structural Characteristics

Having explored thematic considerations, I shall examine next the formal aspects of the
collection and investigate whether previous findings can be corroborated by stylistic or
70. The most prominent sutras o f this category are the Vinayaviniscaya-Updlipariprccha, Upayakausalyapari-
varta. Other less-known works are the Svapnanirdesa, Viradattagrhapatipariprcchd, Sumatidar-
ikapariprcchd and Acintyabuddhavisayanirdesa.

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literary evidence. Surely, if we are to accept the hypothesis that the Ratnakuta’s present
format is the outcome of religio-literary arbitrariness, we would expect to find a variety of
uncoordinated styles and literary genres. Moreover, its overall tone could be trusted to reflect
the fortuity of its composition and exhibit a wide spectrum of religious and literaiy ‘miscellanea’.
If, on the other hand, its compilation proceeded on a premeditated plan with a specific
objective, the chances are that its contents would display a certain stylistic and thematic
coherence. Selected literary genres might be expected to recur in a number of works and
favoured techniques of exposition would prevail throughout.
Since the evaluation of these issues is subject to interpretation and rests on personal judgment,
it is perhaps wise to concentrate on matters that are verifiable through statistical investigation.
It is these that I shall address first.
A feature common to practically all Ratnakuta sutras is the brevity and succinctness of
their expositions. With the notable exception of the Bdp, only a few of the texts exceed one
hundred Tibetan blockprint folios. Indeed, the majority fall well short of this mark, with a
considerable number averaging thirty folios or less.71 The range of topics discussed in these
discourses is invariably narrow. Owing to the brevity of the expositions, formal chapter-divisions
are found only in seven out the total of forty-nine sutras.
The briefness of the physical format is paralleled by a conceptual succinctness. In most
sutras little consideration is given to issues not immediately related to the main topic. Since
the use of examples is generally kept to a minimum, the reasoning follows clearly perceptible
lines of thought. It is very rare for these to be interrupted by lengthy, picturesque or explanatory
digressions.72Despite this conciseness the Ratnakuta is by no means a particularly technical,
or even philosophical collection.73 The themes that are raised in the discourses explain
typically basic Mahayana tenets, elucidated with much common sense and persuasively in
brilliant dialogues.

71. Out o f the total o f forty-nine texts, thirteen sutras belong to this category o f short works. They are Rkt 10,
13, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37, 42, 43 and 44. A further sixteen sutras are o f moderate length, that is,
they measure seventy-five folios or less. These are Rkt 4, 8, 9. 14, 17, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 35, 41, 43, 46
and 48. The average length o f the remaining twenty works is one hundred folios plus, with the notable
exceptions o f the Bdp (well over five hundred folios), Pps (three hundred and fifty folios) and Tatha-
gatacintyaguhyanirdesa (two hundred and thirty folios).
72. These appear above all in the Rp (pp. 34-59), Updyakausalyaparivarta (pp. 156.2.3 ff.), Mahjusrlbud-
dhaksetragunavyuha and Bdp (chapter vii, ix, xii).
73. Exceptions to this rule are those Ratnakuta works which cast their expositions in predominantly abstract,
philosophical terms. Good examples are found in the Acintyabuddhavisayanirdesa, Pitaputrasamagama,
Saptasatikaprajhaparamitd, Ayusmannandagarbhdvakrantinirdesa, Bhadrapalasresthipariprccha, Rasmi-
samantamuktanirdesa and Susthitamatidevaputrapariprccha.

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 The Bodhisattva Ideal in the Mahdratnakuta

This leads us to another characteristic that is shared by practically all Ratnakuta sutras, that
is, the extensive use of swift-paced, sharp interlocution. Unlike the tendency to prolixity of
later strands of Buddhist scriptures, in the Ratnakuta dialogue is employed with great effect
throughout. First, by maintaining the focus of the question its dialogues avoid discursive,
drawn-out monologues. Second, a frequent variation of the interlocutors ensures that the
subject is looked at from various angles. Finally, perhaps accounting for the collection’s
popularity, the dialogues enliven the discourse and imbue it with a degree of wit and surprise.
Controversial issues are not concealed behind long-winded descriptions, but brought to the
fore and become subjected to unrelenting probing.
Another stylistic feature that is widely shared by Ratnakuta sutras is the use of lists as a
means of summarising the various facets of the bodhisattvacarya. The most frequent configu­
ration is that of tetrads, closely followed by lists of tens and fives. Some scholars have
suggested that these lists might have influenced, or even led to, the compilation of the sutras
into one single collection in the first place.74While one cannot but acknowledge the conspicuous
frequency with which these mnemonic-type lists recur throughout, I fail to see the rationale
for such a motive.75 These lists have no intrinsic value on their own except for explication. I
find it difficult to accept that a structural expedient, however widespread and well-suited,
should have prompted the amalgamation of forty-nine sutras.161 suspect that the regular
recurrence of these lists is little more than a consequence of their prevalent use in the early
bodhisattva sutras.11It seems quite natural that they should figure in a collection full of texts
that place the bodhisattva ideal in the centre of their exposition.
The reasons that lie behind their original incorporation are straightforward and well-attested
74. Schuster, op. c i t pp. 37-38 (also n. 88).
75. To my knowledge, amongst the bodhisattva works there are only three texts that dispose o f them altogether,
that is, Rkt 31, 32 and 35. The most frequent configuration is that o f tetrads: Rkt 12 contains thirty-six
tetrads, Rkt 17 thirty tetrads, Rkt 18 twelve tetrads, Rkt 19 ten tetrads, Rkt 21 forty-three tetrads, Rkt 30
eight tetrads, Rkt 33 six tetrads, Rkt 35 four tetrads, Rkt 43 twenty tetrads and Rkt 44 sixteen tetrads. Other
popular lists are those o f ten (particularly frequent in Rkt 12,17, 19, 27, 35, 43, 44, 45 and 48) and those of
thirty-two (see: Rkt 12, 27, 38,43 and 45).
76. This proposition becomes even more questionable if we recall the kind o f sutras included in the Ratnakuta.
While such solution is conceivable when it is a matter o f relatively unimportant, miscellaneous texts, it is
very much less so in a collection o f works o f the class o f the K pf Amitabhavyuha or Ug. Moreover, this
explanation does not account for the inclusion o f those sutras that are entirely devoid o f lists. None o f the
following ten works contains any lists: 5, 6, 11, 15, 20, 31, 35, 38, 39, 46. At least five o f these contain
well-known, important expositions that surely prompted the inclusion in their own right.
77. It will have been noted that virtually all sutras in which such lists appear are works that concentrate in one
way or another on the bodhisattva. Indeed, their occurrences are conspicuously infrequent amongst sutras
which do not deal with the bodhisattva. This suggests that the employment o f series was largely restricted
to elucidating the individual aspects o f the bodhisattvacarya and not, as it has been suggested, a structural
feature common to all Ratnakuta sutras.

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 The Bodhisattva Ideal in the Mahdratnakuta

in many early suttas.78 On the one hand, tetrads were undoubtedly intended to facilitate
memorisation. For a tradition that relied over many centuries on oral transmission, such
structural device was both ingenious and indispensable for its survival. On the other hand, the
adoption of enumerations had the effect of organising its tenets and gave the impression of
completeness to its structures.
Somewhat surprisingly, this care for order is not always reflected in the overall design of
the sutras. More often than not, the sections making up the expositions display little thematic
coherence. While in some sutras this does not present much of a problem (either because the
subject is well-known from other sources, or because the chain of reasoning is perfectly lucid
and self-explanatory), there are several others where the lack of conceptual continuity under­
mines the intelligibility of the contents. Owing to interruptions in their lines of thought, these
texts may appear thematically fragmented.
Finally, I wish to draw attention to some minor, although not altogether insignificant,
literary characteristics typical of Ratnakuta works. First, presumably by reason of the prevalent
dialogue-format, it is only in isolated cases that we come across extended narrative portions.
Generally, narrations are kept short and occur only at places where their inclusion clarifies
some enigmatic pronouncement.79This dispensation with embellishing components intensifies
the impression of succinctness that is otherwise conveyed by the brevity and thematic con­
ciseness of the sutras.
Buddhist scholarship has shown that several of the Ratnakuta sutras underwent change in
the course of their history.80 Conclusive signs of such modifications are found, above all, in
the Kp and Ug.81 Comparisons between the various Chinese translations of the Kp have
78. The best example o f this type o f list is probably found in the Silavagga of the Dighanikaya (D, I, pp. 3-26)
where they make up roughly half o f the Brahmajdlasutta. They occur also in a number o f other early suttas
in an almost identical form, which suggest that they probably go back to a common, pre-Buddhist source
(M 1.79; M 1.76, 77; M II.3; Mahavagga v, 8.3). Like the Ratnakuta sutras, its lists address ethical concerns
predominantly and give a broad outline o f Buddhist conduct. As a matter o f fact, many o f the issues raised
in the tetrads o f the Ratnakuta have parallels in those early enumerations. That, in turn, invites the
conclusion that the precepts o f the bodhisattva, too, might have grown out o f these ancient rules o f conduct.
However, it is difficult to establish a direct link between them, since most o f these precepts are little more
than general norms o f behaviour not exclusive to Buddhists.
79. See, typically, Red (24, p. 248.1.3-249.5.8) where the Buddha illustrates the practices o f the bodhisattva
with the help o f examples o f his own conduct during previous lives. This pattern is a relatively common
one and can be observed in a number o f Ratnakuta sutras. Other examples are contained in the Rp (pp.
34-58) and in the Upayakausalyaparivarta (24, pp. 156.2.3 ff).
80 Stael-Holstein, 1926, pp. x-xii; Weller, 1965, pp. 8-11; Schuster, op.cit., pp. 79-83; Regamey, pp. ix-x;
Python, 1975, p. 5, § 5; Finot, 1901, p. vi.
81. Other texts that contain some indication that their contents might have been subject to revision are the
Bhadra-vy and Rp. In contrast to the Kp and Ug, however, here the case is less clear-cut and rests largely
on conjecture. For a brief evaluation, see: Regamey, 1938, p. 9; Ensink, 1952, p. x-xi.

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 The Bodhisattva Ideal in the Mahdratnakuta

revealed that a portion roughly equivalent to a tenth of its total length has been interpolated at
the end of the work. This insertion grew over the centuries and found its way eventually into
the ninth-century Tibetan translation.82The same methodological principles have also disclosed
the composite, evolving nature of the £/g.83

82 For an analysis o f the nature, extent and development of interpolations in the Kp, see: Weller, op. cit., pp.
9-10; Stael-Holstein, op. cit., pp. x-xiii.
83. An evaluation o f the various kinds o f bodhisattvas that are described in the Ug is given in: Schuster, op.
cit., pp. 325, 328 (cf. pp. 184-194, 214-223). On the basis of his seventh-century Sanskrit manuscripts,
Bodhiruci seemingly felt the need to retranslate both the Kp and Ug. Thus, it is only the later versions o f
these .texts that are currently included in the Ratnakuta collection. This is true o f great many Ratnakuta
sutras. The details o f their translations are given in Appendix iii.

I ll
 Conclusion

Conclusion

If we take now a step back from the detail of the preceding analysis and evaluate the
information we have so far extricated, two conclusions come to the fore. First, it emerges that
amongst the forty-nine Ratnakuta sutras there is not a single text that gives a complete
account of the bodhisattva career. On the contrary, we have several texts that limit their
expositions specifically to a few selected aspects.
The reasons that led to a specific choice of topic vary of course. In some cases, the subject
no doubt reflects the doctrino-historical circumstances that prevailed at the time of composition.
In others, the selection was probably the outcome of careful reflection in response to acutely
felt omissions, new inspiration or reinterpretation. In others again, a particular preference
might have been prompted by recurring misinterpretation or misdemeanour. Whatever the
reasons for the various styles, topics and organisational features, their diversity makes it quite
plain that the texts drew on a multiplicity of backgrounds and motives for inspiration.
This leads us to the second conclusion. Amongst the twenty-three sutras under consideration,
there are not even two works that concur exactly in their approach to the bodhisattva ideal. In
practically every sutra, the focal-point rests on a different assumption or exemplifies some
specific point of view. Moreover, the texts differ not only in thought and structure, but
frequently display methodological dissimilarities also.
We have noted further a large degree of coordination and complementarity between the
individual sutras. Indeed, there is not a single, major issue that is dealt with twice. Repetitions
occur only in minor instances, or at occasions rendered inevitable by the context. Needless to
say, this coordination is not the merit of the texts themselves, but attributable to the learning
and skill of the person(s) who brought them together in the Ratnakuta. The outcome of their
endeavours has been of great success, providing a well-balanced, comprehensive account of
the bodhisattva that covers virtually every key idea of his career.
It has been argued in the past that this complementarity is coincidental and a mere by-product
of an arbitrarily executed textual selection. While it is difficult (if not impossible) to establish
that this was not the case, I doubt that a random assortment of this size could possibly yield
such perfectly consistent patterns of thought. Even less, if we recall the proclivity to repetition

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 Conclusion

and assimilation (in both content and approach) that is a feature of Mahayana sutras in
general. A haphazardly compiled collection would undoubtedly have inherited this propensity
for reduplication. Furthermore, echoing local or sectarian preferences, its contents would
almost certainly tilt in favour of some prevalent textual tradition. There are no indications
pointing to the predominance of any one specific tradition amongst Ratnakuta works.
But let us return to the objection that it is precisely because the sutras do not exhibit an
all-embracing conceptual framework that they cannot have been assembled to a premeditated
plan. While it is true that there are several areas of thought that stand in isolation, rather than
stressing the connections that do not exist (and I admit there are some), I propose to look at
the issues linking the individual texts. Of these, the most conspicuous is the constantly
recurring reference to the bodhisattva ideal. The other, most noticeable, connecting element
is a close affinity in literary style. With a few exceptions, practically all forty-nine texts are
written in a very factual, perspicuous and concise idiom that forgoes the stylistic niceties of
long-winded embellishments.
One should also bear in mind that what is apparent to us today might not have been so in
the middle of the first millennium AD (and vice versa). It is entirely conceivable that the
compilers might have sought to implement a scheme whose logic is no longer perceptible by
us. It would be a mistake to conclude that because we fail to discern any intent behind its
present structures no such objective ever existed.
Finally, one is surely ill-advised to proceed from the assumption that its compilers had
access to the whole range of Mahayana scriptures as we know it today. The wide dissemination
of Mahayana thought renders it improbable that, even if the collection had been assembled at
a time when all currently known Mahayana sutras were already extant, its compilers could
have been aware of all of them. From their point of view the collection might have been fully
comprehensive though today we know that this may not be the case.
Whichever its omissions with regard to Mahayana doctrines in general, we have seen that
the Ratnakuta’s treatment of the bodhisattva ideal is all-inclusive and considers every relevant
career-aspect. What is more, the general picture emerging of the bodhisattva is extremely
well-balanced. The scale of this systematisation suggests that calculated efforts were at work
at least during those phases when the bodhisattva works were being put together. It is too
early to say if such a plan existed for the other topics, although it is difficult to see why it

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 Conclusion

should have been specific to the bodhisattva.

In chapter one, I proposed that the Ratnakuta might have been compiled for missionary
purposes. This view appears corroborated by the predominantly non-technical nature of its
bodhisattva sutras. Clearly, more than anything else it is the initial appeal of a text that
determines its success in persuading listeners of the logic of its propositions. For new thought
to gain acceptance it is necessary to use simplicity in reasoning and an inspiring tone. We
have seen that in the Ratnakuta these two qualities are widely shared by its bodhisattva
works.
The role assigned to the Bdp in this missionary process rested on two of its features. First, it
was highly esteemed for the detail in which it describes the training of the bodhisattva.
Above all, its exposition was commended for the treatment of the six perfections. Cross-
references in the collection itself suggest that, at least as far as the paramita are concerned,
the Bdp was thought to be at the very heart of the Ratnakuta’s vision of the bodhisattva.
The Bdp also contributed to the missionary efforts by furnishing the collection with the
hugely popular jataka-genre. To the present day, iconographic depictions and wall-paintings
across Asia bear witness of the repute and affection in which the accounts of Sakyamuni’s
former lives were held. In the Bdp, these were taken up and coupled with the training of the
bodhisattva. The outcome was twofold. On the one hand, the jataka served to authenticate
the practices themselves. On the other hand, their role was to inspire faith in the image of the
bodhisattva. They not only made the scope of the new ideal clear, but more importantly for
the conversion of other peoples, they provided the urgently required proof that its sublime
accomplishments were attainable. Since the Bdp is the only major Ratnakuta text combining
the bodhisattva ideal with the former exploits of Sakyamuni, it must have enjoyed great
popularity amongst the newly converted peoples of Asia.

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 Chapter Four

The Bodhisattva Doctrines and Practices in the Bodhisattvapitaka within the Context of other
Scriptural Traditions

Our discussion of the B dp’s structure in chapter two has shown that large parts of its
exposition are dedicated to the six perfections (paramita). This fact has given great acclaim
to the Bdp and developed into something of a hallmark by which it came to be widely known.
In addition to the paramita, two other sets of practice are singled out and granted special
status in the Bdp, that is, the immeasurables (apramana) and the means of conversion
(samgrahavastu). Taken together, these three sets of practice constitute the skeleton of the
bodhisattvacarya in the Bdp.
The description of the path is not limited to these cardinal areas of instruction, but encompasses
a number of other well-known practices. However, these are rather subordinate in rank and
are incorporated in the discussion of the paramita. Prominent examples include the super­
knowledge (abhijha), learning (sruta), ‘skill’ (<kausalya), unique knowledge (pratisamvid),
reliance (pratisarana), accumulation of merit (punyasambhara) and pristine cognition
(jhanasambhara), thirty-seven factors of enlightenment (bodhipdksika dharma), perfect mental
quietude (samatha) and insight (vipasyana).
In addition to these well established groups, we meet with a number of precepts that are
discussed individually.1 The majority of these is found in chapter eleven where they are
introduced in a list of seventy-two types of learning and involve such practices as penetration
(pravesa), good conduct (pratipatti), application (prayoga) vision (darsana), reflection
(manasakara), reverence (pradaksina) and attentiveness (aviksepa).2 Although they are
classed together under the heading of learning at the beginning of chapter eleven, the exposition
of these practices in the text itself does not follow the order or organisation of their introductory
listing.

1. In my discussion o f the bodhisattva practices, I shall consider only those practices that are known to
promote and hence precede the attainment o f buddhahood. By this criterion, the attributes, practices and
powers o f the Tathagata fall outside my investigation. The contents o f chapter four which deals exclusively
with the buddha-qualities— most notably the powers (bala), assurances (vaisaradya), wonder-working
powers (rddhi), liberations (vimoksa), great compassion (mahakaruna) and exclusive buddha-J/zarma
(avenika-dharma)— has therefore been excluded.
2. I have provided a list o f these practices in Appendix i.

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 Cittotpdda

The Thought of Enlightenment

The first reference to the bodhisattva in the Bdp occurs in chapter three. Chapters one and
chapter two are introductory to the whole exposition and do not consider the training of the
bodhisattva. In chapter three, entitled ‘On the Thought of Enlightenment’, Sariputra raises
the topic of the bodhisattva ideal by asking the following question:3

“By what means do [bodhisattvas] enter into enlightenment?

What is the goal of these heroes?
How do they accomplish excellent enlightenment?
Please explain these distinguished teachings.

How do the heroes act

In order to [dispense] medicine to all living beings?
Through the production of what kind of dharma
Do they become buddhas, the most excellent of men?

How do [bodhisattvas] convert sinners

After they dwelled on the seat of enlightenment?
How do they attain supreme and perfect enlightenment
After they traversed ten million buddha-fields?”

In response to this question, the Buddha speaks of the thought of enlightenment (bodhicitta)
and says:4

“O Sariputra, when a bodhisattva is in possession of a certain single dharma, he

takes hold of buddha-qualities and other immeasurable [qualities]. Which is this
single dharma? It is the thought of enlightenment of excellent intent. O Sariputra,
when he is in possession of just that single bodhisattva dharma, he shall grasp the

3. R, folio 81.4-7.
4. R, folio 81.3-5.

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 Cittotpada

buddha-qualities and other immeasurable [qualities].”

In the ensuing discussion, the Buddha considers the thought of enlightenment from several
points of view. First, he examines its nature and attributes. Particular attention is given to the
bodhisattva’s intent (asaya). In the Bdp, intent is primarily described as a stabilising factor
that assists the generation of the bodhicitta.5 As an ethical concomitant to the bodhicitta,
asaya is rooted in conventional experience and arises from compassion. Intellectually, it
operates in the cognitive realm specifically with regard to the vision of true reality. Eventually,
these interacting currents are drawn together to result in the unfolding of ‘pure intent’.
The other important concomitant to cittotpada is determination (adhydsaya). However,
owing to their conceptual proximity, differences between asaya and adhydsaya tend to blur.
Some clarification is provided by the description of adhydsaya in the Bbh. Here, adhydsaya
is characterised as persistence, understanding and resolve—preceded by faith and insight in
the Dharma—towards the buddha-qualities.6 It is therefore primarily concerned with the
bodhisattva’s own spiritual progress.7Asaya, in contrast, designates a broader principle and
is more intimately connected with the cittotpada, since its main purpose is to achieve rapid
progress in the implementation of the vow. According to the Bbh, it is divided into the
subcategories of seven virtuous intentions for sentient beings (kalyanasaya) and ten pure
intentions (dsayasuddhi).8 Above all, however, we find that asaya promotes the practice of
the six perfections to which it lends impulses of six different kinds.9
Intent and determination are often complemented by correct conduct (prayoga) as the third
major factor influencing the progressive implementation of the bodhisattva’s resolve.10In the
Msl, we read to this effect:11

The first production of the thought of enlightenment of the bodhisattva is likened

to earth because it is the basis from which all buddha-qualities and related
accumulations spring. Accompanied by intent (asaya), the production of the thought
of enlightenment resembles fine gold because his intent towards the welfare and
5. Msl, p. 14.5-9.
6. Bbh, pp. 313.4-314.8.
7. Bbh p. 18.17 (cf. Mvs, p. 85.1; Yamaguichi, 1934).
8. Bbh pp. 312.5-313.3, 333.4-16.
9. Msl, p. 102.13; Msg, pp. 188 ff.
10. Cf. Kawamura, 1983, p. 141.
11. Msl, pp. 14.27-15.6.

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 Cittotpada

benefit [of beings] is not susceptible to change. Accompanied by correct conduct

(prayoga), it resembles the new moon on the fifteenth day of the month because
his virtuous qualities (,kusaladhama) increase. Accompanied by determination
(adhydsaya), it resembles fire because he aquires more and more attaiments like a
fire that consumes all types of fuel.”

In the Sutrdlamkaravrttibhdsya12, these categories of cittotpada signal^four junctions in

the bodhisattva’s career and are linked with the attainments of each level.13 Thus, the first
type of cittotpada is associated with adherence (adhimoksika) operating during the preliminary
phase of training (adhimukticarydbhumi).u The second cittotpada is dominated by pure
determination (suddhddhydsaya) and leads to progress on the first seven stages. It is called
pure because it is free from the subject/object dichotomy and because it is attained through
equipoise (upeksa). The third type of cittotpada is characterised by its ability to accomplish
the maturation (vaipdkika) of sentient beings, because at this level (stage nine and ten)
non-discriminating awareness (avikalpajnana) arises in conjunction with the spontaneous
practice of the paramita. Finally, the fourth kind of cittotpada, operating at the tenth stage, is
called obstruction-free (anavaranika) since it is untainted by misconceived emotion and
discursive thinking.15
The above exposition of the cittotpada is clearly advanced and draws on a rich heritage of
ideas. An early predecessor to this scheme is found in the Bdp. Like the Sutrdlamkaravrttibhdsya,
it distinguishes several phases in the generation of the thought of enlightenment and proposes
a certain dynamic. In all, the Bdp speaks of ten forms of cittotpada. However, their allocation

12. TTP, 108, p. 233.2.6-3.7.

13. Msl, pp. 16.5-17.9.
14. The relevant passage in the M sl (p. 14.5-6) runs as follows:
“That mind directed towards enlightenment is zealous application (adhimoksika); it is pure in
determination {adhydsaya) on another [stage]. It is thought o f as a matured state, and likewise,
freed from obstruction.”
15. The division o f the cittotpada is most elaborate in the Abhisamayalamkara (pp. 18-37) where it is divided
into twenty-two kinds o f cittotpada. In agreement with the Msl, the first three are said to be accompanied
by chanda, asaya and adhydsaya marking three successive stages during the ddikarmikasambharabhumi.
In disagreement with the Msl, the fourth cittotpada is attended by prayoga. It operates on the
adhimukticarydbhumi corresponding to the prayogamarga. Next follow ten kinds o f cittotpada each o f
which is associated with one o f the ten perfections. The following five cittotpada are accompanied by the
abhijha, punya/jhdnasambhara, bodhipaksika dharma, samatha/vipasyand and dharanipratibhdna that,
taken together, account for the visesamdrga o f the last five stages (Kosa, vi, p. 278). Cittotpada number
twenty is attended by the four dharmoddana and becomes functional on the preparatory path o f the
buddhabhumi. Finally, the last two cittotpada are generated in two distinct phases o f the buddhabhumi
where they are accompanied by the ekaydnamarga and the dharmakaya.

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 Cittotpada

to specific path phases it rather vague and bears little resemblance to the ten stages of the
Dbh.16 Curiously, the ten cittotpada are not included in chapter three but occur in the
sllaparamitd chapter.
According to this scheme, the first two cittotpada are most fundamental in that they bring
about understanding of impermanence, impurity and insubstantiality of the body and carry as
reward—if sustained by Tathagata worship—the attainment of the perfect buddha-body.17
The third and fourth kinds of cittotpada concern mistaken conduct of the past, in particular
lack of reverence towards superiors and ill-contemplated pursuit of sense pleasures. Awareness
and correction of these faults lead to rebirth among men and place the bodhisattva in contact
with virtuous friends.18 As a collateral, the fifth cittotpada bestows insight into one’s past
conceit and violence, makes the bodhisattva understand the workings of the law of karma and
removes confusion that led previously to evil conduct. Through possessing these five kinds
of cittotpada, the bodhisattva becomes fearless, attains means (updya) and knowledge (jnana)
and increases his meritorious deeds.19Having understood the causal link between ignorance,
irreverent comportment and ill-regard for the Dharma, the bodhisattva generates the sixth,
seventh and eighth cittotpada that render him inseparable from religious instruction. He is
accomplished in learning, benevolence, buddha-worship and dwells in the company of the
noble ones, abiding in high abodes.20
Through the ninth cittotpada the bodhisattva perceives that aimlessness used to mar his
conduct. It calls to mind the need for constant mental concentration on enlightenment and
unreserved devotion of all resources to its attainment. Furthermore, the ninth cittotpada gives
a clear picture of the bodhisattva’s resolute wandering and cites numerous practices that
pertain to it. These include faith, honesty, solitude, reverence, modesty, chastity as well as
pursuit of the paramita. and bodhipaksika dharma. At this stage, being rewarded for insight
into past mistakes, the bodhisattva becomes familiar with the perfections (which he now
pursues with great vigour) and, supported by pristine cognition and merit, prepares to take up
the seat of enlightenment.21
16. Note that also the Madhyamakavatara (Mavbh, pp. 12.13-13.1) and Dasabhumika speak of ten cittotpada.
Apart from the number and a certain dynamic towards the more advanced path-stages, the Bdp does not
seem to share much with these schemes. This is not surprising, if we recall that the Bdp ignores the plan of
the ten stages while it is the rationale behind the ten cittotpada in tins Dasabhumika and Madhyamakavatara.
17. R, folio 309.5.
18. R, folio 314.2.
19. R, folio 320.6; 324.5-325.3.
20. R, folio 238.4-329.1.
21. R, folio 336.6.

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 Cittotpada

Finally, the bodhisattva fully grasps the eminence of his teacher and appreciates his erudition
in faith, moral conduct, learning, modesty, chastity, renunciation and wisdom. This prompts
him to express approval of the teacher’s thinking and to pay lip-service to all instructions. He
is now himself accomplished in moral conduct and becomes a receptacle of buddha-
compassion.22
In the discussion of the cittotpada in chapter three, we find no allusions to the existence of
this sketch in the sllaparamitd chapter. Its characterisation of the thought of enlightenment is
kept general and sheds light on only two areas. First, it describes the attributes that differentiate
the cittotpada from ordinary mentation. By and large, these attributes correspond to those of
the bodhisattva’s intent. That is to say, it is pure, steady, persistent, luminous and so forth.
Then, also in analogy to intent, it is portrayed as the foundation of buddha-qualities, including
the fivefold c//wwza-aggregate (dharmaskandha), powers, assurances and avenika dharma.23
In the next passage we learn about the fruits that result from the cittotpada and asaya. The
presentation is very straightforward and consists essentially of an enumeration of the benefits
that accrue from the cittotpada and asaya. Already at this early stage the bodhisattva is
destined for enlightenment and attains a physical appearance beyond blemish; he is invincible,
not affected by worldly dharma, skilled in the path and becomes a benefactor, guide and
refuge to all sentient beings.24In particular, he attains clear vision (vidarsana) that establishes
faith in the law of karma and causes him to refrain from the ten non-virtuous paths of action
{akusalakarmapatha).25 If he receives early support from spiritual friends, he comprehends
dependent co-origination, culminating in true dharma vision.26
Considerable emphasis is given to the notion of renunciation, in general, and the need to
become a monk, in particular. Ordination into mendicant life is considered a natural imperative
as it provides the framework to a successful completion of the practice.27
Three factors that are to recur throughout the exposition of the training figure as concomitants
to the cittotpada. These are learning (sruta), conscientiousness (apramdda) and correct
reflection (yoniso manasakara)?%Their areas of application are briefly dwelt on, viz.,
knowledge of teachings for learning, constraint of senses for conscientiousness and insight
22. R, folio 340.4-6.
23. R, folio 85.1-4.
24. R, folio 85.4-86.4.
25. R, folio 87.1-3.
26. R, folio 88.4-91.3.
27. R, folio 92.1-3.
28. R, folio 92.5-96.4.

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into causation and the non-existence of dharma for correct reflection. These allow the
bodhisattva to penetrate the four axioms of the teaching (dharmodddna), proposing that
karmic formations (samskara) are impermanent and suffering; that dharma are non-self and
calm nirvana.29 Appreciation of these postulates prompts the bodhisattva to comprehend
impermanence; to eliminate all traces of desire; to produce the entrance to liberation and
meditation on emptiness and to become acquainted with the notion of signlessness.
If we turn now to evaluate the Bdp's vision of the cittotpada and compare it with the
schemes found in other sources, we note at first a general consent on its chief elements. The
Bdp agrees that the two most important components of the bodhicittotpdda are an unshakable
desire for enlightenment (sambodhikamandsahagata) and a paramount concern for the welfare
of all other beings (pardrthdlambana).30 By implication, it also recognises two separate
phases of its production, that is the actual taking of the vow (bodhipranidhicitta) and the
ensuing implementation (bodhiprasthdnacitta).
Many Mahayana siitras argue that the bodhicittotpdda is not a static entity generated only
once at the beginning of the path proper but that it is continuously retaken and evolves
through practice. In the Akn, for instance, it is generated in conjunction with the accumulation
of merit and pristine cognition, six perfections and four immeasurables which determine the
attainments that result from its generation.31 This is also the view of the Bdp since it
proposes at several places a close association between the cittotpada and paramita and other
practices.32
Differences occur only when we look in detail at the psychological processes that prompt
and accompany the generation of the thought of enlightenment. I shall now turn to the
Bodhisattvabhumi in order to explore the nature of some of these differences.
In line with its overall organisation, the Bbh introduces the first raising of the bodhicitta as
the second support (ddhara) of the training. The treatment is divided into two sections. To
begin with, the text lays down the attributes and modes of the cittotpada. It suggests five
different approaches of investigation. First, there is a perfect resolution (samyakpranidhana)
that is upheld throughout the training and generates the aspiration (prarthand) for universal
liberation.33 This aspiration itself represents the cittotpada proper.34 Next, the Bbh defines
29. R, folio 96.5-97.5.
30. E.g., Akn, pp. 39.5.4-40.2.5; Bbh, p. 12.6-13.
31. Akn, pp. 39.5.7-40,1.4.
32. R, folio 84.7-85.3.
33. Bbh, p. 12.3.

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the scope and object {dlambana) of the bodhicitta, namely, enlightenment for himself and
deliverance of his fellow beings. As an auspicious force in its own right, the cittotpada
accumulates (samcaya) all those roots of virtue occasioning enlightenment and weakening
the three root evils in beings. Besides, it is seen as the root of enlightenment, source of the
bodhisattva’s compassion and foundation (,samnisraya) of moral conduct.
The conditions (pratyaya), causes Qietu) and powers (bala) that bring about the engendering
of the thought of enlightenment are as follows.35 As for the conditions, the Bbh gives
learning about the Tathagata’s miraculous powers, hearing the Doctrine and observance of
the imminent decline of the Dharma.36Each of these factors suffices to inspire the generation
of the bodhicitta. The causes that prompt the cittotpada are of a more personal and immediate
nature.37 They include the cause of lineage (gotra) that leads inevitably to cittotpada due to
previous achievements, the presence of virtuous friends (kalyanamitra), compassion,
knowledge, meditation, investigation and great enthusiasm for enlightenment.38 The powers
that inspire the cittotpada generally depend on the bodhisattva’s own capabilities. In particular,
they are brought about by the roots of virtue accumulated during previous rebirth or meritorious
conduct in the present life.39
Having generated the bodhicitta, the bodhisattva becomes immediately a field of merit that
others can draw on through reverence and devotion.40 Thus, the raising of the thought of
enlightenment launches him automatically onto the path and creates a valuable source of
merit. Moreover, it increases the bodhisattva’s resources derived from his gotra, guarantees
success with magic spells (mantrapaddni) and bestows experience in dealing with the lower

34. Bbh, p. 12.9.

35. In the Dbh (Dasa-bh, p. 15.1-6), we learn that the production of the thought o f enlightenment is inspired
by the fourth o f ten vows taken by the bodhisattva while he dwells on the early phase o f thepramuditabhumi:
“In order to attain the bodhicittotpdda, supported by the true instruction o f the path o f the
stages that incorporates the entire bodhisattvacarya... he takes the fourth vow (pranidhana).”
The M sg, distinguishes three motives prompting the generation o f the thought o f enlightenment (iii.5).
These are (1) recognition that innumerable beings reach enlightenment every moment, (2) the wish to
attain the intent (asaya) to practice generosity and related virtues in order to attain enlightenment; (3)
desire for universal perfection arising from unlimited moral conduct.
36. Bbh, pp. 13.21-15.17.
37. Compare these with the causes that are given in the Msl (p. 14.10-15) which speaks o f compassion as the
root (mula); the welfare o f beings as intent (asaya)', zealous application (adhimoksika) as practice; questions
relating to knowledge as object (dlambana)', confident zeal (chanda) as vehicle; moral observance as basis
(pratistha); encouragement and approval o f giving to adversaries as obstacle; faith in virtue as advantage
(anusamsa) since it accumulates merit and knowledge; constant application to the perfections as deliverance
(nirydna).
38. Bbh, p. 15.11-17.
39. Bbh, p. 17.8-21.
40. B bh,pp. 19.19-20.27.

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destinies.41
If we now revert to the B dp’s cittotpada exposition and compare its vision with that of the
Bbh, the first thing to notice is the limited scope of the B dp’s explanations and its basic
logical structures. In the Bdp we meet with repetitions and a fair amount of inessential
material. Structurally, although not entirely without its own internal logic, the B dp’s account
therefore lacks the organisation of the Bbh’s description.
In content, however, the two works do not stand as much apart as it might seem at first
sight. They share the two fundamental elements of the cittotpada, that is, the personal aim of
full enlightenment and the aspiration of universal liberation. Furthermore, the two texts agree
that the cittotpada functions as the root of compassion and provides the foundation of moral
conduct. While this point is not illustrated in the Bbh, the Bdp refers to the ten virtuous deeds
(<kusalakarmapatha).*2 Both works also concur in their evaluation of the impact of the
cittotpada by making tathagatahood the secured long-term achievement43
Differences arise only when we turn to the conditions that induce the cittotpada. The Bdp
does not cite any of the factors that are given in the Bbh as cittotpada causes. Association to
virtuous friends and learning, for instance, are given amongst its concomitants, but not
explicitly as causes.44Other factors, such as fearlessness, lineage {gotra) or awareness of the
decline of the Dharma do not figure at all in the Bdp, whereas learning of the buddha-qualities
is mentioned as a motive.
With regard to the advantages that accrue from a successful cittotpada, the Bdp and Bbh
run very close in spirit. According to the Bbh the bodhisattva produces at first the gates
{dvara) that lead to virtuous practice that turns him into a supreme field of merit.45 In the

41. According to the D bh, the bodhisattva immediately upon generating the thought o f enlightenment achieves
ten rewards. (1) He surpasses the stage o f ordinary men; (2) he embarks on the fixed career (niyama) o f
the bodhisattva; (3) he is bom in the Tathagata family; (4) he becomes faultless in all kinds o f speech; (5)
he abandons all worldly conduct; (6) he enters into supramundane conduct; (7) he dwells in the ultimate
essence o f bodhisattva practices; (8) he is settled in the bodhisattva-abode; (9) he reaches the equality of
the three times; (10) he becomes fixed in the Tathagata lineage certain o f perfect enlightenment (Dasa-bh,
pp. 11-12, U).
In the Madhyamakavrtti (xviii, 5), quoting the Maitreyavimoksa, we are told that:
“Just as the son o f a king almost immediately after his birth—being in possession o f the royal
characteristics—surpasses by the greatness o f this lineage (gotra) all officers, even the most
senior ones; in the same way, the bodhisattva almost immediately on generating the first
thought o f enlightenment— being bom in the royal family o f the Tathagata— surpasses even
the most senior Sravaka and pratyekabuddhas by virtue of the power o f his bodhicitta and
compassion.”
42. R, folio 87.1-5.
43. R, folio 85.2.
44. R, folio 88.2; 88.4; 89.4-90.1.
45. Bbh, p. 19.3-17.

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 Cittotpada

Bdp a major point is the bodhisattva’s permanent escape from the grasp of Mara and the
ensuing immunity from worldly dharma.46
The most interesting difference lies in the role they ascribe to intent (asaya). We have seen
that in the Bbh (and Msl) asaya figures alongside adhydsaya and prayoga as the most
important concomitant of cittotpada. Thus it comes as a surprise to leam that neither adhydsaya
nor prayoga are present in the B dp’s treatment of the cittotpada. What is more, asaya is not
portrayed as an ‘independent’ principle supportive of the cittotpada, but as an attribute of the
latter. No doubt, these differences are important and probably ascribable to the different dates
of composition of the Bdp and Bbh. The treatment of the cittotpada in the Bbh is clearly
doctrinally more advanced and includes several issues that are not considered in the Bdp. In
essence, however, their evaluations of the scope and function of the cittotpada agree and are
founded on similar assumptions about its role in the bodhisattva training.

46. R, folio 85.4-86.2.

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The Four Im m easurables

Having introduced the spiritual foundation of the bodhisattva ideal, the Bdp spells out the
buddha-qualities. This is done in chapter four. The reasons for dealing here with the buddha-
qualities I have discussed in chapter three. I excluded them from my investigation, since they
do belong to the bodhisattva practice proper.
The first bodhisattva practices that are expounded in the Bdp are the four ‘immeasurables’
(iapramana).47 These include benevolence (maitri), compassion (karuna), sympathetic joy
(mudita) and equipoise (upeksa). While the sequence in which these are discussed corresponds
to the standard order of their presentation, their interpretation displays several divergences
from other treatises on the apramana™

For the historical Buddha the practice of the appamanna was always twofold. First, its four
members—benevolence towards sentient beings, compassion with their suffering, sympathetic

47. Alternative titles for this group o f practices are brahmavihdra (residences o f Brahma)—a term that is
particularly widespread in early canonical literature—and cetovimukti (thought liberation).
In Pali sources, we can distinguish two principal conceptual contexts for the brahmavihdra. First, there is
the famous sutta where the Buddha is shown instructing Dona on the various types o f brahmins (A III, pp.
224-5). Here, among a long list o f qualities, the Buddha cites the four instructions as practices that assist
in making a brahmin equal to Brahma. The Buddha goes on to say that a brahmin who pursues the four
‘ways o f living like Brahma’ {brahmavihdra) attains rebirth in the charming world o f Brahma. Elsewhere,
Brahma himself is described as possessing universal benevolence (M I, pp. 370-1)— a subject that was
taken up by the commentators (Manorathapurani ii, p. 204)—showing that if an individual developed
Brahma’s virtues, he himself could attain the status o f Brahma after death. As the ‘ways o f living like
Brahma’ refer to the cultivation o f maitri, etc., in a meditative context (D I, pp. 250-1; Vism, iii.30;
Aronson, 1975, pp. 81-83)—usually at the level o f the first dhyana— the commentaries take them to
represent absorptions or states o f mind that spring from the cultivation o f benevolence, etc., (.Ps, ii, p.
353). We have therefore two principal ways o f translating the term brahmavihdra. First, if interpreted as
‘way o f living like Brahma’ it refers to an individual who cultivates universal benevolence just as Brahma
does. Second, if looked at from a meditative context, brahmavihdra is best understood as ‘sublime way of
living’ modelled on the fourfold instructions o f the Teviggasutta. The latter interpretation is favoured by
Buddhaghosa, although he acknowledges both possibilities {Vism, ix.106). For a full treatment o f these
variants in interpretation, particularly with regard to the Theravada commentarial tradition, see Aronson,
1975, p p .96-110.
48. To my knowledge, the only comprehensive study o f the four immeasurables to date is that by H.B.
Aronson, entitled: Love, Compassion, Sympathetic Joy and Equanimity in Theravada Buddhism; PliD
Dissertation, University o f Wisconsin, 1975. In addition, drawing on the findings o f his doctoral research,
Aronson published several articles and one monograph on this subject (see: bibliography).
References to the apramana (brahmavihdra) in Buddhist sources are numerous. In the nikaya, useful
material is found in D II, p. 196; III, p. 220; Th, i.649; Jataka i, p. 139; II, p. 61. For a Theravada
interpretation, see: Vism, i, pp. I l l , 295; As, p. 192. For Sanskrit sources, see: Kosa, viii, pp. 196-203;
Saddhp, p. 142; Dhsgr, § 16; Kp, p. 15, § 25.25; Msl, pp. 121.10-124.2, 163.13-172.20, 184.3-8; Bbh, pp.
241-49. Other references are found at Amrt (B), pp. 188-9; Abhidh-d, p. 428; Msg, x.10, pp. 290-91; Akn,
34, pp. 56.3.7-58.5.6; Pahca, pp. 181-183, Vkn, pp. 96, 155. For further references in Chinese (translations
of) Buddhist texts, see: Lamotte, 1973, p. 52*.

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joy with their happiness and equipoise towards sensual attachment and hostility—played a
role in placing the practitioner in the heavenly abodes. Second, finding their way into the
gnoseologic scheme of the Buddhist path, the appamanna assumed importance in the meditative
processes that culminate in liberating insight—the pinnacle of Buddhist cognition.49
In a well-known passage from the Atthakasutta, the appamanna are cited as one of eleven
practices that liberate the mind, eliminate all hindrances and prompt freedom from bondage.50
In essence, they are seen as an integral part of those meditations that secure a high rebirth and
further progress on the path to liberation up to the stage of the non-returner. According to the
Anguttaranikaya51, if accompanied by insight in the particular and general features
{svasamanyalakkhana) of aggregates, they lead to the realisation of the first three paths and
fruits, while for those who are established in insight and pursue equipoise at the level of the
fourth absorption attain rebirth in the Suddhavasa heaven.52
The mental processes leading to the generation of insight in conjunction with the appamanna
are laid down in the Vatthupamasutta.53 Here, the Buddha describes how a monk on realising
the defiled nature of greed, conceit, hostility and so forth attains a steadfast conviction in the
triratna and—by means of cultivating the appamanna—acquires true cognition. Buddhaghosa
explains that the main advantages of their cultivation, as a basis supporting insight during
meditation is that they free the mind from defilements through suppression.54As the resulting
49. Despite some excellent research in this field, the exact origin o f the four immeasurables has not yet been
resolved. Back in 1928, C. A. F. Rhys Davids pioneered the view that they might not be the brainchild o f
the Buddha but that he adopted them from some other teacher. One o f the central arguments to this
hypothesis has always been a passage in the Samyuttanikaya (S V, pp. 115-21) where a group o f
non-Buddhist sramana let it be known that they too cultivate a practice involving benevolence, compassion,
sympathetic joy and equipoise and wish to learn in how far theirs differs from the Buddha’s. Supporting
evidence in non or pre-Buddhist sources is rather thin and limited to several passages in the Upanisad
(Chdnd. 815.1), Buddhist scriptures themselves (D II, pp. 220-252) preserve an account where the
Buddha, during previous lives, receives instructions in the absorption o f compassion from the Brahmana
tradition. A similar point is made in thq Mahasudassanasutta (D II, pp. 186—7) where we learn that, as a
bodhisattva, he practised benevolence, compassion, sympathetic joy and equipoise. Today it is virtually
impossible to determine whether the accounts of the Buddha’s previous conduct are accurate depictions o f
his pre-enlightenment training or whether they simply superimposed post-enlightenment practices on his
early struggle to buddhahood. What appears certain, however, is that in the discourses they were not
considered unique to the Buddha’s vision but practised also in early non-Buddhist circles (Arsonson,
1984, p. 21).
50. M I, pp. 349-51.
51. Cited mManorathapurani, iii, p. 126.
52. A similar, though not identical scheme is proposed in the Haliddavasanasutta (S V pp. 119-121) where
the thought o f benevolence leads to rebirth in the realm o f the &ubhakrtana gods; the thought o f compassion
in the sphere o f the inifinity o f space (akdsanantydyatana); the thought o f sympathetic joy in the sphere o f
the inifinity o f consciouness (vijnanantyayatana) and the thought o f equipoise in the sphere o f nothingness
(akimcanyayatana). The main difference between the schemes is that the Haliddavasanasutta allows for
rebirth in the arupyadhdtu while the Manorathapurani restricts becoming to the rupadhatu.
53. M I,p p. 36-9.
54. Vism, p. 693.

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mental clarity persists for some time after the yogin has emerged from this meditation, he is
able to apply this newly gained awareness to the development of insight in the characteristics
of the component parts of that particular meditation. The four appamanna thus play a significant
role in the process of mental purification and operate as a force that conduces to dharma
discernment.
On another occasion, the Buddha connects the appamanna practice with the gnoseologic
training by differentiating the usual instructions leading to rebirth in the heavenly abodes
from those conducive to insight and total liberation:55

“Monks, with regard [to that question], a monk cultivates the factor of enlightenment
of mindfulness in connection with benevolence, ... he cultivates the factor of
enlightenment of equanimity in connection with benevolence.” (The same formula
is repeated for compassion, etc.)

This union, coupling the immeasurables with the factors of enlightenment, is perhaps the
clearest indication of the contribution that was made by the Buddha to the doctrine of the \/
immeasurables. By linking benevolence, etc., with the cultivation of the cognitive faculties
pertaining to liberating insight, he shifted emphasis away from their prevalent ethical and
psychological yield to integrate them in the gnoseological structure of the path.56
In the Mahayana the apramdna became integrated into the scheme of the bodhisattva. As a
result, modifications occurred with regard to the motive, scope and cognitive foundation of
55. S V, p. 119; Kosabhasya, p. 146.13-14 (cf. Warder, 1980, pp. 95-97).
56. In later Abhidharma works and some commentaries, the immeasurables receive detailed attention in
particular with regard to their aspects, objects and benefits. See, for instance, As (pp. 192-7) which
contains an exemplary exposition on the mental states that pertain to the four brahmavihdra. See also:
Satya (S), ii, pp. 369-374.
In the Kosa we learn that they are only practised by and exclusively directed towards sentient beings who
dwell in the kamaloka (op. cit., pp. 200-203), with benevolence directed towards those who are happy
(sukhita), compassion towards those who are suffering (duhkhita), sympathetic joy towards those who are
rejoicing and equipoise leading to an impartial attitude towards all beings (op. c i t , pp. 197-200). Compare
also Warder who proposes that the apramdna were chiefly intended to be by practised by monks and
recommended to laymen only in a few instances (1980, p. 197). More importantly, the Kosa allots the four
practices to the various stages o f meditation, saying that sympathetic joy is restricted to the first two
dhyana, while the remaining three operate in all four dhyana and at the stages o f the anagamya and
dhyanantara (op. c i t , pp. 197-199). For a summary o f their functioning, see Kosa, pp. 200-201.
An alternative Sarvastivada view on the impact o f the apramdna is given in the Amrtarasa (Amrt (B), pp.
188-89). Here, each o f the four members is said to eliminate one or several passions, to generate right
speech and right action and to produce forces that are dissociated from thought. In detail, maitrl is held to
eliminate spitefulness (vydpada); karund overcome harm (vihimsa); muditd eliminates dissatisfaction
(arati) and upeksa suppresses both malice and desire (raga). This enumeration follows closely a list that is
given in the D III, pp. 248-9 and is also found in the Abhidh-d, p. 428 (cf. Mpps, iii, p. 1242).

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their implementation. We have seen that the Sravaka practised the apramdna chiefly for the
sake of their own mental purification and meditative advance. For the bodhisattva, echoing
their origin in the cittotpadc?1>the chief purpose of the apramdna lies in their usefulness in
bringing about universal welfare. In a sense, rather than meditative in nature, the area of
application is closer to that of the notion of universal benevolence, etc., attributed to them in
a famous passage in the Anguttaranikaya.58The bodhisattva achieves this through the dedication
of all merit that accrued to him by practising the apramdna'?9

“O son of good family, if a bodhisattva considers all beings in this way, how does
he produce great benevolence? O ManjuSri, a bodhisattva who considers them
thus, says to himself: ‘I am going to expound the Law to beings in the way that I
have understood it.’ Thus he produces towards all beings a benevolence which is
truly protective (bhutisaranmaitrT) ... What is great compassion to the bodhisattva?
It is the abandoning to sentient beings without retaining any of all good roots
enacted or accumulated. What is the great sympathetic joy of the bodhisattva? It is
rejoicing in and not regretting giving? What is the great equipoise of the bodhisattva?
It is benefiting impartially without hope of reward.”

The qualities that are ascribed to the apramdna and in particular to benevolence are numerous.
They are said to be free from passion and attachment, to be unperturbed, pure and of good
intention, to ripen sentient beings, to penetrate true reality and indeed, to be spontaneously
awakened.60 They are associated with the six perfections that supersede the factors of
enlightenment as regular concomitants of the apramdna. We read in the Panca that a bodhisattva
who courses in the apramdna practises the six perfections in a way that allows him to
specifically utilise his expertise in the pdramita .61 In the Vkn asimilar idea is expressed
where the apramdna are linked with the perfections sincethey inspire theirappropriate
pursuit. They are fixed to giving because they lead to generosity in teaching; to morality
because they assist in maturing sentient beings; to patience because they protect the bodhisattva
himself and other people; to vigour because they help to bear the burden of all beings; to
57. Vkn, p. 96.
58. A III, pp. 224-5.
59. Vkn, op. cit., p. 96 (trsl. Lamotte).
60. Vkn, op. cit.., pp. 155-6; Akn, pp. 56.3.7-58.5.6; Mpps, iii, p. 1258.
61. Panca, pp. 181-82.

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meditation because they abstain from tasting its flavour and wisdom because they obtain it in
due time.62
Another difference between the Sravaka and bodhisattva interpretation of the apramdna is
the object and domain in which they operate. Unlike the Sravaka who develop the apramdna
in response to grievances in the kdmadhatu, the bodhisattva extends their application to all
spheres of the universe.63 Indeed, it is this spatial expansion that is usually given as the
etymological explanation of the word apramdna:64

“A bodhisattva dwells in a thought connected with benevolence, etc.— a thought

that is vast, extensive, non-dual, unlimited, ... a thought that radiates friendliness
in the ten directions of the world confined only by the dharmadhdtu and the
sphere of space.”

Or, in the words of the Akn:65

“Just as the sphere of beings is immeasurable—there is no exhaustion—just so the

bodhisattva’s cultivation of friendliness is immeasurable and in that there is no
62. Vkn, op. cit., p. 157.
63. Note, however, that their limitation to the kdmadhatu has been refuted by Buddhaghosa in connection
with his analysis o f samadhi ( Vism, iii.20). Implying that ‘immeasurable meditations’ are free from the
restrictions that prevail in the kdmadhatu and can serve as basis for the highter levels o f dhyana, Buddhaghosa
proposes that the appamanna represent intentions associated with the liberation o f mind that operate both
in kdmadhatu and rupadhdtu (Vism, iv.74). Moreover, they are measureless not only because o f the types
o f mind they accompany, but also because o f the nature of their objects ( Vism, ix.l 10):
“All o f them, however, occur with a measureless scope, for their scope is measureless beings:
and instead o f assuming a measure such as 'maitri, etc., should be developed only towards a
single being, or in an area o f such an extent’, they occur with universal pervasion.”
In both their scope o f object and development, for Buddhaghosa the appamanna are therefore immeasurable.
The association o f maitri, etc., with the adjective immeasurable is however not totally new. It occurrs
already at one place in the Dighanikaya (III, pp. 233-4) where Sariputra in summing up the teachings o f
the Buddha describes the fourfold instructions as ‘the four immeasurables’ (catasso appamannayo).
However, the specific designation o f maitri, etc., as referring to a state o f mind that is measureless— either
in terms o f object or development—appears to be rather late as it is only found in the Abhidhamma (Vism,
ix. 105—10; Aronson, 1975, pp. 66-76). And yet, according to some, maitri, etc., are not universally
immeasureable in the Mahayana sense, since they do not operate in the arupyadhatu (cf. Kosa, viii, pp.
199-200).
64. Panca, pp. 181 (trsl. Conze); an almost identical passage is found in theDbh (Dasa-bh, p. 34; L).
65. Akn, p. 56.4.2-3
In the Mpps, this definition is given further details by adding two distinct sets o f measurement (iii, p.
1262). First, there is the ‘true’ immeasurable, that is to say, those things that cannot be measured by any
person or saint. These include space, nirvana and the nature o f beings (sattvasvahbava). Second, there are
those things that although in principle mensurable are beyond reckoning o f ordinary beings and become in
this sense immeasurable. These consist o f items such as the weight of Mt. Sumeru or the number o f drops
in the ocean. Since the measurement o f such objects is known by the Buddha, they do not serve as a gauge
for the apramdna.

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exhaustion.”

Finally, there is a distinction in their implementation. On this matter, we read in the Akn:66

“Benevolence is threefold. What are the three? Benevolence directed at living

beings as object pertains to the bodhisattvas who have produced the first thought
of enlightenment. Benevolence directed at dharma as object pertains to bodhisattvas
who have embarked on religious practice. Benevolence without object pertains to
those bodhisattvas who have attained the conviction of the non-arising of all
dharma.”67

This interpretation has grown, of course, out of the philosophical vision of Mahayana
ontology, denying independent own-being (svabhava) to worldly existence. Tuned to this
conception of reality, the apramdna exhibit three degrees of purity. On the first level, when
the bodhisattva pursues them with the conviction that he is dealing with ‘real’ people, he is
still subject to impurity.68When he replaces sentient beings with dharma as the object of his
benevolence, he is exposed to both purity and impurity, depending on his mental awareness.
It is only after he has realised the true nature of sentient existence (bhutalaksana) and
becomes convinced of the non-arising of dharma that his practice of the immeasurables
becomes pure.69
The Bdp shares many of these Mahayana features about the apramdna. Beginning with
maitri, the Bdp takes up the question of scope and explains that the bodhisattva’s benevolence

66. Akn, p. 57.2.3-5

The Sanskrit o f this passage is preserved as a quotation in the Siks, p. 212.12-14. An identical presentation
o f the three modes o f benevolence is also found in the Msl (p. 121), Dhsgr (§ 130) and Bbh (pp. 241-2).
For further references to the three types o f maitri, see: Mpps, iii, pp. 1250-51.
67. Note that the three kinds o f maitri are traditionally compared to the giving o f ordinary objects, to the
giving o f precious objects and to the giving o f the cintamani (Mpps, iii, pp. 1253-4).
68. In the Siks (pp. 212.15-213.2; trsl. Bendall), the first level o f practice are presented in a slightly different
light:
“Benevolence has the Buddha as its object of thought, the bodhisattvas, the disciples, all
creatures as its object o f thought. Here when it has all beings as its object o f thought, it comes
first by accumulating benefit and blessing upon a beloved being with meditation. Upon such a
one he should accumulate benevolence; then upon acquaintances; then upon strangers; then
upon neighbours; then upon fellow-villagers and so with other villages; and so on until he
continues devoted to one region, spread all over it, covering it. So with the ten regions. But
this procedure does not apply to the benevolence towards buddhas and the rest.”
69. Mpps, iii, p. 1245.

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is called immeasurable as it demands application in a sphere of beings that is beyond measure.70

Presumably, this explanation is also valid for the remaining three apramdna, although it is
not applied to them explicitly in the appropriate sections.71 After that, the Bdp gives a brief
overview of the application of benevolence. It is simultaneously seen as a personal protection
for the bodhisattva and as practice for the benefit of others. The aspects that are cited,
however, refer invariably to the bodhisattva himself. Through the apramdna he is freed from
malice, anger, passion, fear and negligence and acts in accordance with the noble path. The
liberation of sentient beings—being mentioned only once—does not stand in the foreground.
Among the advantages that accrue from benevolence, the Bdp discusses in particular wealth,
honour and fame, vast accumulations of merit, physical perfection, rapid advance on the path
and rebirth among gods and men.72The fate of sentient beings receives little attention and is

70. The alternative explanation o f their title ‘immeasurable* is often that the amount o f merit produced
through the practice o f benevolence, etc., exceeds all measure (Kosa, viii, p. 196; Mpps, iii, p. 1243).
According to the early sources, however, the merit that is generated through them is not o f any kind, but
specifically brahmanic merit (brahmapunya) which can only be consumated in the seventeen heavens o f
the Brahmaloka (A V, p. 76; Kosa, iv, pp. 250-1).
71. Reference only to maitri in the explanation o f the apramdna is by no means particular to the Bdp. As an
issue, it is specifically raised in the Mpps (v, p. 2257) and occurs in several other sutras. The reason
behind this choice is the assumption that benevolence is the most important o f the four apramdna and
accrues the greatest amount o f merit. Therefore, it is held to outshine the other apramdna not only in the
quantity o f merit, but also in quality and to be the only type of meditation that is pure (andsravabhdvana).
This raises the question o f the relationship between the four apramdna. While the nikaya are virtually
silent in this respect, the commentaries propose an ideal topical progression through the four members.
Particularly in the Vism this point is made. At first, the meditator wishes for the welfare o f all sentient
beings. Next, he recognises the great suffering that afflicts his fellow beings and generates great compassion.
Then, he ponders the great prosperity o f the very same beings for whom he cultivated benevolence and
compassion and takes sympathetic joy in it. Even if they are not prosperous in the present life, he rejoices
at their future wealth. Having done so, his conduct towards beings has come to an end and he observes
sentient beings as a neutral observer (Vism, ix. 109). This scheme is o f course rather theoretical, since if
progress depends on external circumstances, there would be no possibility o f advance beyond compassion.
Hence, in actuality, progress is dependent on ‘skill* in each subject o f meditation and ignores external
circumstances. We have therefore in the apramdna something approaching an ideal hierachy o f meditation
in which the meditator advances through the rarefied spheres o f existence. This interpretation has, in the
past, generated the misconception that upeksd—being the last in the traditional sequence—would supplant
or supersede the other three. Based on the the causal link between upeksd and equanimity as a factor of
enlightenment (Ps, i.85; Vism, xiv.157; Aronson, 1975, p. 274) not shared by the other apramdna, it was
suggested that upeksd eclipes maitri, karuna and mudita. That this is not the case has been shown by
Arsonson, 1979, p. 8. Although completing the practice of the apramdna and therefore at the pinnacle o f
their cultivation, the four remain at all times fundamentally complementary in nature. Cf. Mpps, iii, pp.
1255-58.
72. Note the parallels to the benefits that are cited in the Bbh as stemming directly from the practice of the
apramdna which, while considering the fate o f sentient beings, emphasise personal attainments. They
include dwelling in supreme bliss, generation o f an immeasurable accumulation o f merit, strengthening
the intent (dsaya) o f enlightenment and holding back all suffering in samsara (Bbh, pp. 248.23-49.6).
For the Mpps too the benefits are chiefly o f a personal nature. Thus, a bodhisattva who embarks on the
practice o f benevolent meditation (maitrisamadhi) escapes burning when he is immersed in fire, he
survives poisoning, he escapes injury during military service, he does not die a violent death and is
protected by benign divinities (Mpps, iii, p. 1273). The same list o f advantages is also said to spring from
practices o f the remaining immeasurables despite their allegedly inferior nature. However, the fruits
themselves are only attainable by persons belonging to the aryan-fold since the practice o f the immeasurables

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only indirectly referred to when the bodhisattva is described as “accomplished in protection

of the simple-minded”.73 Much greater emphasis is given to the personal purity of the
bodhisattva and his progress along the path.74
In this context, the Bdp links benevolence with the six perfections, indicating that it prepares
the ground for their successful cultivation.75We saw that by doing so it concurs closely with
apramdna expositions in other Mahayana works. Next, the Buddha distinguishes between the
‘ordinary benevolence’ of the Sravaka that is solely directed at personal liberation and the
‘great benevolence’ of the bodhisattva that aims at universal welfare.76
In conclusion, the Bdp draws attention to the different kinds of maitri. That is, benevolence
that has living beings as its objects and is based on the generation of the bodhicitta; benevolence
that has dharma as its objects and is realised when the bodhisattva is established in the path;
and benevolence that is objectless and reserved to bodhisattvas who are accomplished in
patience (ksanti).77 While the exact scope of these three categories is not elaborated, it is
well known from later sources.
According to the Bbh, the three modes of reference (sattvdlambana, dharmalambana,
andlambana) apply to all four immeasurables and are not restricted to benevolence.78
Philosophically, it makes the point that the object of the ‘objectless application’ corresponds
to the foundation of being (dharmadhatu) or thusness (itathatd).79Whilst the first level is also
attainable by adherents of heterodox thought, the second by Sravaka and pratyekabuddhas,
the third is restricted to bodhisattvas.80 Benevolence, compassion and sympathetic joy are
is well beyond the scope o f ordinary beings (Mpps, iii, p. 1272; other lists at Mpps, pp. 792, 2257, 2362.
Compare this list with the advantages given in M II, pp. 207-8, A II, p. 129; IV, p. 150; V, p. 342, Vinaya
(v, p. 140), Pads (ii, p. 130) and Vism (p. 253); Kosa, iv, p. 124; Mvu, pp. 421-22 and Catuhsatakatika
(TTP, 98, p. 222.5.1-3; ref. Lang).
73. R, folio 267.4.
74. R, folio 267.3-6.
75. R, folio 268.3.
76. A similar division is proposed in the Mpps (iii, pp. 1253-4).
77. R, folio 269.2-4.
78. Bbh, pp. 241.16-18.
79. The same point is also made in the M sl (p. 221) and in the Buddhabhumisutrasdstra (Mpps, iii, p. 1250, n.
1). In the Mpps— reflecting pure Madhyamaka thinking—it is regarded as synonymous to the true character
o f tilings (dharmdnam bhutalaksanani), pure and simple, without the idealistic connotations o f B bh’s
model.
80. Bbh, p. 242.15-25
Also consult the Mpps on these issues that contains a particularly detailed account on the scope o f
application o f the apramdna (iii, pp. 1242-1279). To sum up, at first, it compares benevolence, compassion
and sympathetic joy with regard to their objects, scope and actual effect on the yogin’s psyche. Then,
having established their exact function, it defines the three areas o f application. Benevolence directed at
sentient beings is only practised by ordinary beings (prthagjana) who engage in meditational exercise or
by those adepts who undergo training (saiksa) that is still subject to impurity. Those who generate
benevolence with regard to dharma are either arhants who have destroyed all impurities, pratyekabuddhas

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assembled with a resolution to bring about bliss while equipoise is brought about by the
resolution of profit.81 Whichever the orientation of the apramdna, in the end all of them are
founded on compassion engendered by the perception of worldly misery.82

Of the four apramdna, compassion is granted the most detailed treatment in the Bdp,83
Depicting it as the spiritual basis to the whole bodhisattva ideal, the Buddha explains:84

“O Prince, what is the bodhisattva’s great compassion? O Prince, his great

compassion is the basis of his desire for supreme and perfect enlightenment. For
instance, just as the basis of the life-faculty of sentient beings is inhalation and
exhalation of breath, in the same way,“vO Prince, is great compassion the basis of
the bodhisattva’s accomplishment in the great vehicle.” •

After this opening passage, the Bdp spells out the ten factors that prompt bodhisattvas to
unfold universal compassion.85Most of these factors relate to the perception of the wretchedness
of worldly existence and its inherent conceptual flaws such as belief in a self, wrong views,
desire for perverted pleasure, exposure to the five obstructions (avarana)86, delusion and
conceit. In response to these conditions, the bodhisattva generates compassion that is sustained
or buddhas. This level o f attainment is conditional on elimination o f the perception o f a self (dtmansamjha)
and transcending the notion o f identity and difference (ekatvanyatvasamjnd).The third level o f attainment
in benevolence is reserved to the buddhas, since operating beyond objects (andlambana), it does not rest
in either the conditioned or unconditioned. Knowing that all objects are unborn, unreal and misconceived,
their benevolence does not lean at, or function within, time but rests in non-distinction. Notwithstanding,
they do not abandon sentient being to their fate but, relying on wisdom relative to the true character of
things, unfold their benevolence to best effect. The same division is also applicable to the thought o f
compassion (karunacitta), but it is not put forward for sympathetic joy and equipoise.
81. Cf. Mpps, iii, pp. 1255, 1258.
82. The Bbh underlines this point by including a list o f one hundred and ten kinds o f suffering (Bbh, pp.
243.2-47.2) and discussing a group o f nineteen specific forms o f suffering that constitute its object (Bbh,
p. 247.8-18).
Two o f these are also hinted at in an important section in the Msl where in chapter seventeen (pp.
221.9-224.3), twelve verses are devoted to the immeasurables. At first, close agreement prevails between
its exposition and that o f the Bbh. Both works classify the apramdna practice in three levels, viz., practice
targeted at sentient beings, practice aimed at dharma and practice directed at objectlessness, bom out by
thusness (tathata) and reserved to those who are free from false imagination (te hy avikalpatvad
andlambandh).
83. Note, that unlike the discussions o f maitri, mudita and upeksd that concur almost verbatim to their
counterparts in the Akn, the B dp’s exposition o f compassion contains strikingly many discrecpancies from
the karuna section in XhsAkn (p. 57.2.6-5.6)
84. R, folio 269.5-270,1.
85. R, folio 270.5-276.4.
86. These are desire (rdga), hatred(dvesa), delusion (moha), regret (vipratisara) and doubt (samsaya).On the
various types o f obstruction attested in Buddhist literature, see: Kosa, i, p. 51; iv, p. 18, 20; vi, p. 276;
Siddhi, pp. 639-657; Dhsgr, § 115, 118.

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by contemplation, imperturbability, reverence, purity, practice and vigour.87 It becomes the

motivating force (including pristine cognition) that establishes an intense communication
between the bodhisattva and sentient beings, exposure to which nourishes, in turn, compassion.88
The third immeasurable, sympathetic joy (mudita) is the least distinctive in the B d p ’s
discussion of the apramdna}9 Its characterisation amounts to little more than a list of
enchanting examples taken from the bodhisattva’s conduct. The bodhisattva delights in all
aspects of the Dharma, he takes pleasure from solitude and the accomplishment of the six
perfections, he approves of congeniality, lack of hatred, physical purity and rejoices in
spiritual exertion.90In order to underline this commitment, the text gives a string of examples
that illustrate the bodhisattva’s devotion to his teachers, parents, sentient beings and good
conduct in general. Judging by this passage alone, the main benefit of sympathetic joy is
indefatigableness in the pursuit of enlightenment since it rekindles enthusiasm for the path in
times of weariness.91
Acquisition of the fourth immeasurable—equipoise (upeksd)—is divided into three phases,
depending on the object at which it is directed. At first, the bodhisattva learns to assume
equipoise towards defilement (klesa).92YLe maintains high spirits when rejected and defamed
or, conversely, is not deluded when praised. He stays calm and unaffected in both misery and
bliss and does not develop preferences for either friends or foes, but attains complete impartiality.
Whatever the circumstances to which he is exposed, the bodhisattva abides in perfect mental
equilibrium and does not allow any factors such as appreciation or aversion, pleasure or
distress to influence his judgement and conduct.
Next, he trains in equipoise that applies to situations in which the bodhisattva is exposed to
physical abuse and torture. Entitled, ‘equipoise to protect oneself and others’

87. R, folio 276.5-277.4.

88. R, foiio 277.3-278.4.
89. Aronson (1975, pp. 256-59) has made the sameobservation on theplace o f mudita in the nikaya. But for
two instances, cited only in conjunctionwith theother immeasurables (D I, p. 73; A I,p. 243), it is the
least explored member o f the apramdna. In essence, it seems to epitomise an attitude that prevails among
persons whose aptitude and interests are compatible. Cultivated in response to displeasure, it becomes an
anitdote to internal unwholesomeness and generates great merit. Its relationship to the meditative attainments
o f the practitioners is explained as follows (A I, p. 243):
“Monks, at the time (when monks live harmoniously), monks are living in the sublime way o f
living. That is to say, pleasurable interest arises in him who is joyous due to the liberation o f
the mind which is o f sympathetic joy. He whose mind shows pleasurable interest experiences
bodily calm. He who has a calm body experiences happiness. He who is happy becomes
concentrated.”
90. R, folio 278.5-279.7.
91. R, folio 282.7-283.1.
92. R, folio 280.7-281.7.

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(dtmapararaksanopeksa)93, it allows him to stay aloft over all types of anguish and to forego
the thought of retaliation. This type of equipoise springs from the bodhisattva’s resolution
and is sustained through constant exertion in search for virtue.94
The third manifestation of upeksd is applied to right and wrong moments (kdldkalopeksa).95
Now, the bodhisattva maintains composure when confronted with irreverence, blame, impurity
and despicable demeanour. He abides in equanimity when challenged by persons who do not
share his faith in the Dharma, who engage in practices at a wrong time (in particular with
regard to the perfections96) or who are otherwise ill-synchronised in their conduct. In sum,
whatever challenge he is confronted with, the bodhisattva carefully weighs the situation,
judges with a tranquil and impartial mind, and adjusts his response accordingly.97

If we compare these features with the apramdna in other writings, we note several parallels.
First, the Bdp speaks of a threefold mode of apramdna practice, distinguishing between
sattvalambana, dharmalambana and andlambana. We have seen that this is a theme that is
common to virtually all Mahayana treatises. It is invariably ascribed to the Akn and not to the
Bdp from which the Akn appears to have taken i t 98 In the Bdp, the standard formula is
extended to include the stages where the various levels of practice are reached, viz., the
sattvalambana practice at the first generation of the thought of enlightenment
(prathamacittotpdda), the dharmalambana practice at the moment of constancy in the path,
and the andlambana practice at the acquisition of patience (ksanti). In the Akn this formula is
divided into two sections, the first gives the levels of practice and the second provides the
moment at which they become operational.99 Moreover, by making the ‘conviction of the
non-arising of dharma’ {anutpattikadharmaksdnti) the terminus ad quern for the andlambana
practice, the Akn modifies the occurrence of the third level. In the path scheme of the Dbh,
this would mean that the andlambana practice is not attained before the acalabhumi, while
the Bdp's ‘accomplishment in patience’ might conceivably be already attained at the
prabhdkarlbhumi.100However, as the treatises on the bodhisattva are completely silent on this
93. R, folio 282.1-283.2.
94. R, folio 282.7.
95. R, folio 283.1-284.1.
96. R, folio 283.3-6.
97. In the Bdp it is explicitly said that none o f three types of upeksaare conferred by the buddhas, but are
self-attained and form a distinct part of the his resolution (R, folio 282.7).
98. E.g., Siks, p. 212; Mpps, iii, p. 1272 (other occurences mBbh, pp. 241.18-242.51 and My/, p. 121.11-12).
99. Akn, p. 57.2.3-5.
100. Dasa-bh, p. 36.16-17

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matter, their positioning must remain uncertain.

The Bdp agrees with those sources that confirm that maitri reaches greatest effectiveness
when it is coupled with other practices, in particular the paramita or bodhipaksika dharma. It
also speaks of these practices as forces on which the apramdna rely for inspiration.101 Other
parallels exist in its assessment of compassion as the foremost of the apramdna and its
explanations for their immeasurability.
Points where the Bdp differs concerns the profits of the apramdna, the nature of equipoise
and the presentation of the material. We have seen that many texts—early and late— devote
at least some attention to the states of rebirth gained as a result of apramdna practice. This is
not the case in the Bdp. In the whole chapter there is not one explicit reference to ‘ways of
living like Brahma’ (brahmavihara).102 Rebirth in the rupadhatu or arupyadhatu, so central
to most other expositions of the apramdna, does not figure at all. Instead, every reward is
immediately dedicated to universal liberation. Another peculiarity is the division of equipoise.
Apart from the Akn no other text proposes to divide upeksd into three distinct categories of
application. What is more, neither of the types of upeksd is taken up independently in any of
the texts I consulted. Whether this omission constitutes an oversight or was deliberate we
cannot tell. The inclusion of apramdna quotations in other sources from the Akn that are
purged of the threefold division points to the latter.
Then there is also the lack of coordination between the different apramdna in the Bdp.
Deviating from standard practice to grant a degree of cohesion to the four members—be it
only through a collective set of benefits—the Bdp looks at each of the apramdna in isolation.
For instance, no use is made of the integrating function of meditation as frame of reference
for their implementation. As a result, the presentation appears fragmented and in want of
structural coherence. This lack of integration is most noticeable with upeksd. In other sources
the exposition of upeksd is completely interwoven with the practice of meditation as it
quietens the emotions, stirred up by benevolence, compassion and sympathetic joy. In the
Bdp no such link is proposed.103 Without the technical language of dhyana, its account is
essentially descriptive and serves to demonstrate the scope of the bodhisattva’s attainment in
Note, that in the translation o f the Siksdsamuccaya, the position o f the Akn has been misquoted by
replacing the ‘conviction o f the non-arising o f dharma’ as the beginning o f the third level with ‘patience
preparation for a future state’ {Akn, P- 57.2.5; Siks, p. 212.14; trsl. p. 204).
101. R folio 268.5-69.1
102. In the Bdp, there is only one reference to Brahma and that makes no mention o f the notion that a
bodhisattva might gain rebirth in the Brahmaloka (R folio, 267.4).
103. M pps, iii, p. 1258.

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equipoise.

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 Danaparamita

The Perfection of G enerosity

Chapter six introduces the main body of the bodhisattva practices. It marks the formal
beginning of the exposition of the six perfections, starting with generosity {dana). The
subsequent chapters deal with one paramita each.
Methodologically, much of what has been said about the Bdp \s presentation of the four
apramdna holds also true for the treatment of the danaparamita,104 The whole account of
dana is primarily descriptive and offers little information on the psychological impact of its
practice. The chapter begins by enumerating the objects that are typically to be given. These
fall into two categories, that is, external gifts (bahyam ddnam) and internal gifts (ddhyatmikam
ddnam). Although not defined as such by name, this division clearly governs the B dp’s
classification of gifts.105 First, the bodhisattva gives material gifts (amisadana) such as food,
clothes, jewels, pleasure-grounds including relatives and dear ones. Then, he trains in giving
away his own body in self-sacrifice.106 The order in which these gifts are listed suggests a
ranking according to the degree of difficulty. That is to say, at the lowest level, the bodhisattva
provides food, drink and clothing.107 Then, embarking on higher levels of dana, he renounces
precious objects. Next, the bodhisattva trains to abandon his family and finally, at the highest
level, sacrifices his body.108 The gift of the Doctrine {dharmadana), a major factor in the
practice of generosity and acknowledged by most texts, is not cited in chapter six.109
104. Candraklrti, in his commentary to the Catuhsataka (TTP, 98, p. 215.3.2-4.4; ref. Lang), gives the following
etymological explanation o f the word dana. He begins by deriving dana from the root do meaning ‘to cut’
saying that it alludes to death. Hence, the word dana is said to give pleasure to a practitioner since it
induces disgust (udvega) for the cycle o f birth and death. Then, he acknowledges a relation between dana
and the root da meaning ‘to give’, noting that the three types o f giving include all perfections (amisadana
covering ddna\ abhayadana covering sila, ksanti; dharmadana covering dhyana, prajha—with all three
are linked with vlrya) and as a channel o f the teachings pleases the bodhisattva. Finally, he says that dana
may also be derived from the root de meaning ‘to guard’ and da ‘to purify’. The rationale behind these
associations is that the bodhisattva’s body, speech and mind are, as yet, in need o f guarding and purification
since future births are determined by the presence o f desire. Thus, because dana reminds the bodhisattva
o f other births, it inspires joy in bodhisattvas (cf. Mpps, ii, pp. 698-700).
105. This twofold division is well known from dana treatment in the sastras. See, for instance, Bbh (pp.
114-123) and Mpps (v, p. 2238).
106. R, folio 285.1-7.
107. On the bodhisattva’s practice o f alms-giving, see: Msg, pp. 224-25.
If, however, limited in his possessions by the constraints of mendicant life, the bodhisattva dispenses
writing instruments (lekhani), ink (mast), manuscripts (pustaka) and the gift o f the doctrine (Vup, p. 30, §
20).
108. This scheme is also found in the Mpps, ii, pp. 750-51. At another place, however, the Mpps distinguishes
between amisadana as inferior giving; giving of the body as mediocre giving and generosity accompanied
by mental detachment as the supreme type o f giving (Mpps, i, p. 297).
109. It is, however, discussed in chapter nine (folio 539-546), ten (folio 563) and eleven (folio 628-631).

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After listing the objects of dana, the Bdp describes the mental states that accompany the
practice of giving.110It distinguishes forty different factors (divided into four lists of ten each)
that turn ordinary generosity into pure generosity. Major concerns are the need for impartiality,
dedication of generosity to enlightenment and the objective of universal liberation. A gift
should not be bestowed out of wrath or pleasure, it must not have any detrimental effect on
the recipient and need not be motivated by desire for retribution.111 In other words, the whole
Looking at the development o f the concept of giving, we note that, at first, references to a consciously
perceived division in the objects o f dana are less articulated. In the four principal nikaya, a division
between dana objects is attested only once. In the Anguttaranikaya (A I, p. 89), we read:
“Monks, there are two gifts. What are these two? The material (amisa) and the spiritual
(dhamma). These are the two. Of these two, the spiritual gift is preeminent.”
Yet, already in early Mahayana sutras, the concept o f the gift o f the doctrine was fully acknowledged and
enhanced in value. In the Kp, the gift o f the Doctrine is elevated to the supreme task o f a bodhisattva,
eclipsing even compassion, benevolence and communication of the thought o f enlightenment (p. 79, §
20). It is undertaken with a pure heart and virtuous motives without expectancy for anything in return (p.
79, § 20.1) If correctly performed, involving uniform, impartial and open-handed preaching (p. 73, § 12.3;
§ 44), the gift o f the Dharma secures immeasurable merit and prompts the state o f unobscured insight (p.
80, § 22.1). He teaches the Doctrine to all beings just as he received it himself and does not hold anything
back (p. 61, § 1.2). By doing so, he imparts the thought of enlightenment and inspires sentient beings to
strive to buddhahood (p. 79 § 20.3; p. 73, § 12.2).
In later literature this distinction grew in importance. The gift of the doctrine is cited in the Panca (p. 459)
as the only dana object alongside material gifts and figures in the Ug and Vup among the objects o f
generosity o f householders (Vup, p. 30, § 20; Ug, p. 259.5.5). Its exact contents is defined in the Kosa (iv,
p. 252) as “correct, undefiled teaching o f the sutra literature”. Those who teach the Doctrine with an
impure mind or out o f mistaken design such as gain, respect or reputation forfeit all merit that would
otherwise fall to them.
In the Mpps the condition o f the gift o f the Dharma, whether that o f the Sravaka or bodhisattva, depends
for status on the intention (cetana) and mental state with which it is being given. If it is preached for
personal gain, with mistaken views about the self or otherwise overshadowed by delusion, it is wholly
impure and o f laukika rank. If, however, it is taught out o f pure intention and with wholesome thought the
gift o f the Doctrine attains lokottara status and introduces to the Buddhist path (Mpps, ii, pp. 693-5).
Besides the gift o f the Dharma and material gifts, the Mpps distinguishes a third category o f dana, that is
the ‘gift o f homage and respect* (pujasatkdradana). It consists in showing veneration and is inspired by
pure faith (prasadacittavisuddhi). Pure faith figures also amongst the causes and conditions that give rise
to giving in general. In the M pps, these are compassion, faith and respect (or a combination o f both); an
object that is to be given (pure or impure) and a recipient who operates as a field o f merit (either destitute
or honoured).
Note the contribution o f the Ms I and M sg with regard to dana by extending the traditional division into
material and the spiritual objects to include the gift o f security (abhayadana). According to the commentary
of the Msg, it serves to constrain violence (ghatakanivarana), assists the shy or apprehensive (bhiruparitrdna)
and anchors the bodhisattva’s altruistic intention in his practice (Msg, pp. 224—5). Defined as protection
from the fear o f lions, tigers, seizure, kings, thieves, water, etc., (Bbh, p. 133.17-19), it pertains, however,
more to the realm o f sila and reflects the bodhisattva’s rejection of violence. (Meadows, p. 176.10; Lin
Li-kouang, 1949, p. 250; Mpps, ii, p. 700). TheDhsgr (§ 105) cites in the place o f ‘giving o f fearlessness’
the ‘giving o f benevolence’ (maitriddna) that is probably an elucidation o f the more obscure concept o f
abhayadana.
Somewhat surprisingly, the gift o f security does not figure as an independent category in the Bbh. Instead,
we find the traditional division into external objects and internal objects (p. 144.23). The gift o f the
Dharma— identified as the supreme gift (pp. 127.11-128.1)—falls as an individual object in the class of
external gifts, but does not form a separate category (pp. 119.25-120.3). It is, however, cited at p.
133.12-13 where the Bbh gives material objects, the Dharma and security as the three objects that lead to
bliss in this world and the next.
110. R, folio 287.7-288.5.
111. These precautions are not essential to the Ug, where it is argued that to fulfil other people’s desires is the
highest aim o f the danaparamita (pp. 261.2.6-3.2). The negative side-effects that total compliance with

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section warns of aspects that might render an act of giving worthless and even counterproductive
by way of mistaken attitudes or motivations.112By doing so, the Bdp establishes a connection
between the practice of generosity and morality. That is to say, it qualifies the act of giving in
moral terms and determines its value on the basis of the donor’s intention and the choice of
objects that are given. It is only if both are of high moral standard and fully compatible with
the ideal of the bodhisattva that pure generosity is accomplished.
This association of generosity and morality is not particular to the Bdp. It occurs already in
the nikaya and is given prominent treatment in the Ug.m The rationale for the joined practice
of dana and sila is twofold. First, moral impurity defiles the spirit of giving since it leads to
corruption and expectations of reward, and hence obstructs the attainment of pure generosity.
Second, there is the incompatibility of attachment and impartiality.114Impartiality is a decisive

their wishes may produce are easily annulled by means o f the bodhisattva’s resolve (pranidhana):
“Now it is time for the danaparamita and I shall give in accordance with that person’s wishes.
I shall cause the person who makes requests to be satisfied. If giving wine to him, I must
soothe that person so that he shall attain right mindfulness (samyaksmrti) and shall not be
caused delusions. Why? To know how to satisfy another’s desire, this is the danaparamita.
Householder, for this reason, by making a gift o f wine to someone, the bodhisattva does not
draw away from the Buddha.”
112. An exemplary account o f the ideal circumstances o f generosity is found in the Bbh. As some o f the early
sutras, the Bbh devotes considerable attention to the objects and circumstances where the bodhisattva’s
dana operates (pp. 132.23-133.2). The overriding purpose behind the practice o f giving is to mature
sentient beings. Gratification o f sense desire is acknowledged to occur but regarded as an unavoidable
by-product (pp. 117-118). The bodhisattva takes great care to differentiate between the needs o f beings
and gives only objects that promote their spiritual interest. The chief reward for the donor becomes
exemption from rebirth in the lower destinies, provided that he gives with a pure, impartial state o f mind
that does not allow favouritism. The bodhisattva does not take advantage o f others or seeks personal
benefits from giving (p. 121.3-4). His practice o f giving is marked by faith and devotion, proceeds in a
timely fashion and does not lead to any harm (p. 132.26-7).
An important requirement for correct giving is knowledge of what constitutes the appropriate gift in a
given situation and the awareness that ultimately no objects exist (pp. 123.18-124.22; 129.8-11). The
gifts o f the bodhisattva comprise specifically the four apramdna, as they have great impact on the
recipient’s spiritual welfare (p. 129.12-15). The chief impediments to a successful pursuit is lack o f habit,
lack in worthy gifts, attachment to pleasing objects and delight in the prospect o f future reward (p.
129.16-21). Delay in the progress in giving occurs particularly when a bodhisattva only owns a few
objects that are worth giving and is requested to hand these over to his enemy; when he is asked to
renounce what is dearest to him or what he has become accustomed to and when he must give away those
dharma that he has acquired with great trouble himself (p. 132.3-12). The most effective antidotes against
these obstacles are intellectual penetration (prativedha), endurance o f suffering (duhkhadhivasana),
cognition o f misconception (viparyasaparijhana) and insight into the emptiness o f karmic formations
(sanikarasaratvadarsana) (p. 131.6-13). As reward for practising dana—i f practised with determination
(adhyasaya) and in conjunction with the pratisamvid—the bodhisattva comes eventually face to face with
true reality (p. 131.20-27).
Compare this position with the Mpps (ii, pp. 670-72) that informs that dana reaps greatest reward if the
gift is valuable, uncommon, well-timed, adjusted to local circumstances, in harmony with the requirements
o f mendicants, offered to members o f the Sahgha, continually and conditioned.
113. A connection o f similar type is also established in the Kp, where offerings o f material objects such lamps,
if only to acquaintances, are said to contribute to the final elimination o f traces o f impurities (kesavasana)
only if they are undertaken in conjunction with moral conduct.
114. Ug, 23, p. 264.4.3-5.7.

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factor in the bodhisattva’s practice of dana since it is intrinsically connected to the pledge of
universal liberation. Violation of the principle of impartiality by whatever means would
affect the very foundation of the bodhisattva’s quest and place him on the level of a Sravaka.
Depending on the context, attachment comes into play on two levels. In the nikaya, the
Buddha .speaks of it in terms of sensual desire.115 The implication is that sensual desire
corrupts the monk’s psyche in general and renders him unfit to follow in the mendicant path.
In the Ug which discourses on the lay path, the bodhisattva is warned of inappropriate
attachment to his family and worldly possession, since this would obstruct his balanced
pursuit of the middle path between worldly desire and renunciation. In a sense, giving is
therefore dependent on disciplinarian vigour to fully unfold. However, morality is also reinforced
by the practice of giving. For it is through unlimited generosity that the root evils of desire,
hatred and delusion are most effectively weakened.
Having discussed the moral dimension of dana, the Bdp gives three lists detailing the
benefits derived from internal and external giving.116Benefits accruing from material gifts are
predominantly physical in nature or generate spiritual gain relevant to this world. The system
of retribution that governs the granting of daily requisites follows well-established patterns,
promising future affluence in precisely the items that were renounced. The gift of luxurious
items and family members, however, pertains to a higher order and is rewarded with physical
perfection or important spiritual faculties such as the dharmaskandha, pristine cognition
(jnana) or divine ear (divyasrotra).117 The borderline between those two categories is rather
fluid as reward patterns occasionally become blurred. Self-sacrifice and renunciation of all
worldly pleasure are of the highest category, since they place the bodhisattva practically on
the level of the Tathagata through giving the buddha-qualities and all-knowing.118

115. In the progressive talk formula (anupubbikatha) we read to this effect:

“Then the lord gave a progressive talk ... namely talk on giving, talk on moral conduct and
talk on heaven. He revealed the danger, elimination and impurity o f sensual desires, and the
benefit o f desirelessness. When the lord knew that the mind o f ... was ready, soft, without
hinderances, uplifted, settled, then he revealed the special dhamma teaching o f buddhas:
suffering, arising, cessation, the path” (D I, p. 110; trsl. Gethin).
116. For alternative lists o f dana benefits, see: Samadh, ii, pp. 326-332 and M pps, v, pp. 2218-25.
117. R, folio 291.4-5.
118. R, folio 292.3-7
Compare these benefits with the rewards o f generosity that are typically cited in the nikaya. In the
Silasutta (A III, pp. 38-41), for instance, the Buddha distinguishes five advantages that accrue through
giving— four in this life and one in the next. In this life, the benefactor is well-thought o f and friend of
many people. The wise will always be eager to accompany him and he attains great renown. Whatever
company he enters, he moves with confidence and converses freely. At death, as a result o f his generosity,
he is assured a rebirth in the heavenly realms o f the gods. A similar set o f benefits is found at A III, pp.
32-33.

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For the Bdp the most important determinant of the amount of merit that springs from dana
is therefore the object that is given and the purity of the donor’s (drayaka) thought. It
disregards the role of the beneficiary (pratigrdhaka) as a field of merit {punyaksetra).119
Already in the early suttas, we learn that the amount of dana reward depends not only on the
act of generosity and its object, but even more so on the spiritual state of the donor. In the
Vacchagottasutta, the Buddha explains:120

“O Vaccha, gifts given in the case of the virtuous are of great fruit, not those
given in the case of the wicked. By ‘virtuous’ I mean one who has abandoned five
qualities and possesses five qualities. What are the five qualities he has abandoned?
Sensual desire is abandoned, malevolence, sloth and torpor, excitement and flurry,
doubt and wavering are abandoned. These are the five. And of what five qualities
is he possessed? He possesses the constituents of morality possessed by the adept,
the constituents of concentration, the constituents of insight, the constituents of
emancipation, the constituent of release by knowledge and vision of the adept. He
has these five qualities. Thus, where five qualities are abandoned and five possessed,
a gift is of great fruit, I declare.”

Thought to this effect is also expressed in the Dakkhinavibhangasutta where the Buddha
discourses on the four degrees of the purification of offerings. Distinguishing offerings
purified by the donor, by the beneficiary, neither by the donor nor by the beneficiary and by
both the donor and the beneficiary, he rejects all but the last variant as insufficient and
concludes that the supreme gift is always that which is given by an accomplished monk
person to an accomplished monk.121
Building on this proposition the nikaya came to differentiate various degrees of dana
purity. Besides the donor/beneficiary factor, it is above all the intention behind an act of
giving that determines its value. In the Sangftisutta, the Buddha speaks of eight bases of
giving that influence the result of dana.122 These include the presence of a recipient, fear,
119. On the notions o f puny a and punyaksetra, see Lamotte’s notes in La Concentration de la Marche Heroique,
pp. 231-33.
120. A I, pp. 161-2 (trsl. Woodward).
121. M III, pp. 256-7 (cf. Kosa, iv pp. 236-8).
122. According to the Abhidh-sam, the value o f the act o f giving (danakarma) depends on the purity o f its base
(inidana) and endeavour (utthdna)— non-greed, non-hatred and non-delusion—the choice o f objects and
his mental, vocal and physical bearing at the moment o f giving. It is called accomplished, only when

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reciprocity, hope for reciprocity, knowledge of the virtue of generosity, altruism, desire for
fame or repute and peace of mind.123The point is made that in order to maximise the value of
generosity, the donor should carefully assess his thinking and purify the intent that motivates
his act of giving. For an act of generosity to be fully purified, it requires faith, respect,
personal commitment, timeliness124 and must be executed without causing distress to the
recipient.125
According to the Kosa, the mechanism of retribution evolves in four areas of operation.
Vasubandhu postulates that gifts can either be beneficial to oneself, to others, to both or
neither.126 Merit itself is divided into two categories.127 On the one hand, there is merit that
arises by virtue of the sole fact of abandoning during the process of dana (tyaganvayapunya).
It is generated through the production of a mental dharma of abandoning (paritydgadharma),
constituting the intention to give and represents the act of giving proper. This form of merit
accrues when gifts are presented to a caitya. On other hand, there is the merit produced by its
enjoyment (paribhogananvayapunya). It is merit that results from joy by the recipient in the
objects that were bestowed.128
The amount of merit depends, besides the benefactor’s mental state, also on the status of
the beneficiary. We saw that spiritual achievement in both the donor and beneficiary constitutes
the purest form of giving and entails supreme merit. Thus, we read in the Kosa, citing a sutra
from the Madhyamagama129, that retribution proceeding from gifts made to the aryan community
increases with the holiness of the beneficiary.
Corresponding to the standing of the beneficiary, the resultant merit falls into four categories.
First, there is the field of merit characterised by destinies (gati). Here, the condition of birth
of the recipient has great impact on the amount of merit that is acquired through giving.

performed frequently, impartially, with indifference (anisrita) and, in particular, if associated to a

commitment (Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 94-5).
123. D III, p. 258 (see: also A IV , p. 236)
The Amrtarasa (Amrt (B), p. 89) records a tradition of seven mistaken ways o f giving. These include
giving with pride (abhimanena), giving for the sake o f glory (kirttaye), giving for the sake o f power
(balaya), giving accompanied by violence (sabrsa), giving with motivation (hetupratyaya), giving with
the hope o f reward and giving to the Sangha with discrimination (vibhanga). In contents, this enumeration
contains little new and is based on the lists in D III, p. 258, A IV, p. 60, pp. 236-37; cf. Kosabhasya, p.
270.
124. On timely gifts see: A III, p. 41.
125. A III, p. 172; cf. D III, pp. 356-7.
126. Kosa, iv, p. 234.
127. Kosa, iv, pp. 244-5.
128. Kosa, iv, p. 244
Cf.Amrt (B), pp. 87-88 for a variant interpretation of this mechanism of retribution.
129. Madhyamagama, TD 1, p. 722b 22.

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Second, there is the factor of suffering. A gift to a needy person—sick, disabled or in any
other physical distress—confers incalculable merit on the donor. In third place the Kosa cites
“excellence through benefactor” as a condition that influences the field’s quality. For illustration,
Vasubandhu quotes gifts to one’s father, mother or other benefactors as producing particularly
abundant merit.130 Third, we read that a field of merit excels through its qualities. Thus, “a
retribution one hundred thousand times greater than a gift made to a persons who uphold
moral conduct” will accrue to sponsors of bodhisattvas.131

Having examined some of the aspects of dana in non-Mahayana texts, I return to the Bdp
and appraise its exposition of dana. The Bdp agrees with most other sources that a major
benefit of generosity is the elimination of the fault of avarice (matsaryadosa).m This is a
very fundamental proposition which is found in even the earliest expositions. In addition, it
speaks of freedom from birth in the lower destinies (durgati) as a reward for the practice of
dana .l33 This too is consistent with the early views, but it is at odds with later thinking that
postulates the need for unabating selfless service and self-sacrifice in the bodhisattva training.
Next, the Bdp takes up the ancient scheme of three causes and conditions (hetupratyaya) that
give rise to generosity and determine the amount of merit produced. However, by focusing
on the object (deyd) and motivation (<cetana) of giving, but largely ignoring the issue of the
beneficiary’s purity, it shows more concern for the active side of dana practice.134
Perhaps as a collateral, the Bdp pays little attention to the benefits that accrue to the
beneficiary from dana practice. That this is inconsistent with the reciprocity of the ideal of
130. This category refers primarily to the seven aupadhika-punyakriyavastu (on the aupadhika-punyakriyavastu
and the punyakriyavastu in general, see: note 132 in my translation of chapter eleven).
131. K osa, iv, pp. 234-3 8
This passage seems to fit ill with an explanation found in the Dakkhinivibhahgasutta (M III, pp. 254-5)
that proposes that gifts given to the Sangha produce greater merit than offerings bestowed to the Buddha.
For a brief discussion o f the import o f the Majjhimanikaya passage, see: La Vallee Poussin, 1980, p. 237
n. 3.
132. E.g., Mpps, v, pp. 663, 2388
In the Mpps (p. 2388), we find also a convenient overview o f the various types o f renunciation (tyaga).
First, there is giving o f gifts through the abandoning of material goods. Second, there is the attainment o f
bodhi through the abandonment o f the fetters (samyojana). Both are fully attained at the seventh stage.
Other types o f tyaga are given as internal (adhyatmika) and external (bahya), light (laghu) and difficult
(guru), the material gift and the gift o f the doctrine, the mundane and supramundane gift, the latter being
exempt from discrimination (avikalpita) and imagination (asamkalpita).
133. R folio 296.7.
134. The only passage in the Bdp that could be interpreted as taking into account the role o f the beneficiary is a
jataka narrative that describes the offerings o f the weaver DhavanI to the Tathagata Kuhanachanda. This
weaver attains innumerable auspicious rebirths culminating in enlightenment solely by virtue o f his gifts
to a Buddha— the highest o f all recipients. But even here, the focus is quite clearly on the gifts that he
offered and his persistence in doing so, and not on the spiritual status o f the Tathagata (R, folio 296.3-298.6).

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giving, founded on the interchange of dmisa and dharma or dmisa and puny a, need not be
emphasised.135To all appearances, the Bdp views dana above all as a pursuit that is advantageous
to the bodhisattva’s own advance. Characteristically, preaching of the Dharma—traditionally
wellspring of the altruistic dimension of giving—is cited only once in passing.136
It could of course be argued that giving of material items has a dual function. On the one
hand, it brings to maturation the buddha-qualities and, on the other hand, attracts sentient
beings to the Buddhist path. This interpretation would link the practice of amisadana with
the danasamgrahavastu. As the other three samgrahavastu could be categorised as dharmadana
(they are all concerned with preaching), also material giving raises the prospect of substantial
spiritual benefits to other beings.137
Towards the end of the chapter, the Bdp elucidates the overall context in which the
danaparamita operates.138 It qualifies the reward mechanism by stressing that happiness in
this world is only a by-product and does represent the raison d ’etre of dana. Since they are
subject to the law of karma worldly benefits occur automatically in response to wholesome
deeds, whether desired or not. In spite of such demotion, they are nevertheless valued and
indeed become the ‘launching pad’ for the career of the bodhisattva. The Bdp explains this in
the following words:139

“O Sariputra, a bodhisattva, mahasattva who persists in perfect enlightenment

when giving worldly objects becomes not only a universal monarch but also
acquires the states of Indra and Brahma, even though he might not desire them.
Once he has attained these three states, he accomplishes the ten stages of the
bodhisattva and acquires the ten powers and four assurances of the Tathagata. ...
It is in this way, 0 &ariputra, that the Tathagata attain deliverance by means of the
retribution of their [worldly] deeds.”

This thought is expanded in the next passages where the practice of giving is linked with

135. Ug, p. 260.5.4-5; Kosabhasya, pp. 268-69; Amrt (B), p. 86.

136. R, folio 300.1.
137. The samgrahavastu appear in the Bdp on folio 695.1-698.7.
138. For a lucid account o f the interrelation o f dana and the other paramitd, see: Mpps (ii, p. 750-769).
Another account o f the relationship between the paramita and dana, showing how grhapti bodhisattvas
cultivate sila, etc., in granting alms to beggars, in found at Ug, p. 263.1.6-2.6.
139. R, folio 294.1-4.

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the cittotpada and becomes the platform of the whole of the bodhisattva practice:140

“O Sariputra, once he has generated benevolence towards beggars, a bodhisattva

who pursues generosity acquires by virtue of his cittotpada the uninterrupted
buddha-contemplations ... . O Sariputra, the bodhisattva assumes all forms of
wonder-working powers. O &ariputra, when former Tathagata pursued the
bodhisattvacatya they procured such buddha-qualities by means of worldly gifts.
O Sariputra, a bodhisattva who aspires to non-dying, enlightenment and nirvana
engages in giving worldly objects.”

Finally—setting a precedence for paramitd illustration in all subsequent chapters—the Bdp

gives an example of the jataka-genre in order to demonstrate the worthwhile effects of
practising dana. The association of jataka-type narratives and dana practice has of course
long been recognised. In particular, it was brought into connection with the rise of Mahayana
Buddhism.141 Many scholars have indicated the rising popularity of the jataka-genre in the
proto-Mahay ana movement and suggested that its description of the Buddha’s former practice
prepared the ground for the ascent of ‘new’, revised sets of practices in Buddhism.142 Above
all, this holds true for the practice of generosity. The Buddha’s willingness in the jataka to
abandon all possessions including his own life must have left a lasting impression on the
minds of many people.143 Their popularity and wide circulation is well attested by their
numerous recensions144and reproductions in iconography across Asia.145
Ample testimony of this change is found in the literary documents of the Mahayana. The

140. R, folio 294.6-295.3.

141. Much has been written on the circumstance in which this transformation might have taken place and
numerous, partly contradictory, scenario were proposed. For a survey o f these theories, including a good
bibiography, see: Bauman, 1988.
142. E.g., Lamotte. “Sur la formation du Mahayana”. Asiatica, 1958, p. 377-80, “Mahayana”. in The World o f
Buddhism, ed. Bechert; Gombrich, 1984, p. 90.
143. Particularly enchanting examples o f the bodhisattva’s selfless service and self-sacrifice are found in the
Vessantarajataka (Cone; Gombrich, Oxford, 1977), Mahajanakajataka (Jataka, vi, p. 34);
Candraprabhajataka (Mpps, ii, pp. 715-6) Sarvadajdtaka (Jataka, no. 514; tikd, v, pp. 36-57). For an
example o f such edifying stories preserved outside the jataka collection, see the narrative o f Velama in
Anguttaranikaya IV, pp. 392-396.
144. On the popularity o f the jataka genre in South Asia and the numerous recensions that attest this trend, see:
Cone; Gombrich, 1977, pp. xv-xliv; Spiro, 1970, pp. 107-8, pp. 346-47; Gombrich. Precept and Practice.
1971, pp. 91, 93. For the persisting importance o f jataka in general, see: Spiro, 1970, pp. 18-21,126,153,
359 and Wintemitz. Indian Literature. 1933, ii, p. 153.
145. See: Foucher. La Vie du Buddha. 1949 (introduction); Foucher, “Note sur l’itineraire de Hiuan tsang en
Afghanistan”, ftu d es Asiatiques, i, pp. 261-2; Foucher. La vieille route de ITnde de Bactres a Taxila. i,
Paris, 1942, pp. 130-32; Lamotte. HIB. pp. 644-685.

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first Mahayana sutra to devote an entire chapter to the practice of giving was the Ug. Firmly
anchored in the conduct of lay-bodhisattvas and acknowledged as fundamental to their training,
dana stands in the Ug at the centre of the whole discourse. The chief beneficiaries of the lay
bodhisattva’s dana practice are mendicant monks. As his most elevated gifts are given to the
Sangha, the bodhisattva trains to achieve the standards of morality of the monks.146 Since he
is in equal measure wealthy and devoted to universal liberation, generosity becomes the
grhapti bodhisattva’s best-known practice and lends viability to his training in society.147 In
the Ug, the practice of giving consists chiefly of material objects.148 On an immediate level,
the imparting of his wealth is intended to alleviate the suffering of beings. However, if
perfected, it becomes the discipline by which he purifies himself of the three root defilements149
and supports the conviction of the non-existence of a self.150Not before the bodhisattva has
rid himself of all three defilements becomes this transformation into all-knowing feasible.151
What is more, his practice of dana becomes also the very basis for all other attainments, most
notably the remaining five perfections—that, in turn, sustain his accomplishments in generosity.
Giving free from expectations for reward is here characterised as the perfection of wisdom.152
Indeed, by promoting insight through a series of mental exercises relating to generosity that
guide on his path153, dana practice becomes something of a middle path between the extremes
of worldly life.154In the end, the grhapti bodhisattva’s entire activity is undertaken in and for
the practice of giving, since it is at once the principal means of liberation and, when perfected,
liberation itself.
The grhapti bodhisattva receives the inspiration to dana from mendicants who dwell in
temples and whom he visits frequently for instruction.155Ironically, in terms of dana practice,

146. Ug, p. 267.1.2-2.8; p. 265.2.6-3.3.

147. Schuster, op. cit., p. 330.
148. At several places we read that the lay bodhisattva gives the gift o f the Dharma by preaching its doctrines
to his fellow beings. By and large, these are exception in an exposition where material objects are the
principal items o f dana. But as this charity is inspired by Dharma and teaches Dharma by example,
Schuster argues that the gift o f the Doctrine goes well beyond Dharma instructions proper {op. cit., ii, p.
156-7). In principle, this o f course holds also true for the Bdp and indeed all other works (e.g., Vkn, p.
112). And yet, since no such connection is indicated in the texts themselves, I feel that such an inference
would only blur the lines between the various types o f giving and contribute little to clarifying the intent
o f our sources.
149. Ug, pp. 262.5.8-263.1.2.
150. op. c it, p. 263.2.7-3.2; p. 263.5.5-8; p. 264.4.3-5.7.
151. op. cit., pp. 262.5.8-263.1.6.
152. op. cit., p. 263.1.6-2.6.
153. op. cit., pp. 262.3.7-267.1.2.
154. op. c it, pp. 262.5.3-263.1.6.
155. op. c it, p. 267.3.2-4.4.

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the householder soon becomes superior to the mendicants, since they postpone dana cultivation
proper until after dharma -cognition.156 In the Ug dana constitutes therefore an important link
connecting the householder with the mendicant ideal. Initially aroused by bhiksus, it perfects
the conduct of the gphapti bodhisattva. At a later stage the monks are set to join him in order
to train themselves in dana.
Another early text that discusses generosity in some detail is the Akn. Its treatment of dana
has many features in common with the Bdp ,157 It too discusses the practice of giving in the
context of the six perfections. In both the Kp and Ug dana is treated largely independently of
the other perfections. The A kn’s exposition consists mainly of lists that enumerate the various
objects of dana and the mental states that accompany pure generosity. These enumerations
address concerns similar to those of the Bdp and share a large stock of practices with the lists
in the Bdp.158 Other parallels exist in the reward mechanism. Like the Bdp the Akn explains
that gifts of luxury lead to physical perfection, the giving of family members to high spiritual
attainments and the giving of the body to the buddha-body. Differences are only found in the
concluding passages, where the Akn sets out to define the cognitive processes that accompany
the practice of dana. Here, we leam that dana, when perfected, is pervaded by the absence of
distinguishing marks (dnimittaparibhdvitva), operates in the sphere of emptiness
(sunyatdkaraprasddhitd) and is not entangled in the affairs of the triple world
(,traidhatukasamsrsta).159
The dana exposition in the Akn represents an important watershed in the treatment of the
practice of generosity. After it, departing from the numerative, highly laborious schemes of
the early Mahayana texts, sutras adopted a more succinct style in their discussion of generosity.
Increasingly, descriptions of dana became replaced by investigations in its conceptual
foundations and scope of operation.
Early traces of this re-orientation are found in the Red which shows much greater interest in

156. op. city p. 272.2.4-3.2

The mental preparation for the householder’s practice o f dana is laid down in a list o f fourteen deliberations
that encourage liberal giving. These include recognition o f the transiency of dharma, seeing the reality of
non-self and perceiving that dana frees the practitioner from fear, bonds o f samsara and the threat o f
Mara (Ug, p. 262.3.7-4.7).
157. 34, pp. 42.3.1-44.4.2.
158. Note that in Akn like the Bdp the gift o f the Doctrine receives only scant attention and does not stand in
the foreground. In a lengthy enumeration o f items that are being given by bodhisattvas (pp. 42.2-43.1.1),
the gift o f the Doctrine figures only indirectly in five places (pp. 42.5.1-6), but is even then never clearly
established as the object of dana.
159. op. cit, p. 43.2.8-3.1.

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the mental operations underlying and manifest pure generosity.160 At first, the sutra lays
down the conditions that are favourable to the pursuit of generosity.161 These consists in
unreserved impartiality in the act of giving towards all beings whether evil and virtuous;
generation of the mind of enlightenment with the knowledge of the sameness of all dharma
(,sarvadharmasamata); resolve that the roots of virtue accrued through giving do not become
transformed into personal gain; unshakable faith in the three aspects of giving.
Then, proceeding from this first, largely preparatory practice, the Buddha defines those
attributes that transform giving into pure giving. Above all, these consist of cognitive processes
that dominate the donor’s mind at the time of giving. The bodhisattva discards the eight
mistaken views concerning the self and becoming; he is free from propensities (vasand)
linking the donor with desire and the lower vehicles; his body, speech, mind and intention are
fully purified; he passes beyond desire for reward; transcends the fears of pride, conceit and
evil works and realises emptiness all around.162 Throughout the practice, his mind is set on
the welfare of beings, buddha-qualities, marks of a mahapurusa and buddha-field.
The R ed’s trend towards succinctness and conceptualisation is set forth in the Vkn that is
entirely devoid of lists of dana objects. Casting aside old established precepts on alms-begging
and its footing in morality, Vimalakirti advocates for unity of the benefactor, beneficiary and
the object given (trimandalaparisuddhi) to become the basis of pure dana practice.163 By
doing so, he dismisses practically all early principles of dana practice and adjusts the notion
of giving to the Mahayana tenet of ‘universal sameness’ (.sarvadharmata).164 As a collateral
of this overturn, he rejects the validity of distinctions in the objects of dana. Thus, the gift of
the doctrine is no longer restricted to preaching, but includes material goods as Dharma
offering (dharmayajha).165
After the Vkn, this thought was taken up in numerous Mahayana sutras and became the
basis for dana practice. A good example is found in the Panca. Acknowledging the validity
of the threefold purity, it distinguishes a mundane and supramundane mode of generosity. On
worldly dana application, we read:166

160. 24, pp. 231.4.6-232.4.3.

161. op. c it, pp. 231.5.2-232.1.8.
162. op. c it, p. 232.2.1-3.3.
163. Vkn, pp. 51-52.
164. M III, pp. 256-7; A I, pp. 161-2.
165. Vkn,p. 112.
166. Paiica, p. 264 (trsl. Conze).

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“Held by three ties the bodhisattva gives a gift. What are the three? The notion of
the self, the notion of others and the notion of a gift. To give a gift held by these
three ties, that is called the worldly perfection of giving; it is called ‘worldly’
because one does not swerve from the world, does not depart from it, does not
pass beyond it.”

Rooted in the conviction of the inapprehensibility {anupalambha) of dharma, supramundane

giving takes as its object the threefold purity of giving:167

“The supramundane perfection of giving, on the other hand, consists in threefold

purity. What is threefold purity? Here a bodhisattva gives a gift, and he does not
apprehend a self, a recipient, or a gift; also no reward for his giving. He surrenders
that gift to all beings, but does not apprehend those beings, or himself either. And,
although he dedicates that gift to the supreme enlightenment, he does not apprehend
any enlightenment. ... It is called supramundane because one swerves from the
world, departs from it, passes away from it.”

Crucially important to both modes of giving, is the bodhisattva’s willingness to transfer the
gift itself and all the merit he gained through it to his fellow beings:168
167. Panca, p. 253a (trsl. Conze)
The notions o f mundane and supramundane levels o f giving are taken up in the Mpps. Mundane giving
(laukikadana) consists in ordinary generosity or gifts granted by members of the aryan-fold, but accompanied
by impure thoughts. This last point is subject to controversy as some have argued that every gift from the
arya, even if o f impure motivation, is by definition, supramundane since they have cut o ff all fetters
(samyojana) o f existence through the apranihitasamadhi (op. cit., i, pp. 322-23).
Supramundane giving (lokottaradana) has as its object items that are unreservedly pure and conforms to
the true character (bhutalaksana) o f the Dharma. It includes also relinquishing one’s own life, if it is done
out o f concern for the welfare o f beings (Mpps, ii, pp. 688-691). Every act o f giving exclusively aimed at
escape from samsara is impure, since it ignores the suffering o f sentient beings and lacks interest in the
‘true’ teaching o f the Dharma (Mpps, ii, p. 677). This position is fundamentally based on a passage in the
Veldmasutta (A IV, pp. 392-96) where the Buddha recounts an episode o f his previous life as bodhisattva.
Similar criteria apply to the donor. Persons who freely give away their riches but fail to abandon giving
are mundane in character. Those, however, who resolve to renounce material objects and the concept o f
giving— knowing that they both are ultimately non-existent (anupalabdha)—are supramundane operators
(Mpps, ii, p. 724).
168. Panca, p. 176 (trsl. Conze)
In the final analysis even this tenuous link with conventional reality must be abandoned, since any thought
o f having given something away might lead to pride and satisfaction. In the words o f the Vajracchedika:
“A gift should not be given by a bodhisattva who is supported by an object; a gift should not
be given by a bodhisattva who is supported anywhere. A gift should not be given by a
bodhisattva who is supported by matter, sound, scent, taste, touch or mind objects. For Subhuti,
a gift is to be given by a bodhisattva mahasattva in such a way that he does not support
himself even on the notion o f a sign” ( Vajracchedika; Vaidya, 1961, p. 76; ref. Meadows).

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“Furthermore, O &ariputra, the perfection of giving of a bodhisattva who courses

in perfect wisdom and gives gifts consists in that, with attention associated with
the knowledge of all modes, he turns over to full enlightenment that gift which he
gives, after he has made that wholesome root [which results from the act of
giving] common to all people.”

It is on this note that Bdp concludes its discussion of dana. Linking generosity with the
cittotpada, it sums up the fundamental principles of dana practice as follows:169

“O Sariputra, a bodhisattva who is skilful gives [gifts] to many people, even if

[what is given] is small. His practice excels by virtue of the power of his pristine
cognition. It is strengthened by the power of his wisdom. It is without limit by
virtue of his power of dedication.”

This survey of the development of the concept of dana allows us to draw some conclusions
about the treatment of generosity in the Bdp. The nature of presentation suggests that the
B dp’s exposition of generosity belongs to the earliest strands in Mahayana sutras. The
extensive use of enumerations, the predominantly descriptive tone and the application of the
jataka-genre as a vehicle of explication all point to an early date of composition. It is difficult
to establish the period of time of its formulation, but the fact that the Bdp does not expose the
practice of dana to the principles of Mahayana ontology and shows no interest in conceptualising
indicates that it probably predates the discussions of the Vkn, Panca and Red. For the
bodhisattva in the Bdp, the practice of dana involves quite clearly true hardship and unfeigned
renunciation. That the Bdp does not include the gift of the Dharma among the objects of
giving is further evidence of its antiquity because it suggests that teaching had not yet

This non-support o f the bodhisattva when giving is extended in the Gaganaganjasutra to the gift itself
0 ik st pp. 270.14-271.1):
“Just as space is immaterial, so the gift is independent of matter; just as space is without
feeling, so the gift is detached from all feeling; in the same way, it is without consciousness,
unconditioned and bears the characteristic o f non-manifestation; just as space pervades all
buddha-fields, so that gift is pervaded with compassion for all creatures; just as space is
always transparent, so his gift is clear o f the nature o f thought; just as space illuminates all
creatures, so his gift gives life to all creatures ... by absence o f duality, gift is clear o f the
marks o f illusion.”
169. R, folio 298.5-6.

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become a major concern of the bodhisattva. In later texts this position was fundamentally
revised and dhannadana became a major, if not the most important, aspect of the practice of
generosity.
It is also of interest to note the connection between generosity and morality. When the Bdp
discusses the forty manifestations of dana and the mental states that accompany pure giving,
it is clearly concerned to show that giving is an intrinsically moral practice that can only
flourish if it is applied within the confines of pure morality. We have seen that this link
between dana and sila is not particular to Mahayana thinking but had already been established
by the Buddha in the DIghanikaya. In the Mahayana, the dana/sila association is most
evident in the early sutras. Apart from the Bdp, it is found in the Ug, Kp, Rp, Akn, PraS and
Sukhavativyuha. In response to shifts in perception that were occasioned by the increasingly
powerful presence of the ontological postulates of sunyata and samata this connection waned
in later literature. Already in the Vkn it became delegated to the background and it is
altogether absent from the Panca. In a sense, its disappearance was inevitable and represents
the logical outcome of a vision of reality that rejects the validity of all worldly experience
and operates beyond the parameter of purity and impurity. The fact that it is found in the Bdp
and placed very much in the centre of the exposition of dana is yet another indication that the
Bdp is a work of great antiquity and belongs to the earlier strands of Mahayana sutras.

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 Sttaparamita

The Perfection of Morality

“For ordinary people, for those who originate in the word [of the buddha],
For persons who are predestined to the awakening of pratyekabuddhas,
And for sons of the buddha there is no other cause but morality
[That leads to] supreme happiness and worldly delight,”170

This verse, composed in the seventh century by Candraldrti, is eloquent testimony of the
high esteem in which Buddhists of all ages held moral integrity. Valued for the disciplinarian
rigour and purificatory effect morality impressed on those who subscribed to its observance,
the practice of morality formed from early on a pillar of Buddhist spirituality. Echoing this
importance, it was juxtaposed to meditation and wisdom and became one of the three cardinal
practices the Buddha grew never tired of expounding.
In particular, moral conduct was valued for its preparatory role in the spiritual development.
In the Dasuttarasutta, the Buddha included the following counsel amongst eight conditions
that occasion wisdom:171

“Self-restraint in accordance with thepatimokkha code, equipped with wholesome

conduct, recognising danger in even the smallest transgression, [a monk] trains in
the moral precepts (sikkhapada).”

The samannaphala stage by stage account of the path in the silakhandhavagga of the
Dlghanikaya draws a clear picture of the dynamics governing the progress of spiritual
purification. This process starts with slla as the preliminary stage, proceeds through its
intermediate stages with the practice of samadhi and culminates in the cultivation of panna}12
The spirit of this scheme is encapsulated in a well-known passage of the
170. Mavbh, p. 41.17-20.
171. D ili, p. 285.
172. This progressive characterisation o f the path recurs numerous times in the nikaya. In the Majjhimanikaya
(M I, pp. 178-89, pp. 267-71, pp. 344-8; III, pp. 33-6, pp. 134-7), we find several examples o f slightly
abbreviated versions. The same pattern, if adjusted to an altered frame o f reference, is epitomised in the
scheme o f the seven perfections (visuddhi) of the Rathavinitasutta and, o f course, in the overall structure
o f the Visuddhimagga.

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 Silaparamitd

Mahaparinibbanasutta:m

“Such is sila, such is samddhi, such is paniid. When imbued with sila, samddhi is
of great fruit and benefit. When imbued with samddhi, panna is of great fruit and
benefit. When imbued with panfid, the mind is rightly freed from the asava,
namely the asava of sensual desire, the asava of becoming, the asava of views,
the asava of ignorance.”

In spite of this hierachical structure, it would be a mistake to infer that morality, meditation
and wisdom are practised in isolation and succession.174For, in practice all three are inextricably
linked together and can only flourish in conjoint efforts:175

“Just as Gautama, one might wash hand with hand or foot with foot, even so
paniid is fully washed by sila and sila is fully washed by pan fid. Where there is
sila there is panna, where there is panna there is sila. One who has sila has paniid,
one who has paniid has sila. [Sila] and panna together are declared the summit of
the world.”

The best canonical treatment of sila is not to be found among the scattered references of the
four principal nikdya, but in the Patisambhidamagga.176 For the Pads, the quality of sila is
primarily determined by its scope and depth of application. Measured by as a series of factors
that compromise moral integrity, these include transgressions motivated by considerations of
gain, fame, family, physical well-being and life-and-death.177 It is only when sila is wholly
unaffected and well beyond such worldly concerns that it fosters spiritual growth and becomes
the basis for nibbana.178
In order to be fully beneficial to these attainments, moral conduct must have its foundation
in cognition and operate in combination with restraint, non-transgression, volition and
173. D II, p. 81; repeated on pp. 84, 91, 98 (trsl. Gethin; my punctuation).
174. For a more detailed discussion o f their interrelation see: Gombrich,1984, pp. 91-102 and Gethin, 1987,
pp. 399-400.
175. D I, pp. 124 (trsl. Gethin; my punctuation)
Samddhi is omitted in this scheme as the Sonadandasutta, from which this quotation stems, investigates
the path phases only in terms o f moral conduct and wisdom.
176. Pads, i, pp. 43-48.
177. A commentary on this section is found in Vism, i, p. 12.
178. Pads, i, p. 44.

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 Silaparamita

consciousness-concomitants (cetasika). According to Buddhaghosa179, quoting canonical

sources, morality as restraint refers above all to the restraint through the pdtimokkha code180,
mindfulness, knowledge, patience and energy.181Sila as non-transgression applies to compliance
with whatever commitments of virtue one has undertaken. Since these vary with the respective
vows, sila ranges from non-violation of the pancaslla to full adherence to all Vinaya rules.
Conceptually, morality as volition and consciousness-concomitants go hand in hand as they
represent two aspects of the same mental factor. The volitional dimension refers to the
positive intention (cetana) that is present in one who refrains from killing, etc., while, its
consciousness-concomitants are those aspects of consciousness that arise together as the
factor of abstinence.182 If applied to the ten wholesome acts of refraint, morality as volition
accounts for the cetana that generate the first seven non-actions, while its consciousness-
concomitants generate the three remaining states of non-covetousness, non-ill-will and right
view.183
On the basis of these distinctions, the Patis draws up five categories of sila, namely,
abandoning, abstention, volition, restraint and non-transgression, and relates them to each of
the ten non-virtuous actions. The most important benefit that flows from these five modes of
sila is ‘non-remorse cognition’.184It is so because it prepares the ground for higher understanding
of the path which prompts the practitioner to carry out all practices as required.185
Buddhaghosa, greatly expanding on the sila section of the Patis, proposes nineteen aspects
of morality.186 Of particular interest for the present study is his understanding of mundane
and supramundane morality. Citing a passage from the Vinaya, he establishes that sila that is
still subject to the cankers is essentially mundane.187 It brings about improvement in future
states of existence and constitutes an indispensable prerequisite for deliverance. Supramundane
morality, in contrast, operating beyond worldly constraints, is capable of leading directly to

179. Vism, i, p. 8.
180. According to the Kosa (iv, pp. 47-48), propounding a Sautrantika point o f view, the discipline o f the
pratimoksa code falls into four categories. Morality (sila) redressing that which is unjust; good conduct
(sucarita) that is praised by the wise; action (of body and speech) because it is action by nature; and
discipline (samvara) because it constrains body and speech.
181. D I ,p . 70; M I, pp. 10-1 l;Sn. 1035.
182. Cf.Atthasalini, iii, chpt. v, pp. 103-106.
183. Vism, i, p. 7
184. See also A V, p. 1 where we read; “Ananda, profitable habits (virtues) have non-remorse as their aim and
non-remorse as their benefit.”
185. Patis, i, p. 47.
186. Vism, i, pp. 10-51.
187. Fin, v, p. 164.

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 Silaparamita

nibbana and represents the plane of ‘reviewing knowledge’.188

Purification itself is brought about through four modes of practice and behaviour.189 First,
there is purification by teachings. This form of purity originates in hearing and observing the
rules of the Patimokkhasutta. Second, purification by restraint refers to consciously undertaken
abstention from sensual indulgence. It evolves from a resolution to that effect and varies
according to the commitments. Third, purification by search is achieved through conscientious
probing resulting in rightful acquiring of requisites. Fourth, purification by reviewing emerges
from mindful scrutiny of those objects that one plans to appropriate prior to the acquisition
proper in order avoid unintended offence.190

The Mahayana sutras incorporated many of the above concerns into their interpretation of
sila. This is attested by the great number of sila expositions that revolve around the issues
that are expressed in the tenfold virtuous activity (kusalakarmapatha). But they also went
beyond this scheme which was expanded to comprise numerous other qualities and practices.
Religiously, many of these new precepts grew out of the resolve to achieve universal deliverance
and accommodate therefore a much greater spiritual ideal. This led to a conceptual expansion
of the notion of sila beyond the parameter of the pratimoksa code.
Cognitively, this expanded interpretation of morality required a new frame of reference to

188. Vism, i, p. 13.

Next, Buddhaghosa distinguishes moral conduct that is natural, necessary, customary and due to previous
causes (Vism, i, p. 15). A similar characterisation of the nature o f moral conduct is found in the Bbh where
we read that sila should be understood as adopted, natural, habituated or conjoined with means. Adopted
morality is that on which the threefold morality o f the Bbh is modelled. Natural morality is undertaking
physical and vocal activity that is entirely pure because o f the nature goodness o f the mental continuum
that is established in the bodhisattva fold. Habituated morality characterises the moral conduct by which
the bodhisattva has grown accustomed to the threefold morality in his previous lives. Morality that is
conjoined with means refers to the bodhisattva’s reliance on the four means o f conversion in order to
encourage to virtuous activity o f body and speech (Bbh, p. 184.6-22).
According to the Kosa, combining material from two discourses o f the Ariguttaranikaya (II, p. 121; IV, p.
364), morality is o f four types. First, there is morality o f fear. One observes this out o f concern for loss o f
the daily necessities, out o f concern for a bad reputation, out o f fear o f chastisement and out o f fear o f
birth in the evil destinies. Second, there is mercenary morality that one adheres to out o f attachment to life
in the good destinies, to pleasures and to honours. Third, there is morality that is suitable to the factors o f
enlightenment that pertain to persons o f right view. Fourth, there is pure morality that, being free from
stain, is free from vices (Kosa, iv, p. 248).
189. Vism, i, pp. 43-44.
190. In the Kosa (iv, pp. 247-8), moral purity is attributed to rejection o f the causes o f immorality (viz, the
klesa and upaklesa), to the workings o f the four bases o f mindfulness (vi, p. 158) and to reliance on the
peace o f nirvana. Then, it considers five additional causes of moral integrity. These are purity o f the deed
itself (renouncing o f evil deeds); purity o f their attendants (renouncing the preparations or the means o f
killing, etc.); absence o f the disturbance from vitarka (kdma, vyapada and vihimsavitarka); its supervision
through mindfulness (Buddha, Dharma and Sahgha—that includes the renunciation of undefined actions)
and its application to nirvana (op. cit., iv, p. 248).

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allow integration into the revised philosophical tenets of Mahayana thinking. The calls for
purity of body, speech and mind indexed to a world that itself had no independent claim to
existence beyond the level of convention must have startled the minds of many Buddhists of
the day. In order to allay this bewilderment and to reconcile what appeared to be contradictory
demands, Mahayana thinkers drew up a blueprint that distinguished two levels of truth. On
the lower or conventional level, the need for moral integrity was upheld. On a higher level of
understanding—reserved to those of rare spiritual gifts—‘reality as it is’ (yathabhuta) revealed
itself as having the characteristics of same (,sama), unborn (anutpanna) and calm (santa),
operating beyond the categories of purity and impurity. Seen from this absolute viewpoint,
all endeavours in morality lose in their meaning and become harmful to liberation since they
obstruct conceptual ‘unbecoming’ by superimposing non-existent predicates on reality.
It was from this kind of changes in perception that there eventually emerged a new type of
ethics—the bodhisattva morality (bodhisattvasila). Based on the amalgamation of the vastly
expanded mission and the new vision of reality, Mahayana sutras came to propose a moral
ideal that was tailored to the spiritual aspiration of the bodhisattva. Dismissing the early
prohibitive schemes of the 6ravaka as inadequate, the bodhisattva morality superseded the
ancient conventions and replaced them with a scheme that allowed for a free interplay
between cognitive realisation and the religious obligation of universal liberation.
That this process was slow is attested in several early Mahayana sutras where we find the
treatment of sila still bearing close resemblance to the ideal of early Buddhism.191 That is to
say, it continues to revolve around the tenfold virtuous activity, to emphasise the threat of
desire and to operate within (be at the margin of) the confines of Sravakayana ontology. A
good example is the Ug. Here, the treatment of sila is still dominated by an exposition of the
pancasila}92 Following well-established pattern, it discusses the five limbs and points to the

191. A sta, p. 427; for a list o f eleven, see: Asta, p. 324 (cf. Saddhp, pp. 275-296).
Another example is the Dbh. The Dbh, however, stands out for the fruits it proposes arise from the
kusalakarmapatha. According to this text the kusalakarmapatha lead to the state o f pratyekabuddhahood
when purified through the insight of its attainment. They encourage purification o f the bodhisattva1s
stages, perfections and conduct if practised in the spirit o f the bodhisattva1s pranidhana and lead, if fully
purified, to the state o f buddhahood itself (Dasa-bh, p. 26.1-13).
192. As if appended to the chapter, the Ug adds in a few lines the remaining five sila o f the akusalakarmapatha
so that in fact all ten factors are present (pp. 261.2.6-3.5).
The pancasila correspond to the first five precepts in a list o f rules known in Pali as the sikkhapadani
(Skt. siksapadani). Both refer essentially to those precepts a layman is expected to observe when he enters
into the Buddhist community and, to some extent, define his spiritual status. In the Buddhist training, their
role is chiefly preliminary as they prepare the commitment to higher disciplinaiy practices. In substance
there is no difference between the pancasila observance of Sravaka and bodhisattvas since it spells out a
basic moral ideal that is quite independent from the cittotpdda and pranidhana. In a controversial article

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disadvantages arising from their violation, with desire (raga) rated as the most serious obstacle.193
Traces to the new ideal are few and do not affect the spirit of the treatise. They occur only
once in a brief passage indicating compassion behind harmlessness and in a reference to
‘caring generosity’.
In the Red, sila is given a more advanced treatment. In particular, it displays several
concepts that link it unambiguously with the Mahayana. First, it states that the bodhisattva’s
whole practice of morality is rooted in the cittotpada.m Whatever its manifestations, the
overriding purpose of the sila practice is the universal liberation of beings. This objective is
achieved by the traditional practice of the dasakusala in conjunction with selfless service and
resolve. The motivation behind the bodhisattva’s moral training is therefore Mahayana, while
the means to achieve progress therein are outlined along the conventional understanding of
sila. For the author of the Red, no doubt, moral purification takes place in a world of ‘real’
obstacles, genuine impurity and is achieved through a set of practices specifically designed to
overcome them.
In the Akn this understanding of morality is taken up and further integrated into Mahayana
ontology. At first, like the Red, the Akn looks at morality from a conventional point of view
and enumerates a great number of attributes that pertain to moral perfection.195 Although the
list commences with the dasakusala, many of the items go well beyond its scope and link sila
specifically with bodhisattva practices.196Next, the Akn investigates the nature of morality in
the light of the doctrine of non-attribution (asamaropa), concluding that morality of the
foundation of being {dharmtasila) prevails when there is absence of names and signs

(1963), Hirakawa has pointed out that in several versions o f the Asta the dasakusala are identical with the
dasasila o f the nikaya to conclude that the dasakusala were originally the morality o f laymen after which
they were adopted by the Mahayanists as the basic discipline for lay and recluse bodhisattvas (p. 75).
Alleging that the dasakusala were neglected by nikaya Buddhism and taken up in reaction by the Mahayana,
he argues that the pancasila became the new basis o f the bodhisattva morality. This raises several
problems: First, the pancasila do not correspond to the first five elements o f the dasakusala but have
counterparts in the siksapadani. Second, for the Ug on which much o f his claim rests (p. 94), the
pancasila are enjoined for laymen— not recluses. Third, not even the dasasila and dasakusala correspond
in contents. All this indicates that the situation was much more complex than suggested by Hirakawa and
that we cannot speak o f a direct, verbatim borrowing between the morality o f Sravaka and bodhisattvas.
Both, no doubt, shared a common conception o f morality—that, according to Gombrich, (1984), had a
pre-Buddhist origin— and were guided by similar principles. But to stipulate a direct line o f borrowing
seems certainly to oversimplify matters.
193. Ug, p. 261.1.2-2.6.
194. Red, p. 232.4.5.
195. Akn, pp. 43.4,2-44.1.7.
196. The Akn includes, for instance, unloquacious morality (amukharasild), peaceful morality (santisila), morality
which grasps adequately gentle speech (suvacahpradaksinagrahasila), morality of bringing sentient beings
to maturity (sattvaparipacanasila) and morality guarding the Dharma as manifestations o f sila (p. 44.4-6).

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(inamasamketa), since “morality is where there is no attribution of body, speech and mind”.197
If seen from the paramartha point of view and subjected to the same philosophical rigour as
all other phenomena, it becomes a non-practice (adharma) of no independent existence. With
such propositions in hand, the Akn draws a clear line in the understanding of morality. By
fully integrating moral conduct in cognition and by making its purity dependent on insight
rather than practice, it blurs the distinctions between sila, samddhi and prajna as never
before. It is true that also in the Akn the cognitive dimension is still dominated by practical
concerns of morality; and yet, its cognitive propositions clearly herald a new type of
understanding of sila.m
The first sutra to undertake a clear commitment to this ontological interpretation was the
Kp. Here, in a memorable passage, we learn:199

“Die Moral, Ka&yapa, wird Moral genannt, bei der kein Selbsthaftes, kein Wesen,
kein Nominalismus des Wesen, kein zu Tuendes, kein nicht zu Tuendes, kein
Bewirken, kein nicht Bewirken, kein Wandel, kein Nichtwandel, keine Ausfiihrung,
keine Nichtausfuhrung, kein Name, keine Gestalt, kein Attribut, kein Nichtattribut,
keine Ruhe, keine Beruhigung, kein Erfassen, kein Aufgeben, kein zu Erfassendes
[existiert]. ... O Kasyapa, die Moral is ohne Einfliisse, nichts zugehorig, abgesondert
von der Dreiwelt, fem von all Basis im Leben.”

It is argued that monks who still considered moral conduct as a ‘real’ concern involving
independently existing beings and of sensory experience that is based on mistaken assumptions
(upalambhadrstika)—however conscientiously they might have observed the precepts—failed
to accomplish moral purity.200In the words of Candrakirti:201

“If [a bodhisattva] sees in moral purity an own-being (svabhava)

By that very reason, his morality is not pure.”

Besides this reinterpretation of sila, the Kp makes another important contribution to the
197. op. cit., p. 44.1.8-2.4.
198. op, cit., p. 44.2.4—7.
199. Kp, pp. 202-206, § 140-142 (trsl. Weller).
200. op. cit., pp. 191-2, § 134.
201. Mavbh p. 37.17-18.

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understanding of morality. We have seen that so far conventional morality is chiefly concerned
with the dasakusala, either set in the context of prohibitive regulations or aligned to the
thought of enlightenment. This concept is not absent from the Kp. It encourages repeatedly
constraint of the senses202, correct conduct203 and genuine observance of monastic precepts204
as the principal means to overcome evil propensities.205 Where it differs is the stipulation for
extensive roots of virtue (kusaladharma) to complement compliance with the regulative
strands of sila so that they may result in maximum benefit. This recognition, it is true, is not
totally absent in other texts. However, in the Kp it is for the first time that the accumulation
of roots of virtue—if only tentatively—is proposed as a regular concomitant of morality.206In
later Buddhist literature, most notably the Bbh, this association contributed to making the
accumulation of roots of virtue an integral part of bodhisattva morality.
In the Vkn, apparently building on the concerns of the Kp, but leading them to a logical
conclusion, Vimalaklrti clarifies the impact of mind on moral conduct:207

“A fault exists neither on the inside, nor on the outside, nor between the two.208
And Why? Because the Blessed One has said: ‘By the defilement of the mind are
beings defiled, by the purification of the mind are they purified. Honourable
Upali, the mind exists neither on the inside, nor on the outside, nor between the
two. So it is with a fault as it is with the mind, and with all dharma as with a fault:
they are not separated from suchness.’ ... All dharma are without arising,
disappearance and duration, like an illusion, a cloud or a flash of lightening.
Those who know this are called the true guardians of the discipline.”209

202. Kp, p. 46, § 22.1.

203. op. cit., p. 13, § 6.2
204. op. cit., pp. 18-19, § 8; pp. 191-2, § 134.
205. op. cit., p. 45, § 21.1.
206. Kp, pp. 10-19; pp. 41-44, § 5, 6, 8,19, 20
The advantages that accrue from the roots o f virtue are manifold, but always personal to the bodhisattva.
The means by which a bodhisattva accumulates roots o f virtue are fourfold, viz., delight in solitude,
practice o f the means o f conversion, selfless service and self-sacrifice and insatiability for roots o f virtue
(op. cit., p. 41, §19). In the Kp, the only factor capable of removing their accumulation is mind (citta) that,
though utterly insubstantial, represents a real threat to the bodhisattva’s morality since it is associated with
the sense pleasures but difficult to trace (op. cit., p. 149, §102).
207. Vkn, pp. 71-73 (trsl. Lamotte).
A very similar version o f this passage is also found in the Kp (p. 144, § 98) and in the Mpps (ii, p. 861).
208. The reasoning behind this thought is explained in the Kp (pp. 206-10, § 142-44) where the point is made
that the formulation o f an idea on a concept incurs conceptual bondage (samjndbandhana) and that the
only mode o f escape from its trappings is given through entry into the attainment o f the extinction o f
consciousness and sensation (samjndvedayitanirodhasamapatti).
209. On the notion o f non-separation the Vkn (p. 192; trsl. Lamotte) adds:

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The Pahca, introduces a third element that, while tacitly present in all Mahayana sutras,
has never before been specially mentioned as a factor affecting sila practice. This is the
bodhisattva’s resolve to mature all sentient beings:210

“Coursing in the perfection of morality ... endowed with this skill in means, the
bodhisattva grows in wholesome roots, courses in the perfection of morality,
matures beings, and purifies the buddha-field. But he does not aspire for any fruit
from his morality, which he could enjoy in samsara, and it is only for the purpose
of protecting and maturing beings that he courses in the perfection of morality.”

While it is difficult to assess the influence such a passage might have had on subsequent
developments, it is striking that many of its key elements found their way into later scholastic
literature.211 In the Bbh, for instance, one meets with exactly the same sila division proposing
discipline, collecting wholesome roots and ripening of beings as chief components of moral
conduct.212
The first element, entitled morality of the vow (samvaraslld) is said to vary according to
the seven commitments that are open to Buddhist followers.213 Recognising the variety of
“Good and bad are two. Not seeking after either the good or the bad, understanding that the
sign and the signless are not two, this is penetrating into non-duality ... To say, ‘this is impure
and that is pure’ implies duality. If one grasps dharma from the angle o f their sameness, one
no longer produces either a notion of impure or a notion o f pure, but one is still not notion-free
.. . ” (cf. Madhydntavibhaga, p. 221. 24).
210. Pahca, p. 489 (trsl. Conze).
As the overriding concern o f the bodhisattva training in general, this intention figures in one way or
another in all sutras we have looked at so far. Most notably, it is implied in the R ed’s depiction o f sila
where the thought o f enlightenment is given as the foundation of moral conduct. Yet, prior to the Pahca,
no text cites ‘morality as benefiting beings’ (sattvanugrdhakasila) as a quality that pertains specifically to
moral conduct— let alone, as its raison d ’etre (cf. $gs, p. 142).
211. For a concise, if slightly inaccurate, survey o f sources in which these issues occur, see: Hobogirin,
1929-1930, “Bosatzukai”, pp. 142-146.
212. Bbh, p. 138.24-27
The same division appears also in the Siddhi (pp. 631-32) and is incorporated in the scheme o f sila
propounded in the Msg (pp. 212-13). In the Msg, however, it does not serve as an overall classification,
but— representing ‘superiority in kind’— forms part o f a fourfold scheme that distinguishes ‘distinction in
kind’ (prabhedavisesa), ‘distinction founded in rules that are common and not common’
(sadhdranasadhdranasiksavisesa), ‘distinction in immensity’ (vaipulyavisesa) and ‘distinction in depth’
(gambhiryavisesa). Compared with the plan o f the Bbh, the scope o f this classification is rather limited
and leaves many issues unexplained.
213. Altogether, action o f discipline falls into three categories: (1) action included in the discipline o f the
pratimoksa vow, (2) action included in the discipline of meditation (dhydtiasamvara), (3) action included
in the discipline o f (supramundane) purity (anasravasamvara).
As discipline o f the pratimoksa vow Buddhism distinguishes eight kinds o f commitment— not seven
(,Abhidh-sam (R), p. 90). These are the discipline o f monks (bhiksusamvara), nuns (bhiksunisamvara), o f

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human circumstances, the Bbh integrates both the lay and monastic side in its vision of the
bodhisattvasila.lu However, the description of the bodhisattva’s samvarasila suggests that it
is in fact firmly placed within the monastic environment.215
The second component of sila involves the accumulation of factors of virtue
(kusaladharmasila).216 The bodhisattva achieves this through a variety of practices, including
reverence, mindfulness, compassion, seclusion and of course the practice of the paramita. Of
particular interest are the five aspects of wisdom. These enable the bodhisattva to learn about
the advantages that accrue from virtue, the causes of virtue, distortions (viz., the four mistaken
views), non-distortions and about the obstacles to accumulating virtue,217
The third aspect of morality is directed at the welfare of sentient beings (sattvanugrahakasila)
and specifically concerned with those practices that allay their suffering.218 It includes training
in skilful means, means of conversion, generosity219, protection220, compliance when appropriate

those who undergo training (siksamanasamvara), novices (sramanerasamvara), female novices

{sramanerisamvara), lay-followers (upasakasamvara), female lay-followers (upasikdsamvara) and the
discipline o f fasting (upavasasamvara). Possibly Asanga saw a correlation with the seven groups of moral
observance that are comprised in the discipline o f the pratimoksa vow, viz., parajika, sahghdvasesa,
aniyata, nihsargika-payantika, payantika, pratidesaniya and saiksa. A good summary o f some o f the
issues pertaining to the eight types o f discipline is found in the Kosa (iv, pp. 41-47).
The discipline o f meditation refers to abstention from indulgence in sense pleasures at a timewhen the
seeds o f defilement stemming from immorality, particularly those o f sexual desire, are cut off during the
first three stages o f meditation. The Kosa (iv, p. 41) adds that while the pratimoksasamvara belongs to the
kamadhatu, the dhyanasamvara operates only in the rupadhatu.
Discipline o f (supramundane) purity constitutes pure abstention that is attained through internal insight o f
truth by the force o f one’s attention to pure realms (Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 90-91). They exist among the
gods o f the kamadhatu and rupadhatu (with the exception o f the asamjhasattva and the gods o f the
intermediate dhyana), though never in the ariipyadhdtu since discipline belongs to the sphere o f matter
which the ariipyadhdtu gods cannot possess {Kosa, iv, p. 105).
The discipline that arises from meditation and the pure discipline are concomitants o f the mind; not the
pratimoksa discipline since it continues to exist in persons whose mind is bad or neutral, or who is
unconscious {Kosa, iv, p. 51).
For further detail on the pratimoksa morality, see; Kosa, iv, pp. 87, 94-101; Patis, pp. 43-44. For an
appraisal o f the upavasasamvara see: Kosa, iv, pp. 64-72 and Mpps, ii, pp. 825-39.
214. Bbh, p. 138.18-23
While, in general, this attitude is very common in Mahayana sutras and sastras, it is rare that it becomes
as explicitly expressed as it is here in the Bbh. In most cases, the proposition that the bodhisattvacarya can
either be pursued in a monastic environment or as a layman is tacitly assumed. Notable exceptions to this
rule are the Vku, Ug, Vup and Upasakasilasutra. For a succinct discussion o f the various aspect that
pertain to the lay and monastic ideal, including a list o f references in Pali and Sanskrit sources, see: Vkn,
pp. 75-77.
215. Bbh, p. 141.2-6
For an account o f the kinds o f action that infringe on discipline {asamvara), their impact on the bodhisattva’s
spiritual development and the psychological reactions they occasion, see Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 91-98.
216. Bbh, p. 139.1-3.
217. op. cit., p. 144.9-16.
218. op. cit., p. 140.4—28.
219. op. cit., p. 147.7-25.
220. op. cit., p. 146.14-19.

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and resistance when necessary221, sympathetic joy222 and performance of wonder-working

powers.223
For the cultivation of the threefold morality to become successful several preconditions
have to be met.224 First, the bodhisattva requires a learned instructor in order to correctly
receive his sila instructions. Second, it is essential that the bodhisattva acquires a fully
purified intention (<adhydsaya) since it determines judgement in the application of the precepts.225
If he is thus equipped, two more dharma emerge, viz., an undertaking to correction after
failure and mindful avoidance of failure through respect. Accurate reception, pure intent and
reverence are by themselves highly effective in preventing breaches of the bodhisattvasila.226
In the Bbh, the reception of the bodhisattvasila is inextricably linked with the taking on a
commitment (samvara) in moral observance. Having solemnly declared his yearning for
instructions in morality, the bodhisattva pledges:227

“I, of such and such a name, declare before all the Tathagata and bodhisattvas of
the great stage of the ten directions. Before them I undertake all the moral precepts
of the bodhisattva and the entire bodhisattva morality; the morality of the vow, the
morality of accumulating factors of virtue and the morality accomplishing the
welfare of sentient beings that the bodhisattvas of the ten directions of the past,
present and future have trained in.”

The scope and effectiveness of this samvarasila is thought to be superior even to the
pratimoksa vow—the most demanding of the eight traditional commitments. Theoretically, it
enables the bodhisattva to train himself by following his own judgement. In practice, however,

221. op. cit, pp. 147.25-150.13.

222. The bodhisattva applauds in particular those beings who have attained the qualities o f faith, morality,
learning, renunciation and wisdom {op. cit., p. 150.13-19).
223. op. cit., pp. 151.13-152.14
A summary o f the impact o f this practice is given in a section detailing the eleven modes by which the
bodhisattva is established in the morality o f accomplishing the welfare o f sentient beings. However, since
this covers much common ground I shall not go into the detail o f these factors (op. cit., pp. 144.23-152.17).
224. op. cit., p. 137.14-25.
225. I have found no other text in which these requirements are stipulated. Most treatises simply refer for the
foundations o f morality either en bloc to the combined practice o f the dasakusala (Mpps, ii, pp. 782-819,
Dasa-bh, pp. 26-27), or accentuate absence o f (sexual) desire and hatred in conjunction with correct
views as factors generating morality (Mavbh, p. 33.3-6).
226. Bbh, pp. 137.26-138.7
These three elements correspond to cardinal issues around which much o f the exposition in the Bdp
revolves (folio 306.1-4, 314.2-320.6).
227. Bbh, pp. 181.21-182.2.

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he is advised to listen regularly and to consult the basket of the bodhisattva scriptures
(ibodhisattvapitaka) since it assists him in the observance of the moral precepts.228
Modelled in name and number on the ‘defeats’ {pa.ra.jika) of the Sravaka Vinaya, the Bbh
lays down four factors that signal failure in morality. Characteristically, these do not refer to
moral violation in the traditional sense, but address backtracking in the bodhisattva’s resolve.
The four are (1) desire for praise and respect, (2) close-fistedness in wealth and Dharma, (3)
anger and (4) repudiation of the bodhisattvapitaka.22g
Repeated intentional violation of these leads to instantaneous and permanent forfeiture of
his roots of virtue and loss of the cittotpada.230 However, should the bodhisattva show only
weak or medium involvement—even if his undertaking is relinquished—he retains the
opportunity to receive once again the vow of morality in the same lifetime.231 Moreover, once
the vow is taken in accordance with the regulations and not abandoned, it maintains validity
throughout the numerous life-cycles of his career.232

228. Bbh, p. 156.7-11

To the Mpps (ii, p. 586) moral conduct is self-promoting. It proposes that attainments in thepahcsila o f
the upasaka inspire the tenfold morality o f the sramana that, in turn, when perfected, lead to the discipline
o f the monks (pratimoksa). This, again, occasions the next higher form o f morality, morality springing
from meditation (<dhyanasila), from which arises—once accomplished—pure morality (anasravasila). Cf.
Bbh (p. 186.16-19) that distinguishes, unfortunately without further elaborating, five modes o f morality
that are furnished with giving, patience, vigour, meditation and wisdom.
229. Bbh, p. 158.2-5
This list o fparajika is not the only one that was drawn up for the bodhisattva. In the Brahmajdlasutra—a
late text o f doubtful authenticity— we meet with ten dharma that entail defeat and deprive the bodhisattva
o f his status. These include, besides the pancasila, bringing others into disrepute, avarice, boastfulness at
the expense o f others, malevolence and calumny o f the three jewels (DeGroot, 1967, pp. 32-39; Eidman,
1958, pp. 392-3).
230. The second factor leading to the relinquishment o f all moral undertakings is the bodhisattva’s abandonment
o f his resolution (pp. 159.23-160.2).
231. Bbh, p. 159.9-24
It appears that the concept o f the opportunity o f regeneration was introduced by the Vup. We saw that the
bodhisattva’s observance o f morality— like all other aspects o f the training— is decisively influenced by
his determination {adhydsaya). Expressed and strengthened in the commitment o f the vow and resolution,
it provides the bodhisattva with a stable and firm basis for his entire conduct. Since it is raised consciously
and deliberately, this intention creates a mental shield that resists evil and, should it be breached, allows
for swifl restoration.
For the 3ravaka, the only means o f spiritual renewal is given in the highly formalised confession-ritual
(Vin, ii, p. 126, 192; iv, p. 18). While this is also available to the bodhisattva, it has lost much in formality
and has gained a more personal note. In the Vup, the issue that matters most is no longer exact compliance
with procedure, but the candidate’s genuine regret and his undertaking to prevent a repetition o f the
transgression (Vup, pp. 36-38).
On the provisions for a confession o f sins, see: Bbh, p. 181.6-21; Vup, pp. 31-37; Ug (cited in Siks, p.
290.3-6, but attributed to the Vup); Kp, p. 170, § 119; Saddhp, p. 210; Lai, p. 379. Passages raising the
possibility o f private confessions are also found in the nikaya: D I, p. 85; M I, p. 438; III, pp. 244-7; S I,
p. 24; II, p. 127, 205; A I, p. 238; II, p. 146; IV, p. 377.
232. This is not the case o f Sravaka discipline, where commitment to the discipline is only valid for the present
life-time (Kosa, iv p. 63). The argument behind this proposition is that the person one would become
would be different, that this new person would not be able to apply himself to the rules and that he would
not remember undertaking them (Kosa, iv, pp. 63-64).

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The gravity of moral transgressions other than the four defeats depends (as in the Sravaka
Vinaya) very much on the circumstances in which they were committed.233 In general, acts
committed out of indolence, irreverence, greed, desire, pride, negligence or ill-will—the very
antitheses to the bodhisattva’s resolution—are considered transgressions involving defilement.
If developed out of forgetfulness, illness, mental distraught or ignorance, the fault is a
transgressions without defilement.234
Finally, infringement on morality that originates in the bodhisattva’s pranidhana is entirely
free from fault or stigma.235 In order to elucidate this precarious issue, the Bbh draws up
several scenarios where the violation of each of the dasakusala is not only condoned, but
becomes a vital expedient to the promotion of spiritual welfare among beings.236 Hence,
according to the Bbh, “there is nothing that is categorically a fault” on the bodhisattva’s path.
This thought is carried further in a preamble to examples that describe the scope and flexibility
of the bodhisattva’s moral conduct:237

“Even in the case of what is reprehensible by nature, the bodhisattva acts with
such skill in means that no fault ensues; rather there is a spread of much merit.”

In other words, by virtue of his expertise in skilful means238, the bodhisattva is allowed—at
times even encouraged—to commit transgressions of disobedience (pratiksepanasavadya) if,
by doing so, he benefits sentient beings.239 We saw that for the Sravaka, moral contravention
occurs only within the sphere of physical and vocal activity. Mental inaptitude is not directly
addressed by the pratimoksa rules. This does not hold true for the bodhisattvasila where
mental improbity (<cittapatti) is fully recognised as a source and manifestation of moral
infringement.240

233. Bbh,pp. 160.10-165.1.

234. Bbh, p. 180.10-12.
235. The text gives ail example in which the bodhisattva is invited to a house but chooses not to accept the
invitation. If he rejects it out o f enmity or resentment he has committed a defiled fault, but if he does not
attend because he learned o f the opportunity to hear a Dharma discourse o f great value he is free from
fault (Bbh, pp. 162.25-164.7).
236. Bbh, pp. 164.19 ff.
237. Bbh, pp. 165.26-166.1.
238. Cf. Msg, p. 216.
239. He is, for instance, encouraged to accept vast quantities o f robes, alms-bowls, beds, rugs and even gold
and silver to redistribute them among sentient beings (Bbh, p. 165.8-22).
240. Msg, p. 214.
Generally, rather than actively transgressing certain rules, it is abstention from required actions that is
regarded as a severe violation o f the bodhisattva’s morality. For instance, should a bodhisattva who is in

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But now to the Bdp. In emphasis and orientation, its treatment shares a common understanding
with that of early Buddhism. Since moral improbity is held to lead inevitably to spiritual ruin,
its main concern revolves around the need for conventional moral integrity. The presentation
possesses therefore many of the hallmarks of the prohibitive vinaya-type approach, while, at
the same time, it allows for adjustment to the increased scope of the new ideal.
The bedrock for the whole exposition is the insistence on the conscious and intentional
abstention from the ten evil paths of action (akusalakarmapatha).241 It takes up over a third of
the chapter and is divided into the spheres of body (killing, theft and sexual misconduct),
speech (falsehood, slander, harsh and frivolous talk) and mind (covetousness, animosity and
wrong views):242

“There are ten modes of auspicious action.

The bodhisattva who is skilled adheres to them.
The wise one who does not act through body, speech and mind
Is said to be in possession of moral conduct.”

And yet, in spite of this accentuation, the treatment of the dasakusala itself provides little
insight into the workings of purification. Instead of discoursing on the psychological processes
that practice of them triggers, the Bdp devotes most attention to the benefits flowing from

possession o f wonder-working powers fail to employ them in a situation where they would inspire faith,
he would be guilty o f a serious transgression. Similarly, should he fail to rebuke people who are in need o f
reproach or does not mete out a punishment for wrongdoing when he would be perfectly capable o f doing
so, he commits a defiled fault (Bbh, pp. 179.18-180.10). Passivity with regard to his duties articulated in
his pranidhana weighs more heavily than infringement on the letter o f the pratimoksa precepts. A concise
list o f attributes pertaining to pure morality appears at the end of the Silapatala (op. cit., pp. 186.23-187.15).
241. The Sanskrit terms are as follows: (1) pranatighdta, (2) adattadana, (3) kamamithydcdra, (4) mrsavada,
(5) paisunyavada, (6) parusyavada, (7) sambhinnapralapa, (8) abhidhya, (9) vyapada and (10) mithyddrsti
(Mvy 1687-1698). For references in the nikaya, see: M I, pp. 42, 360; III, p. 23; S IV, p. 313; V, p. 469;
A, I, p. 226. Sanskrit references are found at Mvu, i, p. 107.13; Dasa-bh, p. 23.6; &iks, p. 69.13 and Dhsgr
§ 56 (cf. Amrt (B), pp. 89-91). For a full discussion o f the akusalakarmapatha, see: Mpps, ii, pp.
782-819. On their role in the bodhisattva-path, the Dbh comments (Dasa-bh, pp. 26.5-9):
“The ten good paths o f action— as they are completely purified by the wide, immeasurable
state, by the arrival at great compassion, by grasping skilful means, by the state o f being
bound to the next vow, by non-abandoning o f all beings, by taking hold o f the broad buddha-
knowledge— conduce to the complete purity o f the stages of the bodhisattva, to the complete
purity o f the perfections and to the full extent o f the career.”
242. R, folio 304.2-3
This list recurs three times during the discussion o f the silapdramita (R, folio 368.2-6; 403.7—404.3). As
it introduces at each occasion a new aspect o f the practice of moral conduct, it was probably conceived o f
as laying down the individual areas o f application that make up the overall scope o f the bodhisattva’s
morality. This tenfold division is o f course very ancient and is well known from the nikaya (cf. D III, p.
214; A, I, pp. 49, 52, ff).

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their cultivation and the impact they have on the bodhisattva’s advance.
The acquisition of such benefits is dependent on the interplay of two factors. On the one
hand, adjusting to Mahayana ontology, the Bdp invalidates moral conduct and denies it any
role in the path.243 As we have seen, this is common practice in Mahayana sutras and
represents the paramartha point of view. On the other hand, on a conventional level, sila
becomes a major force in the bodhisattva practices. It is held indispensable for the completion
of the path, in general, and gives rise to a series of important mental factors. In the Bdp, such
factors include faith, vigour, trust in retribution of deeds, trust in morally and wholesome
deeds, aspiration to the noble lineage (aryavamsa)244, respect and veneration of teachers,
withdrawal in search for the Dharma and unreserved commitment to enlightenment.245Although
it stops short of pronouncing a causal relationship between them and the kusalakarmapatha,
the Bdp indicates that they operate on a reciprocal basis and arise simultaneously to reinforce
each other’s presence.246
Through the roots of virtue that are generated by the kusalakarmapatha in conjunction with
faith, etc., the bodhisattva produces ten forms of cittotpada. These are based on moral
integrity, reverence and yearning for spiritual instruction, and lay down the phases in his
cognitive growth.
In spite of the shared context in which the ten kusalakarmapatha, ten mental dharma and
ten cittotpada occur—except for a broad association with the practice of morality—no
connection between their members seems to exist. It is true that the ten mental factors and the
forms of cittotpada cover roughly the same ground (both emphasise the role of reverential
conduct towards one’s teacher and include search for the Dharma and insight into the workings
of karma), yet at no point is there any indication of the relation in which they might develop.

243. R, folio 302.5-304.1

244. According to the Ug (pp. 271.5.1-272.1.7) acquisition of the aryavamsa is one o f the chief manifestations
o f pure morality in pravrajita bodhisattvas. Other concomitants include practice in the thirteen dhutaguna,
seclusion, honesty, correct reflection, rejection o f mistaken views, calm insight into the workings o f the
body, fearless acceptance o f emptiness and signlessness and the generation o f compassion. Apart from a
broad contextual agreement with the mental factors in the Bdp, these show few parallels.
245. R, folio 306.1-4
There is a certain overlap between these ten factors and the five indriya cited as antidotes to moral
impurity in the Anguttaranikaya (A V, p. 192). Moreover, several of them appear repeatedly in conjunction
with moral conduct to define the attributes o f true bhikkhus and figure among practices conducive to
enhanced aspiration and high rebirth (M III, pp. 99-103). In this context, their chief function becomes to
provide for the cognitive stability that is required for sound refraint from the three root evils.
On the benefits, see: D n, p. 86; M I, p. 33; A III, pp. 251-2 and Vism, i, p. 14.
246. The single most important factor underlying the bodhisattva’s moral stance becomes the resolution undertaken
in his vow to benefit all sentient beings. Although not explicitly mentioned in this capacity, the orientation
o f the sila practice leaves not doubt that it is that intention which rules his conduct at all times (R, 307.2).

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Furthermore, both schemes do not agree on the position in which they list the shared practices.
Faith and vigour, for instance, the first two limbs of the ten mental dharma, figure in the
cittotpada at the very end. Moreover, some of the key issues of the cittotpada do not occur at
all among the ten mental dharma. Correct understanding of the body, the threat of desire,
hatred and delusion, and headlong pursuits are only found among the ten cittotpada.
In the absence of any positive evidence, we cannot stipulate any firm connection between
the akusalakarmapatha, mental factors and the types of cittotpada. The only common
denominator is a shared, if broad, association with moral conduct. This link, however basic,
is rather pronounced and recurs on several occasions. For one thing, the generation of the ten
mental dharma is conditioned by abstention from killing, etc. This would link them with the
ten cittotpada, as these too cover some common ground with the mental dharma.
Other parallels are found in the ethical connotations that are raised by the ten cittotpada.
We have seen that the first two, as if producing basic mental requirements, lead to a correct
understanding of the body. To view the body as empty, essentially impure and impermanent
weakens the propensity for attachment and removes the foundation of desire. Next, recognition
of previous anger, violence and bitterness (realised with the fourth and sixth cittotpada)
instigates the mental processes that inspire the abandonment of hatred (dvesa). Finally,
appreciation of the faults of past misconduct—as manifested in lack of respect, mental
confusion, ignorance of causation and purposeless straying—refers to delusion (moha), the
third of the three root evils. All ten cittotpada therefore have a bearing on the very factors
that cause moral impurity. The destruction of desire, hatred and delusion is achieved with the
tenth cittotpada in which moral conduct is fully realised in conjunction with faith, modesty,
chastity, learning, renunciation and wisdom.247
Cognitively, pure moral conduct triggers a series of insights into the workings of phenomenal
existence. Evolving in conjunction with correct reflection (yoniso manasakdra), the bodhisattva
develops aversion towards karmic formations, loses interest in sense pleasures, rejects empirical
knowledge and develops a defence mechanism against hatred and desire.248 First, on the
emotional level, he trains in order to see in every sentient being his mother and father of

247. On the pillars o f moral impurity, the Akn records:

“Morality is the absence o f evil causal dispositions, the non-arising o f mistaken views and
elimination o f hindrances like regret; morality does not abide by unwholesome roots o f
covetousness, anger and delusion” (p. 44.3.2-3).
248. R, folio 376.1.

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previous lives.249 This allows him to recognise in situations that arouse sensual desire his
mother as the object of passion. Likewise, in situations of great injustice, he restrains his
anger by recognising his father as the aggressor.
Since it leads—if entwined with incorrect reflection—to unfavourable rebirth in the evil
destinies250, desire is singled out as the most acute threat to the bodhisattva’s moral integrity.251
In order to eradicate desire, the Bdp proposes three methods that protect the bodhisattva from
attachment.252 First, it advises him to consider—as deterrent and cause for compassion—the
249. R, folio 384.7-387.2.
250. R, folio 388.6-7.
251. In this context, serving to exemplify the pitfall o f sensual desire, we find a diatribe against the wife (folio
389.1-395,2) similar to that contained in the £/g(pp. 263.5.6-264.3.4).
Judging by later discussions o f Mahayana morality, this view was not destined to last. In the Vup— marking
an important stepping stone in the development of the bodhisattvasila— it is lack o f altruistic compassion
and hatred that replaces desire as the most severe and resilient impediment to moral perfection (Vup, pp.
50-51). In an earlier passage the Buddha adds the third member, delusion, that he qualifies as a grave
defilement that is difficult to eliminate since (Vup, pp. 31-32):
“Attachment under the influence o f the ramification of transmigration becomes the seed o f
rebirth; hatred, because it is quickly eliminated becomes a step towards the evil destinies;
delusion, because it is difficult to eliminate becomes the cause occasioning one’s fall into the
eight hells.”
While this is not exactly the position o f the Bdp in chapter seven, elsewhere we meet with statements that
run veiy close in intent (R, folio 415.1-2):
“Mara obtains the opportunity to harm a bodhisattva whose mind is wrathfiil even after he has
entered the great vehicle. If he obtains this opportunity, the bodhisattva will be cut off from
supreme and perfect enlightenment, for a bodhisattva who is evil-minded becomes inattentive
when pursuing enlightened conduct ”
252. In the Bdp desire is defined as attachment to the objects o f the five senses, and above all, to the fetter of
form (rupa). It is seen to obstruct hearing o f the Dharma, taking refuge in the triratna, seeing the Buddha,
receiving the (eighteen) blessings as well as preventing faith, moral conduct, learning, chastity, modesty
and wisdom to unfold (R, folio 390.2-7). As such, it is identified as the most potent threat to the training
o f the bodhisattva.
However, according to the Vup, an even greater threat to moral integrity is posed by conceit (adhimana).
Interpreted as a side-aspect o f delusion in the threefold root defilements, it bars the bodhisattva from
attaining his goal by deceptively magnifying his own attainments (dtmokarsa) and depreciating those o f
others (pardvajhd) (Siddhi, p. 346). The means by which conceit is overcome vary with the spiritual
outlook o f the practitioner. For the Sravaka, it is above all avoidance o f speculative and inconclusive
thought that prevents its arising. The bodhisattva, however, is advised to eschew premature judgement on
the quality o f his progress in training and to learn to distinguish mistaken views from correct ones (Vup,
pp. 53-54). For unlike other defilements, liability to conceit not only subsists in the more advanced stages
o f the path but, moreover, increases in attraction with the rate o f progress in purification (Asta, pp.
385-95).
In the Vup, the Buddha distinguishes two areas of conceit. First, it draws attention to conceit operating on
the moral plane. It occurs when the bodhisattva compares his degree o f purification with that o f ordinary
beings and, judging it inferior, concludes that its holders o f little worth (§ 47). This form o f moral conceit
may also arise on the basis o f his spiritual powers and attributes (§ 48)—illusory or real— on the basis of
attainments such as the buddha-qualities and even through perceived superiority in material wealth or
worldly position (§17). Second, conceit arises at the cognitive level in response to inessential speculation
(Vup, p. 54). This issue is also taken up in the Samdhis (tLa), pp. 47.19-48.15. Since deliverance is only
achieved by totally abandoning thought representation (sarvavikalpapavigatd) in favour o f the acceptance
o f inconceivability (Vup, pp. 53, 64), all discursive thinking is detrimental to liberation and becomes,
particularly if o f academic hypothesis, a potential cause o f vanity (Vup, p. 55):
“By means o f what measure do monks evade conceit? The Tathagata replied to the venerable
Upali: Monks are altogether liberated from conceit if they do not harbour wrong views
(abhinivesa) concerning the inconceivability springing from all-knowing.”

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suffering of beings.253 The prospect of exposure to such a high degree of misery alone
prevents immoral behaviour from arising.254 Second, the Bdp recommends as an incentive255
the contemplation of the excellent qualities of the members of the aryan-fold.256 Without
complete purity, such excellence will always be beyond the reach of a bodhisattva. Third, the
practitioner is reminded of the illusory character of sensory perception and the unreliability
of the data it provides.257 In the spirit of purest Mahayana thinking, the Bdp—taking the
example of sight—shows that all perception is utterly devoid of own-being and, hence,
cannot give cause to meaningful attachment.258
The location on the path of such an attainment is only vaguely indicated. Judging by the
benefits that accrue to a bodhisattva from the roots of virtue, it pertains to the more advanced
stages.259 He is in the position to attain cessation at will260, he possesses great powers and
physical perfection, and is separated from buddhahood by only five rebirths261 There can be

253. R, folio 390.5-392.4.

254. Cf. MIH, pp. 99-103.
255. On generating these two antidotes, the bodhisattva ponders (R, folio 395.3-397.1):
“I shall tread the path o f excellent beings and not the path o f miserable beings. I shall tread
neither the path that leads to hell nor the path that leads to the birth-destiny o f animals. I shall
not tread the path that leads to the realm o f Yama. I shall not tread the path o f moral
transgression. I shall not tread the path that is associated with moral transgression ...
256. R, folio 395.3-396.4.
257. R, folio 400.5-403.6.
258. R, folio 403.4
The importance o f correct reflection for moral integrity is attested in practically all Mahayana treatises
that address the issue o f purification. A good example is the Vup that follows the trend and submits the
notion o f morality to the philosophical rigour o f its ontological propositions. Proceeding from the conviction
o f the non-arising o f dharma, it concludes that all moral conduct is perpetually accomplished and not
subject to training, progress or retribution (Vup, p. 60):
“Once acknowledged that all dharma are by nature quiescent (samahita)
Desire, hatred and delusion become non-existent.
And if dharma are themselves deliverance and free from desire,
Provided that they are unsupported, they exist already in nirvana.”
Repudiation o f such insight is above all based on mistaken views concerning the self and the possibility o f
moral acquisition. As long as these two misconceptions prevail, moral conduct, however elated, is prone
to the defilement o f conceit and misapprehension. It is not before the bodhisattva has achieved the
revolution at the basis (asrayaparavrtti) bom from wisdom that he becomes capable o f generating pure
morality (Msg, p. 16):
“The mistaken view concerning the self is wrongful clinging to the [notion o f the] self and
mine. Through its influence, conceit o f the self becomes. When one leans at the self or mine,
one becomes conceited. Bom from genuine affection, that is to say, bom from attachment
towards the self, the defilments of the mistaken belief in a self and conceit arise.”
Pure morality it therefore always dependent on the presence of correct vision. For the Vup, this is ‘seeing
reality as it is’. In other words, moral perfection is always subject to understanding its operations from the
paramarthasatya level and cannot be attained through conventional understanding (samvrtisatya). Unless
the paramarthasatya vision has been attained, conceit will remain a serious impediment to the bodhisattva’s
advance (Vup, p. 53).
259. R, folio 341.1.
260. R, folio 341.6.
261. This information can be gleaned from the number o f rebirths that are cited before the bodhisattva attains
buddhahood (R, folio 341.2-364.6). From the moment o f his attainment in moral conduct, he will be

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no doubt that the foundation of these qualities lies in the bodhisattva’s accomplishment in the
perfection of morality:262

“O Sariputra, one who pursues the bodhisattva’s moral conduct for the sake of
[understanding] the meaning of the bodhisattvapitaka and venerates and honours
his teacher obtains such virtuous, most excellent, boundless, inconceivable and
measureless blessings. It is in this way, O Sariputra, that the bodhisattva who
firmly pursues the bodhisattvapitaka attains great power and cultivates the
bodhisattvacarya through pure moral conduct.”

After the description of the benefits that accrue to bodhisattvas who are accomplished in
moral conduct, the Bdp draws up fifty qualities that pertain to moral purity.263 Close to fifty
percent of these attributes fall into easily recognisable groups. The first ten qualities coincide
with the kusalakarmapatha, five are characterised by the pdramita, four are linked with the
apramana and three with the refuge in the triratna.264
The remaining twenty-seven concomitants spell out (without any discernible order) the
general facets of the bodhisattvasila. Going beyond the narrow interpretation of morality, the
Bdp announces that the bodhisattva dwells in hermitages as part of his moral training; that he
examines his own mistakes rather than condemning others; that he develops sentient beings,
grows content with little, and weakens his attachment to worldly phenomena. As a reward, he
attains a whole array of qualities that lend support to his training.265 He acquires patience,
confidence and composure; he becomes invincible, reclusive, faithful, truth-loving and realises
the impermanence of karmic formations;266 he attains fearlessness, passes beyond low rebirth

reborn as (1) man, (2) god, (3) accomplished man, (4) cakravartin becoming recluse and (5) buddha (folio
343.4-7, 446.7).
262. R, folio 367.7-8; see also folio 341.1, 362.2.
263. R, folio 368.2-371.4.
This enumeration recurs almost verbatim at the end o f the chapter, coinciding in 44 out o f the 53 items
that are listed there (R, folio 403.7-407).
264. The same association o f morality is proposed in the Akn where sila is linked with the practice o f the
pdramita (p. 43.5.6-8) and apramana (p. 43.5.4-5).
265. R, folio 371.5-372.3.
266. A more structured approach to the benefits is given the Bbh, proposing three blessings that keep the
bodhisattva in touch with the needs of sentient beings. First, he is accomplished in practice (siksd); that is,
he does not violate any moral precepts and learns of evil conduct as soon as it is committed. Second, he
attains an excellent intent (asaya). This involves monastic ordination, dedication to roots o f virtue and
constant focus on the Doctrine rather than on livelihood. Third, he is furnished with the blessing o f the
previous cause (purvahetu). By virtue o f previously accumulated acts o f merit, he never lacks daily
requisites. On the contrary, the retribution o f wholesome deeds committed in former lives provides him

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and learns to devote selflessly his resources to the liberation of beings.

Thus, the practice of the silaparamita revolves not only around his personal moral integrity
but includes, in equal measure, the purity and fate of his fellow beings.267 The differing
degrees to which both aims are discussed suggest that the Bdp gives greater weight to the
bodhisattva’s personal moral attainment. That this is only a temporary priority is eloquently
expressed in the following verse:268

“Now I act benevolently towards sentient beings without exception.

Now I guide sentient beings who paid allegiance to evil.
Accomplished in the joy of the Dharma, with my mind free from desire,
I seek the basket of enlightened conduct.”

with great wealth that he readily shares with all beings {Bbh, pp. 182.14-183.16). Compare this list with
the benefits that are cited in the Msg (p. 215) and Msl (p. 104.14-17). The Bbh adds that up to the moment
o f full enlightenment, the bodhisattva experiences five advantages arising from the training in sila {Bbh, p.
187.19-27). He comes to the notice o f the buddhas; he dies in a state o f great elation; in whatever state he
is reborn, he is always accompanied by fellow bodhisattvas that are o f equal moral attainment; he is
furnished with the infinite aggregate o f merit that fulfils the perfection o f morality in this life and he
acquires a form a natural morality whose essence always is with him in perpetuity. Cf. Kp, p. 195, § 136;
Samadh, Dutt, 1941-53, ii, pp. 329-331, 332-4.
267. E.g., Mpps, ii, pp. 853 ff; Dasa-bh, p. 26, Q.
268. R, folio 328.3-4.

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The Perfection of Patience

In the suttas of early Buddhism the practice of patience (Pali: khanti; Skt: ksanti) did not
play a very prominent role.269It rarely receives independent treatment, but is generally explained
in conjunction with other practices such as benevolence (to which is becomes an important
prerequisite) or is cited as a concomitant to morality and wisdom.270 A good example of its
treatment is given in a stanza in the Mahapadanasutta in which the Buddha recounts the
pdtimokkha rehearsal of Vipassi:271

“How may you best discipline the flesh?

Be patient, monks, be forbearing.
What is the highest, what is the best?
O monks, the buddhas say it is nibbana.
For he is no wanderer who harms

269. The exact linguistic origin o f the term ksanti does not appear to be as straightforward as it is generally
taken to be. In Mahayana literature, one finds two kinds o f meaning. First, when linked with general
suffering and injury, ksanti— taken from the root ksam: ‘to endure, bear’— is generally translated as
‘patience’ or ‘tolerance’. This corresponds closely to the Pali term khanti. There are, however, several
other instances, the most prominent example of which is the term anutpattikadharmaksanti, where ksanti
carries the meaning o f ‘intellectual receptivity’ (Edgerton, p. 199, col. 2). In those cases it would seem to
go back to the root form ham, meaning ‘to like, to be inclined to’, o f which the form ksanti would then be
a incorrect Sanskritisation o f the Pali form khanti.
In a study o f this problem, Sasaki suggested that the word ksanti is a Buddhist Sanskrit development o f
the Pali khanti that, since stemming from the root kam, should be understood as ‘willing to’ and not as
‘endurance’ or ‘tolerance’. Citing numerous passages from both the Pali and Sanskrit, Sasaki proposes
that the correct Sanskritisation o f khanti should have been kdnti going back to the root kam. Passages from
the Kosa refering to ksanti as ladhimdtra satya-ksamanad itit usmagatavasthyam mrdu satyam ksamate
rocate’ and its commentary by Haribhadra defining ksanti as 'ksamana-rupena ca ksantaya utpadyante’
(Akv, p. 611) seem to suggest a more positive connotation than is expressed by ‘endurance’. This is also
borne out by numerous texts in the Pali Abhidhamma and by Buddhaghosa’s usage o f the term khanti in
the Vism itself. In the Dhammasahgani (p. 230), we read for instance: ‘yah khanti khammanata adhivasanata
accandikkam anasuropo attamanata cittassa, ayam vuccati khanti'. That this willingness is implied in the
idea o f anutpattikadharmaksanti has been recognised by most modem scholars.
If we are to accept his argument, the question remains whether all occurrences o f the word ksanti in
bodhisattva works imply this positive mental disposition. For the bodhisattva ideal, such adaptation would
not present much o f a problem, since— according to doctrine—the bodhisattva should gladly succumb to
all forms o f suffering, injury and torture as he thereby removes past karma and brings patience to a
climax. Grudging endurance tallies only ill with the grandeur o f the ideal and is probably not what was
intended.
270. See, for instance, S I, p. 222 where patience is recommended when dealing with fools, weak beings or
perons o f otherwise inferior disposition who require a monk’s benevolence in order to progress spiritually
(cf. Vism, ix, pp. 295-96).
271. D II, p. 49 (the same verse occurs also dXDhammapada, no. 184).

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His fellow man; he is no recluse

Who inflicts injury on his neighbour.”

The context and wording of this verse suggests a close correlation between patience and the
observance of the pdtimokkha precepts. Quite clearly, the Buddha wishes to make the point
that impatience deprives the monks of composure and thus leads to ill-contemplated actions
that violate the disciplinary code. Although rarely explicitly stated, a correlation between
morality and patience figures at several places in the nikaya?12 The role of khanti in these
contexts is generally of a supportive nature. It appears as a complementary virtue that facilitates
moral observance, since it removes those asava that might otherwise obstruct sila. In other
contexts, patience is not aimed at one particular area of defilement, but weakens—if
accompanied by vision, control, use, avoidance, elimination and mental development—the
whole range of the asava and contributes to the attaining of nibbana.213
The Patis expands the interpretation of khanti so as to include in its meaning in addition to
its moral dimension also a cognitive aspect. On the one hand, patience is held to weaken
sense-desires, to inspire renunciation and generally to induce the practitioner to follow the
path of the arhant.274 On the other hand, khanti is recognised as part of the mental processes
that prepare the monk for the more taxing doctrines of the Dhamma. This applies above all to
the teaching of the marks of existence (salakkhana) and mental instability275 Indeed, willing
acceptance of the notion of anatman prior to full penetration of its reasoning becomes
indispensable for spiritual progress. At a later stage, having comprehended the validity of this
proposition and seeing the general characteristics of dhamma the practitioner attains patience
that conforms to reality.276 In due course, this allows him to enter upon the certainty of truth
and makes the fruits of the path available to him.277
It would appear therefore that khanti consitutes some important element of the Buddhist
training. First, it bestows psychological strength, resilience and confidence to resist the
‘attractions’ of moral transgression and increases the monk’s receptivity to the more daunting

272. M II, p. 43; S I, pp. 162-3, p. 226; Vism, i, p. 18.

273. M I, p. 10.
274. Patis, xix, p. 171 (§ 14), xx, p. 183 (§ 23).
275. op. cit., i, p. 106.
276. op. cit., xxix, pp. 235-242.
277. Patis, xxix, pp. 236 (cf. A in , p. 441).
The advantages that accrue from the practice o f patience correspond, for the most part, to the blessings
that arise from generosity and morality; A HI, p. 253.

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aspects of Buddhist thinking. Second, it figures among the five principal aspects that characterise
the ideal of the recluse.278 And yet, there is no passage in the nikaya that gives a coherent
account of its role and position in the training.279
History has shown that this obscurity was not to last. The timelessness, intense worldly
exposure and philosophical abstractions acompanying the emergence of the bodhisattva ideal
meant that the practice of patience was to rise cphoenix-like from the ashes’ and figure
among its most important practices.
However, this process was a gradual one and took several centuries to complete. In the
earliest strand of Mahayana literature, the role of ksanti was at first limited to patient endurance
of outright physical hostility and to the ‘conviction of the non-arising of dharma’
(<anutpattikadharmaksanti).280 In the Rgs both elements are merged to form the introductory
verse to the perfection of patience:281

“When he hears someone else speaking to him harshly and offensively,

The wise bodhisattva remains quite at ease and contented.
[He thinks:] ‘Who speaks? Who hears? How, to whom, by whom’?
The discerning is [then] devoted to the foremost perfection of patience.”

Although not clearly differentiated as separate aspects of ksanti in this incipient phase,
most early texts already distinguish what later treatises describe as sattvaksanti and
dharmaksdnti.282 The distinction is found in the Paitcam and recurs as the most fundamental
one in many other discussions of ksanti,284 As alluded to in the Rgs, the role of dharmaksdnti
278. A III, p. 362:
“Patience and forbearance are the [recluse’s] aim; wisdom is his quest; virtue is his resolve,
nothing is his want, nibbana is his ideal.”
279. Khanti as a param i does, o f course, appear in several instances in the Pali literature. It is mentioned in the
Jdtaka (i, pp. 45-7) and occurs at numerous instances in the commentarial literature to the Buddhavamsa
(Madhuratthavilasini, i, p. 76) and Cariyapitaka (Dhammapala: Cariyapitakatikd, pp. 321-22). Since
these references are late and were produced almost certainly in response to Mahayana developments, they
fall outside the present context.
280. Rgs, xxx. 8-14; Saddhp (pp. 136.10, 266.1, 327.4, 403.8, 419.6, 437.1); ,foy(p. 143, § 28, p. 160, § 48);
Sukhavativyuha (SBE, pp. 39-40, 51) and Kp (p. 18, § 8.4, p. 39, § 18.2, p. 49, § 24.17). The references in
the Saddhp and Sukhavativyuha have been largely misinterpreted. H Kern (p. 134) rendered the term
anutpattikadharmaksanti as ‘acquiescence in the eternal law’ while M. Muller took it to mean ‘resignation
o f consequences that have not yet arisen’.
281. Rgs, xxx. 8 (trsl. Conze).
282. Mpps, ii, p. 865.
283. Pahca, p. 512 (trsl. Conze).
284. Akn, pp. 44.4.5-45.4.8; Red, pp. 233.3.6-234.1.1; Bdp, folio 407.3-423.4; Sgm (cit. in Siks, pp.
102.30-103.27); Pps (cit. in Siks, pp. 101.10 ff), Gv (cit. in tf/fo, pp. 101.4 ff).

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is generally one of support. It represents a mental precondition for the acquisition and
retaining of spiritual fruits and prepares the practitioner for the moment when he comes face
to face (abhimukhi) with reality itself.285
From early on it was recognised that this conviction could not be a static attainment but is
subject to progression.286 In the Asta where it is discussed in the context of the first five
stages and operates as a purely verbal profession (ghosdnuga) ksanti designates preliminary
acceptance of reality based on faith and approbation.287 Once attained through the power of
previous prayers, it is wholly dependent on will-power (adhimukti) and does not involve
cognitive factors.288 Shortly before the bodhisattva becomes aware of the sameness of all
dharma (sarvadharmasamata), he attains the preparatory condition of patience proper
(anulomikiksdnti), but is still deprived of the conviction of their non-arising.289 According to
the Dbh, this event is a precondition for reaching the abhimukhibhumi and stands in direct
relation to insight into the own-nature of dharma while, in the Sukhavativyuha, it is attributed
to service that the bodhisattva renders to former buddhas 290 This process culminates in the
definite and final acquisition of the anutpattikadharmaksdnti.291 Granting the bodhisattva true
insight into the workings of reality, it raises him beyond worldly concerns:292

“A bodhisattva who possess the conviction of the profound dharmata does not
become impassioned toward that which draws to desire, nor does he become
285. Asta, pp. 38-39.
286. Allusions to the various degrees o f anutpattikadharmaksdnti are found in the Asta (pp. 38-39), Vkn (pp.
25, 222) and Sukhavativyuha (Muller, 1968, p. 51). Compare these standard versions with the more
unusual scheme in the Dhyanasamddhisutra (T 641, k. 2, p. 285a 10 ff) that distinguishes between
utpddaksdnti enduring all injury, torment and insult that is inflicted on the bodhisattva; anulomikiksdnti
constituting the recognition o f impermanence and the insight that bhutalaksana is alaksana; and
anutpddaksanti that marks merely further progress in the anulomikiksdnti practice (ref. Lamotte).
287. Asta, p. 232.18-20
In the Samadh (Dutt, 1941-53, ii, pp. 280.17-281.5), the preconditions o f ghosanugaksdnti are well-
illustrated by a lyric (pp. 276.1-280.16) said to induce its realisation. Primarily, these factors relate to
cognitive abandonment o f the notion o f self in persons and dharma (p. 279.2-10), to giving up all forms
o f attachment and aversion (pp. 278.15-279.2), to listening to the Doctrine (p. 280.1-4) and to seclusion
(p. 280.9-12).
288. Muller, 1968, SBE, p. 51
289. Cf. Rp, p. 34.13-14: naham rastrapdla tesam dnulomikdm api ksanti vadami, kutahpunar buddhajhdnam.
“O Rastrapala, I do not attribute to them even the conviction preparing (lit. conforming) to
(ianutpattikadharma), still less to buddha-knowledge.” Ensink’s translation o f the term dnulomikdm ...
ksanti as ‘conformable patience’ is an unfortunate choice as it fails to convey the preparatory connotation
o f anulomikiksdnti (Ensink, 1952, pp. 32-33).
290. Dasa-bh, p. 47.17-21
For translations o f the passages leading to the attainment o f anutpattikadharmaksdnti see: Suzuki, 1975,
pp. 226-7; Muller, 1968, p. 51.
291. Saddhp, pp. 136.9-10, 266.1, 419.6,437.1; Lai, pp. 36.9, 440.21.
292. Samadh, Dutt, 1941-53, ii, p. 95.6-7.

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angry or deluded.”

In the scheme of the Dbh, it takes place on the acalabhumi and represents the entrance to
all-knowing due to the non-differentiation of suchness (,tathatasamanirvikalpa).293 In the plan
of the Sukhavativyuha294, however, this last step is once again attributed to devotional practices,
in particular to performance of past prayers.295 Few texts agree on the individual fruits that
ensue from the conviction of the non-arising of dharma. In general, it is thought to coincide
with the bodhisattva’s final prediction to buddhahood296 and to furnish him with the status of
irreversibility.297
In addition to these variants, some texts make also a distinction between different types of
anutpattikadharmaksdnti.298In the Pahca, the Buddha cites two varieties that are differentiated

293. Dasa-bh, pp. 63.26-64.6; Msl, p. 134.16

Virtually all later commentaries agree on allocating this event to the eighth stage {Msl, pp. 122.2, 131.17;
Bbh, p. 350.27; Madhyantavibhaga, p. 105.10). The only exception is the Mpp's that places
anutpattikadharmaksdnti on the seventh stage (v, p. 2462). Sattvaksdnti, in contrast, the Mpps places on
the second stage (v, pp. 2401-2), a proposition that is tenuously confirmed by the Dbh (Dasa-bh, p.
23.23).
Bom o f patience and kindness (ksdntisauratya), the bodhisattva is at this point no longer found in the six
destinies but assumes the dharmakdya in order to convert beings with greatest effect {Mpps, i, pp.
330-31). On the notion o f ksdntisauratya (khantisoracca), see: S I, pp. 100, 222; A II, p. 68; Saddhp, pp.
234.8,236.9; Dbh, pp. 13.19, 37.11; Bbh, pp. 20.12, 143.27; &7fcs, cit.zf*n,p. 183.14.
294. Muller, 1968, p. 51.
295. In the Avatamsaka an entire chapter (Siksananda: chpt. xxix) is devoted to the various kinds o f ksanti that
a bodhisattva generates in the course o f his career. The first ksanti refers to accepting the teachings o f the
Buddha without fear or hesitation. The second designates the bodhisattva’s acquiescence in reflecting on
the nature o f dharma and maintaining o f mind o f purity and serenity. The third corresponds to the
anutpattikadharmaksdnti. The fourth to the tenth are acquired when the bodhisattva realises that dharma
are like an illusion {,mayopama), etc., (T 279, k. 44, p. 232b 9-10; ref. Suzuki, 1975, pp. 126-27).
In the Jen Wang hou kouo p o lo mi king (T 245, 246) ‘Perfection o f Wisdom o f the Good Law that
Protects the State’, a Chinese work o f apocryphal origin, five kinds o f ksanti are listed. These include
damaksanti, sraddhaksdnti, anulomikiksdnti, anutpddaksanti and nirodhaksanti. Apparently adjusted to
suit the tenfold stages o f the Dasabhumika, damaksanti is practised in the preparatory stages leading up to
the adhimukticarydbhumi',sraddhaksdnti on thepramudita-, vimala- andprabhakaribhiimi; anulomikiksdnti
on the acrismati-, sudurjayd-, abhimukhibhumi; anutpddaksanti on the duramgama-, acala- and
sadhumatibhumi and nirodhaksanti on the dharmameghabhumi (T 245, k. 1, p. 826b 23-24; ref. Lamotte),
296. Several texts state that the acquisition o f the ‘conviction o f the non-arising o f dharma'’ coincides with the
definite prediction (vyakarana) o f the bodhisattva to buddhahood: See, for instance, Saddhp, p. 266.1-2;
(cf. Lai, p. 35.21; Msl, pp. 20.15, 141.27, p. 166.5-12);Akn, p. 45.4.8; Sgm, TTP, 33, p. 52.3.7; Samadh,
Dutt, 1941-53, ii, p. 82.11-14.
297. Saddhp, p. 259.13: avaivartikaksantipratilabdhds ca bhavisanti (‘and they will obtain the conviction o f
non-regression’). Cf. Bbh, p. 253.18; Dasa-bh, p. 71.12.
Note that in the Vup (pp. 30-31), none o f these attainments is cited but anutpattikadharmaksdnti leads to
three categories o f renunciation {tyaga), viz., ordinary renunciation, great renunciation and absolute
renunciation. Here, ordinary renunciation refers to giving up o f royal power {rdjyaparityaga), great
renunciation to abandoning o f family members and absolute renunciation to sacrificing body and life. The
practice o f ksanti is thus set in close relation to the cultivation o f the ddna for whose perfection it becomes
a precondition. This association is not an isolated case. A similar statement is found in the Rp (p. 12.2)
where ksanti is cited in conjunction with the abandoning of all personal possessions {sarvastraparityaga).
298. At several places in Mahayana sutras one meets with phrases that clarify the implication o f the three
modes o f ksanti. In the Tathagatdcintyaguhyanirdesa (cit. Madhyamakavrtti, p. 362.8), for instance, the

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according to the conditions that lead to their existence.299 These comprise a kind that is
founded in the non-origination of defilements and another that arises due to persistence of
cognition. Unfortunately, the text is silent on the attributes that mark these types from each
other and neither does its commentary, the Mpps, elaborate upon them.300
The basis for the generation of patience is constituted by the thought of enlightenment, as it
carries sufficient force to render the bodhisattva’s body, speech and mind naturally exempt
from vengeful thought.301 In turn, patience towards injury assists in safeguarding other qualities
since it forestalls animosity which would otherwise exterminate his accumulation of roots of
virtue.302 Knowing that even if he were subjected to severe torture, the degree of suffering
would be minuscule compared with his torment in hell had he retaliated, the bodhisattva
exercises restraint at all cost.303 In the words of Candrakirti:304

“Because hatred directed against the sons of the Jina

Destroys in a moment the merit of generosity and morality
Accumulated over a hundred thousand years,
There is no defilement other than non-patience.”
second type o f patience is called sunyatdnulomifdksdnti ‘conviction conforming to emptiness’. In the
Vajracchedika (Conze, 1958, p. 58.9), it is referred to as nirdtmyakesvanutpattikesu dharmesu ksanti
while in the Lai (p. 36.9) it is characterised only as anutpattikesu dharmesu ksanti (ref. Lamotte).
In the Samadh, a whole chapter is devoted to the description of the three kinds o f patience. In particular
with regard to its the characterisation o f the ghosdnugdksdnti, this shows many parallels to the Gv. Having
discussed the three types o f ksanti, the Samadh defines the three stages o f the dharmanidhydnaksanti in
terms o fsrutamayi, cintamayi and bhdvandmayi, saying (Dutt, 1941-53, ii, p. 82.7-10):
“That which arises from learning and reflection is called ‘in accord’ as it is conducive to
realisation. That which arises from contemplation is the conviction o f the non-arising o f
dharma.”
299. Pahca, pp. 511-12.
300. Mpps, ii, pp. 912-26.
The Mpps distinguishes three types o f dharmaksanti. First, when practised in its purest form, the bodhisattva
does not see the attributes o f patience, he does not see himself, he does not see those who do the insulting
and he does not speculate on dharma. Second, if accompanied by perfect wisdom, the degree o f patience
does not regress (avivartana) and is free from agitation (aksobhanatd). He is released from all anger and
offensive words, he does not inflict physical harm and experiences no doubt with regard to dharma. Third,
bodhisattvas who recognise the true character of the perfection of wisdom see no longer dharma since
their thought operates beyond the categories o f opinion (abhinivesa) and their subject. This last aspect
furnishes them with the inner strength to assist even those persons who inflict serious harm on them (ii, p.
926).
301. Mavbh, p. 47.14-19
According to the Msl (p. 29.11), however, the bodhisattva’s patience is based on his lineage (gotra),
membership in which may precede the cittotpada (Bbh, p. 3.1-8).
302. Mavbh, pp. 48.17-20, 49.10.
303. op. cit., p. 50.15-18.
304. Mavbh, pp. 50.19-51.2
This position is corroborated by a passage in the Sgm where it is implied—though not explicitly stated—that
i f he were to seek revenge the bodhisattva would automatically forfeit all. the roots o f virtue and regress to
the very beginning o f his career (Siks, p. 184.12).

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Emotionally sustained by the thought of enlightenment, the bodhisattva realises the

omnipresence of suffering, discerns its origin in past desire and resolves to abandon its
causes.305 Suffering is manifested to him in the eight categories of support (adhisthana), viz,
attendance to the bases of mendicant life (nisraya), worldly conditions (Jokadharma)306,
modes of behaviour (iryapatha), properties (parigraha) of dharma, aspects of mendicant life
(bhiksdkavrtta), untiring application (abhiyogaklama), working for the benefit of sentient
beings (sattvarthakriya) and attendance to duty (ikaranlya).307 On the one hand, the eight
categories indicate that suffering is a constant companion to the bodhisattva. Committed by
his pledge to giving universal liberation, he complies with the aspects of mendicant life and
works for the benefit of beings. On the other hand, by being exposed to them, the bodhisattva
retains his vigour and endures suffering with patience. That is to say, they furnish him with
meditative qualities that allow him to maintain composure at all times.308 Once he accomplished
patience by accepting suffering (duhkhadhivasandksanti), he constantly concentrates on
enlightenment with a purified rejoicing mind that is free from distraction.

Having described some of the most fundamental features of ksanti, we may now examine
its characterisation in the Bdp. Broadly speaking, its treatment of the perfection of patience is
divided into two sections. In the first part, the Bdp looks at the practice of patience with
regard to dhatma (dharmaksdnti) and sentient beings (sattvaksdnti).309 According to the
305. Bbh, p. 192.11-22.
306. These are gain (labha) loss (alabha), fame (ninda), ill-fame (prasama), praise (yasa), blame (ayasa),
happiness (sukha) and unhappiness (duhkha) (Mvy 873; Lai, pp. 352.10; 275.5). In the Bbh (p. 193.9-16),
however, a slightly different list is given, including alabha, ayasa, ninda, duhkha, nasa, ksaya, jdra,
vyadhi and marana. Compare this list with its Pali equivalents in D III, p. 260, A IV, pp. 156 ff., Pat is, i,
pp. 22, 122, Vibh, p. 387 and that given in the Mvy (2342-48) which cite invariably eight dharma.
307. Bbh, pp. 192.23-193.1.
308. Bbh,p. 193.26-27.
309. R, folio 407-417.
In the siitra literature o f the Mahayana, exemplifying the interplay between practice and cognition, this
twofold division into sattvaksdnti and dharmaksdnti forms almost invariably the bedrock o f ksanti
discussions. According to some, complementary virtues that prepare for the practice o f patience include
moral impeccability, pursuit of the means o f conversion, benevolence and compassion (Red, p. 233.3.8-4.4).
These, governing the bodhisattva’s relationship to fellow beings, contribute to the prevention o f ill-
contemplated retaliation arising from anger but affect only patience on an ordinary level.
Also perceived as ordinary patience, sattvaksdnti and dharmaksdnti are characterised in the Akn by
thirty-two manifestations (Akn, p. 44.4.6-5.6). These fall into four categories. First, absence o f those
factors that run contrary to patience, e.g., hate, anger or aversion, etc.; second, the generation o f factors
that promote patience, e.g., pursuit o f compassion, insight, etc.; third, the Akn details the impact o f these
preparatory practices, e.g., purity o f body, speech and mind, confidence, friendliness, etc.; and fourth, the
reward that follows from the cultivation o f patience, viz., high rebirth, aloofness, accumulation o f roots o f
virtue, etc. The enumeration o f these attributes in a closed list and its separation from pure patience

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Mpps, the rationale behind both types of patience is the notion of universal sameness (samata).
Having realised that beings and dharma lack distinguishing marks (laksana) that would allow
for differentiation between the pure and impure, conditioned and unconditioned, the bodhisattva
exercises total impartiality in his thought, recollection, affection and service. In other words,
both kinds of patience rest on penetration of the doctrine of non-duality (advayadharmaparyaya)
which enables him to enter into the ‘suppression of controversy’ (nirdvandva).310 In the Bdp,
however, this reasoning is excluded from the initial sattvaldharmaksdnti discussion and
pertains only to the highest patience (praksanti).m
Patience with regard to dharma is subdivided into external and internal aspects.312 External
patience refers to all those factors of distress that are influenced by the environment, including
cold, heat, wind, sun, etc. Internal patience is applied to the suffering resulting from the eight
worldly conditions, sickness and death.313
According to the Mpps, patience with external objects refers primarily to the bodhisattva’s
reluctance to apprehend the six categories of objects (sadbdhyasthula) while forbearance
with internal objects guards him from becoming engaged in any of the inner attractions
(,sadadhydtmikaruci).314
(visuddhiksanti) and higher patience (satyantaksanti) suggests that it is conceived o f as basic. Since a
similar distinction is also upheld in the Bdp and Red where the discussion o f (basic) patience is followed
by deliberations on pure and highest patience (praksdnti), it represents perhaps an antecedent to the
threefold ksanti classification that is found in the Sukhavativyuha, Gv or Dbh.
According to the Red, the next higher form o f patience, pure patience (visuddhiksanti), arises from the
efficacy o f careful investigation (prativeksa) with regard to body and mind and from contemplation
(bhavana) with regard to all dharma (Red, p. 233.5.1-3). Here, ksanti arising from the examination o f
body and mind refers undoubtedly to physical and mental endurance o f discomfort, insult and injury.
Ksanti founded in contemplation o f dharma is called sarvadharmavivekaksanti ‘conviction o f the solitude
of all dharma' and affirms their non-arising (Red, p. 233.5.4-5). Eventually, these two factors converge to
form a type o f ksanti that acknowledges the selflessness o f persons (pudgalanairdtmya) and convinces
one o f the non-existence of all dharma. Although slightly differently phrased, this concept accords closely
to the notion o f anutpattikadharmaksdnti. Hence, the Red concludes by distinguishing two modes o f pure
ksanti practice, viz, patience that affects the body and patience that corresponds to all dharma ‘as they
are’ (Red, pp. 233.5.8-234.1.1). In the Akn, however, this distinction between the forms o f visuddhiksanti
is not made (pp. 44.4.7-45.1.7).
310. Mpps, i, pp. 325-327
For a more detailed discussion o f the notion o f sameness o f dharma and beings, see: Bbh, p. 286.11-24.
On the conceptual proximity o f samata and ksanti see also Pahca (p. 4) where bodhisattvas are described
as ‘in possession o f patience and sameness’ (samataksantipratilabdha). As Conze has pointed out (1975,
p. 37), the Tibetan and Mpps differ on the interpretation o f this compound, suggesting that it should be
translated as a tatpurusa meaning ‘he acquires the patience acceptance o f the sameness (of all dharma)'.
311. R, folio 420.5-423.5. ‘
312. Mpps, ii, pp. 903-906 (cf. Panca, p. 512).
313. In the Bdp, we read o f “six kinds o f suffering that emerge from the body, abuse, heat deprivations o f life
and death’’ (R, folio 407.5-6). In most other texts, including the Mpps, we find the eight conditions o f
existence (Mpps, ii, p. 905).
314. The sadbdhyasthula include cold, heat, wind, rain, etc., whereas the sadadhydtmikaruci comprise hunger,
thirst, old age, illness, death and so forth (Mpps, ii, p. 904).
The M pps’s third type o f patience—patience towards defilements (klesaksdntt)—rests on the recognition

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As both types of ksanti are concerned with non-mental objects (acittadharma),315 they are
strongly influenced by the bodhisattva’s advanced power of cognition and his resolution to
postpone his entrance into nirvana indefinitely.316 The former allows him to perceive the
manifestations of reality ‘just as they are’ and saves him from the traps of Mara.317 Aware of
the delusive character of phenomena, he gains sufficient inner strength to patiently endure all
discomfort and hostility.318 The latter precludes the untimely elimination of the samyojana,
since this would prompt him to abandon samsdra.
Until he has severed the fetters and attained the ‘path devoid of depravity’ (anasravamarga),
the bodhisattva is compelled to trust and accept the Doctrine on the basis of faith. Above all,
this implies accepting the three seals of the Doctrine (trividhadharmamudrd) and eschewing
the fourteen unanswered questions (caturdasavyakrtavastuf19without exposure to the obstacles
(iavarana) or loss of the Middle Path.320
The Bdp does not dwell on external/internal dharmaksdnti, but proceeds directly to patience
with regard to sentient beings.321 This too comprises two areas of application. First, the
bodhisattva bears verbal abuse with patience.322Fearing that he might lose his roots of virtue
and remaining firmly rooted in compassion and equipoise, he does not return the abuse but
renews his pranidhana .323 When in difficulty, the bodhisattva sustains his patience through
recollecting (anusmrti) the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha which brings all dithering to an
end.324 Second, the bodhisattva exercises self-control and forbearance towards beings who
o f exposure to worldly influence. Until he has fully overcome all defilements, fetters (samyojana) and
effects o f the work o f Mara that bind him to samsdra, the bodhisattva must put on his armour o f patience
(ii, pp. 906-908). Paraphrasing a passage from the Sn (v. 426b-428), the Mpps enumerates desire (kama),
sadness (arati), hunger and thirst (ksutpipasa), craving (trsna), languor and torpor (styanamiddha), fear
(bhaya), doubt (vicikitsa) and anger (krodha) and hypocrisy (mraksa) as the eight most damaging influences
o f Mara (cf. Lai, p. 261).
The Bdp (R, folio 415.3-7) distinguishes ten kinds o f influence o f Mara: (1) desire for food, (2) desire for
clothing, (3) desire for worldly enjoyment, (4) desire for praise, (5) lack o f desire for ordination, (6) lack
o f desire for virtuous dharma, (7) lack o f pleasure in seclusion, (8) lack o f desire for enlightenment, (9)
desire for things other than pristine cognition, (10) irreverence towards one’s teacher and benefactor.
315. Mpps, ii, pp. 903-4.
316. The Mpps looks at the various aspects o f patience from twenty different viewpoints. However, since most
o f these express little remarkable thought and show conceptual overlapping, I shall not discuss them in
detail (Mpps, ii, pp. 903-12).
317. Mpps, ii, pp. 904-6.
318. As in the Bdp, the argument is enlisted that if he were to succumb to his suffering— and presumably
retaliate against aggressors-—he would be no better from ordinary beings, (op. cit., p. 906).
319. A list o f these questions is contained in the Culamdluhkyasutta (M I, pp. 311-12).
320. Mpps, ii, pp. 912-13.
321. R, folio 408-417.
322. R, folio 408-415.
323. R, folio 412.1, 412.6.
324. R, folio 410.3-412.2
Since it is held crucial for the bodhisattva to regain his composure, several texts assign a particularly

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inflict physical harm upon him.325 Aware that wrath or retaliation in response to any such
attack would cloud his mind and lead to inattentiveness, he puts on the armour of dedicated
patience. Absent-mindedness is particularly damaging to the bodhisattva’s prospect of
buddhahood, since it renders him susceptible to the influence of Mara which would cut off
enlightenment.326For this reason, he is not only encouraged to meet hostility with indifference
or tolerance, but moreover, to generate delight and joy:327

“When I am pelted with rocks, beaten with weapons and suppressed for a hundred
thousand million world-ages I shall not forsake life for a single moment but think:
‘Alas, this is marvellous. Sentient beings are noble, I shall not kill them.’ ”

Taking into account human psychology, the Bdp introduces then a new aspect of sattvaksdnti,
that is, conceit through exposure to praise and flattery.328 So far, ksanti found only application
in antagonistic situations of hostility and menace. Now, we learn that praise too—appropriate
or not—can have a damaging impact on the training and needs to be ignored.329
A concise overview of the factors that pertain to the duhkhadhivasana andpardpakaramarsana
aspects of the ksanti is found in the Siksasamuccaya. For §antideva, endurance of suffering
(duhkhadhivasana) signifies “bearing and patience with personal pains, lamentations,
unhappiness, despondency and anguish of mind”.330 Its chief obstructing force is the fear of
unhappiness331 since fear alone is capable of leading to hatred (dvesa) and despondency
(,linata).332 Since both emotions are incompatible with the ideal of the bodhisattva333, the
practitioner should resist delight in happiness and gloom in misery.334 For the grhapti

important role to the timely generation o f recollection (anusmrti) during the practice o f patience. In this
function, it is cited in the Akn and Bdp and assumes a place o f prominence in the Red. While the former
encourage only the recollection o f the Buddha, Dharma and Sangha, the Red speaks o f nine forms o f
anusmrti, viz., recollection o f the Buddha, enlightenment, pristine cognition (jhdna), benevolence (maitri),
overcoming (vikrama), lion yawning (simhavijrmbhana), summit o f insight (vilokitamiirdha), primary and
secondary marks (laksananuvyahjana) and accomplishment of all buddha-qualities (Red, p. 233.4.5-5.1).
325. R, folio 414.3-7 (cf. Pahca, pp. 519a-520).
326. R, folio 415.2.
327. R, folio 414.4-5.
328. R, folio 419.4-420.3
329. In the Mpps (ii, pp. 867-888), the application o f forbearance is similarly extended to include exposure to
flattery, excessive attention o f benefactors and the allures o f women.
330. Site, p. 179.16-17 (cit. Rtm)
331. op. cit., p. 179.12-13 (cit. Dhsg).
332. op. cit., p. 179.13-14 (cit. Dhsg).
333. op. cit., p. 20.12 (cit. Bpm).
334. op. cit., p. 180.8-12 (cit. Ug).

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bodhisattva, it is furthermore important to avoid bias and to abide unaffected by the eight
worldly conditions as their threat to the spiritual equilibrium is particularly great.335
Despondency is overcome by the casting aside of impmdent Qaghu) and irresolute (sukumara)
thoughts and by cultivating an invincible (apardjita) and steadfast (<aksobhya) intention to
eradicate the kiesa.m By doing so, the bodhisattva learns to withstand the onslaughts of Mara
and maintains—even when exposed to torture or in intense pain—the sensation of happiness
(.sukhasamjnd).337 A decisive role in the struggle for patience is played by the
sarvadharmasukhdkhrdntasamadhi since it turns all sensations of pain into pleasant, non-painful
or indifferent experiences.338For its unfolding, this samddhi is dependent on the bodhisattva’s
resolution (pranidhana) of universal liberation no matter how much hostility is shown towards
him. Manifesting universal benevolence, he settles in the sarvadharmasukhdkhrdntasamadhi,339
The second concomitant to duhkhddhivdsanaksanti is sympathetic joy (mudita).m Distinct
from physical bliss (sukha) in that it is primarily mind-based (caitasikaf41, muditd governs
those training-areas that are free from despondency, sorrow {daurmanasya) and ill-temper
(iarati).342 Finally, com plem enting sympathetic joy and absorption in the
sarvadharmasukhdkhrdntasamadhi, the bodhisattva penetrates to the foundation of being
(dharmatd). He realises that all sensations are based on illusion (mayakrta) whose creation is
traceable to mental constructions (vithapanapratyupasthana) that, in turn, proceed from past
deeds (karmavipaka) of no predicable agent.343
The exposition of ‘patience in enduring the misdeeds of others’ (pardpakdramarsanaksdnti)
is entirely based on the Sgm. In brief, it distinguishes three types of antagonistic demeanour344,
viz., injury, contempt and injustice, all of which the bodhisattva endures in composure
without intent for retaliation (vyapada).345 The same elements are also found in the ksanti

335. op. cit., p. 180.2 (cit. Ug).

336. op. cit., p. 180.15-16 (cit. Gv).
337. op. cit., p. 182.5-8 (cit. Pps).
338. op. cit., p. 181.13-14 (cit. Pps)
Note that in the Samadh (Dutt, 1941-53, ii, p. 79.9-12) it is patient endurance o f injury caused by
others— not suffering— that depends on the joint practice o f meditation (leading to an unwavering mind)
and wisdom (eradicating anger). Acceptance o f suffering itself encourages the distinction o f neyartha
from nitartha texts, to acquire vision o f sameness (samata) and to show devotion to the dharmatd {op.
cit., pp. 78.1-4, 78.5-6, 77.15-16).
339. op. cit., p. 182.8-15 (cit. Pps).
340. op. cit., pp. 183.4—184.4.
341. Mpps, iii, p. 1256.
342. In the Mpps (ii, pp. 906-7) Arati is the name that is given to the second o f Mara’s inner hosts.
343. Siks, p. 180.3 5 (cit. Ug).
344. op. cit., p. 184.9-4.
345. op. cit., p. 185.5.

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discussion of the Bdp. However, being a much earlier texts than the &iks it does not provide
as clear a distinction as Santideva but refers to them rather freely and in conjunction with
other aspects of ksanti.
So far, the B dp’s exposition followed essentially ‘patience in accepting suffering’
(iduhkhadhivasanaksdnti) and ‘patience in enduring the misdeeds of others’
(pardpakaramarsanaksdnti). Presented in terms of sattvaksdnti and dharmaksdnti—but never
using this terminology—it did not address the cognitive dimension of patience. That is to say,
the Bdp looked at dhaimaksdnti solely from an empirical viewpoint and not from the standpoint
which requires the bodhisattva to put up with suffering because of the intrinsic non-existence
of dharma?*6
Summed up as ‘patience consisting in contemplating and adhering to the Dharma’
(idhaimanidhyanadhimuktiksanti), this type of ksanti is brought about by resolute and astute
investigation into the Doctrine.347 Like duhkhadhivasanaksdnti, it is established by means of
eight factors, viz., by determination (adhimukti) in the qualities of the triratna, by examining
the meaning of reality (tattvartha) and the laws of causation, by the force of buddhas and
bodhisattvas, by personal attainments, means of attainment and by the sphere that is to be
known (jheyagocara) .348
It is this cognitive maturity that leads the bodhisattva of the Bdp to the third level of ksanti
practice, namely, highest patience (rab tu bzodpa, praksanti). Passing through the process of

346. The discussion o f this aspect— falling under the category o f dharmanidhydnadhimuktiksanti—occurs in
the second section o f the chapter. Partly repeating what has already been said concerning
duhkhadhivasanaksdnti (internal and external) and pardpakaramarsanaksdnti, it reconsiders them under
the heading o f ‘bodhisattva-patience’ (R, folio 417.3, 419.4). Then, separately, it introduces ‘highest
patience’ {praksanti). Although all three belong technically to the category o f bodhisattva-patience, the
conceptual proximity o f the first two and the fact they are textually intermingled suggests a breach
between them and ‘highest patience’. Bodhisattva-patience itself is characterised by twenty-two attributes
and attainments that accrue to the bodhisattva in the course o f his career. But for the almost obligatory
absence o f anger, hatred, etc., few o f these relate specifically to patience. That is to say, it accrues— if
perfected— to bodhisattvas who are free from malice, wrath, harmful intention, quarrel and violence; to
those who are watchful, caring, mindful o f body, speech and mind, correctly reflecting, detached from
nirvana, aware o f the law o f karma, physically, vocally and mentally pure, in contact with the gods, in
possession o f the marks o f a Tathagata, in possession of his voice and o f all roots o f virtue; beyond
inflicting injury and above all accusations. In short, in possession o f all the buddha-qualities (R, folio
418.1-419.4).
347. The concept o f dharmanidhyanddhimuktiksanti goes back to the earliest stratum o f Buddhist thinking.
Corresponding to the Pali dhammanijjhdnakhanti, it occurs already in the Cahkisutta of the Majjhimanikaya
(II, p. 175). Here, with faith in the foreground o f the discourse, it follows on ‘hearing dhamma’
(idhammasavana), ‘retaining dhamma’ {dhammadhdrana) and ‘considering meaning as secondary’
(atthupaparikkha) because ‘one who considers meaning sees that in truth it is dhamma that support
knowledge’ (yasmd ca kho attham upaparikkhati, tasma dhamma nijjhanam khamanti). This patience, in
turn, prepares and reinforces zest (chanda) from which emerges activity ( ussaha).
348. Bbh, p. 195.10-20.

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examination that characterises dhatmanidhydnadhimuktiksdnti, the bodhisattva learns to

eschew the forms of patience that participate in discursive thinking or are otherwise based on
misconception:349

“Patience that inquires ‘Who is abusing and who is the abused?’ is a patience that
construes duality. This is not the highest patience. Patience that inquires ‘Who
abuses here?’ is patience that counts dharma. ... Patience that inquires ‘I course
in [good] conduct, but he courses in bad conduct’ is patience [that engages in]
duality. This is not the highest patience.”

Progressively refining his understanding of reality, the bodhisattva overcomes all forms of
dichotomy and attains a vision of patience that operates beyond all predication:350

“What then is the highest patience? It is to understand emptiness without ever I/

suppressing heretical doctrines or imputing emptiness. It is to understand emptiness
without ever suppressing discrimination or imputing signlessness. It is to understand
emptiness without ever suppressing one’s resolution or imputing wishlessness. ...
It is to understand emptiness without ever suppressing samsdra or imputing nirvana.
Patience practised in this way is the highest patience.”

This process of realisation culminates in the bodhisattva’s ‘conviction of the non-arising of

dharma’ {anutpattikadharmaksdnti) when he sees that:351

“Everything is unborn, unproduced and unarisen. The unarisen is without origination

whatsoever. Since it is without origination, it is inexhaustible. The inexhaustible
is the highest patience. It is neither conditioned nor unconditioned. It is never
misconceiving. The non-established, non-increasing, genuinely non-multiplying,
non-gathering and non-diminishing is without birth. That which is without birth is
inexhaustible. If he is patient in this way [the bodhisattva] realises that dharma
are unarisen.”
349. R, folio 420.6-421.3.
350. R, folio 422.1-6.
351. R, folio 422.7-423.4.

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This final deliberation bears all the hallmarks of the dharmanidkydnadhimuktiksdnti. Having
analysed conventional understanding of patience within the subject/object dichotomy, the
bodhisattva now begins to fathom the meaning of emptiness. Thus, in a sense, he treads the
middle way between categoric denial and mistaken imputation. This insight establishes him
on the path leading to the highest patience that culminates in the recognition that dharma
function beyond the parameter of origination or destruction in a space of no independent
reality.

The spiritual ideal that is proposed in the Bdp as the highest patience was taken up by the
Akn as absolute patience (sin tu bzod pa, atyantaksanti).352 Intrinsically invulnerable
(atyantavranatd), it operates beyond apprehension (anupalambhaf53and the duality of antidotes
(pratipaksaprahdna).354Hence, absolute patience of the Akn epitomises the bodhisattva’s true
cognition of reality. That is to say, it prompts avoidance of the construct of
suppression/imputation (prativedhasamghata) and allows him to see that dharma are established
beyond the predicate of patience. Although the text stops short of using the term
anutpattikadhatmaksdnti to define its understanding of this highest or absolute form of
patience, there can be little doubt that it propounds this very concept.355
The Akn, like the Bdp, shows no indication that it was aware of the possibility of progression
in anutpattikadharmaksdnti.256Adopting a purely cognitive approach to lay bare the reasoning
leading up to the conviction of the non-arising of dharma, it does not contain any reference

352. I have found only one sutra where the threefold division into injury, suffering and dharma is not taken up.
This is the Sahkarapariprccha (TTP, 33, pp. 248.5.5-50.3.8) where we meet with an division o f ksanti
into the four sramanakdrakadharmas o f abuse (akrusta), anger (rosita), reproach (bhandita) and beating
(tadita). In the Sahkarapariprccha, these are set in direct relation to the stage o f irreversibility, to the
thirty-two marks o f a great being, to possession o f a buddha-field and to proficiency in the abhijha— in
brief to buddhahood itself (Mvy 8708). The cognitive dimension, implied in dharmanidhyanddhimuktiksanti,
is treated separately but follows exactly along the lines o f anutpattikadharmaksdnti which is referred to as
term (p. 250.1.4-7) and mentioned in conjunction with a prediction.
353. Akti, p. 45.1.7-8
The A kn’s understanding o f the absolute patience runs therefore close to that o f the Rp (p. 12.2) that
employs the very term anupalambhadharmaksanti to characterise anutpattikadharmaksdnti.
354. Contrast this interpretation o f absolute ksanti with that found in the Pahca (pp. 3-4) where, according to
the Tibetan, it is likened to the ‘conviction of the sameness of all dharma’ (samatdsarvadharmaksanti).
355. Akn, p. 45.7-8:
“That kind o f patience that is conviction concerning the non-originated and conviction that
tilings are unoriginated (anutpddaksanti) is absolute patience.”
Cf. Lanka, 203.11: anutpade ksanti', Suzuki, 1978, p. 175, § 109; Akn, p. 45.3.4-6.
356. This is also the case in the Red, Bdp, Kp and many other early Mahayana sutras where patience is
discussed as an individual perfection.

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to the terms ghosdnuga-, anulomiki- and pratilabdhaksanti or to the thought that lies at their
heart. With some reservation, this holds also true for the division into duhkhadhivasana-,
parapakaramarsana- and dharmanidhydnadhimuktiksdnti since none of these terms actually
appears in the Akn. And yet, the apportionment of contents into three identifiable sections
dealing with ordinary patience, pure patience and absolute patience suggests, perhaps, that it
was known to the Akn, if only in a rudimentary form.357

The benefits that accrue to the bodhisattva from the practice of ksanti are manifold but do
not always agree. Hiiang-tsang, commenting on the three types of patience, explains that
pardpakaramarsanaksdnti becomes the cause of the bodhisattva’s ripening of sentient beings
(sattvavipdkapravrttihetu) while duhkhadhivasanaksdnti, granting powers to cope with pain,
induces buddha-qualities. The third form of patience, dharmanidhydnadhimuktiksdnti functions
as support (dsraya) for the two preceding types of ksanti and describes the bodhisattva’s
attitude towards the Doctrine.358 The Msl gives a more pragmatic account, citing indifference
to animosity and flattery, concern for benefit and welfare, death free from repentance and
rebirth amongst gods and men as the fruits that spring from the pursuit of patience.359
Among the siitras, the most advanced account is found in the Samadhirajasutra. Here, we
are told that a practitioner who has penetrated the ghosdnugami level of anutpattikadharmaksdnti
abstains from disputes, penetrates the illusory nature of dharma, acquires knowledge of the
scriptures, understands their meaning on the neydrtha and nltartha level, attains faith and
resolves to attain all-knowing. He reaches the stage of increased cognition (Jnanavivrddha)

357. A similar situation is found in the Sgm (33, pp. 50.1.5-54.4). Here too, one meets with the ingredients of
later developments but does not find any technical terminology. That is to say, the sutra introduces ksanti
by affirming its important role in the bodhisattvacarya in that is renders the bodhisattva inseparable from
the thought o f enlightenment. Furthermore, it prompts him to generate the intent (asaya) o f the six
perfections (p. 50.3.4-6) and, sustained by great compassion, establishes a lasting link between the
bodhisattva and other humans, buddhas and gods (p. 50.4.3-5). Patient endurance with regard to injury of
body and speech refer to all intents to duhkhadhivasana and pardpakaramarsanaksdnti while patience
with regard to the mind discusses the motive behind the bodhisattva’s struggle. The cognitive element
enshrined in the term dharmanidhydnadhimuktiksdnti is dealt with in the last section where Sagaramati is
giving a long discourse on the nature o f dharma (pp. 52.3.7-53.4.1). Perception o f it arises from the
perfection o f mediation and wisdom. Through meditation, the bodhisattva gains the required composure
for the vision o f dharma with insight (vipasyana) in meditation to unfold (p. 53.2.6-8). This vision itself
is wisdom and training in the perfection of wisdom leads to true realisation with regard to the characteristics
(laksana) o f dharma (p. 52.4.2-3).
358. Msg, p. 191
Thesame division, but without commentary, is also found in the Siddhi, p. 621 (cf. &gs, p. 143, § 29).
359. Msl, p. 10816-21
This set o f five was almost certainly taken from the Aiiguttaranikaya where we come across a very similar
scheme (A III, p. 254).

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and becomes fully settled in the teachings of the Buddha.360 Since most, if not all of these
attainments are attributable to the bodhisattva’s careful Dharma-pursuance, the text’s
comparison of the ghosanugami practice with the attainment of srutamayiprajha is quite
appropriate.
At the anulomiki level361, the bodhisattva ceases to waver in his undertakings. He attains the
perfection of meditation, acquires the abhijha and rddhipada and transcends all mental
limitations.362Thus, accomplished in insight (vipasyand) and perfect mental quietude (samatha),
he is wholly composed and traverses one hundred buddha-fields.363 Considering the intense
meditative and reflective practice that marks marks this level of attainment, the juxtaposition
to cintdmayiprajfid is all but far-fetched.
Finally, at the pratilabdha level of anutpattikadharmaksdnti the bodhisattva sees innumerable
buddhas teaching sentient beings and is conversant with their demeanour and armour.
Jambudvlpa becomes his buddha-field where he rules with inconceivable wonder-working
powers and teaches the Dharma to all beings.364 He abides wholly unaffected by mundane
profit or renown. Established in the non-arising of dharma, he attains buddha-cognition and
achieves the highest degree of benevolence and compassion.365According to the Samadhiraja,
this events takes place when the bodhisattva embarked on the sixth stage and received his
final prediction buddhahood.366
In appreciation of these benefits, the bodhisattva also sets out to suppress anger in other
beings.367 Thus, we learn in the Bodhisattvaprdtimoksasutra that the bodhisattva cultivates
patience not only in himself, but equally admonishes others to follow suit. Aware of the
effects of anger and animosity, “he consoles and placates those who are angry, he appeases
and heartens them”368 and explains:369

360. Dutt, 1941-53, ii, pp. 77.2-79.8.

361. Dutt, 1941-53, ii pp. 79.9-80.12.
362. TTP, 31, p. 281.2.2-3.
363. Dutt, 1941-53, ii, p. 79.9-11.
364. TTP, 31, p. 281.2.4-7.
365. Dutt, 1941-53, ii, pp. 80.13-81.10
Other attainments that are thought to accompany the conviction o f the non-arising o f dharma are if/a,
p rajh ajiian a, punyasambhara, smrti,pratibhanapratisamvid, etc., (op. cit., p. 95.15-16).
366. Dutt, 1941-53, ii, p. 82.11-14
We have seen that by most accounts this is not a standard posistioning.
367. Msl, p. 105.18-19 (cf. S I, pp. 162-3).
368. A'fo, p. 188.17-18.
369. Paiica, p. 562-3.

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“There is nothing real or substantial from that your wrath is produced. An unreal
fancy is this wrath. No real entity corresponds to it, nor is there a real entity that
offends you, makes you feel anger or ill-will, or that makes you belabour others
with sticks or swords, or rob one another of life. For when you get angry as a
result of an unfounded imagination, you will be hurled into the hells, the animal
world, the world of Yama or any other place of low rebirth where you will
experience painful feelings—intense, harsh and bitter.”

In the Bdp the bodhisattva does not show such concern with the welfare of sentient beings.
As in the previous chapters, the focus of the exposition rests rather narrowly on the training
of the bodhisattva and ignores the wider issues that are involved in its application. We leam
therefore very little about the benefits that accrue to him on the basis of the practice of ksanti
and the impact it has on the goal of universal liberation.
The description itself concurs to a large extent with the principles that underlie the discussions
of patience in other Mahayana sutras. That is to say, it speaks of dharma- and sattvaksdnti, it
distin g u ish es betw een duhkhadhivasanaksdnti, pardpakaramarsanaksdnti and
dharmanidhydnadhimuktiksdnti and recognises the principle of anutpattikadharmaksdnti as
the highest manifestation of patience. There is however no direct reference to these technical
terms as their contents is incorporated in the flow of the exposition.
The position of these main-components on the path is only vaguely indicated.
Duhkhadhivasanaksdnti which corresponds in the scheme of the Bdp to ordinary patience is
the lowest type of patience and is practised during the initial stages of the path. Although its
exact position is not indicated, from the information on the next higher type of patience we
may deduce that it probably prevails from the pramuditabhumi to the prabhakaribhumi.
After that, the bodhisattva embarks on the so-called bodhisattva-patience. Corresponding to
the apakdramarsanaksdnti, this type of patience becomes manifest when the bodhisattva has
acquired wisdom. That is to say, when he is accomplished in the bases of mindfulness, when
he has attained correct reflection, possesses a fully purified disposition and has mastered the
factors of enlightenment. It is not clear for how long the pardpakaramarsanaksdnti dominates
the ksanti practice of the bodhisattva. According to the Bdp it extends over the whole width
of the path and leads to the acquisition of the buddha-qualities. This generates difficulties
since it is at odds with the position of the dharmanidhydnadhimuktiksdnti which is generally

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thought to fully manifest as anutpattikadharmaksdnti on the acalabhumi. However, as the

Bdp is completely silent on its positioning and does not distinguish it contextually from the
b o d h isattv a-p atien ce, we may assum e that the pardpakaramarsanaksdnti,
dharmanidhydnadhimuktiksdnti and anutpattikadharmaksdnti (including perhaps the
duhkhadhivasanaksdnti) manifest concurrently from the eighth stage onwards. In other words,
although they are initially accomplished in succession, from a certain level of attainment
onwards (probably the eighth stage) all three types of patience merge into the ‘conviction of
the non-arising of dharma ’ where they coexist and find their true fulfilment.

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 Viryaparamita

The Perfection of Vigour

“Vigour is a steadfast mental effort (cetaso ‘bhyutsaha) leading to wholesome

dharma. It is of armour (samndha), practice (prayoga), free of weakness (alinatva),
irreversible (avyavrtti) or insatiable (asantusti). Its purpose is to effect completion
and attainment of favourable bearings.”

This definition of vigour, given in th qAbhidharmasamuccaya, sums up many of the issues

standing at the heart of the bodhisattva’s virya practice.370First, it establishes the psychology
of vigour. Second, it maps out the various phases where vigour becomes manifest. Although,
at first sight no more than random attributes, samndha, prayoga, etc., represent in fact rather
distinct stages in the cultivation of vigour. Finally, Asanga defines the rationale behind virya.
The phrasing is by no means coincidental, but takes into account changes in its objectives,
leading from concern for personal advance to selfless devotion to universal liberation. For
Buddhism to produce such an elaborate concept of vigour, it had to mature over many
centuries.
In early Buddhism, vigour (viriya) figures as a frequently cited but little elaborated aspect
of the Sravaka training. It is never expounded on its own but is invariably touched upon in
connection with other virtues whose generation it assists. Viriya is discussed as part of the
lists of the seven excellent qualities of monks371, five faculties (iWriya)372 and powers (bala)m .
It appears under the five limbs of striving (padhana)374, seven factors of enlightenment
(bodhyahgdf15, five factors conducive to ripening376, eight conditions causing wisdom
(pa hhaf11, ten conditions that make for warding378 and need to be remembered379, and is

370. Abhidh-sam (R), p. 8.

371. M I p. 356
Identical formulations, but set in a different context are found in D HI, pp. 237, 285; A IV , pp. 3, 110.
372. S V, p. 225; D IE, pp. 239, 278.
373. S V ,p. 197; A IE, pp. 2, 11; A V ,p . 15.
374. M II, pp. 95, 128; A El, pp. 152,155; D III, p. 237.
375. A IV , pp. 352-3.
376. A IV , p. 357.
377. A IV , pp. 153-5.
378. A V, pp. 23-24, 27-28.
379. A V , pp. 90-91.

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 Vlryaparamita

particularly associated with the moral precepts of the patimokkha code.380

The contexts in which it is discussed suggests that viriya was recognised as an important
practice. Its opposite, indolence, is listed among the eight principal stains381 and mars
renunciation of agitation, intemperance and immorality.382 Moreover, viriya is expressively
perceived as a contributing force to many cardinal attainments of the Buddhist path, including
mindfulness, ripening, recollection and wisdom.383 Quite clearly, for the Buddha viriya
constituted a high-ranking dhamma in its own right:384

“O monks, this Dhamma is for the energetic, this Dhamma is not for the indolent.”

In spite of such pre-eminence, references to viriya are predominantly succinct and summary­
like. It is rarely analysed but surfaces in passages which follow stereotyped patterns of
exposition that recur, without variation, in two or three variant readings throughout the
nikaya.
The most frequent formula identifies viriya as the raison d ’etre of the sammappadhdna for
which it serves along with faith, good health, honesty and wisdom as precondition.385 Accounting
for approximately eighty percent of references to viriya in the nikaya, it typically runs as
follows:386

“He dwells with stirred up energy for the sake of abandoning unskilled mental
states. For the sake of acquiring skilful mental states, he is firm, of steady valour,
perseverance in purpose amid skilful mental states.”

In several places this type of reference is expanded to include the monk’s refusal to
abandon the burden of teaching and good qualities in illustration of his vigorous resolve.387 It
appears that for the early Buddhists viriya was above all a mental factor:388

380. A IV , pp. 153-5, 357.

381. A IV , p. 195.
382. A V , p. 146.
383. These links are established in A V, pp. 23-24; IV, p. 357; V, pp. 90-91; IV, p. 153.
384. A IV 233; see also: M I, p. 481.
385. M il, p. 95.
386. M I, p. 356 (trsl. Gethin).
387. A I, p. 117.
388. S V ,p. 111.

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“O monks, that which is physical energy is always energy as a factor of wisdom.

That which is mental energy is always energy as a factor of wisdom.”

The ,4s389, citing this very passage, concludes that there is thus only mental energy and that
whatever action results from the ‘initial generation of energy’ (viriyarambha), it springs from
the psychological disposition towards viriya*90 In spite of its operational restriction to the
mental realm, the impact of viriya goes of course beyond psychic processes as its purpose is
to overcome idleness (kosajja) through energetic practice. While its foundation is also mental,
the method and means that manifest energetic conduct vary according to circumstances.391
The principal characteristics of viriya are grasping, strengthening and support of those
wholesome mental states that are most liable to deterioration.392 In this sense, it is specifically
cited in the As in conjunction with silo*9* and recognised as the chief force that instigates and
completes purification:394

“Livelihood purification is to be undertaken by means of viriya. For that is

accomplished by energy because the abandoning of wrong livelihood is effected
in one who has rightly applied energy. Abandoning, therefore, unbefitting wrong
striving, this should be undertaken with energy by means of the right kind of
striving consisting of alms round, etc.”

This quotation introduces striving (padhana) as the other major aspect of viriya that (in
particular as a concomitant to the four sammappadhana) motivates to virtuous conduct.395 If

389. As, p. 145.

390. In the Kosa, the situation is very similar. Here (ii, p. 160), we learn that virya is primarily mental effort. It
is said to refer at all times to wholesome action. The same thought is expressed in the Pahcaskandha:
“ Virya is energy o f the mind concerned with the wholesome, the opposite to indolence.”
391. A s,p . 120.
392. A vivid description o f viriya in its supportive function is found in the Milindapahha (36):
“Just as, your majesty, a man might support a house that was falling down with an extra piece
o f wood, and being thus supported that house would no fall down—in the same way, your
majesty, energy has the characteristic o f supporting. Supported by viriya, no skilful dhamma
are lost.”
393. As, p. 120.
394. Vism, p. 40 (trsl. ffanamoli)
395. In the Vism, Buddhaghosa goes so far as to say that viriya is nothing but an alternative name for
padhana (Vism, p. 697), while in Bodhirdjakumdrasutta (M II, p. 95) viriya is listed besides faith,
health, integrity and wisdom as one o f the independent qualities o f striving. According to the Kosa (vi,
p. 283), giving the constituents o f vigour, virya comprises the four samyakpradhana, limb two o f the
bodhyahga and the samyagvyayama member o f the Eightfold Path.

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vigour has exertion as its characteristic, it functions to strengthen the coexistent states and
manifests resistance to surrender to unwholesome dhamma*96 In this context, agitation
(uddhacca)—the basic condition for generating viriya—becomes the proximate cause of
energy397 and gives it an important role in the completion of the training:398

“Energy ( viriya) is the state of one who is vigorous (vira). Its characteristic is
marshalling [driving]. Its function is to consolidate conascent states. It is manifested
as non-relapse. Because of the words ‘bestirred, he strives wisely’ its proximate
cause is a sense of urgency; or its proximate cause is the ground of the initiation
of viriya. When rightly initiated, it should be regarded as the root of all attainments.”

The application of viriya and knowledge thereof is inextricably linked with understanding
the meaning of exertion. According to the Pads, it is acted out through training in the four
sammappadhana and produces the undertaking to abandon the seven obstacles in favour of
renunciation.399 In this respect, its presence becomes a precondition “for the maintenance,
non-corruption, strengthening, plentifulness, development and perfection of the arahant path”
that is limited to those who fully subscribe to the practice of endeavour (padhana) and
bestirring (arabhata).m
As one of the five indiiya401, it has its origin in adverting unwholesome dharma, in zeal and
attention through the influence of exertion, in focusing through the influence of the faculty of
energy leading to the abandonment of idleness.402 Once in place, it is important that the
faculty of viriya does not dominate any of the other four indriya as this would impede their
development.403 Above all, however, it is imperative that the practitioner should balance

396. As, p. 121.

397. M il, i, p. 57.
398. Vism, xiv, p. 137 (trsl. flanamoli; cf. A II, p. 115).
399. Palis, pp. 103-4.
400. Palis, p. 104.
401. Several discourses in the Samyuttanikaya indicate that the viriyendriya and sammappadhana
conceptually cover exactly the same ground:
“What is the faculty o f energy? Here the noble disciple dwells as one who has established
energy. For the sake o f abandoning unskilful dharma and arousing skilful dharma he is firm,
o f steady valour, unrelinquishing in purpose with regard to skilful dharma” (S V, p. 197).
Or, even more explicit (S V, pp. 196):
“In the faux sammappadhana there is the viriyendriya to be seen.”
402. Patis, pp. 211, 209.
403. This, o f course, is also true for the other four faculties as too strong a practice o f any o f them would
obstruct the performance o f their collective functions (Vism, iv. 46, p. 129; Vin, i, pp. 179-85, A HI,
pp. 374-6).

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vigour with concentration. The reason is that idleness poses a threat to meditation in those
who possess little vigour, since concentration favours inactivity. Agitation, on the other hand,
occurs in those who possess great energy but are restless in meditation since energy favours
agitation:404

“When the sign arises, one bhikkhu forces his energy, thinking: ‘I shall soon reach
absorption.’ Then his mind lapses into agitation because of the mind’s over-exerted
energy and he is prevented from reaching absorption. Another who sees the defect
in over-exertion slacks off his energy, thinking: ‘What is absorption to me now?’
Then his mind lapses into idleness because of his mind’s too lax energy and he
too is prevented from reaching absorption. Yet another who frees his mind from
indolence even when it is only slightly idle and from agitation when only slightly
agitated, confronting the sign with balanced effort, [that one] reaches absorption.”

In the Mahayana, the notion of virya has been modified in several respects. First, adjusted
to the requirements of the new ideal, vigour is no longer targeted towards the bodhisattva’s
personal advance, but is devoted to the welfare of all beings:405

“They [the bodhisattvas] have pure and courageous minds and are linked with
other beings and persons. [When] they are practising the perfection of vigour, as a
maid servant is submissive to her master who is not subject to anyone else, so do
the firmly wise submit to subjection by all beings.”

Second, its practice is given a new meaning because of the unlimited duration of the
bodhisattva path. In the nikaya, viriya was essentially interpreted as a supportive quality that
promoted the generation of a wholesome mind-set. Its presence is especially required in
meditation and has great impact on purification. Above all, it is related to practice and did not
address the issue of time as a priority. With the expansion of the spatio-temporal dimension
of Mahayana cosmology, the previous ideas on the length of the training became dramatically
404. Vism, iv.72, p. 137 (trsl. Gethin)
See also S V, pp. 112—114 where the Buddha construes the famous simile o f the fire that cannot bum
by lack o f dry fuels (i.e., idleness) and cannot be put out by dry fuels (i.e., agitation), (cf. Vism, pp.
136, 138).
405. Rgs, xxix.l 1 (trsl. Conze; cf. Panca, p. 455).

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amended. As a consequence, even very early Mahayana sutras draw connections between the
need for perfect vigour and the formidable length of the path, arguing that it requires beings
of truly extraordinary zeal. Such thinking is already attested in the Rgs and indeed figures in
practically all Mahayana treatises on virya.m
Third, by applying their philosophical axioms on existence to the training itself, Mahayana
sutras merged their ontological absolutism with the realism of the practice itself. For the
perfection of vigour, as indeed for all other practices, this led to a radical shift in interpretation
culminating in the admission of the futility of all endeavour:407

“When one has no notion of either body, thought, or being,

Abiding without perception and coursing in the Doctrine of non-duality
That has been called by the Buddha ‘perfection of vigour’
Of those who long for blissful, imperishable unsurpassed enlightenment.”

In spite of (or perhaps, because of) the predicament posed by the dismissal of conventional
experience, the bodhisattva proceeds to train in vigour with unabated zeal:408

“To some he gives sons and daughters, and to others a kingdom. For the sake of
others he sacrifices himself. In this way he works the weal of beings by whatever
device it can be worked. It is thus that the bodhisattva who courses in perfect
wisdom and is endowed with mental vigour fulfils the perfection of vigour even
though dharma are signless.”

This last quotation points to an important departure from early conceptions of virya. We
have seen that for the Sravaka vigour was primarily a mental dhamma. In the Mahayana, this
definition is no longer upheld. Already in the incipient phase, its sutras speak of physical and
mental vigour. While it is probably true to say that mental vigour is still regarded superior as
it creates the psychological foundation for the practical implementation, both are recognised
and valued for their contributions.409
406. Rgs, xxx.4-5.
407. Rgs, xxx.7 (trsl. Conze).
408. Pahca, pp. 513-14 (trsl. Conze).
409. Panca, p. 513:
“Here, the bodhisattva who courses in perfect o f wisdom and is endowed with mental vigour

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Also mental vigour itself underwent some modifications.410 In the early Buddhism of
Sakyamuni, it was always interpreted as an inherently dynamic force which promotes and
sustains wholesome states, or prevents and destroys unwholesome states. For the Mahayana
this is no longer the case, as mental vigour received a predominantly cognitive role:411

“The bodhisattva who courses in perfect wisdom and is endowed with mental
vigour ... does not misconstrue anything whatsoever as permanent or impermanent,
ease .or ill, self or not-self, conditioned or unconditioned.”

Thus, rather than operating as the driving force behind the bodhisattva’s exploits in virya,
mental vigour became an agency bringing virya practice in line with Mahayana ontology. Its
task was to free the bodhisattva from delusion and establish him in knowledge of sensefields,
non-duality and dharmatasthiti, culminating in the conviction of the non-arising of dharma412

It is in consideration of these developments that the virya exposition in the Bdp needs to be
examined. The Bdp introduces the discussion of vigour by pointing to the interaction between
ksanti and virya. For those who are dedicated to scriptural learning, it becomes a sine qua
non for progress, as they meet with persistent envy and hostility.413
Such explicit association of learning and vigour is rarely found in Mahayana literature. In
the few cases where a connection is established, rather than physical protection, vigour is
directed more to accomplishing the task of learning itself. Thus, we learn in the
Ndrdyanapariprccha of the bodhisattva’s great vigour in preaching the Dharma.414

gives no opportunity to unwholesome deeds o f body and speech.”

410. Cf. Ratnameghasutra (cited in Siks, pp. 51.21-52.3).
411. Panca, p. 513 (trsl. Conze).
412. Sgm, 33, pp. 62.5.8-63.1.7.
413. R, folio 424.1-426,3.
414. Siks, pp. 189.7-190.3
It is in this context that Santideva gives the well-known quotation o f the Akn’s eighty types of learning
to that I have referred on several occasions already. For the exact contents o f this list, see: Appendix i.
In the Dbh (Dasa-bh, p. 33.23-27, J), as a precondition for the practice proper and leading to the first
dhyana, the bodhisattva focuses his vigour on the search for learning and the Dharma at the
prabhakaribhumi.
The Dbh itself contains very little on the practice of the viryaparamita (Dasa-bh, p. 4 0 .1 2 -1 4 ,1). In
the exposition on the acrismatibhumi—the phase where training in virya should theoretically stand in
the foreground— only one sentence addresses the bodhisattva’s practice in virya, describing it as
attentive (aprasrabdha), pure (apariklista), unfaltering (apratyudhavartya), extensive (vipulya), infinite
(ananta), earnest (uttapta), unequalled (asama), indestructible (asamharya), aimed at the benefit o f all
sentient beings (sarvasattvaparipacana) and saying that it discerns correct conduct from incorrect
conduct (nayanayavibhakta).

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The combination of virya and ksanti is, in contrast, much more commonly attested in
Mahayana sutras. It is in particular the attainment of anutpattikadharmaksdnti that virya is
related to:415

“O householder, how does the pravrajita bodhisattva, living in the aranyavasa,

cultivate and fulfil the perfection of vigour? To this end, the bodhisattva should
train himself thus: ‘I shall not depart from this place, for it is essential that I
should realise the conviction of the non-arising of dharma.’ ”

The rationale behind this association is the bodhisattva’s change of body at the moment of
anutpattikadharmaksdnti.416 Immediately after the first production of the thought of
enlightenment, his attainments are weak and incomplete and he strives to attain perfection in
his training by means of practice in generosity, moral conduct and good intentions. Throughout
this period, stretching form the prathamacittotpada to the attainment of the perfection of
meditation, his endeavours are physical, since they operate on the material plane where he
experiences truly physical hardship. With the production of the abhijna at the point of
mastery in meditation, physical effort is no longer required as he is now capable of transforming
himself into whatever shape is best suited to assist sentient beings.
In the Bdp, however, the link with ksanti is initially interpreted in the conventional sense.
The bodhisattva is required to bear with the physical and vocal animosity directed at him
under Mara’s influence.417In this respect, perfection in vigour provides a degree of psychological
steadfastness in the pursuit of the path.418

415. Ug, p. 271.1.3-5.

416. Mpps, ii, pp. 970, 711-12, n. 1.
417. R, folio 424.3-6.
418. R, folio 243-246
In the Mpps, the connection between virya and ksanti includes the conventional and ontological frame
o f reference o f patience. First, the bodhisattva shows great diligence in quietly enduring all pain and
hostility— be it physical or verbal—and remains unaffected by the fame and homage shown to him (ii,
p. 986). Second, the bodhisattva is not deterred by the difficulty o f his undertaking. Working for the
benefit o f beings, he shows great patience with their shortcomings and accomplishes even the most
difficult tasks through the combined presence o f virya and ksanti (ii, p. 949). This attainment o f the
abhijna coincides with the ‘conviction o f the non-arising o f dharma' {Dasa-bh, p. 71.22-26), at which
stage he obtains a new body called the ‘body bom from the Dharma-realm’ (dharmadhatujakaya).
From now onwards he is no longer concerned with physical vigour that dominated his ‘body bom
from fetters and acts’ (bandhanakarmajakdya) since the production o f the thought o f enlightenment,
but enters the realm o f mental vigour. As this latter body is bom from the teachings o f the Doctrine, it
is in perfect concordance with reality and is no longer subject to the restraint o f his samsaric corporeal
existence. Depending for realisation on the state o f anutpattikadharmaksdnti, the link between virya
and ksanti fits well into scheme o f the path.

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Rooted in pure altruism, the motivation is not the prospect of future happiness, but the
aspiration to achieve universal welfare:419

“O &ariputra, while delighting in purification, he accomplishes vigour not solely

for the purpose of acquiring the sambhogakaya of mine. Rather, he enters into
[vigour] in order to bring happiness and benefit to all sentient beings; to prompt
sentient beings to understand [the bodhisattvapitaka] ... to prompt them to guard
the noble path.”

Immediate application of vigour is found in the practice of the pdramita and the unfolding
of benevolence and compassion.420 While diligent training in the pdramita leads to the roots
of virtue for the bodhisattva himself, resolute altruism reinforces his commitment to universal
liberation. Hence, vigour is of fundamental importance to the bodhisattva’s quest for
buddhahood:421

“Vigour is the finest of virtuous dharma because on its basis there occur subsequent
benefits. Through vigour pleasant dwellings and success arise, both mundane and
supramundane. Through vigour one achieves the desired enjoyment in life. Through
vigour, those [virtues] become purified. Through vigour [bodhisattvas] transcend
reification and attain supreme enlightenment.”

Motivated by the cittotpada and supported by the armour of vigour, the bodhisattva embarks
on the course of training 422 The term ‘armour’ (samndha) points here to one of the three
phases of virya practice.423 Definitions of samnahavirya fall broadly into two categories.

419. R, folio 428.4-7.

420. R, folio 426.1-3
For an account o f the interaction between virya and the other perfections, see: Mpps, ii, pp. 927-35.
In the M sl (pp. 105.25-106.5) vigour is classified into seven types corresponding to its function and
contents. These are vigour in moral conduct, meditation and wisdom, physical and mental vigour,
zealous (satkrtya) and constant (sdtatya) vigour.
421. Msl, p. 114.4^14 (cf. Msl, p. 32.4-5)
See also Bbh (p. 201.21-25):
“Nothing else but vigour is the chief and best cause for maturing in this way all the virtuous
dharma that generate [the bodhisattva’s] enlightenment. For that reason, the Tathagata points
to vigour for the supreme and perfect enlightenment.”
422. R, folio 445.6.
423. It is also the only member that is common to all schemes o f vigour. The scholastic treatises o f the
Mahayana propose two classification o f virya. First there is a scheme which recognises three types of

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First, we have a number of texts where armoured vigour is related to cognitive processes. In
the Sgm, for instance, armour is fundamental to the purification of the body and mind.424 As a
mental dharma, its chief task is to generate sufficient resilience and strength for the bodhisattva
to pursue pristine cognition (fhana). Specifically, if combined with ksanti, it prepares for the
conviction of the non-arising of dharma and thereby enables him to persist in the practice
and search of the pure Dharma.425 Furthermore, it promotes insight into the psychological
operations of name-and-form; it leads to understanding of the cessation of the subject/object
dichotomy and prompts the bodhisattva to abandon grief, doubt, illness and conceit.426
Second, we have texts where the need for armoured striving is located in the demanding
nature of the training itself, in its infinite length and vast objective. A good example of this
type is the Akn.427Here, the focus rests on the need for steadfastness in the actual practice—above
all in the pdramita—and the pledge to postpone parinirvdna until all beings have been placed
in the thought of enlightenment.
In the sastras, however, it is generally agreed that armoured striving is motivated by both
factors.428 It is understood to stand at the very beginning of the virya practice429 as producing
encouragement and a firm commitment to the training in general, and strengthening virya in
particular.430 In the Msl, these aspects are brought together in a single verse, although the
vigour, that is, ‘armoured vigour’ (,samnahavirya), ‘vigour in accumulating wholesome dharma’
(kusaladharmasamgrahakavirya) and ‘vigour in working for the benefit o f sentient beings’
(,sattvarthakriyavirya). Among others, it is given in the Siddhi (p. 622) and Bbh (p. 200.10-11).
Variants o f this classification are found in the Msl (p. 114.17-18) or Msg (pp. 191-2) where vigour
falls into ‘armoured vigour’ (samnahavirya), ‘vigour in practice’ (prayogavirya) and ‘spirited,
imperturbable, insatiable vigour’ (alinam aksobhyam asamtusti virya). A further variation is given in
the Dhsgr (§ 108; cf. Mahaydnasutrasamgraha, Vaidya; p. 338.1-2) which distinguishes between
samnahavirya, prayogavirya and ‘vigour directed at the supreme end’ (paranisthd/parinisthdvirya).
The only major treatise that does not adopt either o f these threefold schemes is the Mpps (ii, p. 946).
Following the categorisation o f the Panca, it differentiates between mental and physical exertion
(kayikacaitasikdsramsanatd). For the perfection o f vigour itself, it proposes five constituent
characteristics, including dynamism in action, ease in enterprise, steadiness o f will power, eagerness
o f mind and perseverance in action (ii, p. 946). As the composition o f these attributes indicates, it is
probable— though not explicitly stated—that these cover vigour in both its mental and physical dimension.
424. 33, pp. 62.5.3-63.2.1.
425. op. cit., p. 63.1.6-2.3.
426. op. cit., p. 62.5.5-6.
427. Akn, p. 46.3.2-4.5.
428. Bbh, p. 201.2-4.
429. Msg, p. 191.
430. Bbh, pp. 200.26-201.2
According to Tsong-kha-pa, armoured vigour is based on former exertion and operates as a preliminary
resolve (pranidhdna), leading to enthusiasm o f mind, infinite accumulations o f merit, freedom from
obscurity and becomes the cause o f irreversibility. A bodhisattva who generates faith and conviction
in armoured vigour, attains steadfastness in his cause and accomplishes even the most difficult tasks
with ease provided that he is motivated by yearning for enlightenment that it consolidates (Lam-rim-
chen-mo; trsl. Wayman, 1990, pp. 172-3). Like in the Akn, the need for armoured striving is defended
by the extraordinary length o f the training and extent of suffering the bodhisattva has to undergo in the

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distinction between samnahavirya and prayogavlrya becomes somewhat blurred:431

“Bodhisattvas generate vigour in amour and application that is without equal in

order to cleanse themselves and others of defilement and in order to attain supreme
enlightenment. On account of this vigour they establish all sentient beings in the
three types of enlightenment. And because they have attained pristine cognition,
they equip the world with vigour forever.”

In the Bdp, as in the Sgm, the focus of armoured vigour lies in cognition and learning.
Highly meritorious in its own right, it produces roots of virtue far beyond the merit that is
generated through dana. It promotes birth under auspicious circumstances, pure associations
and mental lucidity.432
In addition, armoured vigour draws the bodhisattva’s attention to the ten obstructive conditions
that, in turn, inspires discipline, compassion, mindfulness and joy in solitude.433 Appreciation
of these factors operates as a catalyst which prompts the bodhisattva to overcome the obstructive
conditions in other beings.434For this purpose he pledges to persist in the true teachings at all
times and does not fall prey to heterodox thought.435Fear of Dharma misinterpretation is thus
a chief concern for the practice of vigour.436 Besides vigour in studying the Doctrine, the
bodhisattva works for the survival of the Dharma through endless preaching and altruistic
world (Bbh, p. 200.20-26).
431. Ms/, p. 108.22-25.
432. R, folio 435.2-4
The Samadh knows o f ten concrete blessings that accrue from the cultivation o f vigour. That is,
bodhisattvas become generally difficult to satiate, they are received by buddhas and protected by the
gods, they do not distort the teachings they have heard but retain the Dharma just as they have learned
it, they enter the fold (gotra) o f meditation, they experience little illness, attain happiness, possess
sufficient food-stuff and do not turn into a lizard (musala) but resemble a lotus (Dutt, ii, 1941-53, pp.
335.14-336.2). For variants in the Tibetan, see: TTP, 31, p. 310.2.7-3.8.
433. R, folio 439.3-6
These are (1) exposure to the sayings o f Mara, (2) physical blindness, (3) physical illness, (4) a
distracted mind, (5) hatred and anger, (6) disputes and malice, (7) exposure to Mara and its works, (8)
adherence to mistaken doctrine in times o f decline of the Dharma, (9) desire for alms-bowls, robes and
food among the monks, (10) sensual pleasure (R, folio 436-42).
434. The Tathagatacintyaguhyanirdesa (cit. in Siks, p. 274.3-11) proposes ten concrete ways o f improving
the force o f the bodhisattva’s vigour. These include (1) renouncing the body and life but not the
Dharma, (2) showing reverence to all beings, (3) feeling compassion with weak creatures and not to
dislike them, (4) granting food to those who are hungry, (5) granting protection to those who are
fearful, (6) dispensing medicine and cure those who are ill, (7) delighting the poor with great riches,
(8) repairing shrines dedicated to the Tathagata, (9) adopting pleasant speech when speaking to people
and sharing the fate of poverty with those who are poor and (10) carrying the burden o f those who are
exhausted. Cf. Mpps, ii, p. 943.
435. R, folio 447.1-3.
436. R, folio 436.2-438.6.

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efforts.
Thus inspired, he sets out to train in ‘vigour accumulating roots of virtue’
(kusaladharmasamgrdhakavirya)437 and m anifests u n falterin g , bold courage
(,anivartyaparakramavlrya).438This type of vigour is essentially bifocal. First, the bodhisattva
is not discouraged from the path by the sheer distance of the goal, but devotes all resources to
the practices concerned:439

437. The exact scope and nature o f the kusaladharmasanigrdhakavirya is little explained in Mahay ana
literature. I have found only two treatises that provide some detail on its generation. First, there is the
exposition in the Sgrn which recognises the contributions of four specific dharma (op. cit., p. 62.1.5-5.3).
These are exertion (arambha), courage (vira), investigation (pativeksana) and good conduct (pratipatti).
Each o f these dharma is applied to specific sets o f practices whose potential they aim to maximise.
Exertion is primarily applied towards the cittotpada, dana, sila and sraddhd (preparing the entry into
the path) while courage focuses on the accumulation o f roots o f virtue and, in particular, on ksdnti
(leading to the suklavidarsana stage, the first o f seven srdvakabhitmi stages). Investigation is employed
to identify those things that bring greatest benefit to sentient beings, to dhyana and to prajhd (leading
to mental purity: cittaprasrabdhi). Finally, good conduct means bearing with committed dharma and
engaging in skilful means (leading to irreversible pristine cognition: avaivartikajha). On a personal
level, exertion purifies and leads to recollection o f the body; courage purifies speech and leads to
recollection o f feeling; investigation cleanses the mind o f impure dharma and leads to recollection o f
thought; good conduct purifies dharma and leads to their recollection (op. cit., p. 62.2.6-7, 4.7).
Exertion cognises suffering, courage abandons the origin, investigation generates the path and good
conduct realises cessation (op. cit., p. 62.4.6)
In the Bbh (p. 201.6-25), the accumulation of roots o f virtue is dependent on diligent application to
the six perfections and consists o f seven qualities. First, it is not moved by harm which resulted from
mistaken considerations, defilements, false teachers and suffering. Second, it is certain because o f his
paying respect (satkrtya). Third, it is infinite because it is founded in, and leads to, all areas o f
knowledge. Fourth, it is furnished with means that are designed to lead to the irreversible path and to
penetrate sameness. Fifth, it is perfect vigour because the bodhisattva aspires to obtain things that
ought to be obtained. Sixth, it is victorious because it is furnished with lasting application and seventh,
it is free from pride because his undertakings in vigour are free from the thought-objects (arambha). If
his practice o f vigour includes these seven qualities, the bodhisattva is predicted to accomplish all six
perfections rapidly and to obtain enlightenment.
At the highest level, vigour in the accumulation o f roots o f virtue refers to the bodhisattva’s diligence
in acquiring the buddha-qualities. This means to accumulate the sum-total o f roots o f virtue including
those that spring from the perfections and bodhipaksika (Akn, op. cit., pp. 47.5.7-48.1.2).
438. R, folio 468.1-476.5
In the Akn (op. cit., p. 46.4.5-5.1) we have a similar subsection, entitled: ‘imperishable courage’
(aksaya pardkrama). Here, the purpose o f courageous vigour is sixfold. It is found in the bodhisattva’s
effort to see the Tathagata, to hear the Dharma, to ripen sentient beings, to accumulate the roots o f
virtue and to attain all-knowing. It is called courageous because the bodhisattva enters into the world
for the sake o f other beings in order to discipline their faculties and to bring about their liberation. Its
action is the undertaking to enter in the world intent to benefit other beings, its cause is the bodhisattva’s
great compassion and its essence is the unfaltering firmness o f its commitment to vigour (op. cit., p.
46.5.1).
According to the Bbh (p. 203.13-22), there are six factors that contribute specifically to the consolidation
o f the bodhisattva’s unfaltering courage (drdhaparakrama). These include persistent vigour because it
ties to the cycle o f existence; reverential vigour because it ties to exertion; naturally caused (nisyanda)
vigour because o f the power o f previous causes; vigour arising from practice (prayoga) because,
investigating and contemplating, it is bound to good morals; non-enraged (akopa) vigour because he is
not angered by pain or injury; and insatiable (asamtusti) vigour because for him mediocrity is not
sufficient. Although not stated, one suspects that these should be understood as both conditions for
and the ideal manifestations o f unfaltering courage.
439. &iks, p. 275.1-6 (33, p. 61.2.7-3.2).

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“O Sagaramati, a bodhisattva who has committed himself to vigour must incessantly

be of a steady and bold courage. The bodhisattva who is earnestly striving [to
buddhahood] must not lay down his burden. O Sagaramati, for bodhisattvas who
exert themselves vigorously the supreme and perfect enlightenment is not difficult
to attain. Why? O Sagaramati, where there is vigour, there is enlightenment. But
for those who are indolent, it is far off. There is no generosity, morality, patience,
vigour, meditation or wisdom on the part of the indolent. They do not work for
the benefit of others.”

Second, it aims at universal liberation. For this purpose, the bodhisattva anchors his practice
in samsdra, but dedicates his accumulation of roots of virtue to buddhahood. Indeed, according
to the Sgm, it is this ‘double-tracked’ approach that transforms the bodhisattva’s virya into a
practice ofparamita status:440

“Vigour by means of which [the bodhisattva] does not let go his yearning for
all-knowing, by means of which he holds on to the generation of the power of the
thought of enlightenment and is bound to samsdra while beginning to accomplish
roots of virtue constitutes the perfection of virtue.”

Thus, it is primarily the bodhisattva’s perfection in vigour that prevents him from untimely
entering into nirvana.441
The implementation of vigorous courage manifests mental and non-mental striving.442
440. $iks,p. 187.9-11 (33, p. 51.1-2).
441. Mpps, ii, p. 982; R, folio 468.4-6.
442. The distinction o f virya into a mental and non-mental dimension is undoubtedly the oldest and most
fundamental classification o f vigour. Already proposed in the nikaya, it was adopted in numerous
early Mahayana sutras as the basic division o f vigour. Good examples o f such early adoptions are the
Akn and Paiica. In the Akn, the entire discussion o f the viryapdramita is structured according to its
mental/non-mental dimension. Non-mental virya is perceived in terms o f its various sub-aspects,
showing the bodhisattva’s eight principal objects on which he focuses his energy. These include
armoured striving (samnahavirya), courageous striving (parakramavirya), vigour in attaining
(samudanavirya), vigour in ripening sentient beings (sattvaparipdkavirya), vigour in accumulating
merit (punyasambharavirya), vigour in accumulating knowledge (jnanasambhdravirya), vigour in
accum ulating wisdom (prajndsambhdravirya) and vigour in attaining buddha-qualities
(sarvabuddhadharmasamudanavirya). The, Akn, holding the mental dimension o f virya to be superior
distinguishes (like the Bdp) a mentally active part that inspires physical and vocal action and a
mentally inactive part that is in tune with the Dharma teachings on the nature o f reality (34, p.
48.3.5-4.2):
“One who is established in all activity in order to fulfil the imperishability o f mental vigour
and is separated from all distinguishing marks (sarvanirmittapagata), that one not only enters

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Although the non-mental plane refers primarily to exertion in body and speech, it is not
limited to physical and vocal activity, but includes the commitment to universal liberation.
First, it is aimed at the encounter with the Buddha when the bodhisattva receives his final
prediction to buddhahood.443 Second, emerging as a collateral, the bodhisattva commits himself
to the liberation of all sentient beings.444 These two prospects impel the bodhisattva to train
with utmost vigour, whereby he accumulates incalculable roots of virtue as a matter of
course.445 The magnitude of this task turns vigour quite naturally into a major practice. It
causes the bodhisattva to honour his commitments even after he has attained enlightenment
and allows him to venture fearlessly into the more daunting areas of Buddhist cognition.446
This confidence is rooted in the bodhisattva’s unshakable trust in the path and in his
increasingly accurate understanding of reality. On the first, the Bdp comments:447

“The bodhisattva boldly thinks: ... ‘although the defilements of all sentient beings
are incalculable and numerous, I shall seek to obtain a matching accumulation of
wisdom and pristine cognition by means of this enunciation. I shall work hard and
apply myself diligently. With vigour, I shall wholly appease the torment of desire,
hatred, delusion of all sentient beings. I shall free them from this poison, suppress
it and deliver them. I shall cause them to transcend it and establish them in the
path leading to nirvana.’ ”

This attitude of confidence and courage appertains to the category of physical/verbal vigour,
because it belongs to the more active, engaging part of the bodhisattva practice. Progress in
the cognitive realm, in contrast, is firmly rooted in mental vigour. Superior to vigour of body

into all activity o f distinguishing marks but is also established in activity o f pristine cognition
and performs every deed with the pristine cognition o f all action.”
Since, according to the Dbh (Dasa-bh, pp. 64.3-4, 64.23-27), separation from distinguishing marks is
a chief characteristic o f the acalabhumi, mental vigour comes into operation at the eighth stage and
coincides with the beginning of the bodhisattva’s effortless activity (see below).
This understanding o f the distinctions between the mental and non-mental dimensions o f vigour tallies
with the position o f the Mpps (ii, p. 977). Here, the bodhisattva’s physical vigour is summed up in the
practice o f the six perfections, in giving up all personal belongings and family members and, above
all, in his readiness to pursue the training as long as required. Mental vigour, in contrast, is marked by
the cultivation o f wholesome dharma, by total faith and confidence, by freedom from indolence and,
especially, by insatiability for Dharma investigation.
443. R, folio 468.2.
444. R, folio 468.4.
445. R, folio 469.2, 469.5.
446. R, folio 472.6.
447. R, folio 473.1-6.

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or speech, it becomes the driving force behind all other types of vigour and is thus crucial to
the completion of the viryapdramita.448 In the Bdp, mental vigour is distinguished by an
active and inactive mode of operation. While the exact relationship between the two is not
explained, their contents and areas of application point to their complementarity:449

“What is vigour of the mind? It is activity and stillness of the mind. What is
activity of the mind? It is endeavouring to enlightenment. What is stillness of the
mind? It is non-appeasing the thought of enlightenment. What is its activity? It is
great compassion towards all beings. What is its stillness? It is acceptance that
there is no self.”450

Being essential to the fruition of all others practices, the ultimate reward of vigour is, of
course, nothing less than perfect enlightenment.451 This view is also expressed in the Bdp.452
More immediate benefits include a set of ‘factors of elevation’. These ensure that the bodhisattva
prospers (abhyudgacchati) because he pleases the present buddha, adheres to virtuous friends,
attains birth under favourable conditions, is accomplished in inexhaustible and virtuous practices
and follows the example of bodhisattvas who persist in the vow.453
Misinterpretations of vigour differ depending on the status of the practitioner. In the case of
the grhapti bodhisattva, they include the abandonment of beings to their fate out of personal
gain; to succumb to the pleasures of worldly life in violation of the moral code; to obstruct
the Buddha’s teachings in others while adhering to them himself; to fraternise with people

448. R, folio 473.7-474.2.

449. R, folio 474.1-3.
450. For the most comprehensive treatment o f mental and physical vigour, I propose to turn once again to
the Mpps (ii, pp. 970-72). Beginning with a definition of physical/vocal vigour as mental vigour
transformed into corporeal forces or speech, the Mpps proceeds to elucidate the characteristics o f
mental and non-mental vigour. (1) While physical/vocal vigour manifests itself in action related to the
perfection o f generosity and morality, mental vigour is operational in conjunction with the ksdnti,
dhyana and prajhdpdramita. (2) It is called bodily vigour when it is applied to external objects, but it
is mental when it involves a special effort towards oneself (adhyatmikaprayoga). (3) Coarse vigour is
physical and subtle vigour is mental. All vigour that produces merit is physical while mental vigour
generates wisdom. (4) The accumulation o f wealth for distribution is physical vigour while self­
transformation for the sake o f others in order to attain buddhahood is mental vigour. (5) The practice
o f the six perfections is physical vigour while in possessing the true dharmakaya and producing the
sixpdramita, the bodhisattva pursues mental vigour. (6) To implement the bodhisattva training without
ever .showing concern for life is physical vigour, but never to relax in search o f dhyana and prajhd is
mental vigour.
451. Mpps, ii, p. 935, n. 1.
452. R, folio 476.3.
453. R, folio 476.6-77.2.

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who despise the Dharma and to reproach people whose care he was entrusted with in an
unjust, harsh fashion.454 Any of these five mistaken modes of conduct bars the bodhisattva
from spiritual advance:455

“O Sariputra, a gt'hapti bodhisattva who acquires the five [mistaken modes of

conduct] fails to please the present buddha. He fails to adhere to virtuous friends.
He does not obtain birth under favourable conditions. He truly wastes the roots of
virtue that he has accomplished. He does not follow the example set by bodhisattvas,
mahdsattvas who adhere to their vow, and thus fails to acquire supreme and
perfect enlightenment swiftly.”

For the pravrajita bodhisattva the situation is different. Here, misunderstood vigour manifests
in moral transgression, abuse of the Doctrine, desire for profit, honour or praise, mistaken
views about the self and avarice for the houses of others.455 Of these five dharma, however,
only avarice is set in direct relation to the practice of vigour, presumably because its consequence
(fear of rebirth in hell, blindness and, when reborn as man, of life in the distant border-regions)
are particularly daunting. The overriding concern for the rejection of avarice lies therefore in
its threat to the bodhisattva’s personal advance.457 This preoccupation links unfaltering vigour
with virya practice concerned with the accumulation of roots of virtue.458
The third area in which vigour finds application is the bodhisattva’s commitment to bring
about universal liberation (sattvarthakriyavuya).459 In the Bdp this is expressed through a

454. R, folio 477.3-480.6.

455. R, folio 480.7-81.2.
456. R, folio 483.1-3
Compare these downfalls with the position in the Ug (op. cit., p. 273.1.7-2.1) that affirms that a
pravrajita bodhisattva is by definition vigorous, since he has renounced the comforts o f worldly life.
457. R, folio 513.5-7.
For a concise analysis o f the various side qualities of vigour, e.g., zeal, perseverance, energy, vigilance,
etc., see: Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 119-20.
458. The Mpps (ii, p. 1020), based on canonical sources, speaks o f four qualities that manifest vigour in the
pravrajita bodhisattva. These include observance o f moral conduct (silasampatti), control o f senses
(indriyesu guptadvarata), moderation in eating (bhojane matrajhutd) and application while staying
awake (jdgarydm anuyoga). Lamotte identified at A II, pp. 39-40 one o f their occurrences in the
nikaya. See also: SII, p. 219; A I, p. 113.
459. R, folio 514.2-539.1
According to the Bbh, vigour in benefiting sentient beings manifests eleven modes o f practice (op. cit.,
p. 201.26-27, but given on pp. 144.24-152.21). First, the bodhisattva renders assistance by assessing
the needs o f beings and decides what action is most appropriate to fulfil them. Second, he contributes
actively to the appeasement o f their suffering though practical and conceptual help (pp. 144.26-145.19).
Third, he persists in showing gratitude and respect to those sentient beings who have helped him.
Fourth, he protects frightened sentient beings from fear, be it the fear o f wild beasts, robbers or

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series of jdtaka-type stories depicting the edifying effects of &akyamuni’s previous selfless
service on the spirituality of innumerable beings. Three elements dominate the narratives.
First, we have the recurring use of the physician/patient simile. This is designed to elucidate
the bodhisattva’s commitment to humankind and to underline his unique influence to their
well-being. Second, physically his endeavours are sustained through the practice of vigour
that endows him with great resilience.460 Third, a key role in the practice of ‘vigour in
working for the benefit of beings’ falls to the dharmakaya. On the one hand, it braces the
bodhisattva for the enormous hardship and gives him sufficient stamina to pursue the path
without wavering:461

“O lord, of what nature is the bodhisattva’s dharmakaya? The lord replied: ‘O

Sariputra, his dharmakaya is firm, steadfast, unfaltering, compassionate, non­
perishing and unborn. He converts [sentient beings] by means of various bodies.
Although it is multiplied by the power of converting beings, like a vajra, it does
not perish in fire or is hurt through weapons. It is firm and does not waver. O
Sariputra, it is in this way that the bodhisattva who is of unfaltering vigour and
persists in the dharmakaya pursues effortlessly the perfection of vigour.”

On the other hand, the dharmakaya introduces to the dichotomies of worldly convention
and establishes the bodhisattva in true reality:462
defamation (pp. 145.20-146.4). Fifth, the bodhisattva relieves the suffering o f sentient beings who
have experienced calamity o f loss o f property. Sixth, he shows great vigour in cultivating generosity
in accordance with the needs. Seventh, the bodhisattva attracts wealthy beings around him in order to
obtain goods and implements with the aim o f redistributing them to the needy at a later occasion (pp.
146.13-150.12). Eighth, the bodhisattva complies with the expectations o f sentient beings. He lives as
one o f theirs among them and follows their habitual action. Ninth, the bodhisattva applauds whenever
good deeds or qualities come to his attention, whether they be associated to learning, renunciation or
wisdom (p. 150.13-19). Tenth, he punishes sentient beings in proportion to the nature o f their offence.
Eleventh, the bodhisattva resorts to his wonder-working powers in order to frighten sentient beings off
immoral action (pp. 150.20-152.17).
460. This point is dramatically exemplified at the example o f Sakyamuni’s endurance when his body is
carved up in order to appease the suffering o f beings following the demise o f DIpamkara (R, folio
519.4-527.1).
461. R, folio 527.1-528.2.
462. R, folio 532.4-7
In the $gs (pp. 144-45), the entire exposition of the perfection o f vigour is dominated by this very
theme, showing that the bodhisattva while nominally still functioning within a samsaric frame o f
reference has indeed passed well beyond its concerns, fetters and physical limitations. In the $gs, the
reason behind this elevated state o f existence is the bodhisattva’s entry into the suramgamasamadhi
that takes place on the tenth stage {op. cit., pp. 131-2, § 21). We might infer from this information that
the attainments cited in the Bdp under the heading of mental vigour culminating in the acquisition o f
the dharmakaya belong likewise to a later, if not the latest, phase of the bodhisattva career.

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“O Sariputra, again, a bodhisattva who is endowed with the dharmakaya—although

freed from time, origination and destruction—teaches in terms of origination and
destruction in order to ripen sentient beings. Although subject to death, he knows
that all dharma are non-dying and that the accumulation of karmic formations is
non-existent. Although bom, he knows that all dharma are unchanging and undying.
Although becoming, he knows that all dharma are unborn. One who relies on the
Doctrine and its body, on nourishment and power in order to ripen sentient beings
pursues the perfection of vigour with unfaltering spirit by means of the spontaneously
arisen, previous resolution.”

While it is possible to distinguish these two roles of the dharmakaya as conceptually

separate aspects, in practice no such distinction can be upheld. For, in essence, they epitomise
of course nothing but the interplay between the cognitive faculties and practical means that,
if well-balanced and truly interactive, become the only means of achieving any of the
perfections.

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The Perfection of Meditation

The perfection of meditation (dhyanaparamita), examined in chapter ten, represents the

penultimate paramita in the training-scheme of the B dp465 In type and conceptual emphasis,
the exposition shows all hallmarks of what—for want of better terminology—has been termed
as a Mahayana approach to dhyana.464 That is to say, the thrust of the discussion does not
revolve around the psychological processes at work during meditative experience, but
investigates the ways in which meditation contributes to the implementation of the bodhisattva
vow. As a result, dhyana is described not so much for the technical detail of the mental
processes at the heart of meditation as for its impact on the spiritual advance of the practitioner
himself and, more importantly, on that of his fellow beings. For the Bdp, meditation is not
solely an instrument of thought purification, but constitutes above all a means of moral
edification.
In the Bdp the true scope of meditation therefore extends well beyond the psychological
experience. It is at once contemplation and gnosis; it becomes the foundation to a broad
range of cognition, culminating in supreme enlightenment; it frees the bodhisattva from
doubt and lends itself to refined speech; it disentangles him from mistaken views and generates
the conditions for acts in miracles. Dhyana assumes therefore a unique position amongst the
paramita and retains great importance until the very last phases of his career.
Ordered to retrace the bodhisattva’s progress through meditation and the benefits thereof,
these practices come as a series of individual building blocks. Altogether, we can distinguish
ten, perhaps eleven, such units. Following the order of their occurrence in the text, these
include (1) a passage on the traditional four dhyana465, (2) the abhijna466, (3) the distinction
463. Chapter ten o f the Bodhisattvapitaka has already been object of an academic investigation. It is the
topic o f a PhD-dissertation, written by Dr. K.P. Pedersen at Columbia University, New York, 1976.
Since Dr. Pedersen utilised only Chinese translations o f the Bdp which—judging by her English
translation— do not always agree with the Tibetan versions, her discussion was o f limited help to my
examination. Furthermore, her analysis o f the contents contains some rather significant methodological
shortcomings, particularly with regard to the choice of material she consulted and the depth to which
she carried out her analysis. Notwithstanding its weakness, her contribution has its distinct merits, not
least because it allowed me to draw comparisons between the Chinese and Tibetan versions. As a
study o f the dhyanaparamita, however, it should be treated with caution because Dr. Pedersen has
failed to bring out many o f the important features that mark its treatment in the Bdp. Not wishing to
diminish her labour, I shall draw attention to these shortcomings only when my findings appear
irreconcilable with her analysis.
464. Pedersen, 1976, p. 79,
465. R, folio 550.2-51.3.
466. R, folio 551.7-72.4.

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between abhijna and jfiana461, (4) the realisation of dharma -sameness (dharmasamata) brought
about by jnana468, (5) the interplay between prajhd and upaya469, (6) the role of the abhijna in
the training470, (7) the nature of non-regressing abhijna (acutyabhijna)411, (8) the non­
apprehension of dharma411, (9) the marks and nature of the bodhisattvadhydna473 and (10) an
enumeration of fifteen foremost {purvamgama) contemplations of the dhyanaparamita414,
including a list of one hundred and one samadhi415 Setting out with the assumption that these
blocks were not positioned in an arbitrary fashion but represent individual thoughts that form
a scheme of conceptual coherence, it is clearly essential to identify the rationale behind their
concatenation.
The least problem in this regard is posed by the first two sections. Section one, dealing with
the four dhyana in what is the traditional way of exposition, is easily discemable as the basis
to the whole discussion.476 Briefly citing the respective mental attainments that mark progress
along the four dhyana, its function is to sketch the psychological states that equip the
bodhisattva with the refined awareness of worldly existence and prepare the more elevated
phases of cognition. This role is amply documented in Mahayana literature and therefore
needs not be discussed here.477 It occurs invariably at the beginning of discussions on dhyana
and—epitomising a practice adopted from early Buddhism—generally receives little attention.
Typically, it does not extend beyond an enumeration (and brief characterisation) of the major

467. R, folio 572.4-73.7.

468. R, folio 574.2-75.7.
469. R, folio 576.1-78.3.
470. R, folio 578.4-80.2.
471. R, folio 580.2-81.1.
472. R, folio 581.2-84.4.
473. R, folio 584.5-86.2.
474. R, folio 586.3-87.1.
475. In her study o f this chapter, Pedersen identified eight more units bringing the total number to eighteen.
Apart from a number o f obvious, but not very ground-breaking distinctions (between the individual
abhijna, for instance), these do not help in understanding the structure of the chapter and so have been
omitted here.
476. Descriptions detailing the psychological processes and attainment experienced by practitioners during
meditation are very stereotyped and occur in virtually all strands o f Buddhist literature. For references
in the nikaya, see: Mpps, ii, pp. 1023-4.
In Sanskrit literature, they are extant in the Lai (p. 129), Pahca (p. 167), Dasasdhasrika (pp. 98-99),
Dbh (Dasa-bh, pp. 33.28-34.17), Kosa (ii, p. 199; iii, pp. 2, 22-3, 167; vi, pp. 177, 198, 221-3) and
are even included in the Mvy (1478-81, 1492-5). A particularly lucid, if exhaustive treatment o f the
various experiences pertaining to Buddhist meditation is found in the Vism (pp. 84-90 up to p. 373)
and, above all, in the Kosa (viii, pp. 127-224).
In view o f its rich documentation, I shall not reiterate the states that accompany the practitioner’s
progress through the various dhyana and samapatti but point to a highly recommendable summary o f
these experiences in Lamotte’s introduction to the $gs (pp. 16-26).
477. Akn, p. 49.1.2-2.3; Bbh, p. 207.2-7; Ug, p. 271.1.5-8; Dasa-bh, pp. 33.28-34.17.

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categories of meditation levels.478 The reason for their apparent neglect in Mahayana sutras is
probably twofold. First, all of these are also attainable by Sravaka and pratyekabuddhas and
so are not particular to Mahayana thinking. Second, their impact on the bodhisattva’s vow is
relatively small, since they primarily occasion personal advance that has no direct effect on
the well-being of sentient beings.479
In exegetical writings on the paramita, this class of meditation bears an independent status
and is called ‘meditation leading to a blissful abode in this life’ (drstidharmasukhaviharaya
dhydna).m Its chief task consists in suppressing vain imagination (vikalpa), pride {manyand),
attachment (trsna) and marks {nimitta) and in promoting mental and physical tranquillity,
repose and a blissful life in this world.481 Invariably listed as the first type of meditation,
drstidharmasukhavihdrayadhydna is unmistakably regarded as the lowest type of meditation
and has little more than a preparatory function to dhyana practice proper.
Dhyana practice proper is epitomised by the second phase of meditative training that, in
later literature, came to bear the title ‘meditation of production’ (abhinirhdradhyana).482
Building on the contemplations of the first phase, it is characterised by the abhijna and their
preparatory concentrations 483 As most of the preliminary absorptions are shared with the
Sravaka and pratyekabuddhas, it is abhijna and pristine cognition (jnana) that figure prominently

478. For a analysis o f these classes o f meditation, see: Mpps, iii, pp. 1209-1309.
According to the Bbh, however, the bodhisattva attains the vimoksa, abhibhvayatana and krtsnayatana
not before the second stage in the dhyana-practice (p. 207.19-23).
479. In the Akn (pp. 48.4.5-49.1.2) the traditional list of meditations is replaced by an enumeration o f
sixteen types o f dhyana that are specific to the bodhisattva. While these are presented as independent
forms o f meditation, their nature makes it clear that they sum up the various aspects o f the
bodhisattvadhyana. These are (1) meditation that is not attached to anything as it is aimed at the
tathagatadhyana (not included in dhyana list o f Pahca, pp. 198-203), (2) meditation that is not to be
tasted (Bbh, p. 208.13-16), (3) meditation that has as object compassion since it is aimed at the
purification o f defilement, (4) meditation that allows for return to the kamadhatu, (5) meditation
completing preparation for the abhijna, (6) meditation leading to fitness o f thought sinceitrepresents
knowledge o f the power o f thought, (7) meditation of knowledge of all formso f dhyana and theways
o f departing, (8) totally peaceful meditation that surpasses the samadhi o f all vehicles, (9) meditation
wholly undisturbed due to its infinite certitude (Ms/, xix.38, p. 166. 25), (10) meditation that serves as
antidote to mistaken practice since it subdues all vice, (11) meditation that amounts to penetration into
wisdom since it operates beyond all worlds, (12) meditation that is preceded by the intention to
liberate all beings, (13) meditation that prevents the interruption o f the triratna since it fulfils the
tathagatadhyana, (14) meditation that is not slackening since it is always concentrated, (15) meditation
that leads to control over all dharma since it fulfils the buddha-qualities and (16) meditation that
pervades space on account of its vast knowledge.
480. Bbh, p. 207.10-11; Siddhi, p. 622; Msg, p. 192.
481. Bbh, p. 207.9-10; Msg, commentary, p. 192.
482. According to the Siddhi (p. 622), its full title is bodhisattvasamadhigunanirharyaya dhyana.
483. These include, besides unspecified meditations particular to the tathagatagotra, eight vimoksa, ten
krtsnayatana, four abhibhvayatana, pranidhijhana, aranajnana and, according to the Bbh, also the
fourpratisamvidjnana (p. 207.21-23).

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in Mahayana texts.484In the Akn, the different roles of the two are neatly summed up:485

“For what serves meditation as preparation? Fulfilment of the abhijna and pristine
cognition. What is abhijna and what is pristine cognition? Vision of the appearance
of all forms is abhijna. Knowledge that the dharma of all forms are imperishable
without realising the imperishable Dharma is pristine cognition. Hearing of all
words is abhijna. Knowledge that all sounds are ineffable and timeless is pristine
cognition. Knowledge of the thoughts of all sentient beings is abhijna. Refraining
from realising the cessation of thought when perceiving the cessation of thought is
pristine cognition.”

Broadly speaking, this characterisation holds also true for the Bdp. As indicated in the list
of topics, the theme that follows immediately on the drstidharmasukhavihdrayadhydna phase
is abhijna with the discussion of pristine cognition being third.486 The vast majority of
Buddhist sources, both Pali and Sanskrit, expound the abhijna in the following sequence: (1)
rddhividhijhana, (2) divyasrotrajnana,, (3) paracittajndna (also called cetahparydyajndna),
(4) purvanivasdnusmrtijndna, (5) divyacaksujhdna (also called cyutyupapddajhdna) and (6)
asravaksayajhana,487 As the last item, knowledge of the destruction of the asrava, is a
characteristic of arhantship and occurs only in the life that ends in entry into nirvana, it is not
applicable to the long-term training of the bodhisattva and Mahayana sutras tend to exclude

484. For examples among the sutras, see: Akn, p. 49.1.2-2.2; Pahca, p. 514; Dasa-bh, pp. 34.19-24; For
the sastras, see, for instance: Bbh, p. 207.17-25; Msg, p. 192; Siddhi, p. 622.
The one exception is the Ug (p. 271.1.6-7) that indicates that the bodhisattva engages already during
phase two in a teaching and conversion activity.
According to the Msg (pp. 221-224), this phase includes besides the practice o f the maharddhi and
duskaracaryd, the cultivation o f the six paramita, the deliberate generation o f ten kinds o f roots o f
virtue, the attainment o f ten buddha-qualities, the ripening of sentient beings, the purification o f the
buddha-field and the production o f buddha-attributes.
Attainment o f the five/six abhijna manifestations is dependent on the successful practice o f meditative
absorption. Passages attesting this dependency are already found in the earliest strands o f Buddhist
literature. Thus, we read in the Samahhaphalasutta (M I, p. 77) that their presence arises only in “a
concentrated mind that is pure and composed, free from fault, unstained, supple, alert, stable and
wholly unperturbed”. This association between meditation practice and the cultivation of the abhijna
has ever since formed the backbone to the Buddhist understanding o f the abhijna.
485. Akn, p. 49.1.2-7.
486. References to the six abhijna are plentiful and spread throughout the Buddhist canon. For a selection
o f occurences, see: Mpps, iv, pp. 1809. For references to the abhijna in Sanskrit literature, see: Kosa
(vii, pp. 97-126), Catusparisasutra (Waldschmidt, 1957, pp. 432-34), Dasa-bh (pp. 34-36), Pahca
(pp. 83-87), Bbh (p. 58.13-1 '%),$iks (p. 243), Ms/(p. 25.2-10, p. 185.11-17) and Dhsgr (§ 20).
487. Of these purvanivasdnusmrtijndna, cyutyupapddajhdna and asravaksayajhana correspond to the three
sciences (vidya) o f the same name that the Buddha attained during the three watches in the night
preceding enlightenment (D III, pp. 220, 275; A V, p. 221; Kosa, vii, p. 107).

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it from their discussions of abhijha.m The Bdp is no exception.

Where it does differ from most texts, however, is the order of presentation, discussing first
divyacaksus, second divyasrotra, third paracittajndna, fourth purvanivasdnusmrtijndna and
fifth rddhividhijnana.m No reason for this change of sequence is given in the Bdp itself.
The Dhyanasutra (cited in the Mpps) provides the following explanation.490 At first, the
bodhisattva obtains divine sight. Having seen all beings, but being unable to hear their
sounds, he then seeks the abhijna of divine hearing. Furnished with divine sight and hearing,

488. Representing this view, the Vbt explicitly excludes the sixth super-knowledge from the abhijna
practice o f the bodhisattva (p. 130; trsl. Lamotte):
“A domain where the six super-knowledge are explored, but without arriving at the knowledge
o f the destruction o f the impurities (asravaksayajhana), such is the domain o f the bodhisattva.”
This position is slightly qualified in the Mpps (iv, pp. 1817-18) arguing that a bodhisattva who has
destroyed his impurity (ksinasrava) may elude nirvana provided that the traces (vdsand) o f his impurity
still prevail. Traditionally, destruction o f impurity motivated by the yearning for personal liberation
meant arhantship and subsequent nirvana. In the Mahayana, this proposition was modified to make
room for the ideal o f the bodhisattva. Accordingly, for a bodhisattva who utterly destroyed his klesa
and the flow o f vdsand, the attainment o f asravaksaya occurs only at the tenth stage, shortly before he
achieves buddhahood. However, incomplete exhaustion of impurity, viz., with the vdsand still intact,
means that a bodhisattva— determined to utilise the remaining klesavasand to prolong his liberating
activity—sheds all constraints while traversing samsdra. Held to take place on the eighth stage (Mpps,
ii, p. 1801), it enables him to assume the manifestations o f the dharmadhdtujakaya in this quest for
universal liberation and to return to samsdra without fear o f contamination.
The Rgv (pp. 245-6), citing the Sgm, distinguishes eight factors that prevent the bodhisattva from
actually realising the destruction o f the asrava. These are (1) non-satiety in seeking merit, (2) intentional
acceptance o f existence through origination, (3) earnest desire to meet with the buddha, (4) indefatigability
in ripening sentient beings, (5) strenuous effort to acquire the Dharma, (6) diligent application to
benefiting sentient beings, (7) non-abandoning o f the propensity o f desire for dharma and (8) non­
reluctance from fetters o f the highest virtue. Referred to as ‘defilements endowed with virtuous roots’
(kusalamulasamprayukta klesdh), they fasten the bodhisattva by means o f compassion to this world
but protect him by means o f cognition from personal exposure to worldly defilements. Springing from
the cultivation o f the five abhijna fostered through meditation, all eight become collectively operational
on the sixth stage (abhimukhibhumi)— the moment when the bodhisattva comes for the first time ‘face
to face’ with reality— and prompt him to abide in meditation in order acquire the bodhyahga (op. cit.,
pp. 250-2).
Also in the Rgv (op. cit., pp. 227-28) we find an interesting passage elucidating the relationship
between asravaksaya, asravaksayajhana and the five mundane abhijna. Likening their contributions
to the manifestations o f a lantern, the text suggests that the worldly abhijna have a “characteristic o f
engaging in (pratyupasthana) the extinction o f darkness that is opposite to knowledge which perceives
an object (arthdnubhava)”; that knowledge o f the destruction o f the asrava resembles ‘heat’ because
o f its characteristic o f engaging in consuming the fuel of the active force and defilements, leaving no
residue; and that the actual destruction o f the asrava resemblance colour because o f its perfect purity
resulting from moral and cognitive attainments. When becoming simultaneously manifest at the
‘immaculate sphere’, they are inseparable from each other, identical and in union with the absolute.
In spite o f the tendency to discuss all six abhijna en bloc, there are a few texts in which asravaksayajhana
is excluded. Apart from a few instances in the nikaya (e.g., S II, pp. 121-22) this applies particularly
to works belonging to the Sanskrit tradition, viz., Mvu (i, p. 284..3; ii, pp. 33.11, 96.1), Divya, p.
321.3; Saddhp (pp. 134.11,141.9, 254.14) and Site (p. 243.13).
489. I have found just three texts in which the abhijna are discussed in the same sequence, that is, the
Dhsgr (§ 20). Paramitdsamdsa (Meadows, p. 228-232. vss. 40-66) and Akn (pp. 58.5.6-61.5.3).
Apart from these, only the Mvy (202-208) appears to list the abhijna in this order. Most other texts
place the faculty o f rddhi at the beginning o f the list and the divyacaksus at the end (e.g., Pahca, pp.
460-61, Dasa-bh, pp. 35-6, M)
490. Mpps, iv, p. 1823.

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but still ignorant of their languages, sorrow and joys, he seeks the unique knowledge of
language (niruktipratisamvid).491 Knowledgeable in other people’s languages, but ignorant of
the their thought, the practitioner seeks knowledge of the thoughts of others. Still not knowing
their place of origin, he sets out to acquire the abhijna of their previous existence and to heal
their mental ailments (<cittavyadhi). For this purpose he seeks the abhijna of the destruction
of the impurities. However, even though he has mastered five abhijna, the bodhisattva is not
able to carry out transformations (nirmana) and is therefore still unable to liberate beings in
great numbers, so he resolves to pursue the abhijna of magical powers.492 The reason why the
rddhividhya is generally cited at the beginning is not because it is attained before the other
abhijna, but because of its great impact on the liberation of beings.493 In this sense, for the
bodhisattva, it is the most important of all six. Divyacaksus, on the other hand, is cited first
because, being the easiest to acquire, it is the natural starting point for the pursuit of the

491. Clearly, this reference to the niruktipratisamvid comes as a surprise and raises some questions about
the scope o f the divyasrotrajhana. Does the text indicate that the attainment of the niruktipratisamvid
precedes the acquisition o f the abhijna? What is the relationship between the divyasrotrajhana and
niruktipratisamvid? The idea in the Dhyanasutra is that the divyasrotrajhana enables the bodhisattva
merely to hear the sounds o f all beings—not to understand their meaning. This interpretation is borne
out in several other passages where the cognitive factors are suspiciously omitted (e.g., Mpps, iv, p.
1822). Conceptually, however, both types o f knowledge operate on the same level as the divyasrotrajhana
and niruktipratisamvid, operating in the kdmadhatu and the first dhyana, fall into the category o f
samvrtijhana (Mpps, ii, p. 1042, iii, p. 1619). Thus, while it may carry personal benefit, for a compassionate
practitioner to win maximum benefit from the divyasrotrajhana— for both himself and others— the
text advises him to complement it with knowledge o f vocal expressions (nirukti).
The key to a correct understanding o f the appearance of the concept o f niruktipratisamvid is found
when recalling that in the Dhyanasutra we have a text belonging to early Buddhism. Its interpretation
o f the niruktipratisamvid has therefore to be seen in a Sravakayana frame o f reference. The view that
divyasrotrajhana does not lend itself to understanding languages and sounds is not found in Mahayana
works (Mpps, i, pp. 330-31, 1822; Bbh, pp. 67.25-69.10). On the contrary, it is highly valued and
figures among the chief benefits that accrue to the bodhisattva from meditative practice (Msg, p. 224,
§ 8.8-9).
492. According to the Mpps (ii, p. 1043) the bodhisattva’s power o f transformation increases with his
advance through the four dhyana stages. It springs from the thought o f creation (nirmdnacitta) and,
during the first dhyana, is operational on the kdmadhatu. During the successive stages it functions also
in the rupadhatu (cf. Kosa, vii, p. 114). As all types o f rddhi have matter as object (rupalambana),
arising successively, the bodhisattva is compelled— should he wish to see, hear or touch any object— to
call again on the cognition o f the Brahmaloka experienced during the first dhyana (Mpps, i, p. 330).
Altogether, one distinguishes fourteen different types o f nirmdnacitta, accomplishing eight kinds o f
creation. These include decrease, increase, taking away weight, exercising power (vasitvakarana) over
physical shapes, possessing the superhuman power o f Indra, drawing apart and together, causing
earthquakes and personal transformation. Finally, there are four additional types o f creation that
address transformation o f substances. These spring either from learning in magic, the abhijna, the
forces o f retribution and meditation— all dealing invariably with matter—and are bound to the kdmadhatu
(Mpps, i, pp. 381-3).
493. In fact, the Mpps (iv, p. 1820) states quite emphatically that the advanced nature o f the cognitive
requirements for the attainment o f the rddhi are such that, being linked with space and observing the
mark o f emptiness, it cannot but stand at the end of a long process of schooling. A similar view is also
held by the Kosa (vii, p. 104), adding that this preparation (prayoga) leads in each and every case to
mastery (vasita) in rddhi, that is the eighth o f the ten vasitd that manifest on the acalabhumi (Dasa-bh,
p. 71.15-16).

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abhijna.m
In the Bdp, the rationale behind the cultivation of abhijna is twofold. By means of those
abhijna. that involve cognition, the bodhisattva gains a complete picture of samsaric existence
and penetrates the processes that sustain and perpetuate its continuum ad infinitum .49S Exposing
him to the vastness of sorrow that particularly prevails in the evil destinies, they strengthen
his resolve to dedicate all resources to its complete eradication.496 This cognitive aspect of the
first four abhijna is complemented by a second, active element that shows the ways in which
their cosmic knowledge has an immediate, practical effect on the training proper. The most
effective of these means is provided by rddhividhyabhijna itself497As it depends for profitable
implementation on knowledge acquired through the four preceding abhijna, it is cited in the
Bdp in last position.
The actual division into cognitive and practical elements is somewhat blurred in the Bdp,
since its functional demarcation is not always implemented. This is particularly true of the
divyacaksus that is credited with immediate and de facto influence on the conduct of beings498
For example, it said to grant the bodhisattva power over the moral conduct of beings499 and to
introduce beings to the practice of the paramita :500
494. The distinction between ‘easy’ and ‘difficult’ abhijna applies to all beings except the most advanced
bodhisattva. This, at least, is the reason that is given by the Mpps in reply to the question why the
bodhisattva 6akyamuni, during the night preceding his enlightenment, began his abhijna practice with
the rddhi and not the divyacaksus (Mpps, iv, p. 1825).
495. R, folio 553.3-5.
496. R, folio 555.5.
497. A survey o f the types o f iddhi/rddhi that arhants and bodhisattvas attain in the course o f their career is
given below, note 516.
498. According to the Mpps (i, pp. 330-31), divine sight falls into two major categories, depending on the
causes that lead to its unfolding. First, there is the kind that arises from exercise (bhavana). This form
o f divine sight is wholly based on the practice o f the abhijna and is undoubtedly the kind exhibited in
the Bdp. The second kind o f divyacaksus arises on the basis of retribution (vipaka). Strictly speaking,
its presence is independent o f training in the abhijna as it arises on the basis o f insight. To be precise,
it is only attained by bodhisattvas who, having reached the ‘conviction o f the non-arising o f dharma*,
are not found in the six destinies but appear by virtue of their dharmakaya in the world in order to
convert beings. This form o f divyacaksus is not found among worldly, newly-set-out bodhisattvas who
have not attained the dharmakaya.
499. R, folio 554.2.
500. R, folio 555.3-556.1
In the Ratnolkadharani (&iks, p. 328.1-9; trsl. Bendall) we read in connection with the effects o f
miraculous feats:
“Some instruct all creatures in a thousand expedient by means o f the Tathagata’s worship, by
means o f infinite gifts and generosity, by means o f the practice o f all [types of] asceticism,
some by means o f indestructible and imperturbable patience, by means o f the heroism o f
austerity and vows, by means o f meditation and calm in the hermitage, by means o f the
knowledge discriminating what is good, by means of thousands o f expedients ... by means o f
the miracles o f the conduct o f the great vehicle” (cf. Mpps, pp. 1049,1111; $iks, pp. 334-7).
The Bbh (p. 210.3-17) adds that the bodhisattva who is established in the dhyanaparamita disciplines
sentient beings by the three types o f miraculous display (rddhipratihdrya), that he grants elocution to the
ill-spoken and bestows memory to the forgetful.

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“His divine sight means that he does not show hostility towards those who seek
[instruction]; that he is not angered by those who transgress the moral precepts,
but that he watches over their harmful thoughts. It means that he encourages the
indolent and instructs the agitated in the branches of meditation. It gives true sight
of wisdom to those who are of aberrant wisdom.”

Spanning much of samsdra501, the divyacaksus is particularly important since it endorses

the bodhisattva’s vision of suffering and liberation. On the one hand, it generates awareness
of and compassion towards the afflicted sentient beings—the raison d ’etre of the vow itself.502
On the other hand, allowing for glimpses at the state of buddhahood, it kindles a personal
ambition and encourages in times of weariness.503 Both points are clearly expressed in the
Bdp and, although conceptually not correlated, unmistakably form the backbone to its treatment
of the divyacaksus 504
The twofold approach, distinguishing cognitive and practical elements, is also adopted in
the discussion of divine hearing (divyasrotra). Here, the point is made that the bodhisattva’s
501. Strictly speaking, the divyacaksus operates— like the rddhi and divyasrotra and, according to some, also
the paracittajhana and cyutyupapddajhdna—only in the kdmadhatu and rupadhdtu as it depends for its
objects on matter. Hence it arises only from the four dhyana and not from the formless samdpatti {Kosa,
vii, p. 102). In the Kosabhasya (pp. 429.17-430.3) we are told that the scope o f the divyacaksus varies
according to the persons who generate it. If they do not make any specific effort, Sravaka are able o f
survey one Sahasra universe, pratyekabuddhas one Dvisahasra universe and buddhas one Trisahasra
universe. However, should they apply themselves to the divyacaksus vision, Sravaka can extend their sight
to one Dvisahasra universe, pratyekabuddhas to one Trisahasra universe and buddhas to infinite universes.
Like the divyasrotra, the divyacaksus is only attainable by persons who have eliminated all desire. This
state is achieved when the practitioners is freed from all passions pertaining to the kdmadhatu when he
embarks on the dhyana o f the rupadhdtu {Mpps, v, p. 2273).
The M sl (p. 143.8-10) distinguishes five kinds o f sight springing from the cultivation o f rddhipdda. These
are the (1) eye o f flesh (mdnisacaksus), (2) divine sight {divyacaksus), (3) noble vision o f wisdom
(idryaprajhacaksus), (4) Dharma-vision (dharmacaksus) and (5) the buddha-vision (buddhacaksus).
502. This thought is o f course not exclusive to the Bdp, but occurs in most Mahayana sutras where the abhijna
are discussed (cf. Mpps, ii, pp. 1055-6). That it found its place with this role into the scheme o f the path at
a very early stage is attested by a passage in the Asta (p. 403; trsl. Conze) where we read that:
“[The bodhisattva] surveys countless beings with his heavenly eye, and what he sees fills him
with great, agitation: so many carry the burden o f a karma which leads to immediate retribution
in the hell, other have acquired unfortunate rebirth, other are doomed to be killed, or they are
enveloped in the net o f false views, or fail to find the path, while other who have gained a
fortunate rebirth have lost it again. And he attends to them with the thought that: ‘I shall
become a saviour to all those beings, I shall release them from all their suffering.’ ”
503. R, folio 554.3-5:
“Having seen [the congregation o f buddhas and bodhisattvas], the divine sight prompts the
bodhisattva to accomplish the armour o f the holy person, [to acquire] correct conduct and
practice, recollection {smrti), mindfulness {samprajana), steadifastness in the path and in pristine
cognition [showing that] all dharma are liberated, skill in pristine cognition in the attainment
o f d/iaraw including skill in wisdom, knowledge and means.”
504. Both points are, for instance, raised next to each other in R, folio 553.2-554.3.

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capability to understand the whole range of sound—human and non-human—has important

implications not only because it allows him to grasp the teaching in their true compassion-
inducing spirit and retain them in their entirety505, but moreover, to transmit these faithfully to
his audience.506 In particular, it enables the bodhisattva to attune his discourses to the need
and receptivity of his listeners.507 For the Bdp the ground that is covered by the divyasrotra is
therefore in many ways comparable to that of the Mahayana conception of niruktipratisamvid,
a point which as was already made in connection with a reference in the Dhyanasutra.
The third abhijna, knowledge of the thought of others {paracittajhana), grants insight into
the mental disposition of all beings, irrespective of spatial or temporal constraints. In particular
it allows the bodhisattva to assess the degree that their faculties have been exposed to, or
moulded by, the bodhisattva practices508 and so permits him to ease beings into the appropriate
vehicle.509 The main purpose of learning other people’s thought is therefore to dispense
instruction in the most suitable way.510

“Even though [the bodhisattva] goes among his listeners, he discerns all of them
immediately; and having discerned [their aptitude], he teaches the Dharma to
sentient beings in exact accordance with their disposition.”

Since it influences the speed and success rate of the bodhisattva’s conversion activity—the
only gauge against which his progress is ultimately measured—knowledge of the thought of
others clearly plays an important role.
The fourth abhijna, knowledge of the recollection o f previous births
(purvanivasdnusmrtijndna) is aimed chiefly at the bodhisattva’s personal advance.511 According
to the Bdp, the main benefit of this type of knowledge is not so much the recollection of the
previous existences per se, but penetration into the circumstances that brought them about in
the first place.512The rationale behind this emphasis is the need for awareness of the mechanisms
505. R, folio 558.2.
506. R, folio 558.6.
507. R, folio 558.7-559.2.
508. R, folio 560.6-61.3.
509. R, folio 562.3-563.2.
510. R, folio 564.4-5.
511. For discussion o f the psychological processes that underlie the purvanivasdnusmrtijndna and their parallels
in Indian systems contemporary to the Buddha, see Eliade: Yoga; Immortality and Freedom, 1969, pp.
180-85, 186-199. Consult also Demieville, P.: “La memoire des existences anterieures” (BEFEO; 1927,
pp. 283-98) from which much of Eliade’s detail is drawn.
512. R, folio 566.6-67.2.

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that determine becoming and the assumption of a suitable attitude towards existence. In
particular, it has the benefit of preventing conceit to arise:513

“O Sariputra, taking into account [the marks of] suffering, transience, non-self
and emptiness, the bodhisattva is not infatuated with beauty, wealth, servants,
sovereignty or with a yearning to become a cakravartin, Indra, Brahma and world-
guardian ... assuming these existences intentionally (samcintya) only in order to
ripen all sentient beings.”

He acknowledges, disapproves and repents his previous impure action and undertakes to
dedicate his roots of virtue to the cause of enlightenment.514Pledging to continue the lineages
of the three jewels, the bodhisattva sustains his recollection through the supporting power of
the dharmadhatu that leads to equipment in punya Jnana and paramita, since:515

“It is in this way that all the dhaima of the past, present and future are kept in
memory by the power that generated this recollection.”

That such an accumulation of qualities is foremost a personal achievement is amply

documented in Buddhist literature. Also in the Bdp training in the recollection of previous
births is primarily of personal benefit and has little immediate impact on others.
In contrast the abhijna of magical power (rddhi) is entirely oriented towards the spiritual
advance of sentient beings. While many texts diverge on the scope and kinds of magical
power that are included in rddhi516, virtually all agree that its prime objective is the conversion
513. R, folio 567.2-5.
514. R, folio 567.6-7.
515. R, folio 568.1-5, folio 568.5-7.
516. Compare, for instance, the types o f iddhi in the S V, p. 264 with those cited in the Dasa-bh (pp. 34-36).
Later Mahayana scholars produced further subdivisions that allocate the rddhi elements to thematic
groups. A good example o f such academic digression is found in the Mpps (ii, pp. 329-30). Here,
distinguished by their character as either displacement (gamana), creation (nirmdna) or noble magic
power (aryarddhi), the rddhipada fall into three major categories. The gamana-class consists o f four
rddhi types, that is (1) unobstructed movement by flying like a bird, (2) instantaneous change o f location,
(3) plunging and emerging and (4) instantaneous disappearance. The rddhi o f the nirmana-class consist in
the change o f the (1) size, (2) power o f multiplication and (3) the possibility to create at will whatever is
desired. Finally, the rddhi o f the aryarddhi-class concern the conversion o f impure substances into pure
ones. This last type o f rddhi is held to be available only to a Buddha (cf. D III, p. 112; Kosa, vii, p. I l l ,
viii, p. 210). According to the Kosa (vii, p. 113), the gamana-class o f rddhi comprises only three rddhi,
that is transportation, miracles (adhimoksa) and rapid displacement with the speed o f thought.
Adopting a slightly different classification, the Kosa distinguishes rddhi by the method o f production (vii,
pp. 122-3). Accordingly, on one level, it differentiates between rddhi stemming from cultivation (bhdvana)

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of beings.517With this function, rddhi assumed great importance in the Mahayana where their
application is strongly encouraged and praised as a factor of immense potency. This thoroughly
positive attitude constituted a departure from the dogmatism and more cautious approach
among the more conservative circles of early Buddhism. In many Pali sources, the Buddha
appears to endorse their performance only hesitantly and with a series of stringent reservations.518
or meditation (dhyana) and innate (upapattildbhika) rddhi. Expanding on this division, it considers also
rddhi springing from spells (mantrakrta), rddhi springing from herbs (osadhikrta) and rddhi springing
from acts (karmaja) as distinct categories o f rddhi. As it does not give examples o f these five classes,
concentrating instead on further ever more complex subdivisions, we are dealing here probably with a
division o f little but academic bearing.
517. E.g., Mpps (iv, pp. 1819—22), &gs (p. 221), Dasa-bh (p. 36), Saddhp (pp. 72.1-78.5), Bbh (pp. 63.1-69.10,
152.10-14), Msl (p. 185.10-16) and Msg (p. 294, § 15).
The other important use to which the rddhi are put to is that o f buddhapiija. Several treatises mention this
as a specific purpose o f the bodhisattva’s attainments in rddhi (e.g., Mpps, ii, p. 1055, Saddhp, pp.
404-422).
Compare with the list that is given in the Msl (pp. 142.13-143.16) distinguishing six types o f realising the
rddhipada, consisting o f (1) sight (darsana), (2) instruction (avavada), (3) stable miraculous power
(sthitivikridita), (4) resolution (pranidha), (5) mastery (vasita), (6) Dharma attainment (dharmaprapti).
518. The question o f the Buddha’s attitude to the use iddhi as part o f the conversion process has long occupied
Buddhist scholarship. The single most important source for this controversy has always been the
Kevaddhasutta (D III, pp. 211-15). In a series o f comments in the introduction to his translation o f the
Kevaddhasutta, TW Rhys Davids suggests that the Buddha strongly disapproved o f their use. Half a
century later, this proposition was taken up by Louis Gomez, arguing that the Buddha rejected the use o f
iddhi chiefly because two o f three types of wondrous display (patihdriya) are not the exclusive property of
the enlightened and are available to practitioners o f the magical arts o f Gandhara (Gomez, in: Lancaster,
1977, p. 221). The validity o f this argument has been challenged by Gethin on the basis o f an alleged
linguistic misinterpretation (Gethin, 1987, p. 196). The gist of Gethin’s criticism o f this position revolves
around the assumption that the practice o f the iddhi were ‘unnatural’ to the nikaya in the sense that stand
apart from Buddhist practice. Springing from meditative absorption just as the jhana, the iddhi appear
indeed fully integrated into the Sravaka training. The reason why the Buddha disapproved o f Kevaddha’s
request for an iddhi demonstration, he argues, is not because he dismissed iddhi as such but because he
feared that the public display o f their kind would yield no tangible results in terms o f conversion.
Arguing that for the faithful, the performance of miracles would only serve to reinforce the trust and
amazement that they hold anyway, while the sceptic would dismiss it as a magical trick with no deeper
significance, Gethin contends that the Buddha thought the same way. As a result, in contrast with those
monks who were willing to comply and conjure miracles, the attainments o f the arhant would clearly lose
in standing for the laity—an effect the Buddha had clearly every interest to avoid. While somewhat failing
to explain the Buddha’s apparent readiness to endorse the other two types o f wondrous display, that is the
wondrous display o f mind-reading (adesana) and the wondrous display o f instruction (anusasanl), Gethin’s
argument has undeniable attractions. Above all, it tallies well with the Vinaya rule (ii, p. 112; trsl. Gethin)
that the Buddha pronounced in response to Pindola Bharadvaja’s performance o f miracles before the
inhabitants o f Rajagaha:
“O monks, a display o f miraculous iddhi beyond the capacity o f ordinary men is not to be
exhibited to the householders. If someone exhibits [such], there is a dukkata offence.”
The reason that given in support o f this rule is that:
“It is neither [conducive] to trust for those without trust, nor to growth for those with trust.
Indeed, O monks, it is [conducive] to lack of trust for those without trust and to loss [of trust]
for some o f those with trust.”
Today, it is o f course impossible to know for certain what exactly led the Buddha to this attitude. Buddhist
sources record several well-known instances in the early days o f his ministry where he seemed quite
prepared to engage in the public display o f iddhi. Perhaps, he was guided in this judgement by his
personal experience at Uruvela, when hoping to convert Kassapa, the ascetic, he was confronted with the
absurd situation o f a ‘thraumaturgic impasse’.
The Kosa (vii, pp. 111-12) cites as additional reason for the Buddha’s apparent criticism o f the display of
rddhi the fact that rddhipratiharya (as well as ddesandpratiharya) captivates the minds o f the audience
for only a short time, while the anusdsaniprdtihdrya inspires the production o f wholesome and benefiting

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By the time the earliest Mahayana sutras appeared, much of the disquiet about the suitability
of miracles to further the cause of Buddhism had apparently evaporated. The rich imagery
found in the Saddhp519 and the tentative inclusion of miraculous feats in the otherwise rather
technical discussions of the Asta520 bear testimony to their early presence in Mahayana
literature.
Whatever the dissent concerning the use to which rddhi could be put, Pali and Sanskrit
works show broad agreement on the conditions that lead to their mastery. In virtually every
source that discusses the performance of rddhi, we leam that they depend for generation on
extensive and deep meditation.521 In particular, acquisition of magical powers is associated
with training in the four bases of success (j'ddhipada).522

attitudes. Hence the firm affirmation that anusdsaniprdtihdrya is the best form a miraculous display
(prdtihdrya).
519. The Saddhp contains what is probably the best known early example o f the use o f rddhi for benefiting
others in Mahayana sutras. The passage I have in mind is, of course, that o f the image o f the burning
house conjured up in order to encourage sentient beings to leave the world and follow the path o f
Buddhism (pp. 72.1-78.5). Other examples o f rddhi are found in chapter fourteen (op. cit., pp. 297-314)
describing the emergence o f bodhisattvas from suddenly appearing gaps in the earth.
520. Asta, pp. 381, 383-4, 464a-465,466.
521. The fullest canonical account o f the method of their generation is found in the Patis (ii, pp. 205-6). Here,
we read that the iddhi depend for unfolding on four ‘planes o f success’ (iddhiyabhumiyo), on the four
iddhipada, on ‘eight footings o f success’ (iddhiyapadani) and on ‘sixteen roots o f success’ (iddhiyamulani).
Referring to this passage in the Vism (xii.49-50, 54-5), Buddhaghosa explains that the four levels are
nothing but the four jhdna (xii.49); that the eight footings denote the iddhipada— each one considered
from the aspect o f concentration and from that o f its basis (that is chanda, viriya, citta and vimamsa)— and
that the sixteen roots target the various obstacles that perturb consciousness (xii.54-55). He adds that
before a monk can become proficient in the seven iddhi, he has to master all eight ‘basic absorptions’,
meaning that he is capable o f entering each o f the eight attainments on the basis o f all eight kasina at will
(Vism xii.2-7). Although held to be extremely difficult to achieve and therefore limited to very few, he
allows for the option that, besides buddhas and pratyekabuddhas, very advanced disciples may acquire
iddhi at the threshold o f arhantship (xii.l 1).
522. In the Pali Canon, the iddhipada are regularly presented in the following stereotyped description (DII, pp.
213-4; trsl. Gethin):
“Here a monk develops the basis o f success that is furnished both with concentration (samadhi)
gained by means o f desire to act (chanda), and with forces o f endeavour (padhdnasamkhdra).
He develops the basis o f success that is furnished both with concentration gained by means o f
vigour (viriya) and with forces o f endeavour. He develops the basis o f success that is furnished
both with concentration gained by means o f mind (citta) and with forces o f endeavour. He
develops the basis o f success that is furnished both with concentration gained by means o f
investigation and with forces o f endeavour.”
As indicated by this brief passage, the iddhipada consist primarily in an interplay o f three elements:
meditation, forces o f endeavour and the four factors that bring about absorption (chanda, viriya, citta,
vimaijisa). It is therefore slightly incorrect to associate the bases o f success with any o f these three factors
in particular. The commentaries on the Samyuttanikaya and Vibhanga leave no doubt that the significance
o f the interaction lies in the sustaining and promoting of the process o f meditative attainments (Vibh, §
303).
The exact nature o f chanda, viriya, citta and vimamsa is left undiscussed in most iddhipada contexts o f
the nikaya. Gethin points to an simile in the Sv (ii, pp. 642-3), indicating that their chief objective is to
represent progressively easier means o f achieving one’s purpose—the person who is endowed with vimamsa
being in the best position (Gethin, p. 174).
This view tallies approximately with the interpretations found in the Sanskrit sources o f the northern
tradition. Here, chanda-, viriya-, citta- and mimamsasamddhi are typically interpreted as mental one-

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Generation of four bases of success is also the point of departure for the B dp’s exposition
on rddhi, where their presence becomes a chief requirement for any kind of magical prodigy
(rddhiprdtiharya).523 Of particular interest is the Bdp’s listing of desire, intimidation and
sovereignty alongside the traditional rddhipada of chanda, virya, citta and mimamsa,524 The
reason for their presence becomes clear when we look at the areas in which the bodhisattva’s
magical force is displayed. First, setting out to attract following by addressing people’s
yearning for physical beauty, he assumes exquisite shapes and colours.525 Second, by
demonstrating immense strength, the bodhisattva disheartens conceited, wrathful or
presumptuous beings, thereby creating favourable conditions for their instruction in the
Dharma.526Finally, equipped with rddhipada, the bodhisattva generates vast miraculous powers
(adhisthana) that allow him to transform phenomena at will.527 By so doing, he creates
pointedness attained through proper application of zeal, constant application o f virya, the power o f
concentration previously cultivated, hearing the Dharma and insight (.Abhidh-sam (R), p. 121). In close
concurrence with the Pali formula, Sanskrit sources speak of the first rddhipada as being furnished with
chandasamadhi and prahanasamskdra, with chandasamadhi being acquired through the strengthening
(adhipati) o f chanda and so forth for virya, etc. Sanskrit sources do not identify the prahanasamskdra
with virya (as they propose for the four samyakprahana), but associate it with desire to act (chanda),
striving (vyayama), faith (sraddhd), peace (prasrabdhi), mindfulness (smrti), clear comprehension
(samprajanya), volition (cetana) and equipoise (upeksd), (Satya (S), ii, p. 42; Abhidh-sam (R), p. 121;
Mvs, p. 51.11-52.3, iv.4).
For a considered assessment o f the place o f the iddhipada in the Buddhist path, see: Gethin, 1987, pp.
155-199).
523. According to the $gs (p. 221), rddhiprdtiharya are manifested in eighteen different kinds. However, the
text does not elaborate on the nature o f these eighteen types and I have found no passage that could be
interpreted to illuminate this reference.
A concise Mahayana definition o f the three types of miraculous display (prdtihdrya) is found in the Rgv
(p. 363):
“It is indicated that the omnipresence [of the Buddha] through the display (vikurvita) o f the
body in all the worlds o f the ten directions constitutes the miraculous display through feats
(rddhiprdtiharya). The illumination o f the thicket o f mental conduct o f living beings, as
involved in the mind, by knowing the variety o f thoughts is the miraculous display through
mind-reading (adesandpratiharya). And with reference to the path leading to deliverance, [the
Buddha] preaches and instructs in the path by the example o f the utterances o f his voice— this
is the miraculous display through instructions (ianusasatiprdtihdrya).”
524. R, folio 569.3.
525. R, folio 569.6-70.2
Similar, but more elaborate descriptions o f the lengths the bodhisattva is prepared to go in transforming
his body are found in the Vkn (pp. 183-184; cit. in $iks, pp. 324-27), Ratnolkadharant($iks, pp. 330.13-332.8)
and Mpps (ii, p. 984; cf. p. 1055).
On the contributions o f b'tsnayatana, vimoksa and abhibhvayatana to the transformation powers o f the
bodhisattva, see: Mpps, iv, pp. 1820-21, iii, pp. 1291-1307.
526. R, folio 570.3-71.2.
527. R, folio 571.3-2
The meaning o f the term adhisthana is somewhat ambiguous in this place. Although it may carry several
meanings, on contextual grounds, I do not believe that any other translation than ‘miraculous power1 is
appropriate here (Edgerton, pp. 15-16). Being itself a widely attested meaning, it occurs with this sense
several times in similar contexts in the Sgs (pp. 187,194,196, 212, 222).
In this section, the Bdp proposes that a bodhisattva who possesses the adhisthana o f miraculous power
becomes capable o f performing feats o f magnification and diminution on a vast scale, such as reducing
the size o f the ocean to a cow ’s footprint and vice versa. This example and others are reminiscent o f
passages in the Vkn, describing similar feats (Vkn, pp. 138-39, 140).

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immense rapture in his audience, prompting his listeners to adopt the Buddhist faith and
resolve to work for enlightenment themselves.528
A further peculiarity is the type of classification that the Bdp proposes for rddhi. In later
Mahayana writings, rddhi is generally differentiated by its areas of operation. The best
known division is that of the Bbh where rddhi is distinguished by action affecting transformation
(parinamika)529 and by action affecting creation (nairmanika).530 Elsewhere, this twofold
classification is extended by a third aspect, displacement {gamana), allowing the bodhisattva
to appear in every location at will.531 The rddhi classification of the Bdp into form {rupa),
power (bala), miraculous power {adhisthana) and prodigy (rddhiprdtiharya) has a much
narrower focus, since its members are specifically designed to eradicate tendencies of desire
(kdma) and intimidation {vibhisana).532 Consequently, the display of rddhi shows little diversity
and concentrates on the impact of rupa, bala and adhisthana.533
The Bdp next distinguishes the scope of the abhijna from that of pristine cognition {jnana).
This difference is primarily one of focus. That is to say, to a bodhisattva the abhijna are less
The Kosa (vii, p. 119), citing as example the longevity o f MahakaSyapa’s bones (.Divya, p. 61), holds the
view that the factor o f adhisthana furnishes the miraculous feasts o f bodhisattvas with a life-span well
beyond that o f their creator. Manifested in the thought ‘it shall last’ that is generated before the miracle, it
furnishes the feat with unlimited life. This position, however, has been challenged in other texts, arguing
that the long duration o f miracles accompanied by adhisthana is founded in protection granted by the gods
{Nydyabindu, p. 47, trsl., Bibl. Indica Series).
I do not know Pedersen’s (p. 110) reasons for translating adhisthana here as ‘blessing’—a highly enigmatic
rendering that does not seem to fit the context, leading to sentences such as: “The teachings o f the bases o f
rddhi o f all blessing-thought can all be developed by the bodhisattva-mahasattva in accordance with the
object o f his blessing-thought” (op. cit., p. 110).
528. R, folio 572.1-4.
529. According to the M sg (p. 221), rddhi o f transformation allows the bodhisattva to set in motion (kampana)
houses, etc.; to set his body ablaze (jvalana); to illuminate (spharand); to render visible ( vidarsana); to
transform the four great elements (anyathibhavakarana); to come and go in samsdra freely {gamana)', to
decrease and increase phenomena {samksepaprathana)', to insert all matter into his body
(sarvarupakayapravesana); to adapt to the customs o f others {sabhdgatopasamkranti)', to appear and
disappear with a great retinue (dvirbhavatirobhava); to submit other beings to his will (vasitvakarana); to
overpower the magical powers o f others (pararddhyabhibhava); to grant insight (pratibhdddna), memory
(smrtidana) and bliss (sukhaddna) and to emit light-rays (rasmipramoksa).
This list is also found in the Bbh (pp. 58.23-59.2). Cf. Msl (pp. 148.14-153.10) and Dasa-bh (pp. 34-35,
M).
530. In the Bbh (p. 63.25), rddhi o f creation involves either the body (kdyanirmana) giving rise to appearance
similar or different from the complexion o f the agent, or creation o f voice (vdgnirmana) with the sole
purpose o f teaching the Dharma. In the Buddhabhumisastra (6, p. 318, col. 2; 7, p. 325, col. 1-2; ref.
Lamotte), however, a third dimension, that o f the mind (cittanirmdna) is added to the creation o f body and
voice, giving rise to images in the bodhisattva’s own mind (svasambaddha) or in that o f other beings
(parasambaddha), (cf. Siddhi, pp. 794-795).
531. Mpps, i, pp. 328-30.
532. R, folio 569.3.
533. 1 have found only one other text that cites these three aspects as distinct elements in its rddhi discussion.
This is the Ramolkadharani {$iks, p. 330.11) where we come across the following sentence:
“With miracles o f rddhi manifesting the psychic powers o f the Tathagata, through form,
miraculous power and strength altogether {samajitdt), through their ability o f mind-reading,
through revealing {anusastri) their rddhi they convert sentient beings.”

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important for the knowledge they impart than for the contribution they make to the active
aspects of his training. They allow him to traverse the fields of all buddhas, to appear in the
five spheres of existence and to overwhelm with brightness even the most purified heavenly
abodes.534 The abhijna have therefore immediate bearing on the bodhisattva’s conversion
activity. Pristine cognition, in contrast, operates on the cognitive plane. Where the abhijna
generate, unlimited sound perception, jnana realises ineffability. When the abhijna allow the
bodhisattva to observe the minds of all beings, jnana sees the cessation and non-cessation of
thought.535 In other words, while he is dependent for his active training on the abhijna, it is to
jnana that he owes insight into the frame of reference in which they manifest.
The bodhisattva learns of the mental defilements that pervade samsdra through the branches
of dhyana and his miraculous powers of mind (cittddhisthana). This inspires him to win
dhyana in equal number.536 Thus committed (samddana) and sustained by the conviction of
the equality of practice, he achieves a high degree of concentration (samahita) and attainment
(samdpatti) in sameness.537
On the basis of this insight, the bodhisattva acquires tranquillity538 and discernment. These

534. R, folio 573.2-5.

535. Compare this picture o f the relationship between the abhijna and cognition with the account that is given
in the Kosa (vii, pp. 98-112). Here the abhijna. (vii, pp. 100-1), given the same status as all other religious
practices, represent the knowledge of the path of deliverance (vimuktimdrgaprajha). The rddhi, divyacaksus,
divyasrotra and purvanivasdnusmrtijndna belong to the sphere o f conventional knowledge (samvrtijhdna).
The abhijna manifesting paracittajhana allows specifically for the attainment of dharmajhana, anvayajhana,
mdrgajhana, samvrtijhdna and, o f course, paracittajhana. As the asravaksayajhana (resembling the tenth
o f the tathagatabala), it leads to six or ten types o f knowledge {Mpps, iii, pp. 1472, 1508) and belongs to
all stages o f dhyana {Kosa, vii, p. 101). The first five abhijna, in contrast, leaning on the four dhyana but
not on the arupyasamdpatti for their object, consist o f matter and are always bound to the dhyana stage
(or the next lower one) on which they became manifest {Kosa, vii, p. 104). All abhijna are either acquired
by means o f detachment (vairdgya) if already practised in previous lives, or are otherwise mastered by
present effort {prayoga). Founded on the practice of mindfulness, they correspond to specific bases of
mindfulness {Kosa, vii, pp. 105-7). The abhijna o f rddhi, divyacaksus and divyasrotra correspond to the
kayasmrtyupasthdna since they have matter as their object (cf. Mpps, iii, pp. 1121-2). The abhijna of
paracittajhana includes the smrtyupasthana o f vedana, citta and dharma because it has thought and
mentation as its object. Finally, the abhijna o f purvanivasdnusmrtijndna and asravaksayajhana, having as
their objects the five skandha, have as their nature all four smrtyupasthana {Kosa, vii, p. 106). In moral
terms, all six abhijna—but for the divyacaksus and divyasrotra— are wholesome {subha) since they
improve spiritual practice {Kosa, vii, p. 107).
536. R, folio 573.7-74.1.
537. R, folio 574.5-7 (cf. folio 574.7-75.1)
In the Akn (p. 49.2.4), the argument runs slightly different, suggesting that the bodhisattva becomes
concentrated because he is established (sthita) in sameness and not because he is accomplished in meditation.
On the other points, however, both texts concur closely. The doctrinal foundation at the heart o f this
thought is well-known from a number o f other, perhaps earlier, Mahayana sutras. It is found, for instance,
in the $gs (pp. 125, 131, 133, 139, 234) and Vkn (pp. 55-56, 122-23 and the whole o f chapter vii,
discussing non-duality {advaya)).
538. Here, in an effort to describe the composure o f the bodhisattva’s disposition it is likened to the stability o f
the four mahabhuta. This is a well-known simile that occurs in a number o f Mahayana sutras (e.g., Akn, p.
49.4.3-4) describing the bodhisattva’s serenity o f mind.

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allow him to manifest ail forms of worldly activity without ever ceasing to uphold his
practice (dharma) and meditation (samahita).539 It frees his practice from dithering and
commotion, leads to moderation in speech (ctmukharata), equips him with knowledge of
suitable meditation conditions and sustains serenity.540 In the Red, it is explicitly stated that
‘entry into certainty’ (nyamdvakrdnti), realisation of attained fruits and non-accumulation
(ianabhisamskara) are not the aims of meditation.541 Its chief function consists less of realising
attainments (here epitomised by the trivimoksa) than to guide other people towards them.542
Thus, even when meditating on ‘emptiness furnished with the best of all excellent forms’
(sarvakaravaropetasunyata) that allows him to see the non-arising of dharma, the bodhisattva
persists in his altruistic outlook. He generates conduct that is indiscriminating, faultless and
unconcerned with its own flavour (svarasavdhin).543 By virtue of his meditation, he achieves
539. R, folio 575.7
The notion o f the perpetually meditating bodhisattva is common to several early Mahayana sutras. In the
Sgs (p. 145), for instance, it forms the backbone o f the entire discussion o f the dhyanaparamita. Realising
that all dharma are eternally concentrated (sadasamahita), the bodhisattva holds on to meditation in order
to subdue his thoughts (cittadamanartha) and to convert sentient beings with greatest efficiency. While
the bodhisattva o f the $gs is o f the highest stage (p. 183), in full possession o f all rddhi, there are other
examples of less-advanced bodhisattvas who abide incessantly in meditation.
540. R, folio 575.4-7
This list o f attributes is the closest the Bdp comes in spelling out the benefits that accrue through
meditation. In contrast with the other perfections, Buddhist sutras produced relatively few o f such lists on
dhyana. One example o f such rare enumeration is found in the Samadh, distinguishing the following ten
kinds o f benefits: (1) persistence in training, (2) performing good conduct, (3) living a life free from
affliction, (4) possessing well-guarded faculties, (5) experiencing joy, (6) liberation from desire, (7)
serenity despite the impressive accumulation o f meditation, (8) liberation from the sphere o f influence o f
Mara, (9) dwelling in the sphere o f the Buddha and (10) ripening (others) to liberation (Dutt, 1943-53, ii.,
p. 338.6-11; cf. TTP, 31, p. 310.3.8^1.8).
Compare the realism o f this list with a characterisation o f ‘pure samadhC in the Ug (p. 272.1.8-2.3) that
focuses on the psychological attainments o f one-pointedness, cognition o f the non-abiding o f thought
(apratisthitacitta), non-differentiating thought (aprapahcacitta), mastery o f thought (cittavasita) and
unperturbed thinking (aksobhacitta). Another example o f a more advanced list of the benefit arising from
the practice o f meditation is found in the Msg (pp. 223-4). Here, we read o f ten exploits (duskaracarya)
that accrue to the bodhisattva from superior thought (adhicitta).
But for a number o f points that relate, in the Mahayana, to the path o f the bodhisattva, the Sravakayana
understanding o f benefits that arise from concentration agrees is in broad agreement. For a good example
o f the Theravada view, I propose to turn to the Vism where Buddhaghosa identifies (1) blissful abiding,
(2) insight, (3) super-knowledge, (4) the prospect o f higher rebirth and (5) cessation as the principal
advantages that spring from meditation (Vism, pp. 371-372).
541. Red, op. cit., p. 234.4.5-6
According to the Bbh (p. 358.2), the attainment o f nyamdvakrdnti represents the third vihara o f the
srdvakabhumi scheme. Edgerton (pp. 314, 298) suggests to take nydma for niyama, thus rendering
nyamdvakrdnti as ‘entry into certainty’ but this does not tally with the Tibetan ‘absence o f defect’. For a
discussion o f the term nydmdvakrantivihara, see: Gv, p. 320.22; Asta, pp. 331.10, 322.5.
542. Red, op. cit. p. 234.4.6-5.2.
543. Rgv, op. cit., p. 264
The notion that the meditator must not become attached to the flavour (rasa) o f his absorption is a
well-established maxim in Buddhist meditation. Indeed, any dhyana that is associated with enjoyment
(dsvddanasamprayukta) is regarded as impure and accordingly condemned in most sutras (e.g., Lahkdv, p.
212.14; Msl, p. 160.14; Kosa, viii, p. 144). One reason why the texts do not tire o f warning the recluse
from this mishap is the danger o f confusing attachment (asahga) with the practice o f dhyana as both
induce the mind to focus on a conceived object (Mpps, ii, pp. 1056-7). The bodhisattva succeeds in

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impeccability (avikala) in the perfections, incessant exertion in ripening sentient beings and
acquisition of buddha-qualities.544
An important element of these meditative attainments is the interplay of means (updya) and
wisdom (prajnd).545 While it is not necessary to go into the detail of this well-known pattern
it is perhaps of interest that meditation is a constituent in both practices. That is to say, the
Bdp quite explicitly maintains that dhyana practice is essential to the generation of means
and wisdom. The difference between the two is then not one of substance, but of focus.
When aimed at the suffering in the world, dhyana generates compassion, ripens sentient
beings, produces buddha-qualities and manifests miraculous powers; but when concerned
with outright cognition, dhyana inspires a vision of reality where sentient beings do not exist,
roots of virtue vanish and buddha-fields resemble space.546It is therefore only by the combined
presence of prajnd and updya that the bodhisattva decides to return to the kdmadhatu and
continues his quest of universal liberation.547 One ramification of this paired operation is that,
depending on context and purpose, meditation is capable of performing either on the

disentangling himself from attachment to samadhi by realising that all dharma (including o f course
meditations) are non-dual and hence no cause for attachment {op. cit., pp. 1049-50). The potentially
devastating consequences such misapprehension might entail are exemplified by the downfall o f Udraka
Ramaputra that occurred in response to his undue attachment to the dhyana and samdpatti {Mpps, ii, pp.
1050-52). As in many other cases, the common wisdom o f such advice had little validity for Vimalakirti
who reportedly sustained himself with nothing but the flavour o f this trances (Vkn, p. 29).
544. Red, op. cit., pp. 234.5.2-35.1.8 (cf.Rgv, op. cit., p. 265)
According to the Mpps (ii, p. 984), the bodhisattva returns to the world from meditation in solitude only
when he has obtained the power o f the abhijna. Assuming all types o f form in order to convert sentient
beings when he dwells in their midst, the bodhisattva guides them by whatever instructions and means he
deems appropriate to their deliverance.
545. R, folio 576.1-78.4.
546. In a passage o f the Ug (op. cit., p. 272.4.2-4), upayakausalya is given credit for holding the grhapti
bodhisattva in this world in spite o f his attainments in meditation:
“Furthermore, O householder, with regard to the empty house (presumably a quiet secluded
place) the grhapti bodhisattva practises the four dhyana but does not enter into the samdpatti
by virtue o f his skilful means.”
This sentence seems to suggest that without upayakausalya the bodhisattva would cease his work in
samsdra and withdraw into blissful realms o f the samdpatti. Although this point is not made in the Bdp,
the gist that the bodhisattva stays in the world in spite o f the opportunity to retire temporarily from
suffering is perhaps implied by the untiring reiteration that updya means worldly engagement while
dwelling in the samdpatti (R, folio 576.2-78.3).
Compare this proposition with a passage in the Dbh (Dasa-bh, p. 36, M) where we learn that:
“The bodhisattva enters into and emerges from dhyana, vimoksa, samadhi and samdpatti but
is not bom by their power (vasa), except when he arises by the power o f his resolution,
witnessing the fulfilment o f the factors o f enlightenment. Why? Because the bodhisattva
possesses the mental continuity (cittasamtati) achieved by skilful means.”
547. Mpps, ii, p. 1044
This touches on another important distinction between the srdvaka- and bodhisattvadhyana. Unlike any
other being, the bodhisattva may enter into dhyana while still in possession o f a thought of the kdmadhatu.
He is capable of doing so by reason o f his cultivation of virtue (guna) and because his fetters (samyojana)
are weak (op. cit., p. 1446).

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conventional (samvrti) or absolute (paramartha) level of reality.548

“Equanimity and realisation while attaining all conceivable factors of enlightenment

stand for means. Completely purified, untroubled pristine cognition of the Tathagata,
bliss of objectless meditation, discernment of unobstructed perception, purification
of all perception, meditation on the perfection of all bodhisattvas, practice of
meditation devoid of meditation stand for wisdom.”

Meditation doctrinally assumes thus the role of a nexus, linking the mundane practices of
dana, si la, ksanti (and virya) with supramundane cognition of prajna .549 On the one hand, it
depends for cultivation on the four worldly pdramita. Elimination of the five major obstacles
to meditation (viz., covetousness, malice, indolence, regret, wastefulness and doubt) and
generation of the five dharma that conduce to its unfolding (viz., zeal, vigour, recollection,
thoughtfulness and mental one-pointedness) clearly require schooling in generosity, etc.550 On
the other hand, meditation enhances training in first three perfections, since it provides the
required mental focus.551
Adopted to the abhijna, these variant planes of dhyana led the Bdp to recognise two types
of abhijna, viz., ordinary super-knowledge and non-regressing super-knowledge
(acutyabhijha).S52 As indicated by their titles, the difference between the two is one of
progress or degree of perfection. That is to say, the practice of ordinary abhijna is chiefly
concerned with the five traditional areas of application and focuses on the conversion of
sentient beings.553 Granting supernatural powers in vision, hearing, mind-reading, recollection
and rddhi, it guides to the ‘great entry’ (mahdpravrtti), engineers the attainment of pristine
cognition, operates as a factor that conduces to deliverance (nirvedhabhagiya) and addresses
supramundane practices (lokottaradharma).554 The time-span of its operation is not fully
548. R, folio 577.6-578.1.
549. Mpps, ii, pp. 984-990, 928.
550. These ten dharma are cited in the Mpps (op. cit., pp. 1013-23) as the chief causes/obstacles to a successful
meditation. Although this list is by no means the only one that is proposed in Buddhist literature, it does
seem to cover the contents o f most other enumerations.
551. Mpps, ii, pp. 985, 1055
Besides the association with the otherparamitd, it is the connection to mastery over the bodhipaksika that
most texts underline. It is mentioned is the Pahca (pp. 514-15), appears in the Dbh in the stage following
his attainments in dhyana (Dasa-bh, pp. 38-39, C) and is listed in the Mpps (ii, p. 1043) alongside the
other samadhi the dhyanaparamitd brings about.
552. R, folio 578.4, 580.2.
553. R, folio 579.2-80.1.
554. R, folio 579.6.

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indicated in the Bdp. Its link with the mastery (vasita) over all dharma555 and the abhiseka
conferral suggests that it extends from the acalabhiimi to the dharmameghabhumi.556
This advanced positioning on the path is corroborated by a list of one hundred and one
samadhi that appear at the very end of the chapter.557 We know of several instances in
Mahayana sutras where the attainment of samadhi—enumerated in lengthy lists—signals the
completion of the path.558 Generally, these samadhi do not represent individually attained
meditations, but point to modalities in that the bodhisattva’s final meditation manifests itself.
Accommodating all practices simultaneously cultivated559, they represent the highpoint of
training when the bodhisattva operates purely from within an infinite sphere of absorption.560
Needless to say—relying on the dharmakaya while moving through an empty, unmarked and
purposeless space561—the bodhisattva does so with greater efficiency than he has ever been
able to achieve.
It is only at this point that the third and last phase of meditation sets in. Entitled ‘meditation
555. According to the Dbh (Dasa-bh, p. 71.7), the attainment of mastery over dharma follows on the bodhisattva’s
production o f knowledge about the body (kayajhanabhinirhdra) at the eighth stage. Consisting o f ten
types o f mastery (ayurvasita, cetovasita, pariskdravasita, karmavasita, upapattivasita, adhimuktivasita,
pranidhanavasita, rddhivasita, dharmavasita and jhdnavasita), it heralds increasing control over his
appearance— himself abiding in the ‘immaculate sphere’ (anasravadhatu)—and leads to refined conversion
methods. In the scheme o f the Bbh (pp. 352.26-353.7), the acquisition o f ten (somewhat differently
conceived) vasita takes place at the tenth vihara. Here, as in most other sources, it springs from the
attainment o f the abhijna and jhana leading to a perpetual company with buddhas
(pratyutpannabuddhasammukhavasthita).
Besides these bodhisattva treatises, the vasita are mentioned in a broad range o f Mahayana sutras,
including the Gv (p. 83.10), Dhsgr (§ 74), Lahkdv (p. 1.10), Lai (pp. 45.14, 94.19, 274.21), Ug (p.
272.2.2) and Mvu (i, p. 282.15-20). As so often with lists of this type, the order o f enumeration does not
always correspond (Mvy 770-80). We find also some variation in contents (e.g., Mvu) that indicates that
the concept o f the vasita might have been new to Mahayana Buddhism. Indeed, the suttas o f early
Buddhism do not disclose any list corresponding to the vasita attributes o f the bodhisattva.
556. Dasa-bh, pp. 71.7-18, 82.1-85.9
In broad terms, this allocation o f rddhi matches even the otherwise ‘non-conformist’ career-plan in the
Gv. Here, as elsewhere, we learn that the bodhisattva’s capability o f performing magical feats depends on
his entrance on the dharmadhatu. Although this falls on the sixth stage (p. 372.15-18), it does not allow
the bodhisattva to assume apparitional bodies immediately. For this to happen, he has to wait until he
reaches the seventh stage at which he “having purified the dharmakaya completely pervades the fields
with his own body”. But even at this advanced stage he has not yet attained complete mastery over all
rddhi and remains thus unable to proceed to purify of his buddha-field (op. cit., p. 372.20). For, according
to the Gv, the full attainment in miraculous powers— accompanying effective maturation o f beings—takes
place at the ninth stage after the bodhisattva has attained fUll proficiency in all types o f meditation (op.
cit., p. 373.1-4).
557. R, folio 587.2-90.1.
558. Dasa-bh, p. 82.9-21; Pahca, pp. 142-43; $gs, p. 132; Akn, p. 50.4.3-4.6. In the Gv(op. cit., p. 369.23-24),
the bodhisattva is said to attain mastery over all samadhi already at the ninth stage, while in the Bbh (p.
354.14-23) he has to await the twelfth vihara.
559. $gs, pp. 141-150, § 26-38; pp. 152-154, § 42-46.
560. The Mpps (ii, p. 1048) indicates that this is a common feature o f the bodhisattva’s practice o f the
dhyanaparamitd and is not limited to his meditation on the advanced stages. However, the text hastens to
add that this applies only to bodhisattvas furnished with the dharmakaya—a qualification that unmistakably
points to the later career phases (op. cit., pp. 1048-9).
561. Mpps (i, p. 324): sunyatapranihitanimittagocara.

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at the service of others’ (.sattvdrthakriyddhyana), it is wholly targeted at the universal

suppression of sorrow.562 According to the Bbh, the sattvdrthakriyddhyana involves total
compliance with the wishes, customs and, above all, spiritual needs of beings. It compels the
bodhisattva to teach the Dharma, to appease physical misery, to protect from terror, to show
gratitude and generosity as appropriate and to dispense impartial rebuke.563 Clearly, such
diverse requirements allow only bodhisattvas of advanced stages in possession of the
dharmakaya to attain the sattvdrthakriyddhyana.
The characterisation of non-regressing abhijna is more problematic, since the Bdp offers
few benchmarks against which it could be measured. It is implied—but not stated—that the
acutydbhijnd presupposes the attainment of the five ordinary abhijna. The basis of its
manifestation is complete mental purity cultivated during intentional (samcintya) absorption
in the four dhyana, eight vimoksa, three samadhi and nine samdpatti. It represents liberation
from the fetters of impurity (klesa) and is beyond residence on the summit of contrariness
(viparydyagrasraya).564 Based on knowledge of the sameness of all dharma, it precludes
attachment (abhinivesa)565 to either dharma or adharma.
Abhinivesa itself is the object (artha) of all practice (<dharma).566 In a nutshell, the Bdp
argues that non-attachment is the foundation to spiritual maturity that prevents delusion,
indolence and impassioned disputes to cloud the bodhisattva’s judgement. It prepares acceptance
of universal sameness and immunity to imputation (aparyapanna) and—repudiating form
(samsthdna) and appearance (nimitta)—leads via pursuit (anvaya) to spiritual realisation
(adhigama).567
In the present context, pursuit and realisation constitute two different, yet acutely overlapping
and complementary aspects of the bodhisattva’s training. Taken separately, each represents a
major path-element; with pursuit standing for untiring cultivation of individual practices and
realisation denoting understanding of their ontological invalidity. In practice, however, this
562. Hence, its alternative title that is given in the Siddhi (p. 622) as ‘meditation o f the accomplishment o f
duty’ (krtyanusthanadhydna).
563. Bbh, pp'. 207.25-208.9
In essence, we are dealing here with the same list o f behavioural norms towards the laity that was given
already in the Sila- and Viryapatala (Bbh, pp. 144.24-152.17,201.26-202.1).
564. R, folio 580.6 (phyin ci log gi rtse mohi gnas); cf. Edgerton, p. 491.
565. According to Edgerton (p. 53), abhinivesa carries two possible meanings, viz., when leaning on classical
Sanskrit it is ‘strong attachment’ or, in affinity to Pali abhinivesa, any false belief, that in Buddhism is
particularly the ‘heretical belief o f the existence o f a se lf (Siks, p. 198.21). In the context of d/tar/na-sameness
the word abhinivesa could possibly be interpreted in either terms, with ‘strong attachment’ beings perhaps
the more plausible translation.
566. R, folio 581.3-4.
567. R, folio 581.6-82.3.

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 Dhyanaparamitd

distinction becomes meaningless as pursuit and realisation merge into one another to produce
the pledge to universal liberation in spite of the conviction of the non-arising of dharma:56*

“He shows benevolence but knows that there is no self. He is compassionate but
knows that there are no beings. He cultivates sympathetic joy but knows that there
is no life-force. He abides in equipoise but knows that there is no person. ... He
ripens sentient beings but his mind is of pristine purity. He retains the holy
Doctrine but knows the indistinguishable dharmadhdtu. ... He turns the wheel of
the Dharma, but knows that there is no turning. He instructs on passing into great
nirvana, but knows of its sameness of own-being of samsdra

In an apparent allegory on the miraculous powers of the abhijnd, pursuit and realisation
produce holy beings (satpurusa) that are capable of performing miracles (dscarya) and
supernatural feats (adbhuta).569 The text is silent on the reasons behind this comparison.
However, we are probably not much off the mark in interpreting it as an effort in the
enhancement of the standing of more ordinary practices. Echoing the views of &akyamuni
Buddha, it was probably feared that a display of miraculous feats would make a far greater
impression on an ill-informed laity clamouring for supernatural interventions than the rather
less spectacular selfless striving of dedicated bodhisattvas. Hence, the departure from the
dazzling descriptions of rddhi practices that dominated much of the first part of the dhyana
chapter to the more austere analysis of the principles underlying the training proper.

568. R, folio 582.6-84.3.

569. R, folio 582.4—5, 584.4.

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 Prajhaparamita

The Perfection of Wisdom

The last of the six major paramita, prajhapdramita, is discussed in chapter eleven. Of all
twelve chapters of the Bdp, this chapter is the most important with regard to the bodhisattva
practice. For, it contains as part of the discussion of prajna not only those elements traditionally
associated with expositions of prajna, but includes also a large number of ancillary wisdom
practices. In its description of them, the Bdp draws substantially on Mahayana thinking. The
style of composition indicates that it comes from a time when descriptions of these practices
were still not fixed. What is perhaps most striking is not the content but the arrangement of
the material. In apparent disregard of well-established structures found elsewhere, the Bdp
develops a picture of wisdom that contains little evidence of a particular design despite the
fact that it acknowledges some sense of organisation. In order to show what is meant, I have
drawn up a list of contents:

1. Sruta, pravesa, pratipatti

2. Sambhara
3. Prayoga
4. Darsana
5. BHavana
6. Skill in skandha, dhatu and ayatana
7. Skill in satya
8. Skill in pratisamvid and pratisarana
9. Skill in punyasambhdra and jnanasambhara
10. Skill in smrtyupasthana
11. Skill in bodhyanga
12. Skill in dtyastahgamdrga
13. Skill in samatha and vipasyana
14. Skill in samyakprahana, indriya and bala
15. Skill in ekayanamarga
16. Skill in pratltyasamutpada and dharma

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While the contents of the types of ‘skill’ presents no difficulty—virtually all practices
discussed here are understood to contribute to the generation of wisdom570—the order of their
arrangement proved complex and difficult to unravel. The concatenation of sruta, pravesa
and pratipatti; the position of samyakprahana, indriya and bala behind the aryastdhgamarga;
the role of ‘skill’ in skandha, dhdtu, ayatana, satya in relation to the pratisamvid and
pratisarana, to indicate just a few issues, diverge from established patterns and are problematic.

Initial Phases in the Training o f Wisdom

The exposition of Perfect Wisdom begins in the Bdp with a survey of the factors that
generate wisdom. By identifying (1) seventy-two types of learning {sruta), (2) forty-one
methods (pravesa) of acquiring learning and (3) good conduct (pratipatti) as causes, the Bdp
emulates the ancient scheme of ‘wisdom arising from learning’ (srutamaylprajha), ‘wisdom
arising from reflection’ (cintdmayiprajna) and ‘wisdom arising from contemplation’
(bhdvandmayiprajha).m
Virtually all abhidharmic treatises on the path agree that wisdom generated through learning,
reflection and contemplation belongs to the earliest phase of the training. It is associated with
the four bases of mindfulness and becomes manifest on the path of equipment
(sambhdramarga).512 In the Bdp, this allocation is confirmed by their position at the very
beginning of the discussion of prajna.
The first limb, sruta, does not present much of a problem since it accords closely with the
established notion that learning is the first, and most fundamental, precondition for the
arising of wisdom. Focusing on the wording of the instructions rather than on their meaning,
it introduces the practitioner to the teachings of the Dharma and initiates the cognition

570. For the three conditions leading to prajna, see: MBT, ii, pp. 198-99, § 9; Srotabhumi, TTP, 109, p.
296.3.1-5. For ‘skill’ in skandha, dhdtu and ayatana, satya and pratltyasamutpada, see: Mvs (N), p. 37.
For the pratisamvid and pratisarana, see: Bbh, pp. 214.10-14, 257.16-22. Vor puny a andjhdnasambhara,
see: MBT, iii, p. 12.20-22. For the bodhipaksika, see: Kosa, vi, pp. 282-4; Mvs (N), p. 50-55 and
quotations in Mpps, iii, pp. 1119, 1132-36. For samatha and vipasyana, see: MBT, iii, p. 1.7-13; Bugault,
1982, p. 92.
571. See, for instance: D III, p. 219; Vibh, pp. 324, 325; Kosa, vi, pp. 143-44; Bbh, p. 183.1.3-6.
572. Kosa, vi, pp. 159, 287; Abhidh-d, p. 362; Abhidh-h (W) p. 140; Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 116-7; Amrtar (B),
pp. 201-2; DPP, p. 20.
For full discussions o f the fivefold path scheme, see: Kosa, v, pp. iv-xi; HIB, pp. 677-686; Frauwallner,
Abhidharma-Studien iii, pp. 82-89; Gunther, 1957, pp. 290-377 and, in particular: Ruegg, 1990, pp.
150-209.

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 Prajnaparamita

process. At first sight, however, our list of seventy-two forms of learning appears to go well
beyond this definition. Instead of learning, it is more concerned with the study of the bodhisattva
practices proper.573 At this early stage, srutamaylprajha is founded on confidence in the
words of the Buddha and is sustained by faith.574 In the Akn-tika, Vasubandhu explains that
the individual types of learning do not represent learning itself, but those factors that lead to
learning. He says that each factor is the cause of learning, that it has learning as cause and
that it shares its own-being with wisdom.575 Hence, our seventy-two forms of learning stand
not so much for learning in the narrow sense of the word, but point to a series of complex
interactions facilitating the attainment of wisdom.576
The second type of wisdom, cintamaylprajhd, leads to a sound understanding of the four
noble truths. Chiefly, though not exclusively, concerned with meaning577, it occasions a type
of certainty that is founded in rational examining (yuktinidhyana) wholly independent of faith
or external authority.578 Like srutamaylprajha, it is dialectical in nature and of provisional
value.579 It still pertains to the laukika domain and operates in a defiled consciousness (sasrava
vijhdna). The applicability of the cintamaylprajhd concept to the B dp‘s list of forty-one
methods of acquiring learning is ambiguous. For one thing, the terminology does not correspond;
instead of founding it on cinta, the Bdp says that it springs from yoniso manasakdra.58°
Vasubandhu does not give much weight to this difference, perhaps because he is aware that
yoniso manasakdra often occurs in its verbal form manasi karoti as a synonym to cintayati.581

573. This is particularly true o f the items in the latter portion o f the list, starting with item no. 29. The whole
list is given in the Appendix i.
574. A IV, p. 82; K osa, vi, p. 143.
575. Akn-tika, TTP, 104, p. 181.3.6-4.1.
576. Cf. Vibh, p. 325.
577. The Vaibhasika hold that the relationship between names (nama) and meaning ( artha) is reciprocal,
saying that cintamayiprajha secures the meaning by means o f the wording (yyahjanena) as much as it
secures the wording by means o f the meaning {Kosa, vi, p. 143). This thesis is refitted by the Theravada
Abhidhamma saying that cintamayipahha arises separated from hearing ( Vibh, pp. 324-5).
578. M I, p. 265.
579. The nature and relationship between the three is illustrated by a simile in Kosa (vi, p. 143). The gist o f this
interpretation, suggesting a temporary value for the first two types o f wisdom, but explained by means of
the artha/vyaiijana pratisarana, is also found in the Samdhis (p. 105.1-26). To sum up, during the
srutamayl phase, the bodhisattva, having turned towards deliverance, focuses on the literal meaning o f the
texts, but fails to realise the meaning o f designations. Then, he includes the meaning of the letters into his
investigation. Progressing towards liberation he is now capable o f realising worldly designations. Finally,
through contemplation he learns o f the intentions o f the texts and—independent o f the letter— acquires
knowledge o f those dharma that pertain to liberation.
For alternative explanations o f their relationship see: Msl, pp. 54.9-14, 85.3-6. According to the M sl (p.
56.4-10), however, the three types o f wisdom do not supersede each other, but are jointly required in
order to penetrate the basis o f reality {dharmdlambana).
580. Edgerton, p. 387, col. 1;p w , pp. 1082-83.
581. Rp, p. 59.4; Dasa-bh, p. 12.21 (for further references see: Edgerton, p. 418, col. 1).

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He postulates that pravesa corresponds with yoniso manasakdrct582that he likens elsewhere to

insight concerned with reflection (cinta)5*3, thereby practically identifying pravesa with cinta.
Since, in the Bdp, yoniso manasakdra is the method by which sruta is acquired, a strong link
between pravesa and cinta is established.584 The methods by which the bodhisattva acquires
what he has studied are divided into forty-one practices.585 Of these, however, only twenty-three
are included in the list of seventy-two types of learning.586
This together with the actual phrasing indicates that emphasis is not so much placed on
content as on progress to the state of perfect wisdom.587 Typically, the forty-one methods
begin by taking up one of the forms of learning and discuss its effect on the training. This
becomes the basis of knowledge and leads to understanding arising from reflection
(manasakdra). Finally, having attained this type of understanding, the bodhisattva performs
good conduct which announces bhavand as the last and supreme condition of wisdom.

582. Akn-tikd, p. 181.3.2-3

Statements underpinning the identity o f cinta, yoniso manasakdra and pravesa in their relationship to
sruta are found at several places. In the Msl, we read that sruta and yoniso manasakdra are jointly
required for the bodhisattva to enter into the ‘character of the knowable’ (jheyalaksanapravesa). Elsewhere
w e are told that at the moment when thought associated w ith correct reflection
(yonisomanasakdrasamprayuktaka)— corresponding to right view (samyagdrsti)— is born, mental
perception (manovijndna) that has been impregnated with learning (srutavasana) is being eradicated
(Msg, p. 65). Both factors are thus closely united in operations that are directed at the acquisition o f
transcendental cognition (lokottaracitta) and co-function in a way reminiscent o f the sruta!cinta interaction.
Corroborating this interpretation, the Mpps (ii, p. 1110) underlines the conceptual proximity between
manasakdra and cintamayi on the one hand, and its link with learning (sravana) on the other hand, by
pointing to their combined presence in the schooling of the bodhisattva who penetrates the d/iarma-character
(dharmalaksana).
583. Akn-tikd, p. 183.4.3-4.
584. R, folio 590.6
This very thought is also expressed in the Msl (p. 7.3-4) that says that “on the basis o f learning (sruta)
correct reflection (yoniso manasakdra) arises; from that reflection emerges a knowledge that has thusness
(tattva) as its object”.
585. In the Akn (p. 51.1.6-2.7) we meet with a parallel list as far as context and title are concerned. Although
professing to itemise the ways o f penetrating correct reflection, it contains only thirty-two elements and
shows an altogether different content. Unlike the Bdp that addresses a broad selection o f aspects, including
all six perfections, the bodhipaksika, veneration and dedication, the Akn superimposes a distinctly cognitive-
meditative orientation on its list. Virtually all of its members deal with mental penetration into seeing
‘reality as it is’ and neglect the more practical aspects by which this is brought about. These contemplative
overtones led Vasubandhu to comment that, in the Akn, the ways o f penetrating correct reflection exemplify
both the cintamayi and bhavandmayi factors of prajna (Akn-tikd, p. 185.4.1-4). While this assessment is
doubtlessly correct and fairly unproblematic for the Akn, in the Bdp— as I shall show— the case is
somewhat more ambiguous.
586. I have given a list o f these items in note 13 o f my translation.
587. Hedinger (1984, p. 53) describes bhavand as a generic term, subsuming all other meditative practices. He
cites as evidence a passage from the Vism (pp. 101 ff) that draws up forty areas o f application o f bhavana
and an alternative division o f bhavana into stages that was proposed by Bhavaviveka (Frauwallner, 1956,
pp. 230 ff). Whatever the benefit o f these, somewhat artificial, schemes, it is probably fair to say that to
date the best and most coherent exposition o f bhavana is still Kamala&la’s account in the Bhavanakrama
(MBT). On the different definitions o f contemplation (bhavana) in Sarvastivada thought, see: Kosa, iv, pp.
248-50; vi, pp. 283-88; vii, pp. 15-25, 49-54, 64-66.

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According to the Bdp, bhavandmayiprajnd manifests ‘good conduct’ (pratipatti). In content,

however, it is purely cognitive and consists of transcendental, non-defiled (anasrava) knowledge
(jridna).588 As the chief characteristic it bears a sound understanding of dharma5*9
I have found in several sources evidence that underpins this analogy between sruta, pravesa
and pratipatti on the one hand and srutamayi-, cintamayi- and bhavandmayiprajnd on the
other hand. To begin with, there is the commentary on the ,4Aw that speaks of passages in the
Akn that are similar to those in the Bdp as corresponding to srutamayi-, cintamayi- and
bhavandmayiprajnd.59° The Akn-tikd identifies quite explicitly the sruta and pravesa sections
of the Akn with the concepts of srutamayi- and cintdmayiprajna. There are however difficulties
with regard to bhavandmayiprajnd. According to the commentary, ‘wisdom arising from
contemplation’ is included in the A kn’s discussion of pravesa. In fact, the notion of pratipatti
is altogether missing in the Akn. This raises the question as to whether pratipatti plays any
part in the threefold scheme of wisdom or whether it is an independent ‘wisdom practice’. In
order to resolve this problem, we have to consider the following factors.
First, it is important to note that pratipatti is appended to the B dp’s exposition of pravesa.
We have seen that pratipatti follows after the practice of srutamayi- and cintdmayiprajna and
seemingly eclipses both in attainment. The wording of the Bdp leaves no doubt that it builds
on the realisations of smta and cinta and brings them to their logical conclusion. This
matches the characterisation of bhavandmayiprajnd in the Samdhis and is not incompatible
with the explanation in the Kosa which assigns a temporary value to srutamayi- and
cintdmayiprajna. The variant interpretation in the Akn-tika could be explained by the absence
of pratipatti in the Akn which compelled Vasubhandhu to account for all three types of

588. Satya-s (S), ii, pp. 485-88; K osa, vi, pp. 143-44
For the Bbh, the definition o f wisdom is broader. That is to say, it distinguishes three central areas o f
attainments that add up to prajna. These are ‘skill’ in penetrating reality (i.e., realising that it is empty,
without characteristic, etc.), ‘skill’ in the five classical sciences (vidhya) and in three types o f accumulation
(i.e., benefiting, non-benefiting and neither ... nor ...) and ‘skill’ in benefiting sentient beings. Although
listed as such only once, all three elements recur many times as the chief components throughout its
discussion o f prajna and are clearly central to its understanding ofprajhapdramita (Bbh, pp. 212.10-213.1).
589. R, folio 599.6-7
This interpretation is wholly in line with the fruits that accrue to the practitioner in the Bhavanakrama.
Citing a passage from the Samadh, it proposes that pratipatti is central to the recognition of the unbomness
o f dharma (MBT, i, pp. 198-99). The reasoning that lies at the heart o f the bodhisattva’s insight o f the
non-origination o f dharma springing from sruta and cinta is then spelled out by Kamalasila on pages
199-202 (§ 10).
According to the Msl, srutamayi and cintdmayiprajna are realised well before the bodhisattva has embarked
on the path proper. That is to say, he attains them prior to the adhimukticaryabhumi. Bhavandmayiprajnd,
in contrast, becomes manifest for the first time on the adhimukticaryabhumi, but is still subject to
refinement during the remaining stages (p. 75.12-15).
590. Akn-tikd, p. 185.4.1-7 (translations o f the relevant sections are given in my notes in chapter five).

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wisdom through sruta and cinta alone. That this caused difficulties is attested by the atypically
convoluted style of explanation in his annotations on the sruta and pravesa sections.
Second, there is a passage in the Satyasiddhisdstra where bhavandmayiprajnd is defined as
‘practice in conformity with the Dharma which is applied in one’s actions and in one’s life’
(dharmanudharmapratipatti).591 A similar connection is also made in the Bhavanakrama
where pratipatti, echoing the interplay between means and wisdom, becomes the locus of the
bodhisattva’s cognition.592
Third, the DIghanikaya contains a passage that defines the factors of path-attainment
(sotapattyahga) as learning the good Dharma (saddhammasavana), correct reflection (yoniso
manasakdra) and dhammanudhammapatipatti.593 These are the very components that are
cited in the Bdp. What is more, the attainments of the sotadpanna consist in freedom from
the view of individuality (sakkayaditthi), freedom from doubt (vicikiccha) and observance of
the precept and vow (silabbataparamasa) (with the last two being merely examples of wrong
view (;micchadtthi))594 which are all linked with right view (sammaditthi) or wisdom (panna).
Fourth, there is a section in the Bhavanakrama that says that the cultivation of the three
types of wisdom follows immediately after the practice of the five preliminary perfections.595
This is exactly the case in the Bdp. Although Kamalaslla does not cite his sources—and he
may have been inspired by any text—the parallels to the scheme of the Bdp are obvious.596
Having completed its discussion of the three types of wisdom, the Bdp proceeds to describe
the fruits that spring from the practice of learning, reflection and contemplation. Summed up

591. Satya (S), ii, p. 486 (cf. Geiger, Pali Dhamma, Munich, 1921, pp. 115-6)
Note also in this connection the integration o f sruta and pratipatti. On this, the Vkn says, in one place, that
“bodhi is the seat o f learning (sruta) because it consolidates religious practice (pratipatti)” while it affirms
elsewhere that “skill in learning results from practice” (pp. 97,109 respectively). On the role and interaction
o f learning and religious practice, see: Rahula, History o f Buddhism in Celyon, Colombo, 1956, pp. 158-9
and Manorathapurani (i, p. 93) which sums up the reasons for the preference that was given historically
to learning in Theravada communities.
592. MBT, ii, pp. 222.4-223.5.
593. D III, p. 227 (the fourth factor, “association with good persons” (sappurisasamvesa), is cited at a later
place in the Bdp).
594. For references to the samyojana, see: M I, p. 9; S V, p. 12; for the explanation that doubt and lack o f vow
observance are nothing but manifestations o f wrong view, see: Dhs, pp. 75-80, 182-3 (ref. Gethin),
595. MBT, ii, p. 198.4-8
According to DPP, p. 20, the generation o f the three types o f wisdom is an essential feature o f the
sambhdramarga. As I shall demonstrate, this is exactly the path-phase we are concerned with at present.
596. O f interest in this context is also the picture that is given to the conditions o f wisdom in the Bbh. Apart
from the customary factors o f learning and reflection, it speaks o f a power o f careful consideration
(pratisamkhyanabala) and a power o f contemplation (bhavanabala). The former is said to determine the
bodhisattva’s conduct in the world—promoting virtue and preventing mistakes—while the latter establishes
him in infinite wisdom o f the stage o f uniformity (samdhitabhumika), being the eighth stage (Bbh, p.
213.8-14).

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as ‘correct vision’ (yoniso drsti), these revolve around dharma cognition. Although not
explicitly stated, the context indicates that this particular type of vision is founded on mindfulness
concerning dharma (dharmasmrtyupasthana). For, dharmasmrtyupasthana—whose practice
subsumes the other three smrtyupasthana and corresponds to insight (vipasyand)597—is decisive
to the perception of dharma,598 Specifically counteracting the misconception of the self
(dtmavipatyasa) (but in Mahayana treatises generally extended to include the empty and
uniform nature of dharma5") dharmasmrtyupasthana is intimately bound up with prajna,
itself defined as Dharma-discemment (dharmapravicaya).600
At this early stage of the path insight arising from mindfulness of dharma is still hampered
by the presence of natural defilements (raga, moha, dvesa) and certain weak types of
misconception (vipatydsa). Of inferior quality when practised on the sambharamarga601, the
resulting Dharma-discemment is therefore imperfect and extends only to the particular and
general characteristics (svasamanyalaksand) of things.602However incomplete, it enables the
bodhisattva of the Bdp to distinguish between virtuous and non-virtuous dharma.603 This
faculty of differentiation is of crucial importance to the completion of the sambharamarga.
First, on the level of day to day conduct, it allows the bodhisattva to re-focus his efforts in
accordance with his purified intention. For this re-evaluation to take place the bodhisattva
engages in deep meditation in order to attain the light of wisdom (prajnaloka)—an indispensable
factor for experiencing reality directly.604 Second, in the long-term, recognition of virtue is
necessarily a precondition for the planting of the roots of virtue that lead to deliverance
(imoksabhaglya kusalamula). As their accumulation lies at the very heart of the training on
the sambharamarga, adherence to kusaladharma and abandoning of akusaladharma assumes
immense importance.605

597. Satya-s (S), p. 448; Gethin, 1987, p. 634.

598. Kosa, vi, p. 159; Abhidh-d, p. 360.5-11’,Nett, pp. 83-84.
599. Red, p. 238.3.7-4.5;Mpps, ii, pp. 1193-4 (cf. pp. 1167-1169).
600. Abhidh-sam (R), p. 8; Mpps, ii, p. 1046; Kosa iv, p. 283.
601. HIB, p. 612; Kosa, vi, pp. 158-159.
602. Kosa, vi, pp. 159-162.
603. R, folio 601.4.
604. MBT, ii, p. 204.13-15.
605. R, folio 601.4-5
The Bdp does not give any detail on how the moksabhdgiya are planted during the sambharamarga.
According to Lamotte, the bodhisattva overcomes desire within himself by practising the moral precepts
that secure him a place in the lineage o f the noble ones (aryavamsa). That is to say, he learns to be content
with few clothes (civara), almsfood (pindapatd) and humble seating (sayanasana), he delights in nirvana
and the path that leads to it. Then, meditating on the repulsive aspects o f life (asubhabhdvand), the
bodhisattva engages in breathing exercises (dnapdnasmrti) that allow him to focus on the eradication o f
desire and distraction and thereby prepare him to enter into the smrtyupasthana (HIB, p. 613). For

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When the bodhisattva has thus identified dharma according to their general features and
accumulated roots of virtue, he embarks on the prayogamarga and enters into meditation in
order to penetrate true reality.606 In the scheme of the Bdp, he undertakes initially to free
himself from those obstructions {avarana) that threaten to impede his practice.607 Following
the ancient path model, he achieves this goal through the four perfect efforts (,samyakprahdna).
The practice of the perfect efforts takes place immediately after the smrtyupasthana608 and
signals the bodhisattva’s entrance into the path of application at the murdhan level of the
nirvedhabhagiya,609 The function of the samyakprahdna is twofold; to cultivate skilfull dharma
and to abandon gross obstacles that impede the unfolding of perfect wisdom. Since the Bdp
does not specify which obstructions are overcome through the samyakprahdna at this stage, it
is difficult to ascertain on textual grounds alone whether it refers exclusively to the klesavarana
or also includes the jneyavarana. But according to general opinion it is only the obstructions
of the defilements that are addressed here.610 Their elimination prepares for the transition
from the worldly (laukika) to the transcendental path (lokottaramarga), which is heralded by
the attainment of right view (samyagdrsti)611 and cleanses the entry into the light of the
doctrine (<dharmalokamukha).612
The acquisition of right view is dependent on two causes. First, the bodhisattva must learn

canonical references, see: D III, p. 224; A II, p. 27; otherwise: Kosa vi, pp. 146-153.
606. At this stage, we find in most texts references to the four nirvedhabhagiya, that is usmagata-, murdhan-,
ksanti- and laukikagradharma (e.g., Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 105-6; Kosa, vi, pp. 169-72). As the
nirvedhabhagiya are said to spring from bhavana—a practice that is not explicitly mentioned in the Bdp
alongside srutamayi- and cintdmayiprajna— it is perhaps not surprising that they are not given in this
context.
607. R, folio 602.5-7.
608. Some o f the most important schemes have been conveniently tabulated by Gethin (1987, pp. 637-639).
Note that to the Theravada tradition, the generation o f the sammappadhana forms part o f the transcendental
path (Vism, xxii, p. 35) while in path schemes of the Sarvastivada it belongs to the laukika realm {Kosa,
vi, p. 287).
609. Abhidh-d, p. 362.14-15; Kosa, vi, p. 287.
610. Virtually all texts agree that both types o f avarana are not eliminated before the practitioner embarks on
the transcendental path. For sutras, see: Red, p. 239,4.3-5.8; for sastras, see: Mvs (N), pp. 53.13-55.5;
Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 118-24; Srdv-bh (Sh), pp. 236-7; MBT, ii, pp. 214.23-7, 217.9-15.
611. A comparison with the Sarvastivada path model reveals that these accomplishments, revolving around on
the notion o f right vision {samyagdrsti), correspond to the insights that are associated with the darsanamarga.
However, rejecting the axioms that lie at the heart o f Sarvastivada psychology, the Bdp does not associate
right seeing with the gradual comprehension (anupurvdbhisamaya) o f the sixteen thought-moments that
pertain to vision o f the four noble truths {Kosa, vi, pp. 184-193).
The structure o f the path model and the prefix drya (presumably identifying it as the first fruit o f the path
that, according to the Kosa (vi, p. vi) takes place during the first moment o f the bhavanamdrga indicating
stream-entry) leave little doubt that we are dealing here with the lokottara aspect o f samyagdrsti. Reserved
to either the darsanamarga or bhavanamdrga (depending which sources one chooses to follow, the
eightfold path can manifest itself on either o f them) its presence here is a further indication that we have
reached the lokottara level o f the path.
612. R, folio 604.1-3.

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to listen to other people’s statements.613 Recognising the danger of pride to those who are
isolated from the Dharma the Bdp regards congenial listening to the words of others as a
factor stimulating liberation by itself.614 Second, the bodhisattva has to reflect correctly on the
contents of what he has heard. Since failure to do so inevitably leads to misconduct on the
path, the Bdp places correct reflection and listening to other people’s statements on the
prayogamarga.6I5 As a methodological prerequisite, sruta and cinta are not restricted to the
path of equipment, but also figure also on the path of application.
Having dealt with methodology, the Bdp defines the actual contents of prayogamarga.
Perhaps in numerical analogy to the nirvedhabhagiya, it gives as its principal components
correct practice (yoniso prayoga), correct vision (yoniso drsti), correct penetration (yoniso
pravesa) and correct speech (yoniso vac).616 Of these four, correct practice and penetration
serve as causes to the attainment of samyagdrsti, while correct vision and speech represent its
conditions.

613. This concept is not new to the Mahayana but occurs already in the nikaya as the two conditions bringing
about right view (M I, p. 294; A I, p. 87). Both factors are fundamental to a correct perception o f the
Dharma and in conjunction with wisdom arising from learning, reflection and contemplation stand at the
very core o f a monk’s cognitive progress. This point is fully scrutinised in the Nett (p. 8, trsl. Gethin):
“The teacher or a fellow practitioner in the position o f a teacher teaches someone Dhamma.
Having heard this Dhamma he gains confidence. Therein, whatever is investigation, energy,
consideration, examination, this is wisdom produced by hearing. Whatever is investigation,
consideration, examination, contemplation in dependence on what is thus.heard, this is wisdom
produced by reflection. The knowledge that arises at the stage o f seeing or the stage o f
development for one engaged in bringing to mind by means o f these two kinds o f wisdom is
wisdom produced by development. From the utterance o f another there is wisdom produced
by hearing; from appropriate bringing to mind undertaken individually there is wisdom produced
by reflection; the knowledge that arises both as a result o f the utterance o f another and as a
result o f appropriate bringing to mind undertaken individually is wisdom produced by
development.”
In the Mahayana, the role o f these two factors became integrated into the respective visions o f the path.
For Yogacara followers, statements o f others (paratas caghosah) and correct inner reflection (adhydtman
ca yonisah manasakarah)— being also the cause to right view—perfume (bhavayanti) either knowledge
springing from learning (srotavijhana), mental perception (manovijhdna) or both. In due course, at the
arising o f correct reflection, both types o f knowledge vanish and are replaced by lokottara thinking
pertaining to right view and leading to transcendental purification (Msg, p. 65).
A rather different interpretation o f the term parato ghoso was introduced by Peter Masefield. According
to Masefield (1986, p. 50), parato ghoso does not refer so much to the worldly realm o f instructions from
teachers, but is an expression indicating a channel o f communication between the beyond and religious
experience. Translating it as ‘sound from the beyond’, Masefield suggests that this type o f transcendental
sound is channelled to the Sravaka only by the Buddha (and his closest followers), implying that right
view or religious truth is wholly dependent on the disclosure o f this sound for unfolding. This interpretation
o f the term parato ghoso has been disputed, not least because it fails to take account o f several other
contexts where it quite clearly does not carry this metaphysical connotation. For a discussion, see: Gethin,
1987, pp. 424-25.
614. R, folio 604.7.
615. By placing the focus on sravana and yoniso manasakdra as factors promoting right view, the Bdp
underlines once again its conceptual proximity to a proposition in the Mpps (ii, p. 1110) according to
which it is these two elements that have greatest bearing on the generation of wisdom.
616. R, folio 606.5, 606.6, 608.7, 610.1 respectively.

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In the true spirit of Mahayana ontology, the Bdp states that correct practice is based on
recognition of the sameness of all dharma. Thus, if fully accomplished, correct practice does
not manifest any verbal or physical activity but unfolds in non-practice.617 Conceived as
practice free from obstruction, doubt or predication, it steadies the roots of virtue accumulated
on the sambharamarga and brings their development to a high-point—an event close to the
murdhan phase of the nirvedhabhagiya,618 Next, as if to mirror the arrangement at the beginning
of the chapter where yoniso darsana followed on sruta, yoniso manasakdra and pratipatti,
the Bdp specifies the concept of ‘vision of all dharma\ 619 Above all, this constitutes insight
into dharma-samensss.620 Then, taking up the notion sarvadharmasamata, the Bdp develops a
vision of reality that—sustained by the conviction of the non-arising of dharma—precludes
^tfr/wfl-predication of any kind and effects withdrawal from path-activity.621 Once again, it is
possible to see parallels to the nirvedhabhagiya scheme. For a bodhisattva who enters into its
first phase, called usmagata, reality loses much of its ‘true objectivity’ as he begins to grasp
(albeit only incompletely at his early stage) the empty and non-existent character (svabhava)
of external worldly phenomena.622
While the notions of correct practice and correct seeing are well expounded, their mutual
relationship is unclear. Echoing conventional perception that practice (prayoga) precedes
seeing {darsana), correct seeing is said to be based on correct practice.623 However, since
correct practice becoming non-practice presupposes recognition of dharma-sameness—the
very foundation of correct seeing—one cannot help but to conclude that practice and seeing
are supportive of each other.
As if to accentuate this reciprocity, in correct penetration and speech the order of their
relationship is reversed. That is to say, by proposing that penetration constitutes the basis of
correct speech, the cognitive element is placed ahead of the practical aspect and becomes

617. R, folio 605.7.

618. DPP, p. 35.
619. R, folio 601.3.
620. R, folio 612.4-6.
621. R, folio 607,3-608.2
This section, being repeated almost verbatim at a later stage, is o f considerable importance for the
understanding o f the argument, since it indicates that correct practice/correct vision and correct
penetration/correct speech have equal influence on the bodhisattva’s cognition. That is to say, both enable
him to see dharma in accordance with reality, to attain non-seeing, and finally to enter into the certainty of
truth.
622. Siddhi, pp. 578-9.
623. See, for instance: R, folio 606.5, 612.5.

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essential to its occurrence.624

Correct penetration consists of two important components.625 First, there is the cognitive
element that allows the bodhisattva to penetrate phenomenal existence. This springs from
perfect mental quietude (,samatha), insight (vipasyana) and discrimination (vikalpa)626, and
unfolds before the bodhisattva’s eyes a world that is impermanent, dependency originating,
empty, signless and wishless. Yet, by virtue of his commitment to universal welfare—the
second element of penetration—this newly won understanding, although alone sufficient to
guarantee entry into nirvana, does not tempt him to abandon samsara.627 On the contrary, he
assumes rebirth in the kdmadhatu, cherishes the Doctrine, develops compassion and cultivates
skilful means.628 Accommodating in equal measure cognition and compassion, correct
penetration is thus perfectly balanced.
If this binary disposition is juxtaposed to the nirvedhabhagiya, parallels to the ksanti phase
immediately spring to mind. At this stage, having shed all misconception concerning the self
(as subject) and dharma (as object) of perception, the bodhisattva is no longer subject to low
rebirths; yet he continues his endeavour for deeper understanding and greater welfare in the
world. This postponement, that involves trusting accepting the validity of the noble truths
without further scrutiny, constitutes an important crossroad, since it determines the practitioner’s
allocation to the gotra of the Sravaka, pratyekabuddhas or buddhas.629
The fourth constituent, correct speech, is acquired through the interplay of the factors that
prepare right vision (samyagdrsti). Presumably it is selected for its dual function; reflecting
personal maturity and representing the principal means of conversion, correct speech is
described as congenial, well-founded and in perfect harmony with true reality. By characterising

624. R, folio 608.6-7.

625. Compare these with the four components o f the nirvedhabhagiya (Abhidh-sam (R), p. 105; Kosa, vi, pp.
169-178).
626. R, folio 608.7-609.1
Samatha and vipasyana are o f key importance to the psychological processes that mark prayoga
cognition—and indeed beyond. While samatha has already occurred on the sambharamarga, its impact is
still felt on the path o f application as its fruit becomes manifest on the prayogamarga. Vipasyana in
contrast, representing the bodhisattva’s cognitive faculties, although directed at the very same vision o f
reality does not arise prior to the path o f application (DPP, p. 34). Most sources agree, however, that
beyond the early path phases, samatha and vipasyana operate as a syzygy. Constituting the perfect path if
practised jointly, they are best understood as one-pointedness o f mind (cittaikdgrata) observing the nine
stations o f mind (cittasthiti) and exact analytical investigation o f reality (bhutapratyveksd), (MBT, iii, p. 3;
Srav-bh, pp. 363-5). For their manifestations on the lokottara consciousness, see; Msg, pp. 167, 171.
Their role on the laukikamarga during the four basic dhyana is explained in: MBT, iii, pp. 15-17.
627. R, folio 609.1-4.
628. R, folio 609.7-610.1.
629. Kosa, vi, p. 175.

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correct speech as speech of reality and truth, the Bdp inspires once again a comparison with
the nirvedhabhagiya model where the last phase, called laukikagradharma, is marked by the
direct perception of the characteristics of the noble truths.630 As in the Bdp, this attainment is
based on the four pratisarana. It issues from unobstructed meditation (anantaryasamadhi)
but still within the laukika domain and prevails independently of sense perception.631 Confirming
the laukika status, the Bdp says that at this stage, even if the bodhisattva is accomplished in
penetration and speech, his vision lacks clear insight (vidarsana) and he is still subject to
discursive thinking (vikalpa) like ordinary beings.632
To rid himself of the residues of mistaken mental apperception, the bodhisattva embarks on
the darsanamarga. Heralding entry in the lokottara phase of the path633, it consists of a series
of thought moments no longer concerned with the general characteristics of dharma, but with
the four noble truths.
In the Bdp, entry into this path-phase is announced by stating that persons who accomplish
either correct practice and correct vision or correct penetration and correct speech are assured
of the prospect of vision of dharma. As already implied, this type of vision is transcendental
by nature and echoes the conviction of the non-arising of dharma:634

“What is looking at all dharma in accordance with reality? It is non-seeing.

Non-seeing is an expression for unborn. Unborn is an expression for unarisen.
What is unarisen? It is an expression for invisibility.”

For the Bdp, correct vision is not specifically linked with the abandoning (prahana) of
defilements or with patience (ksanti) and knowledge (jhdna) concerning the noble truths635,
but it accrues from right vision (samyagdrsti) for those who penetrate the sameness of
practices and attainment. Yet, the fundamental psychological experience that marks the progress
through the thought-moments of the darsanamarga follows the Abhidharma accounts rather
630. Siddhi, pp. 575, 581; DPP, p. 36.
631. Siddhi, pp. 578, 581-3.
632. R, folio 611.4, 608.7-609.1
The presence o f vikalpa would suggest that the bodhisattva has not yet reached the darsanamarga, but
dwells still on the prayogamarga.
633. Kosa, vi, p. 290; Abhidh-d, p. 362; Amrtar (B), p. 74; Abhidh-sam (R), p. 107. For a discussion o f the
various types o f darsanamarga, that is the tattvadarsanamarga— a path that is characterised by non-
discursive knowledge (nirvikalpakajhana)— and the two categories o f the laksanamarga, that is
avyavasthitasalyadarsanamdrga or the vyavasthitasatyadarsanamarga, see: Siddhi, pp. 588-600.
634. R, folio 607.5-7.
635. Kosa, vi, p. 183.

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closely. The Bdp describes a vision of reality where the practitioner sheds all misconceptions
( viparyasa), especially the view of individuality (satkayadrstif 36, and acquires a direct
comprehension (abhisamaya) of conditioned reality.637 His wisdom becomes unobstructed
(andsrava) and he identifies the general characteristics of dharma. He realises that the nature
of dharma is impure and yet congruent with nirvana, that dharma are (like persons) without
self and utterly indistinguishable.638 In spite of the removal of all tendencies to passion
(anusaya) and understanding conditioned existence, he is still subject to the laws of samsdra
since the path of vision—merely eliminating those defilements abandoned by seeing—leaves
countless innate defilements (sahajaklesa) untouched.
In order to eliminate these, the bodhisattva embarks on the next path-phase—the path of
contemplation {bhavanamdrga).639 The moment of entry into the bhavanamdrga marks a
critical threshold in the bodhisattva’s career-stages. For, immediately on entry the bodhisattva
penetrates the certainty of truth {samyaktvaniydmavab'dnti)—the first fruit of religious life
{srdmanyaphala)—that guarantees irreversible progression to liberation.640As this attainment,
drawing on cognition acquired during the first fifteen thought-moments of darsanamarga,
marks admission into the fold of noble persons (aryapudgala),641 it is the clearest indication
yet that the Bdp's bodhisattva has advanced to the transcendental domain.642 The exact
entry-level, however, is left undetermined, since (at least among the Sravaka) penetration into
the certainty of truth may lead to a variety of spiritual conditions, depending on the degree of
636. R, folio 613.3, folio 613.7-614.1.
637. The various types o f direct comprehension (<abhisamaya) that occur on the darsanamarga are discussed in
the Siddhi (pp. 601-605).
638. R, folio 612.2-6.
639. Kosa, vi, p. 257.
640. This is the view o f the Sarvastivada and Theravada school (Bareau, 1955, pp. 140, 212). Mahasanghika
and MahiSasaka sources refute the notion o f the irreversibility of the Srotaapanna (Bareau, 1955, pp. 66,
185).
641. Abhidh-sam (R), p. 152; Kosa, vi, p. 182.
642. R, folio 607.3, folio 608.1-3
Besides the lokottara bhavanamdrga, which is the standard level o f cultivation (tracing the career o f the
Sotaapanna, sakrdagamin and anagamin), the texts speak also o f a laukika bhavanamdrga. This path is
impure and inferior to its lokottara counterpart as it does not progress through ‘reflection on the nature o f
things’ (tattvamanasakara) and the person on it fails to grasp the general characteristics o f dharma. But it
has still considerable preparatory value as the Buddha has demonstrated. Being an ordinary person when
he approached the Bodhi-tree, the Buddha had previously eradicated all innate passions o f the world by
laukika meditation. All that was left to him therefore was to comprehend the four noble truths in their
sixteen aspects and to destroy a set o f nine innate passions linked with the naivasamjhdyatana and
bhavagra that he could not eradicate on the laukika bhavanamdrga level (for explanation of this restriction,
see: Kosa, vi, p. 233). Applying to each o f them the prahanamdrga and vimuktimdrga thought, he then
reached bodhi in thirty-four thought-moments (Kosa, ii, p. 206; vi, p. 177). The problem with the attainment
o f the fruits o f the laukika bhavanamdrga is that its disconnection from the klesa is only temporary (Kosa,
vi, p. 233) and leads, unless carried further, only to rebirth among the Brahma gods. (For further detail,
see: HIB, pp. 617-8; Kosa, vi, pp. ix-xi; Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 110-113).

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residual attachment.643 For the Bdp the proposition of non-regression would seem to indicate
that its location on the path is rather more advanced, since true irreversibility does not occur
before the eighth stage.644
Having introduced the bhavanamdrga, the Bdp spells out the attainments that accrue through
repeated meditation (punah punaramukhlkarana). The bhavanamdrga of the bodhisattva,
agreeing in content with the Sravaka model, is characterised primarily by the destruction of
hitherto intact defilements. Based on wisdom and affecting innate defilements in the kdma-,
rupa- and arupyadhatu, the bodhisattva is no longer linked with any conditioned dharma, but
permanently emancipated from the fetters of worldly phenomena.645He has dispelled practically
all obstacles constituted by defilement (klesavarana) including adventitious bonds646 and
rises above conditioned activity to pursue his career beyond the parameter of good and
evil:647

“He is emancipated from the eight worldly conditions. He is emancipated from

the twenty secondary defilements including self-conceit, grave conceit and perverted
conceit. ... He is emancipated from all lowly and wicked dharma. He is emancipated
from the activity of all evil, including contentious and defiled activity, activity of
the aggregates, activity of the lord of death and activity of the Evil One ... He is
emancipated from avarice and generosity, morality and immorality, patience and
malice, vigour and indolence, meditation and disquietude, wisdom and folly, fur­
therance and impediments of the perfections, knowledge and nescience.”

Prepared now by the destruction of the defilements through direct comprehension, he

gradually eliminates the obstacles to knowledge (jheyavarana).6^ Having cast aside all
heterodox views based on the belief of the self, he relinquishes discursive thinking and
rejects the dichotomies of classification:649

643. The actual entry level is determined by the degree to which he has eliminated the concomitants o f desire.
For details, szq: Abhidh-sam (R), p. 152.
644. Dasa-bh, p. 71.12; Bbh, p. 290.21 (cf. p. 235.18); Msl, p. 176.22; Mvu, i, pp. 1.3, 63.13-14.
645. R, folio 613.4.
646. R, folio 613.5, 614.2.
647. R, folio 614.3-6.
648. Siddhi, pp. 610-11.
649. R, folio 614.3-7.

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“He is emancipated from all multiplicity, including multiplicity of buddha-fields,

buddhas, sentient beings and dharma. He is emancipated from conditioned reflection
of all sentient beings, including nescience, knowledge, discursive insight, conven­
tional and absolute truth. He is emancipated from the bases of all reflection,
thought and consciousness; including perseverance [in] formlessness, signlessness,
causelessness and unconditioned wisdom.”

While not very different in meaning and content from the bhavanamdrga of the Sravaka,
there is divergence on the factors that prompt its attainment. For the Sravaka, the bhavanamdrga
represents the abandonment of defilements through the vision of the noble truths.650 As we
have seen, in the Bdp the bodhisattva’s rejection of conditioned existence is not so much due
to the systematic analysis of the noble truths, as by recognition of the sameness of dharma
through Perfect Wisdom.651

Perfect Wisdom and Skill

With the end of the bhavanamdrga section we have come to an important break in the
B dp’s exposition of prajndpdramita. So far, much of chapter eleven followed the ancient
model of the Sravaka career. In the remainder of the chapter (which constitutes approximately
seventy-five percent of its overall length) the scheme of progress is not immediately evident.
That is to say, although not without a sense of order—all but three out of eighteen subsections
show clear traits of systematic arrangement—no principle emerges that would establish an
overall connection between the various practices. For this we shall have to turn to other
treatises on the bodhisattva.
The content of this section is defined by eighteen types of ‘skill’. Through the practice of
‘skill’ the bodhisattva attains an increasingly refined understanding of reality that culminates
eventually in the acquisition of wisdom. The various types of ‘skill’ indicate the practices
that play a role in this process. They include, for example, the pratisarana, pratisamvid,
bodhipdksika dharma, samatha and vipasyana and puny a- and jhanasambhara. The overriding

650. DPP, pp. 24-6; Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 110-17.

651. Cf. DPP, pp. 41-2.

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purpose of these practices, and therefore also the purpose of ‘skill’, is to investigate the
nature of reality. This investigation manifests different points of emphasis and proceeds from
various angles, depending on the nature of the individual practices. ‘Skill’ in skandha, dhdtu,
ayatana and satya, for instance, aims to destroy the belief in a self (atmadrsti), whereas
‘skill’ in vipasyana is designed to reveal to the bodhisattva the non-existence of dharma
(dharmanairatmya).
In spite of this topical fragmentation, all eighteen ‘skills’ share the same objective, namely,
the attainment of wisdom. In the Bdp, wisdom is defined as ‘skill’ in all dharma. The method
by which such ‘skill’ is acquired is called ‘discerning wisdom’ (prajndpravicaya) and comprises
all the practices that are included in the various types of ‘skill’.652In essence, ‘skill’ represents
therefore the means of investigation through which the bodhisattva accomplishes Perfect
Wisdom.653
The practice of ‘skill’ (kausalya) is not particular to the Bdp but is found in numerous
treatises on the path. It occurs in the Akn, Dbh, Lkdh, Prn, Rtm, Samdhis, Bbh, Srotabhumi,
&bh, Prbh, Mvs and Vism.65A Although there is some overlapping in contents between the
652. R, folio 615.5-7
Already in the nikaya, we note a close connection between discernment (usually Dharma-discemment)
and wisdom (M III, p. 85; S V, p. 111). Taken up by the abhidhamma literature (Dhs, p. 11), it developed
into one o f the chief characteristics o f wisdom to appear besides the traditional factors o f ‘knowledge of
the destruction o f the impurities’ (dsravaksayajhdna) and ‘knowledge o f their non-arising’ (anutpadajnana);
e.g., Kosa, vi, p. 240; Siddhi, p. 313; MBT, iii, pp. 14-15. See also, Mpps, ii, pp. 1101-1104.
653. Note that this interpretation is at odds with the explanation of ‘skill’ in the Alm-tikd (pp. 194.5.5-195.1.2).
Here, we read that ‘skill’ is not so much a tool of investigation as a designator o f the objects (dlambana)
or things (yastu) to be understood by wisdom.
654. The Bbh (pp. 308.9-309.6) distinguishes ten kinds o f ‘skill’. These are (1) ‘skill’ in means in order to
remove hostility in angry beings, (2) ‘skill’ causing ordinary beings to enter (the path), (3) ‘skill’ causing
beings who have entered (the path) to ripen, (4) ‘skill’ in delivering sentient beings who have been
ripened, (5) ‘skill’ in worldly sdstras, (6) ‘skill’ in discerning the arising o f mistaken observance in moral
conduct o f commitments, (7) ‘skill’ in the unsurpassed resolve, (8) ‘skill’ in the &ravakayana, (9) ‘skill’ in
the Pratyekabuddhayana, (10) ‘skill’ in the Mahayana. Altogether, these produce the five cardinal actions
o f a.bodhisattva. By the first four types o f ‘skill’, the bodhisattva achieves his own benefit and that o f his
fellow beings. The fifth ‘skill’ renders him invincible. The sixth ‘skill’ establishes him in the vow-observance.
By the seventh type o f ‘skill’ he accomplishes all future objectives and by the eighth, ninth and tenth
types o f ‘skill’, the bodhisattva teaches the Dharma in accordance with the faculties, lineages and resolutions
o f the people whom he tries to convert. These objectives are clearly quite different from those postulated
in the Mvs or Bdp and do not appear to be connected to their types o f ‘skill’.
Compare these lists with the rather different enumeration that is found in the Ratnameghasutra (35, p.
182.5.1-3), distinguishing the following ten kinds of ‘skill’ o f bodhisattvas: (1) ‘skill’ in the non-existence
o f a self (anatman), (2) ‘skill’ in the ripening of deeds (karmavipaka), (3) ‘skill’ in the conditioned
(samskrta), (4) ‘skill’ in the flow of existence (samsarasantand), (5) ‘skill’ in the transitoriness o f existence
(samsaranivrtta), (6) ‘skill’ in the &ravakayana, (7) ‘skill’ in the Pratyekabuddhayana, (8) ‘skill’ in the
Mahayana, (9) ‘skill’ in refraining from evil deeds (marakarmatydga), (10) ‘skill’ in non-regressing
wisdom (anirvrttaprajha). An alternative sixfold list is given in the Samdhis (pp. 116.15-119.4),
distinguishing (1) ‘skill’ in the production o f the thought, (2) ‘skill’ in the duration o f thought, (3) ‘skill
in the destmction o f thought, (4) ‘skill’ in the increase of thought, (5) ‘skill’ in the decrease o f thought,
(6) ‘skill’ in means.
The Vism (pp. 128-136) lists ten kinds o f ‘skill’ in absorption (appanakosalla). These include (1) ‘skill’ in

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various expositions of ‘skill’, I have not discovered two lists that match exactly. In most
texts, the purpose of the enumations of ‘skill’ is mainly organisational, that is, to break up the
(bodhisattva) practice into smaller units in order to make the discussion more managable.
The topics that are included in the discussions of ‘skill’ vary greatly, ranging from very
general themes (such as ‘skill’ in the three vehicles) over specific bodhisattva practices (such
as ‘skill’ in liberating sentient beings) to practices of cognition (such as ‘skill’ in the non­
existence of a self). In spite of this diversity there are some types of ‘skill’ that appear in
most lists. Above all, these are ‘skill’ in skandha, dhdtu, ayatana,satya andpratltyasamutpada.
These five ‘skills’ figure in the Bdp, Akn, Prn and in all commentarial discussions of ‘skill’.
Generally, they occurr in the order in which I have cited them and stand at the beginning of
the exposition of ‘skill’. The factor that ties these five types of ‘skill’ together is that all of
them deal with cognition and introduce the practitioner to the futility of the belief in a self.
They are included in sections that discuss the nature of reality or form a part of the expositions
of wisdom {prajna) and knowledge (jhdna).
This applies also to the Bdp. In addition to the ‘skills’ of skandha, dhdtu, ayatana, satya
and pratltyasamutpada the Bdp includes in its exposition of prajna ‘skill’ in pratisamvid,
pratisarana, punyasambhdra and jhanasambhdra, smrtyupasthana, bodhyahga,
atyastdhgamdrga, samatha and vipasyana, samyakprahdna, indriya, bala, ekayanamarga
and dharma. 'Skill’ in each of these practices contributes to the attainment of wisdom. While
the content of the practices follows mostly well-established traditions of thought, the exact
use to which they are put in the Bdp is less obvious. As the text itself contains practically no
clues that would explain their role in the training of wisdom I have turned for explication to
exegetical writings.
The most instructive account of the practice of ‘skill’ is found in the Madhydntavibhaga. In
chapter three, entitled ‘Tattvapariprccha’, the Madhydntavibhaga discusses ‘skill’ in skandha,
dhdtu, ayatana, pratltyasamutpada, sthdnasthdna, indriya, adhvan, satya, yana and
samskrtasamsb'ta dhatma.655 According to the commentary, all ten types of ‘skill’ contribute
cleansing the basis, (2) ‘skill’ in maintaining balanced faculties, (3) ‘skill’ in the sign, (4) ‘skill’ in timely
exertion, (5) ‘skill’ in timely restraint, (6) ‘skill’ in timely encouragement, (7) ‘skill’ in timely equipoise,
(8) ‘skill’ in avoiding poorly concentrated persons, (9) ‘skill’ in cultivating concentrated persons, (10)
‘skill’ in resoluteness upon concentration. These form part o f the general description o f the development
o f samadhi, as they serve to describe the general mental and physical attitudes conducive to concentration
and do not appear not to be related to the ten ‘skills’ cited in the Bdp, Rtm, Mvs or Bbh.
655. Mvs (N), pp. 44-49.
Note that with the eight types o f ‘skill’ o f the Akn the Mvs shares all but two kinds, viz., ‘skill’ in the
inevitable/impossible and ‘skill’ in faculties. These are exactly the two items by which the list in the Mvs

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to the destruction of the belief in a self (atmadrsti) and have important bearing on the
understanding of reality.656Each of the ‘skills’ addresses one particular aspect of the belief in
a self. The Mvs reduces the belief in a self to ten component parts. In an order corresponding
to the ten ‘skills’ these are: (1) the illusion of oneness (ekatvagraha); (2) the illusion of
causality (hetutvagrdha); (3) the illusion of the experiencer (bhoktrtvagraha); (4) the illusion
of the agent (kartrtvagraha); (5) the illusion of independent action (,svatantragraha); (6) the
illusion of dominion (adhipatitvagraha); (7) the illusion of permanence (inityatvagraha); (8)
the illusion of the support of defilement and purity (samklistavyavadanatvagraha); (9) the
illusion of the meditator (yogitvagraha); (10) the illusion of an entity that is either released or
bound (amuktamuktatvagrdha).651 Of these ten illusions, number 1, 2, 3, 4, 8 and 10 are
relevant to our study of the Bdp since they are destroyed through forms of ‘skill’ that are also
found in the Bdp, They are ‘skill’ in skandha, dhdtu, ayatana,pratltyasamutpada, satya and
samskrtasamskrta dharma.658
According to the Mvs, ‘skill’ in aggregates prevents the bodhisattva from falling prey to the
view that there exists a single reality—an dtman— in the five skandha659 The Akn-tikd,
commenting on a parallel passage in the Akn, corroborates this view through a list of examples
that illustrate the empty, non-substantial nature of the aggregates.660Like the Bdp, in order to
broaden its explanation, the Mvs peruses the aggregates in relation to the world and draws the
conclusion that it also shares the same characteristics of manifold conditions (anekatva),
compression (abhisamksepa) and divisions (pariccheda).661
exceeds that o f the Akn, The Bbh (p. 4.6-8) contains yet another shorter version o f this list, being reduced
to ‘skill’ in skandha, dhdtu, ayatana, sthdnasthdna, satya and pratltyasamutpada. These are said to figure
specifically in the training o f Sravaka and pratyekabuddhas, but are also acquired by the bodhisattva. The
same list is included in the Srotabhumi (109, p. 287.3.2-3), where it occurrs alongside gotra, laksana,
etc., in a sequence o f sixteen types o f attraction (samgraha). It appears also in the P m (23, p. 237.4.4-5).
656. Mvs (N), p. 37, 10b.5, p. 40.1-2.
Without regard to philological evidence, the parallel occurrences in thcAkn, Bdp, Dbh, Bbh, &bh, Prbh,
etc., nor context, Stephan Anacker takes the term kausalya to stand for upayakausalya (1986, pp, 240-245).
Realising the incongruities that are produced by such an interpretation— but apparently not prepared to
rethink his position— he attempts to explain these away by the samvrtisatyafparamarthasatya concept,
remarking somewhat unconvincingly: “It is interesting that Vasubandhu regards the basic Buddhist analysis
o f the ‘personality’ as being only a provisional expedient against the view o f individual s e lf ... they are
not to be taken literary; they are only temporary antidotes to suffering inducing conceptions, and must
ultimately be abandoned themselves” (op. cit, p. 281, n. 42).
657. Mvs (N), p. 44.14a.l-2.
658. I ignore here the fact that the Bdp cites also ‘skill’ in faculties (indriya) among its eighteen factual types
o f ‘skill’ (R, folio 673.3-75.2) as this has practically nothing in common with the M v s’s ‘skill’ in indriya.
I have discussed the implications o f this nominal parallelism below. For a definition o f kausalyatakausalya,
see: Srotabhumi, p. 303.2.8-5.2.
659. Mvs (N), p. 45.14a.6-14b.l.
660. For the context in which these are set, see my notes to the translation of chapter eleven.
661. Mvs (N), p. 45.6-7.

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Skill in elements is important for the destruction of the belief in a self, since it removes the
notion of causality. The fault with causality lies in imagining that a self exercises true causal
activity by bringing the various dhdtu into existence. In order to repudiate this misconception,
the Mvs likens dhdtu (divided into internal dhdtu, external dhdtu and cognition-dhdtu) to
seeds (bija) alternating simultaneously as cause and effect.662 Although the problem of the
origin of the bija ’s potency to generate is not addressed663, ‘skill’ in elements eliminates the
misconception that the self is capable of causal activity by removing agency from its realm to
that of karma.664 This interpretation corresponds with the treatment of ‘skill’ in dhdtu in the
Bdp. Postulating that the elements do not bear any characteristic (Jaksana) by which they
would be established as independently existing, the Bdp points out that their sameness is
rooted in insubstantiality and non-becoming. Clearly, things that lack substantiality and
becoming, being neither conditioned nor unconditioned, are not subject to any causal agency.
Roughly comparable with the illusion of causality is the illusion of agency. Appearing in
the Mvs in the fourth place665, it also addresses causal misconception, except that causality is
limited to cognition, whereas the illusion of an agency embraces all types of effects. Both
Bdp and Mvs indicate that the mistaken belief in a self as agent is best met by ‘skill’ in the
law of dependent co-origination.666 More interested in eradicating the misconception that an
agent persists in experience than in the twelve members, both works propound that there is
no independent agency to trigger any operation outside ignorance, superficial reflection and
the causal series itself.667
Having discussed causality, the Mvs proceeds to the question of experience. It argues that
all experience—whether based in the present life or linked with future retribution—cannot be
rooted in a self but is conducted through sensefields.668 For the Bdp, however, ‘skill’ in
sensefields implies, above all, recognition of the sameness of all sensefields. This assumption

662. Mvs (N), p. 45.14b.2 (cf. Siddhi, p. 122, and, for a full treatment o f the philosophical problems associated
with the bija theory, pp. 100-123).
663. For an ingenious attempt to solve this problem, see: Siddhi, pp. 102-9.
664. The Akn-tikd, says that the meaning o f dhdtu corresponds with the meaning o f holding characteristics and
has the meaning o f cause— with khams, bija and dbyihs being synonyms for ‘cause’ giving rise to the
powers, etc., o f the Tathagata (p. 195.5.2-4).
665. In the Bdp, ‘skill’ in pratityasamutpada is placed last in the ten skills. The rationale for this positioning is
obvious, since penetration o f dependent co-origination figures among the factors signaling the attainment
o f wisdom. In a sense, it brings the discussion o f prajna to its logical conclusion, followed only by ‘skill’
in dharma. On contextual grounds I have decided to treat it alongside the first four types o f ‘skill’,
although it will figure again in my discussion of the B dp’s path scheme.
666. Mvs (N), p. 45.14b.4-6; Bdp, R, folio 681.3-683.4.
667. R, folio 682.6-683.3; Mvs (N), p. 45.14b.4-6; cf. Kosa, iii, p. 56.
668. Mvs (N), p. 45.14b.3.

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reduces discrimination between virtue and non-virtue ad absurdum and prompts the bodhisattva
to discourage others from sensefield activity since it only increases mental instability. Even
though he identifies the sensefields for what they are—and so abides unperturbed and unaffected
by worldly experience—the bodhisattva persists in the path experience.669
So far, we have had little difficulty in interpreting the B dp’s ‘skills’ in terms of the M vs’s
thought on the belief in a self. The very nature of the objects under discussion—skandha,
dhdtu and ayatana—reveals this purpose. Matters become less clear when we investigate
‘skill’ in satya for its influence on the illusion of the belief in a self. According to the Mvs,
‘skill’ in truth refers above all to the four noble truths.670 This view is also expressed in the
Bdp where four out of six passages deal with the noble truths.671 Besides an interest in the
truths, these five passages have one shared concern. They assume the insubstantiality of the
person and attempt to demonstrate that the self has no effect on the validity of the noble
truths. At first we learn that knowledge of suffering is to see that the aggregates are unborn,
that suffering is without origination and destruction, indeed that all dharma are uniform.672
The aggregates themselves—though they are the basis of truth-perception—are in fact empty,
unborn and in a complete state of cessation.673
Looking at these propositions in conjunction with the belief in a self based on the illusion
of support of defilement and purity (samklistavyavadanatvagraha), the connection between
‘skill’ in satya and the doctrine of non-self becomes obvious. Common (defiled) perception
would require purity and defilement—the two cardinal facets of the noble truths—to possess
a support or subject which could be defiled or pure.674 The significance of ‘skill’ in satya lies
not only in the perception of defilement (duhkhalsamudaya)615 and purity (nirodha/marga)676,

669. That is to say, he draws them away from the ten ignoble paths o f samsara (Akn-tikd, pp. 197.5.6-203.4.8;
Msl, p. 124.3-15).
670. Mvs (N), p. 47.15b.3.
671. The passages that do not touch on the concerns of the four noble truths investigate the relationship o f the
various levels o f experience, that is to say, conventional truth (samvrtisatya), absolute truth
(paramarthasatya) and the truth o f characteristic (laksanasatya). As these sections have already been
subject to scrutiny, I shall refrain from discussing them again. For interpretations o f the concept o f the
three truths in Buddhism, see: Wayman, 1980, pp. 220-21; Freeman, 1991, pp. 97-115; Sasaki, 1964-5,
pp. 236-251; Pagel, 1990, pp. 8-10. Note, however, that in the introductory passage to ‘skill’ in satya it is
the four noble truths that are explicitly cited as the object o f this type o f ‘skill’ (R, folio 620.4.-6).
672. R, folio 620.6-621.2.
673. R, folio 622.1-6.
674. Hsien yang sheng chiao lun (T 31, p. 545c; trsl. O’Brien):
“Because the fruit o f one’s past deeds inclines one to practice evil deeds we imagine that there
is someone who is defiled. Because it inclines one to practice right deeds, we imagine that
there is someone who is purified. But this illusion comes from not understanding the four
noble truths.”
675. Kosa, vi, p. 122.

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but— as shown by the Bdp—it rejects also the need for a self to sustain their presence.
Knowledge of truth provides a self-contained explanation of their arising and destruction,
revealing a fluctuating basis (the aggregates), the character of this basis (non-existence), the
nature of the experience (ferry-like) and its origination (no-birth)—four notions that render
the presence of a self superfluous to sustain purity and defilement.
To take stock and return briefly to the question of this chapter’s overall organisation, we
can make two observations concerning the purpose of the types of ‘skill’ investigated so far.
First, the texts make it plain that their primary role is to remove the misconceptions about the
self. In this sense, the B dp’s first four kinds of ‘skill’ (including perhaps the more distant
‘skill’ in dependent co-origination) display a common objective and so were presumably
conceived en bloc.
This hypothesis, however plausible, leaves several questions unanswered. If the eradication
of the belief in a self is limited to ‘skill’ in skandha, dhdtu, ayatana, satya (and
pratltyasamutpada) what is then the role of the remaining types of skill? Moreover, if
perceived as a group of practices, what is their exact location on the path? It seems unlikely
that such a major feature of the training should have been devised without thought being
given to its position.
In general, descriptions of the path tend to place the elimination of the belief in a self at the
beginning of the path.677 There is evidence in the Bbh that supports an early position for our
five types of ‘skill’ also. Here, we learn that they (plus ‘skill’ in the inevitable/impossible)
function as bases of knowledge mastered by Sravaka, pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas
alike. The remaining types of ‘skill’ are only accessible to bodhisattvas.678 We may infer,
therefore, that ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., represents a kind of a spiritual foundation on which the
bodhisattvacaiya is built.679 Furthermore, as revealed by passages in the &bh and Prbh, the

676. K osa, vi, p. 120 (cf. Kosa, i, p. 8).

677. For the tenfold scheme, see: Dasa-bh, pp. 31.10,43.17; for the fivefold scheme, see: DPP, pp. 21, 37.
678. Bbh, p. 4.6-8
Note that the descriptions o f ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., follow closely the definitions that are given in the &bh
and contain many traits o f &ravakayana orientation (cf. Srdv-bh (Sh), pp. 237-49). A useful indicator of
the degree to which the first five types o f ‘skill’ are associated with the Sravakayana in the Sbh is obtained
if we look at the sources on which the $bh drew for inspiration 0rav-bh (Sh), pp. 240-49).
679. This, at least, is the opinion o f the Bbh, which remarks (p. 3.14-18):
“Among them, the lineage o f all the Sravaka and pratyekabuddhas becomes pure through the
purification o f the obstructions o f defilement, not through purification o f the obstructions
pertaining to the knowledgeable. However, the lineage o f bodhisattvas becomes pure not only
through purification o f the obstruction o f defilement, but also through purification o f the
obstruction pertaining to the knowledgeable.”

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scope of ‘skill’ even differs between the Sravaka and pratyekabuddha.680 For a £ravaka, only
the ‘skills’ in skandha, dhdtu, ayatana, pratltyasamutpdda and sthanasthdna are attainable
whereas a pratyekabuddha also transforms satya into an object of ‘skill’.681 The scope and
advancement in ‘skill’, it seems, become a type of gradation demarcating the three vehicles.
By themselves, these findings do not explain the position of ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., in the
overall scheme of the Bdp. The key to this problem is found outside the Bdp. A glance at the
list at the beginning of the current investigation shows that ‘skill’ in skandha, dhdtu, ayatana
and satya is placed between the discussion of the bhavanamarga and ‘skill’ in pratisamvid.
The chief characteristics of the bhavanamarga are the practice of meditation and the attainment
of the sramanyaphala. In the &bh, ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., occurs precisely in conjunction
with these two training aspects. They are an important attribute particularly for the Srotaapanna682
and become objects of meditation (alambana) in the Sravaka training.683 This would seem to
tally with the contemplative practice supposedly undertaken on the bhavanamarga in general,
and in its laukika phase in particular.684Hence, there appears to be a case for linking ‘skill’ in
skandha, etc., with the discussion of bhavanamarga—the implication being that ‘skill’ forms
a part of it.685
To find a connection between ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., and ‘skill’ in pratisamvid has proved
more problematic. Essentially, we find two apparently contradictory views. One propounds
that the pratisamvid lead to ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., and the other that ‘skill’ in skandha, etc.,
provides a basis for the acquisition of the pratisamvid. Having considered the evidence, I am
inclined to adopt the first opinion.
In support of the first view we have a statement in the Dbh\686

680. Srdv-bh (Sh), pp. 237-249; Prbh, pp. 376-7.

681. For the pratyekabuddha, ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., is present in all three major phases o f this training.
Judging by the brief passages in the Prbh, it prepares the ground for the ‘penetration o f the certainty of
truth’ via direct comprehension (abhisamaya) and the eventual attainment o f the state o f certainty itself
(op, c it). This interpretation would place ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., on the darsanamarga.
682. &rdv~bh (Sh), pp. 177.8-183.11.
683. op. cit., pp. 193.4-258.13
For a superior edition o f this passage, see: Schmithausen, 1982, pp. 460-472. A parallel account o f the
psychological experiences underlying these meditations is found in the Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 134-36.
684. For details on these meditations during the bhavanamarga, see: Kosa, ii, pp. 134-6, 180, 205; iii, p. 196;
vi, pp. 186-189 and chapter viii; Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 110-11; Mpps, iii, pp. 1213-1328; MBT, iii, pp.
1- 8 .
The association o f the pratisamvid with meditation is further corroborated in a key passage in the Bbh that
affirms that they constitute knowledge springing from meditative practice (bhavanamayam . . . jhanam).
Bbh, pp. 258.6-7, 258.9-10,258.12-13, 258.15-16.
685. According to the Bbh, the three types o f wisdom (i.e., srutamayi-, cintamayi- and bhdvanamayiprajha.)
themselves are conducive to the attainment o f the lower six kinds o f ‘skill’ (Bbh, p. 33.10-15).
686. Dasa-bh, p. 78.3-4.

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“By the unique knowledge of own-being of things (arthapratisamvid), the

bodhisattva enters into the attainment o f ‘skill’ in aggregates, elements, sensefields,
truth and dependent co-origination.”

A similar proposition is also found in the Bbh:6*1

“Reliance on the boddhisattva’s four [kinds of] unique knowledge should be

known to lead to ‘skill’ in the five bases of the bodhisattva; being ‘skill’ in
aggregates, elements, sensefields, dependent co-origination and the
inevitable/impossible.”

This passage also underpins what we have already inferred from the $bh and Prbh concerning
‘skill’ in skandha, etc., being cognitive foundations. Ironically, it is this function that gives
weight to the alternative position. To this effect we read in the Visuddhimagga:m

“Now, the things classed as aggregates, sensefields, elements, faculties, truths,

dependent co-origination, etc., are the soil (bhumi) of this understanding [of the
unique knowledge]. Two purifications, viz., purification of virtue and consciousness
are its roots. Five purifications, viz., purification of view, purification by overcoming
doubt, by knowledge and vision of the path ... are the trunk [of their understanding].”

To the Vism knowledge of the aggregates, etc., is quite clearly a cornerstone to the development
of the patisambhida.6*9Likewise, it is probably no coincidence that knowledge of the aggregates
and knowledge of the four noble truths are discussed immediately before the unique
knowledge.690 Additional support for this proposition, however, is thinly spread and subject
to interpretation.
Introducing this statement on the relation between ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., and the pratisamvid the Dbh
comments that the bodhisattva “understands by the unique knowledge o f designations the methodical
(asambheda) ‘skill’ distinguishing the knowledge o f dharmd” (op, cit,, p. 77.22-23).
687. Bbh,‘p. 258.17-20.
688. Vism, p. 443.
689. Having discussed the qualities o f the patisambhidd, as if to underline the importance of a correct understanding
o f the aggregates, etc., to their generation, the Vism dedicates the next seventy pages to a description of
their nature, functions and attributes (Vism, pp. 444-516).
690. Vism, p. 440.

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In the bbh the context places the practice of ‘skill’ into a meditative structure, specifically,
on the bhavanamarga. Apart from the practice of the dhyana, etc., advancement through the
bhavanamarga involves a number of ancillary practices, particularly the noble eightfold path
and joint practice of ‘perfect mental quietude’ {samatha) and ‘insight’ (vipasyana).691 If we
accept that ‘skill’ pertains to the bhavanamarga or, at least, to meditation, by implication it is
possible to draw a link between ‘skill’ and samatha/vipasyana. This connection allows us to
utilise a passage in the Samdhis where we leam that:692

“Bodhisattvas who cultivate perfect mental quietude and insight possess the unique
knowledge of the own-being of things and the unique knowledge of designation.”

This statement suggests that the attainment of (at least two) pratisamvid springs from the
practice of samatha and vipasyana; that is to say, from meditation on the bhavanamarga. In
other words, it arises from the very context in which ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., is being developed.
This position is sustained by the content that is given to the pratisamvid in the Samdhis. In
common with the Bdp, the Samdhis dwells on precisely those practices that were the focus of
‘skill’. More than just the fact of it referring to the problem of the self and defining the
aggregates, elements, sensefields and noble truths693, it is the brevity in which these are
treated that suggests that the bodhisattva was assumed to acquire ‘skill’ prior to the pratisamvid.
In this sense, ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., would provide the cognitive foundation on which the
pratisamvid would develop.
And yet, on balance, I do not think that these clues—however persuasive— allow us to
disregard the unequivocal statements of the Dbh and Bbh. They say quite clearly that it is the
pratisamvid that lead to ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., and not vice versa.694 It is perhaps appropriate

691. Abhidh-sam (R), p. 126; Kosa, vi, pp. 279-80, 300-301; viii, pp. 130-31, 146, Satya-s (S), pp. 448-49;
MBT, iii, pp. 205.5-207.11.
692. Samdhis (ELa), p. 98.1-4.
693. Samdhis ( b id ) , pp. 99.12-13, 99. 16-23,100.12-14, 102.15-19,103.1
It is perhaps significant that all o f these references occur in the arthapratisamvid section that—while in
second position in the Samdhis— is the first o f the pratisamvid in the Bdp. By placing it at the beginning
(a niove that is non-standard by most treatises on the pratisamvid), the Bdp brings the arthapratisamvid
references to skandha, etc., close to the section on skill—a device that might have served to accentuate an
otherwise rather weak and indirect connection between the two sections.
694. It is conceivable that the relationship between ‘skill’ and pratisamvid has changed in the course of
Buddhist history. However, the chronological closeness of the Bdp and Dbh, on the one hand, and the Bbh
and Vism on the other hand apart from the fact that such re-interpretation would have involved a total
reversal o f whichever position was the original, renders this possibility remote.

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to consider both positions as equally valid within their own textual traditions until further
evidence comes to light to clarify the matter.

But now let us move on to look at the actual treatment of the pratisamvid. In contents the
Bdp adopted what have become well-established patterns of exposition.695 Under the heading
of arthapratisamvid it discusses the own-being of things and scrutinises reality from the
viewpoint of the absolute truth, including some of the broader principles that pertain to the
path attainments.696 Similarly, dharmapratisamvid, revealing knowledge of instructions and
designations that introduces to the names and characteristics of phenomena, deals largely
with standard issues.697 Niruktipratisamvid and pratibhanapratisamvid bestow intimate
knowledge of languages and confer great eloquence.698Traditionally appreciated for their role
in conversion activity, they have less bearing on the cognitive dimension of the training than
on that aspect of the vow committing the bodhisattva to spread the Buddha’s teachings.699 As

695. More specifically, it agrees, for instance, with the Mpps (iii, p. 1619) that the pratisamvid manifest three
levels o f attainment, depending on whether they are practised by Sravaka, pratyekabuddhas or bodhisattvas.
It also agrees with the Vibhasa (op. cit., p. 1616) that the object of the arthapratisamvid is the absolute
truth (paramdrtha).
It is perhaps worth noting that the Bdp contains by far the most detailed analysis o f the pratisamvid,
covering almost nine folios in the Peking edition. In the sutras, the next best presentations are found in the
Samdhis (&La), pp. 98.1-103.5, and Dasa-bh, pp. 77.1-79.3, while in the sastras it is the Mpps, Bbh and
M sl that give the best account (references see below).
696. R, folio 624.2-625.5.
697. R, folio 626.7-628.5.
698. R, folio 628.6-631.2.
699. See, for instance, Bbh, p. 353.19; Dasa-bh, pp. 77.1-5, 79.4-7 where teaching and the becoming o f a
dharmabhanaka are named as the chief purpose o f the pratisamvid (cf. Abhidh-sam (R), p. 172).
While the nature of the four pratisamvid is generally well-explained, their exact scope is only insufficiently
indicated. Two passages in the nikaya would indicate that in early Buddhism they did not belong to the
most elevated path practices. They were apparently within the reach of ‘ordinary’ monks’ (A I, p. 24, A II,
p. 161) and, for §ariputra, attainable only a few months after ordination (A II, p. 160). Although by nature
inseparable and simultaneously acquired, differences in ranking exist. For the Kosa (vii, pp. 89-94), the
pratisam vid fall into two categories. First, the dharma- and niruktipratisamvid pertain to the sphere o f
worldly knowledge (.samvrtijhana) and operate only in the stages o f the kamadhatu and dhyana (the
niruktipratisamvid is restricted to the first dhyana, while the dharmapratisamvid pertains to all four
dhyana stages; Kosa, vii, p. 93). The reason given is that they have as objects ndmakdya and languages.
The other two, artha- and pratibhanapratisamvid, belong, by implication, to the lokottara consciousness.
Found in all nine stages o f meditation and corresponding respectively to the ten and nine kinds o f
knowledge (jhdna)— the nirodhajhana being excluded from the pratibhanapratisamvid (Kosabhasya, pp.
418-19) and only attained by masters o f meditation (samadhivasisamprakhyana)—they were evidently
regarded to be o f a higher order. To some extent, this grading is echoed in the Mahayana interpretation o f
the unique knowledge, in particular with regard to the pratibhanapratisamvid. The contents o f the first
two, that is, artha- and dharmapratisamvid correspond largely to the Sravaka interpretation, in the sense
that the chief concern is the examination o f reality (Siddhi, p. 70). Employing a comparable methodology
but producing variant results, both Sravaka and bodhisattvas investigate through them the own-nature
(svalaksana) o f phenomena and the terminology commonly used to designate them. Differences only arise
with the nirukti- and pratibhanapratisamvid. For the Sravaka, niruktipratisamvid has as object ‘expressions
o f language relative to the thing designated and the designation’ (atthadhammaniruttabhilapa) or more
generally speech (vac). This led to its emphasis being placed on philological knowledge o f grammatical

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these general facets of the pratisamvid are widely documented, I shall confine my analysis
here to those issues in which the Bdp deviates from the standard model.700
Differences relate primarily to organisation and allocation. The first, most noticeable,
difference lies in the order in which the artha- and dharmapratisamvid occur. Most texts I
consulted place the dharmapratisamvid at the beginning of the four, followed artha-, nirukti-
and pratibhanapratisamvid. In the Bdp—perhaps for reasons of continuity—the sequence
between dharma- and arthapratisamvid has been reversed so that it is artha that introduces
the unique knowledge.701 Second, the allocation of some of the topics diverges from that of
other texts. For instance, the Bdp incorporates in arthapratisamvid the theme of the non­
characteristics of dharma and a reference to the pratisarana—two issues belonging to the
dharmapratisamvid according to the Mpps.702 Similarly controversial, though possibly correct,
is the inclusion of the eighty-four thousand types of dharmaskandha under dharmapratisamvid.
These, according to the Mpps, pertain to the pratibhanapratisamvid.10*The B d p ’s incorporation
of a number of specific path features in the arthapratisamvid is also striking, when in most
other texts its treatment does not go beyond the own-characteristics (svalaksana) of dharma704

forms, syntax, etc. (Vibh, pp. 295-9; Prajhaptapadasdstra cited in Kosa, vii, pp. 93-4). Now, judging by
the material included in Mahayana treatises on the subject, for the bodhisattva, knowledge o f nirukti is
more a question o f fluency in languages— human and non-human. Philological detail is rarely mentioned
and is certainly not the focus o f attention (Bbh, pp. 258.11-13, 353.17-354.26). The reason for this
adjustment is the central role o f preaching in the bodhisattva training, particularly during the final stages.
Recognising the need for effective communication, the pratibhanapratisamvid sets the previous pratisamvid
to best effect. Being the last and highest form of unique knowledge, it merges the data o f the previous
three in order to pass them on to others for conversion and designates ‘Thabilete dans le discours qui
pro cede de la connaisance des etres &convertir” (Siddhi, p. 652). The bodhisattva is now in the position to
adapt his exhortations to the spiritual faculties o f beings (Mpps, iii, pp. 1622-23); he is accomplished in
wisdom and magical powers which allow him to alter his appearance and birth-destiny at will; he is
well-versed in all branches o f knowledge and their texts. In short, he has assembled all necessary ingredients
for an effective communication o f the teachings o f the Dharma. It is no coincidence that this attainment
takes place close to the pinnacle o f his career (Dasa-bh, pp. 77.1-81.3; Bbh, pp. 353.8-354.11), since it is
only from the eighth stage onwards that he himself is fully accomplished in the Dharma, skilful means and
magical powers. During the sadhumatibhumi (corresponding to the pratisamvidvihdra o f the Bbh), these
three factors are then complemented with attainments in languages and eloquence to become the pillars of
his conversion activity.
700. Good accounts o f the general nature and scope of the pratisamvid can be found in the Vibh, pp. 293-305;
Vism, pp. 372-76; Mpps, iii, pp. 1616-24; Kosa, vii, pp. 89-94; Kosabhdsya, pp. 418-21; Amrtar (B), pp.
214-15; Bbh, p. 258.4-17; Msl, pp. 138.19-139.16 (for further ref. see: Msg, pp. 53-54*).
701. The standard order, for instance, is found in the Dbh, Samdhis, Kosa, Abhidh-sam (R), Amrtar (B), Bbh,
Msl, Dhsgr and M sg while that o f the Bdp is only attested in the Vism, Pahca, Akn, Samddh and Mpps.
Dayal suggests (p. 262) that these differences reflect a shift away from the formula that is found in the
nikaya, giving precedence to the pratisamvid o f artha over dharma. Taking into account the meagre
evidence for such a claim (there being only one occasion in the primary nikaya where this sequence is
attested; but see: Pads, i, pp. 88, 119; ii, pp. 150, 157, 185, 193; Vibh, pp. 293-305; Vism, pp. 440 ff), he
later acknowledges that this is pure speculation (p. 264).
702. R, folio 625.5; Mpps, iii, p. 1621.
703. R, folio 627.3-628.5; Mpps, iii, p. 1623.
704. See, however, Saindhis (ELa), p. 104.7-27.

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If nothing else, these discrepancies show that the contents of the individual pratisamvid
were exposed to change longer than their consistency in later treatises might imply.705 This
itself is not surprising, considering that most early sources provide a bare outline of their
contents. In the four principal nikaya, the only references to the patisambhida are found in
the Ahguttaranikaya and even these give away little of their scope.706Even many of the early
Mahayana siitras are silent on the contents of the pratisamvid. TheAsta, Vkn, Kp, Up, Sgs,
Saddhp and Bhadra-vy, to name just a few, contain only a handful of allusions.707 Apparently,
interest in the details of the pratisamvid only arose with the second wave of Mahayana
sutras, producing the kind of exposition we find in the Bdp, Akn, Dbh and Samdhis.
Much of what has been said about the pratisamvid applies also the pratisarana that follow
on the pratisamvid in exposition of the Bdp.10S They are not found as a complete set in the
early suttas, though they are already attested in their initial stages in the Digha- and
Majjhimanikaya.709From a few scattered references in &akyamuni’s discourses the pratisarana
progressed to a fully developed set of practices with a secure place in the bodhisattva
training.710 As is so often the case when concerned with bodhisattva practices, one is well
advised to look for the most instructive account to the Bbh.711
But first to the Bdp. The discussion of the pratisarana in the Bdp is rather unusual in
several respects. First, there is the astonishing amount of detail about the individual reliances.
Except for the Akn, I have found no other text that comes anywhere near its exposition in
length. Second, the Bdp casts its treatment of the pratisarana in a non-standard order, leading
705. Note that in the Vbi, the contents o f artha- and dharmapratisamvid appear to have merged into a single
concept. In chapter xii, § 11 (p. 260), we meet with the term bhutarthadharmapratisamvid that Lamotte
took to mean “infallible penetration concerning the Law in its true meaning”, I do not know what
prompted Lamotte to swerve from the pratisamvid context here, but to translate it as “unique knowledge
concerning the own-being and designations o f reality” seems more appropriate.
706. A ll, p. 160; III, pp. 113, 120
The earliest canonical account o f any length is found in the Pan's (i, pp. 86-87, 121-22), while the most
detailed analysis o f the Abhidhamma is given in the Vibh (pp. 293-305).
707. Vbi (p. 260), Sgs (pp. 150, 188), Saddhp (pp. 202, 204), Bhadra-vy (R), p. 20.17-18; Panca (p. 211); they
are altogether absent from th&Asta, Kp and Ug.
708. During the first half o f this century, much useful material on the pratisarana has been collected by
Etienne Lamotte and Louis de La Vallee Poussin. Most of this has been published in footnotes to the
Abhidharmakosa CKosa, ix, pp. 246-48) and Le Traite de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse (Mpps, i, pp.
536-41) and in “La critique ^’interpretation dans le Bouddhisme” (Annuaire de Institut de Philologie et
d'Histoire Orientates et Slaves, 9, 1949, pp. 341-61).
709. D II, p. 124; cf. Waldschmidt, 1950-51, p. 238.24.1-3 (dharmata/pudgala), D III, pp. 127-8, M I, p. 265
(nitdrtha/neydrtha); M II, p. 240 (artha/vyahjana)’, Vin, i, p. 40 (nitartha/neyartha).
710. The first sutra to give a detailed account o f the four pratisarana appears to have been the
Catuhpratisaranasutra. This text, however, extant in several Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese versions, is a
relatively late composition. Nevertheless, it is still regarded as one o f the principal sources on the pratisarana
and is regularly cited in conjunction with the four reliances (viz., Mpps, i, p. 536; Lamotte, 1949, p. 4).
711. Bbh, pp. 256.23-58.3.

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to repetitions and some convolution. Third, taking full advantage of the

samvrtisatyalparamdrthasatya dichotomy, its uniform technique of explication is surprising.
The first pratisarana discussed is ‘reliance on the spirit as opposed to the letter’
(<artha/vyanjana). The Bdp provides many examples to explain why it is the spirit that is
given ultimately precedence. The thought that only the spirit contains the true meaning of the
Dharma in the final analysis, whilst the letter is little more than an expedient for expressing
and reaching it, is of course not new. It is already mirrored in the famous stanza of Sariputra
uttered in response to ASvajit’s admission that, as a novice, he could not propound the
Dharma in full:712

“Let it be so, my friend. Tell me a little or a great deal of it, but speak to me of its
spirit. I need only the spirit, so why be preoccupied with the letter?”

Such preoccupation with the meaning stems from the conviction that purely literal exegesis
is certain to produce incomplete or even mistaken interpretations and will fail to lead to
liberation.713 Equally, it was always appreciated that flawless preservation of the letter is
essential to discovering the correct meaning, for:714

“If the phrases and syllables are wrongly arranged, the meaning in turn is impossible
to discover.”

Recognition of a combined need for a clearly formulated textual basis and perception of the
spirit as the ultimate bearer of Buddhist thought also inspired the Bdp in its discussion of the
artha/vyaiijana pratisamvid. Taking a more positive view by proposing complementarity (but
pertaining to different levels of cognition), the text does not tire in reiterating the benefits that
spring from their integration:715

“The letter—disciplining body, speech and mind—instructs in achieving all attain­

ments of learning and purity. The spirit—not apprehending body, speech and

712. Vin> i, p. 40.

713. Lahkav, p. 196.4-11.
714. Netty p. 21 (ref. Lamotte).
715. R, folio 632.4-633.3.

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mind—purifies the non-accumulation of karmic formations. ... The letter, being

the receptacle of all that has been heard, is the root of wisdom. The spirit is the
ineffable meaning. The letter instructs in the practice of the thirty-seven bodhipaksika
dharma. The spirit realises the fruit of their practice. The letter instructs in suffering,
its origin and the path. The spirit realises its cessation.”

After the discussion of the artha/vyanjana pratisamvid, the Bdp expounds direct knowledge
and discursive insight (jhana/vijhana). At first, however, for reasons that are not entirely
clear, it interposes a brief section introducing reliance on siitras of precise/provisional meaning
(mtartha/neyartha) and reliance on the foundation of being/person (dharmata/pudgala). This
interpolation is practically devoid of information beyond the standard formula. Both pratisarana
are explained in detail after the jhana/vijndna pratisarana, and yet they are styled to conclude
the entire fourfold pratisarana discussion even though jhana/vijhana pratisamvid has not
been mentioned. This is probably another piece of evidence of the B dp’s conceptual
‘immaturity’.716Things are further complicated by the introductory passage to the jhana/vijhana
section which says that—in apparent reference to the artha/vyanjana pratisamvid—direct
knowledge and discursive insight fall under ‘skill’ in the letter. Tellingly, the Akn that
otherwise follows the Bdp so closely does not show these incongruities.717
After a fruitless search for an explanation in the standard works, I came across the following
passage in the Tchou wei mo kie king:718

“There are two sorts of dharma. First, vyahjana or the letter. Second, artha or the
spirit. One should not rely on vyahjana. There are two sorts of artha. First, artha
known through discursive insight (vijhana). Second, artha known through direct
knowledge (jhana). Vijhana only seeks after the five false and illusory object of
desire (kamaguna). It does not seek after the real truth. Whereas jhana seeks after
the real truth and destroys the five objects of desire. Thus one should rely on
artha known through jhana and not rely on artha known through vijhana. It is in
order to seek after artha known through jhana that one relies on jhana.”
716. I have discussed this convolution in greater detail in note 114 o f my translation.
717. Akn, p. 64.2.4.
718. T 1775, chpt. 10, p. 417a.l0-25 (I follow here Lamotte’s translation; Lamotte 1976, p. 262). Note that in
early Mahayana literature most lists o f the pratisarana begin with the pair dharmata/pudgala, the only
exception being the Bhadra-vy (R), p. 100.

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To us, the significance of this interpretation concerns the inclusion of jhana/vijhana under
‘skill’ in the letter. Uniquely among treatises on the pratisarana, it establishes a logical
connection between the four pratisarana and explains the late reference to vyahjana.
Kumarajiva’s choice to place the focus on artha—not vyaiijana—and to make it the target of
jhana and vijhana, introduces a further complication, though it throws some light on the
underlying structure of the B dp’s treatment of the pratisarana. In order to link the exposition
of jhana/vijhana with that of artha/vyanjana, the Bdp returned to artha/vyanjana so as to
provide vyahjana as the object of jhana/vijhana. The fact that direct knowledge is not in the
least concerned with literal understanding—perception of words being by definition part of
conventional (yyavahdra) knowledge—is apparently ignored:719

“The bodhisattva attaches great importance to direct knowledge of realisation and

not to mere discursive insight of the letter or the spirit, arising from listening and
reflecting. Understanding that what should be known through knowledge arising
from contemplation cannot be recognised through discursive insight arising from
listening and reflecting [alone], he abstains from rejecting or denying the teachings
given by the Tathagata, profound as they are.”

Next, the Bdp contrasts the attributes of jhana with those of vijhana. It establishes direct
knowledge in the lokottara domain and defines discursive insight as the ordinary cognition
subject to false mental constructions:720

“Discursive insight persists in the sphere of conditioned dharma but does not
wander in the unconditioned [while] direct knowledge is perception of the
unconditioned.”

In essence, the treatment of the third pratisarana, contrasting siitras of provisional meaning
(neyartha) with those of precise meaning (nitartha), is rather similar with the artha/vyanjana

719. Bbh, p. 257.16-21 (cf. Samdhis (k id ), p. 105)

Perhaps because it noted this incongruity, the Pelliot manuscript omits the paragraph which contains the
reference to ‘skill in letter’ (Pelliot, 977, lb.7-2a.2).
720. R, folio 636.4-5.

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pratisarana. This is the case because of the conceptual closeness of artha and nitdrtha on the
one hand, and vyahjana and neyartha on the other hand:721

“The bodhisattva who resorts to the spirit {artha) and not to the letter {vyahjana)
penetrates all enigmatic words {samdhdyabhdsita) of the lord buddhas.”

In order to distinguish those texts to be taken literally from those requiring interpretation,
the Bdp goes to some lengths to describe the attributes of neyartha and nitdrtha sutras. As
main criteria it suggests purpose, content, style and philosophical explicitness. Depending
whether a text advocates the perpetuation of path activity or supports the immediate cessation
of all action; whether it sets out to elucidate the conventional truth or absolute truth; whether
it explains impurity or achieves complete purification; whether it partakes in duality or not,
we are dealing with either a neyartha or nitdrtha sutra. Texts that add non-essential material,
written in a pleasing style, are neyartha whereas sutras that are terse and profound are
nitdrtha.121 The fact that most, if not all, of these criteria are highly subjective and produce no
overall and generally valid guidelines is not addressed in our text.723 Aware that literal
interpretations (yatharutdrthagt'dha) fail to accomplish Dharma comprehension724, Buddhist
scholars of all ages frequently drew attention to this problem:725

721. Bbh, p. 108.23-24.

722. K osa, i, p. 75:
“Rien n’etablit que ce sutra soit de sens clair; le fait qu’il s’exprime en termes de definition ne
prouve rien; car Bhagavat donne des definitions qui portent settlement sur 1’element essentiel
ou capital de l ’object a definir.”
723. In fact, to my knowledge Buddhism has never succeeded in establishing such a general principle o f
identification, even though several attempts were made to this effect.
See, for instance, a section in the Mpps (i, pp. 539-40) where Kumarajiva proposes that sutras containing
allegations that are obvious and readily comprehended are nitdrtha, while texts where the meaning is
unclear and teach views through skilful means that seem at first incorrect and require explanation are
neyartha.
For the Samadh (Dutt, 1941-53, ii, p. 78) it is above all a question whether a text seemingly acknowledges
the reality o f the self:
“Whoever knows the value o f texts that have a precise meaning knows the way in which
emptiness has been taught by the Sugata; but wherever reference is taken to the individual,
human being or man, he knows that all those texts should be regarded as possessing provisional
meaning.”
For Buddhaghosa, in contrast, texts that wish to lay claim to nitdrtha status, must deal with impermanence,
suffering and non-self, because “independent o f the Tathagata’s appearance in the world, causality— this
fundamental essence o f things remains”. Sutras that deal with individuals and speak o f the pudgala should
be treated as neyartha since from the absolute point o f view no individuals exist (Manorathapurani, ii, p.
188; ref. Lamotte). See also Madh. vrtti (p. 43) that accepts principles o f distinction that are rather similar
to the first two and last five o f the Bdp.
724. Msl, p. 138.10-11.
725. Bbh, pp. 257.8-16.

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“A bodhisattva who places faith and confidence in the Tathagata— only trusting
his very word—relies on sutras of precise meaning and not on sutras of provisional
meaning. By relying on sutras of precise meaning, he cannot swerve from the
Dharma and Vinaya, Indeed, in sutras of provisional meaning the interpretation of
the meaning— [typically] diffused in several directions—is ill-defined and causes
hesitation. Hence, if a bodhisattva does not adhere to sutras of precise meaning,
he might swerve from the Dharma and Vinaya”

The last pratisarana, advocating reliance on dharmata as opposed to the person, is in many
respects the most fundamental of all four. Summing up the concerns that led to the formulation
of the ‘four great authorities’ (imahapadesa), it establishes the superiority of Dharma
‘compatibility’ over personal authority, however respected the person in question might be.726
In recognition of the many shortcomings that taint the human mind, the acceptance of the
Dharma should not rest on blind faith727 but it should grow out of sound reasoning based on
personal experience and understanding.728To quote once again from the Bbh:729

“He who relies on sound reason and not on a person’s [authority] does not swerve
from the meaning of thusness. He does not depend on others when confronted
with the Dharma.”

The Bdp, however, is not so much concerned with the benefits that accrue through this
pratisarana, than to define the concepts of pudgala and dharmata themselves.730 Thus, instead
of arguing from the changeableness of the human mind, it explains that the Buddha’s use of
the term pudgala is nothing but an expedient means and should not be taken literally.731
Warning that undue attachment to the pudgala would harm one’s prospects of liberation, the
Bdp invites one to strive for a complete understanding of reality and to turn this into one’s

726. D II, pp. 124-126.

727. M I,p . 133.
728. M I,p . 265.
729. Bbh, p. 257.6-8.
730. Note, that we have a number o f inconclusive variant readings in the Bdp, alternating between dharma
(folio 638.1) and dharmata (folio 631.5, but Pelliot, 977, la.2: dharma: 638.7; 639.4). Judging by the
context no difference in meaning is intended.
731. R, folio 638.2-7.

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refuge. Since reality bears the characteristics of sameness and lies beyond discrimination,
perception must not be conducted through sensory cognition (dhdtu), but is to be gained only
through dhurmci -observance and reliance on the foundation of being.732

Accumulation (sambhdra) of merit (punya) and pristine cognition (jnana) is the first major
practice ‘skill’ in which is not included in the introductory list.733 Building on attainments of
the pratisamvid and pratisarana, both types of accumulation form a highly esteemed aspect
of the training and, according to some, are rivalled only by generosity (dana) in benefit.734
732. R, folio 639.1-5.
733. Although by far the best known types, Buddhist sources record a number o f alternative and frequently
numerous kinds o f accumulation. In the Lalitavistara, for instance, we meet with accumulation in punya,
jhana, samatha and vidarsana, while in the &iks (p. 191.4-5) we learn o f a dharmasambhdra and a
sarvadhydnaprajhangasambhara (p. 182.18). The Akn speaks besides the standard accumulations o f
punya and jhana o f a prajhasambhdra and buddhadharmasambhara (pp. 47.1.7-48.1.3). The longest list
o f sarfibhdra I have discovered is found in the Karunap (Y) (i, pp. 338.5-341.7) containing forty different
types o f accumulation.
In the Yogdcarabhiimi, we meet with the following explanation:
“There are four kinds o f accumulation. First, the accumulation of merit. Second, the accumulation
o f pristine cognition. Third, the accumulation o f the past. Fourth, the accumulation o f the
present. The accumulation o f merit is that by which one obtains the regular equipment and the
abundant jewels; by which one meets the truly rich fields as his good teachers and friends; by
which one becomes free from many obstructions and applies oneself to discipline. The
accumulation o f pristine cognition is that by which one accomplishes the brilliant knowledge
and has powers and faculties; by which one discriminates the doctrines o f right and mistaken
views; by which one attains the regular doctrine, meaning, teaching and exhortation. The
accumulation o f the past is that by which one attains now the accomplishment o f the various
faculties owing to the gathering o f good faculties in previous lives. The accumulation o f the
present means that in this state o f existence one—wishing to attain virtue— ripens his faculties
and equips himself with restraint o f morality and faculty” (T 30, p. 446b; trsl. Honda, 1968, p.
216).
734. Bbh, p. 216.4-11
According to the same text (op. cit., p. 35.2-5), the two sambhdra become collectively the primary causes
o f enlightenment. While merit is the principal (pradhana) cause, it is pristine cognition that is o f supreme
importance. The causes o f ripening, ripening itself and the reward springing from ripening all stem from
merit but merit depends on pristine cognition (jhdnasrita) which removes all defilements (samklesa), (op.
cit., p. 34.26-27; cf. Msl, p. 139.18-19). This view is mirrored in a passage in the Dbh (Dasa-bh, p.
67.16) where, at the eighth stage, the accumulation of the roots o f virtue (kusalamulasambhara) is held
essential to the acquisition o f supernatural faculties. On the effects o f punya and jhdnasambhara, the Dbh
remarks (Dasa-bh, p. 45.1-4):
“Because [the bodhisattva] augments the accumulation of merit, he becomes insatiable. Because
he seeks the accumulation o f pristine cognition, he becomes a person o f unfaltering vigour.
Because he gathers an accumulation o f benevolence and pity he becomes a man of unweary
intention.”
A further indicator o f the importance o f punya and jhana is perhaps their inclusion in a number o f lists at
the upper end o f the path containing factors that mark the attainment o f the next higher path-stages
(Dasa-bh, pp. 55.6, 63.20, 82.4). For another overall correlation o f the two sambhdra with the various
path phases, see: Msl, p. 140.10-14.
An even greater role is played by punya and jhana in the implementation o f the commitments o f the
bodhisattva’s vow (Msl, p. 44.7-11):
“For the sake o f sentient beings, I shall acquire an accumulation o f merit and pristine cognition.
When an accumulation o f merit and pristine cognition has been assembled, all living beings
will obtain absolute purity up to the degree of strength of the ten powers (dasabala) as the
highest point o f unobstructed knowledge.”

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They liberate the bodhisattva from personal affliction while he is coursing in samsdra; they
remove all types of misconception and settle him in the four sciences (caturvidha), including
in the accumulation of ‘skill’ in skandha, etc.735
In the Bdp, these rewards are not specifically mentioned, because its exposition is less
concerned with the fruits that spring from punya and jhana than with the factors that promote
their acquisition. This is particularly evident in the discussion of jhdnasambhara where a
careful distinction is made between the causes and conditions that lead to the accumulation of
pristine cognition. In the section dealing with punya, the chain of reasoning is somewhat
blurred by the wealth of examples brought together in order to illustrate the kind of conduct
that is particularly conducive to the accumulation of merit. At first, taking up the ancient
formula of the bases of meritorious works (punyakriyavastu), the Bdp considers merit acquired
through generosity, morality, contemplation, benevolence, vigour, gratitude and virtue
transformation.736 Then, abandoning the structures provided by the punyakriyavastu, it
introduces a further dozen or so randomly arranged ‘ancillary’ practices. Central elements to
this assortment are the virtues of teaching, generosity, morality, patience, vigour and
reverence.737 Their presence here is expected, since in particular dana, sila, ksanti (and vlrya)
constitute the chief components of the accumulation of merit.738 Having defined the kind of
practice that is particularly profitable to the acquisition of merit, the Bdp turns its attention to
the underlying reward mechanism. In the Bdp, as in most other works739, the highest reward
for the accumulation of merit is the acquisition of a perfect body—the buddha-body.740
Praised for its purity, physical beauty and intellectual impeccability, it is portrayed as an
And yet, in spite o f their widely attested importance to the training, by nature, they belong to the laukika
path o f the bodhisattva (Kosavyakhya, cit. in Kosa, iv, p. 77). This view is also attested in the Akn-tlka (p.
248.5.2) where they are said to represent the sambharamarga, a path phase that is commonly held to
represent the earliest phase o f the path (DPP, pp. 18-20, 33-34).
735. Bbh,p. 34.17-25
See also Tathdgataguhyasutra (cit. in MBT, ii, pp. 12.20-12.21) where this very position is concisely put
forward:
“The accumulation o f pristine cognition has as its aim the destruction o f all defilements; the
accumulation o f merit serves to assist all beings. O lord, this is why the bodhisattva mahasattva
endeavours to acquire the accumulation o f pristine cognition and merit.”
736. R, folio 639.7-640.5
A discussion o f the principles that underlie the punyakriyavastu is found in note 132 o f my translation o f
chapter eleven.
737. R, folio 640.5-41.3.
738. Bbh, p. 33.3-15; Kosa, vii, p. 78.
739. Mavbh, pp. 62.19-63.2.
740. The perfect buddha-body accruing to a bodhisattva on the basis of merit is the rupakdya. Encompassing
the sambhoga and nirmdnakaya (Mavbh, pp. 62.19-63.1), it is characterised by innumerable forms o f
merit, manifesting wonderful and incomprehensible attributes (cf. La Vallee Poussin, M AS, 1906, p. 234;
Msl, pp. 38.18-21, 41.11-14,44.17-45,47.19-21).

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embellishment of great distinction that, no doubt as a reference to the bodhisattva’s eventual

attainment of buddhahood, adorns the Dharma, Bodhi-tree and Bodhi-seat (,bodhimanda).741
Moreover, the punyasambhara frees from rebirth in the lower destinies, consolidates merit,
leads to unshakable faith in the Doctrine and buddha-qualities.742
In view of the above detail, it is surprising that in the exposition of jhdnasambhara the
prospect of reward does not figure at all. Instead, practically all attention is given to the
causes that generate and augment pristine cognition. For the Bdp, there are three causes of
jhdnasambhara. First, the bodhisattva develops an ardent longing (chanda) for pristine
cognition. This manifests itself in desire to procure the Doctrine whose meaning he studies
with great zeal.743 Second, there is the support of virtuous friends (kalyanamitra). Guiding the
enquiring mind to the Dharma, the virtuous friend becomes a source of inspiration, support
and information transforming the bodhisattva’s initial and feeble Dharma interest into a
potent force.744 Third, there is the application of the advice that the bodhisattva has received
from virtuous friends.745 Intent on wholesome conduct, in particular with regard to meditation,
reflection and moral purity the bodhisattva strives to apply the teachings of the Dharma just
as told.746 In contrast to the practices aimed at the acquisition of merit, pristine cognition
focuses chiefly on facets that are conducive to understanding, such as contemplation and
investigation.747
Thus matured, the bodhisattva manifests the conditions that accompany the accumulation
of wisdom.748For the Bdp these are untarnished understanding of reality, modesty and virtuous
741. R, folio 641.4-642.3.
742. R, folio 643.2.
743. R, folio 643.4.
744. R, folio 643.5-7.
745. Another factor that is given in the Bbh (p. 34.2-7), viz., previous exercise in the accumulation o f pristine
cognition, does not appear in the Bdp as a separate cause o f jhdnasambhara. However it could be argued
that the last portion, entitled “exertion in the accumulation o f pristine cognition” refers to the bodhisattva’s
previous practice in pristine cognition. For the Bbh, this exercise must have taken place in the past. Yet, as
the exact point in time is undefined, we may assume that previous exercise was meant in the broadest
terms, that is, exercise prior to the attainment of jhdnasambhara (Bbh, p. 34.4).
According to the Bbh, the three causes apply not only tojhdnasambhara but also to punyasambhara (Bbh,
p. 34.2). Moreover, there they are conceived in sequence. That is to say, longing for the Dharma leads to
the acquisition o f pristine cognition, the presence o f a virtuous friend stabilises it and previous practice
increases its accumulation (op. cit., p. 34.3-4). In the Bdp, this distinction is not explicitly made, although
the passage “after [his virtuous friends] have realised that he is a receptacle of the Dharma, they instruct
him constantly with great concentration in the Doctrine; after he has heard the Doctrine, he exerts himself
in the accumulation o f virtuous practices” could well be interpreted in this light.
746. Note that the Bbh (p. 33.5-6) associates pristine cognition with prajhapdramita only.
747. This is roughly in line with the thinking o f the Bbh (p. 33.21-24), proposing that itis prajha springing
from learning, reflection and contemplation— in conjunction with vlrya and dhyana—thathas the greatest
effect on the accumulation o f pristine cognition.
748. Ci. Bbh, $ .1 1 2 2 .

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conduct. Through merging the cognitive dimension with the more practical side of the path
the bodhisattva maintains his commitment to the welfare of sentient beings whilst recognising
the futility of discursive, binary thinking.749
Having discussed the causes and conditions that generate the accumulation of pristine
cognition, the Bdp looks further afield to define the practices that increase its size and scope.
Echoing the widely affirmed connection between the pdramita and sambhdra, these primarily
consists of generosity, morality, patience, vigour, meditation, wisdom and (skilful) means.750
749. R, folio 645.3.
750. Each o f these practices is discussed in one o f the twelve tetrads that make up much o f the concluding
section o f the treatment o f the jhdnasambhara. Excepting the perfection o f generosity, their presentation
is sequential and very straightforward. The ddnaparamita differs from the rest in that it extends over three
tetrads— all others are dealt with in one—with a fourth on the powers (bala) being appended. Generosity
has a special position in the Bdp where three types o f giving are itemised, viz., the granting o f material
objects and respect (tetrad one), the granting o f protection (tetrad two) and the bestowal o f support (tetrad
three). The rationale for the inclusion o f the bala at this point is not fully clear. In all, I have identified
three potential avenues o f thought that might help us to understand this rather curious positioning o f the
bala.
First, there is the possibility that the inclusion of the bala here was intended to complement or qualify the
three types o f dana. Generosity is less concerned here with the customary giving o f wealth or Dharma, but
refers chiefly to the granting o f support and protection. These two spheres o f dana naturally require
strength and resolve. Building on the assumption that the bala constitute a more active force than the
indriya, that they are the indriya made strong and of greater intensity in application, the Bdp may have
wished to substantiate the claims o f protection and support through their interpolation. As Gethin has
shown, the image of, or association with, physical strength is by no means foreign to the characterisation
o f the bala (M I, pp. 121, 244).
The second train o f thought revolves around the interpretation o f sraddha— the first o f the five bala.
Investigating the perception o f sraddha in Vedic literature, Kohler (and after him Hara) has unearthed a
significant amount o f material suggesting that to early Vedic priests sraddha meant, above all, generosity
(Spendejreudigkeit). In later times (with the Samhita and Brahmand), with the increasing demystification
o f the universe, he argues (pp. 44, 57), the notion of generosity gained more and more independence from
its concomitant ‘devotion’ (Hingabe) and eventually became the dominant meaning of the term sraddha.
He places this last phase in the period o f the Upanisad (Chand'. Up and Brhad Up; pp. 68-70). Proposing
that this trend towards rationalisation continued in the times of the Buddha, he presents a series of
quotations from the nikaya to show that generosity is besides faith the second cardinal meaning of
sraddha in early Buddhism. As Gethin observed, he is rather selective in doing this and discusses chiefly
contexts involving the granting of alms, thereby blurring the act o f giving with a mental predisposition of
faith (S I, pp. 22, 32, 42; A HI, p. 34). While sraddha in these quotations appears to support his views, the
rather specific context weakens his argument.
Leaving aside the findings in the nikaya, his conclusions for the Veda alone seem to establish some
connection between dana and sraddha in the sense of Hingabe. Of particular interest is a passage from the
Yoga Sutra that lists five requirements for yogic meditation (Yoga~S 1.20). These correspond verbatim to
the five bala (or indriya for that matter). Now, according to the commentary, sraddha is here best
interpreted as devotion (yogavisaye cetasah prasadah) (p. 70). In our context, this could be taken to link
dana and protection. For giving to have greatest effect, the presence o f an affective element is certainly of
advantage and an addition to merit. In a very loose sense, it is thus perhaps not too far-fetched to see a
trace o f this association in the addendum o f the bala to dana.
Third, we note a certain parallelism between the five supports (upastambhana) that are cited in the Mvu
(ii, p. 280.16-17) and our list o f bala. To be precise, all five supports, except the first, are identical with
the five powers. The first support, instead o f being sraddha as in the bala, is chanda. Now, the question is
whether there is any evidence for us to construe a link between sraddha and chanda. The answer to this is
yes. According to the Abhidh-sam (R) (pp. 7-8), the purpose of sraddha is to provide a foundation for
chanda, in turn giving a base to virya (cf. Siddhi, pp. 309-10). Moreover, in the Nett (p. 15) we learn that
chandasamadhi appears in the context o f the iddhipada as mental one-pointedness, possessing saddhd as
dominant force. The link between sraddha and chanda is further reinforced by the interpretation o f the

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Besides the six/seven perfections, it is only insatiability and the powers (bala) that are seen to
augment the accumulation of pristine cognition.751 However, if we read on to the end of the
discussion, we find that neither of them is included among the practices that promote
jnanasambhara. Instead, it is the four merit-generating apramdna that occur alongside the
perfections.752
This choice is problematic and raises several questions. First, virtually all the texts I have
consulted agree that dana, sila and ksdnti play no role in the generation of jnanasambhara .753
They are applicable to punyasambhara, so their inclusion here among the factors that generate
jhdnasambhara clearly comes as a surprise. The picture is less clear with regard to vlrya and
dhyana about which differences in opinion prevail, depending on the circumstances of their
cultivation.754 Then, why has the cultivation of upaya been omitted in the final round-up if it
figured as an apparently independent (paramita-like) practice in the tetrads? The answer is
that probably upaya had not yet been fully recognised in status as a fully-fledged perfection,
and was thus excluded from the final count. Also the inclusion of the apramdna is problematic,
since all accounts agree that they do not appertain to jnanasambhara. Conversely, the
powers—forming part of the bodhipdksika dhaima that belong to the jnanasambhara producing
practice of dhyana—do figure in its acquisition, but are not cited in the resume.

faculty o f faith in the Pali commentaries (Ucl-a, p. 305; Vibh-a, p. 125; Vism, p. 464; As, p. 120; ref.
Gethin), where saddhd is regularly interpreted as a commitment {adhimutti). As a psychological force,
sraddha must therefore be understood as a type of basic confidence that— manifesting commitment and
resolve— triggers the wish to embark on the path. Seen from this angle, sraddha is then one step behind
chanda in the concatenation o f mental factors leading to path practice. Note, that in the Srotabhumi (p.
287.4.6), set in a meditative context, chanda occurs alongside sraddha, virya and upaya as the four types
o f application (prayoga) operating as factors stabilising meditative concentration.
751. A third factor, the accumulation o f paths, rather than increasing jnanasambhara is held to prompt its
penetration and stands so apart in function (R, folio 648.1-2).
752. For the Kosa (vii, p. 78), the practice o f the dhydnaparamita, i f manifested in the cultivation o f the four
apramdna, contributes to the accumulation of merit. If dealing with the cultivation o f the bodhipdksika, it
promotes the accumulation o f pristine cognition (cf. Kosa, viii, pp. 196-205 and Dasa-bh p. 45.1-3, citing
besides a punya- and jnanasambhara also a maitrl- and fcrpdsambhara).
753. According to the Mavbh (p. 62.18-19), this role pertains only to dhyana andprajhd, while vlrya constitutes
a kind o f ancillary practice required for both punya andjhana (cf. Samdhis (ELa), pp. 72.5-10, 131.19-22).
754. Kosa, vii, pp. 77-78; Bbh, p. 33.7-24; Mavbh, p. 62.15-19; Msl, p. 139.22-23.

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Practices that Conduce to Enlightenment

The bodhipdksika dharma themselves occupy a central position in much of the remainder
of chapter eleven. Taking up over a fifth of its content, they constitute the most distinct
category of practices included in the discussion of prajnaparamita. The reason for their
preponderance is obvious. First, since they operate as ‘factors contributing to enlightenment’755,
their cultivation becomes mandatory for every bodhisattva who courses in Perfect Wisdom.756
Then, prajha itself is a chief member of the ten or eleven ‘ingredients’ (dravya) of the
bodhipdksika, represented by the four smrtyupasthdna, prajhendriya, prajhabala,
dharmapravicaya and samyagdrsti.757Moreover, the thirty-seven practices originate themselves
in wisdom arising from learning, reflection and cultivation—the very foundations of prajha.758
While in spirit very close to those bodhipdksika expositions found elsewhere in the Mahayana,
their discussion in the Bdp manifests several peculiar features. Primarily, these affect
organisational abnormalities, the actual phrasing of the formulae and their inclusion into an
expanded list of practices. Since the scope, intent and nature of the bodhipdksika have been
already adequately researched by others, I shall limit my analysis to facets where the Bdp
differs from the more ‘standard’ interpretations.759
One is struck first by the extent to which the wording of the B dp’s description deviates
from that of other bodhipdksika accounts. A comparison with formulae from both Pali and
Sanskrit sources reveals that, except for the samyakprahdna, it stands very much on its
own.760 Having examined most texts on the subject, I found only two works containing a

755. Mpps, iii, p. 1119. For other definitions following these very lines, see: Kosa, vi, p. 282; Satya-s (S), ii, p.
41; Abhidh-d, pp. 357-8.
756. $sp (Ghosa), pp. 55-56.
757. Kosa, vi, pp. 283-84; Amrtar (B), p. 208; Abhidh-d, p. 358.5-14; Mpps, iii, p. 1046 (cf. Srotabhumi, p.
291.2.1-3).
758. Kosa, vi, p. 284.
759. The bodhipdksika dharma have already been subject to several investigations. The most exhaustive and
resourcefiil study— albeit limited to their treatment in the nikaya and Pali Abhidhamma works— is that by
Rupert Gethin (PhD Dissertation, University o f Manchester, 1987). Other, often rather brief or partial
investigations have been carried out by Etienne Lamotte (Mpps, iii, pp. 1119-1207) and J. Bronkhorst
(BSOAS, 1985, pp. 305-20). References to the bodhipdksika are extremely numerous in both Pali and
Sanskrit literature. In the Mahayana, they are known to occur in the following sutras'. Bdp, TTP, 23, pp.
82.3.8-85.3.4; Kp, § 95; Ug, p. 269.3.8-4.3 (part.);Rp, p. 2.9 (part.); Red, 24, pp. 235.3.4-44.2.6; Akn,
34, pp. 66.4.3—71.2.1; Arthav (S), pp. 28-42. For references in the Dasa-bh, Pahca, Ssp, Karunap,
Samadh and Lai and many others, see: Dayal, p. 80, Edgerton, p. 402 and Lamotte, p. 1120. See also
Gethin (1987, p. 661) for references in Sarvastivada literature and, o f course, for a complete table o f
references in Pali sources.
760. The most common specimen o f such bodhipdksika quotations have been convieniently collected by

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similar phrasing. These are the Akn and Arthavniscayasutra (Arthav). I have already pointed
to the far-reaching borrowing between the Akn and Bdp and so resemblances in the wording
of the bodhipdksika are not surprising. Of greater interest are the parallels between the Bdp
and Arthav, since they represent texts of rather different orientation and purpose.761 Here, the
borrowing is only partial (affecting merely the faculties (iindriya) and noble eightfold path
(aryastangamdrga)) and appears to be indirect.762 Comparison with the wording in the Bdp
and Akn reveals a very close verbal proximity with that of the Akn that suggests that the
Arthav adopted the passages on the indriya and drydstdhgamarga from the Akn—not from
the Bdp.163 While the dating of the Arthav is, as always, problematic, analysis of its contents
has shown that most of its portions post-date both the Akn and Bdp by several centuries.764
Assuming the Bdp’s influence on the Akn, we have a textual lineage that covered may be as
many as five centuries, starting with the Bdp ’s lending to the Akn from which its contents
reached the Arthav, to be finally included in the &iks, where the indriya section is also quoted
from thq Akn.765■
The B d p ’s apparent uniqueness in description does not extend to the spirit of its bodhipdksika
exposition. Virtually every aspect raised has counterparts in meaning in some other bodhipdksika
discussion elsewhere in Mahayana works.
Starting with the smrtyupasthdna (the second type of ‘skill’ not cited in the heading), the
proposition is that each type of mindfulness combats one of the principal four misconceptions
(viparyasa)766; this is frequent among post-canonical strands of Buddhist literature. Though
not found in the nikaya, the Sarvastivada Abhidharma adopted it as the chief task of the
smrtyupasthdna and it is also found in most Mahayana treatises on the subject.767 Probably

Lamotte in a preliminary note to the Mpps's bodhipdksika discussion (iii, pp. 1119-1132).
761. Unlike the Bdp, the Arthav is a highly technical work consisting of stereotyped explanations o f twenty-seven
groups o f practices. Likened by Ferrari in contents and nature to the Dhsgr and Mvy, it proceeds step by
step through the aggregates, elements, sensefields, bodhipdksika, pratisamvid, etc., on each o f which it
contains definition-like descriptions. For an assessment of its contents, see the introductions to Ferrari’s
and Samtani’s editions o f the Arthav.
762. Arthav (S), pp. 32.6-33.1 for in the indriya; pp.320-22 for the drydstdhgamarga.
Comparing the formulae collected by Lamotte with those o f the Arthav (pp. 28.9-42.12), we gain the
impression that their wording in the Arthav represents a combination o f Pali and Sanskrit sources, as if its
authors had consulted a variety o f texts before composing their own version. This is true for all but the
indriya and drydstdhgamarga section which, as already observed, appear unique to the Bdp/Akn tradition.
763. I have given the Sanskrit text o f the Arthav’s indriya and drydstdhgamarga sections in notes to the
edition.
764. Arthav (S), pp. 61-67; Ferrari, 1944, pp. 546-49.
765. $iks, pp. 316.13-317.13.
766. On the misconceptions, see: A II, p. 52; Vibh, p. 451; Kosa, v, p. 21; Amrt (B), pp. 226-227; Mpps, ii, p.
925; iii, p. 1150.
767. In the nikaya, the connection between the vipallasd and satipatthana is not clearly stated. See, however, A

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drawing on these traditions, the Bdp confirms that to consider the body mindfully—internally
and externally—leads to a pure body of sound conduct.768 The same holds true for the
discussions of feeling, thought and dharma that explain mindfulness as distinguishing pleasant
from unpleasant feeling, permanence from impermanence and self from non-self.769 But the
Bdp differs in the stress it places on viparyasa itself. When discussing kayasmrtyupasthana,
for instance, it is only in the very last passage that the issue of purity/impurity is raised.
Much of the preceding material revolves around the theory of non-self with regard to the
body and the use to which the body is put. With the exception of vedanasmrtyupasthana, that
is entirely dedicated to the correct interpretion of feeling, very little is also said about
viparyasa in the remaining bases of mindfulness. Both cittasmrtyupasthana and
dharmasmrtyupasthdna touch on viparyasa almost incidentally and give greater consideration
to issues that develop from the affirmation of impermanence and non-self.770In the discussion
of mindfulness concerning thought it is the distinction between ‘creation’ and ‘foundation of
thought’ that stands in the foreground, whereas in the exposition of mindfulness concerning
dharma the concept of dharma -sameness prevails.771
In addition to the references to the viparyasa there is one more element in the Bdp that is
common to all four types of mindfulness. This is the adaptation of the individual members to
the bodhisattva’s concern for the welfare of sentient beings. When speaking of
kayasmrtyupasthana, the Bdp commits the body to universal subsistence, to the conversion of
gods and men and the postponement of entry into nirvana?11 Likewise, investigation into
feeling is explicitly aimed at explaining feeling to others 773 Through mindfulness concerning
thought the bodhisattva acquires the paracittajhdna that allows him to perceive samsaric
delusion and, in turn, sustains the resolve for universal liberation 774 A similar mechanism is

II, p. 52 and Vibh, p. 376. For the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, see: Amrt (B), pp. 203-4; Kosa, vi, p. 162.
For the Mahayana, see: Kp, pp. 137-9, § 94-95; Red, pp. 236.2.8-239.4.3; Arthav-1 (S), p. 208; Srdv-bh
(Sh), pp. 303-12; Mpps, iii, pp. 1144,1150.
768. R, folio 651.6.
769. Reference to these position can be found on R, folio 652.1-653.2; folio 655.1-7; folio 596.1-660.1
respectively.
770. This is a common feature o f the discussions of the smrtyupasthdna in the Mahayana. In the Kasyapaparivarta
(Kp, p. 139, § 95), for instance, these notions become the raison d'etre of the smrtyupasthdna exposition.
In most traditional accounts, eradication o f the notion o f a self is only a side-issue to the bases of
mindfulness. See, for example: D II, pp. 290-314; M III, pp. 83-5,135-6; S V, pp. 149-50; Kosa, vi, pp.
159-161; Vism, p. 464. There is, however, one passage in the Dighanikaya that appears to be heralding
future concerns (D II, p. 216).
771. See: R, folio 656.3-657.6; folio 660.1-661.3 respectively.
772. R, folio 651.7.
773. R, folio 652.6-653.2.
774. R, folio 657.7-658.2.

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at work in the examination of dharma. Having recognised the sameness of non-arising

dharma, the bodhisattva sees that all dharma are pure. And yet, retaining awareness of the
suffering in samsara he does not give way to the conclusions of no-birth, but reappears in
order to look after sentient beings.775
It is hardly surprising that the commitment to universal liberation should figure in the
smrtyupasthdna of a work such as the Bdp. It is also found in the Red and referred to in
number of other bodhisattva scriptures.776 Other widely shared points include references to
the mahabhuta and Tathagata-body in the kayasmrtyupasthana111, the enumeration of the
different types of sensations in the vedandsmrtyupasthanann and, of course, the philosophic
background postulating a vision of reality that—exceeding the limits of suffering, impurity,
non-self and impermanence—envisages universal purity, sameness and non-origination.779
The most remarkable among the bodhipdksika in the Bdp are probably the perfect efforts
(,samyakprahana).780 Where other accounts explain their operations rather mechanically in
terms of types of vigour (vidhavirya), the Bdp presents a logically coherent explanation of
their functioning.781 Once again the key term in its explication is correct reflection (yoniso
manasakdra). As a conceptual synonym for zeal {chanda) concerned with avoiding
unwholesome dharma, it stands at the very heart of the bodhisattva’s spiritual training.782
Causing persistant preventive refraint from non-virtue and the withdrawal from already
produced unwholesome dharma, it becomes the cognitive foundation for the training in
general and precludes the presence of unskilful dharma. The nature of the unskilful dharma,
however, is kept rather vague; they are not characterised beyond their incompatibility with
morality, meditation and wisdom. Conversely, we learn about the factors that lead to their
presence and the antidotes that do away with them. Epitomised by the root evils of desire,

775. R, folio 660.2-5; folio 661.4-5.

776. TTP, 24, pp. 236.5.2-8, 237.4.12-2, 239.5.8.
777. Mpps, iii, p. 1188; Red, p. 236.3.4-5.
778. M pps, iii, pp. 1190-9L
779. Mpps, iii, pp. 1187-1194.
780. For examples o f Pali and Sanskrit versions o f the basic formula o f the sammappaddhana/samyakprahana,
see: Lamotte {Mpps, iii, pp. 1123-24) who cites passages from the Dighanikaya (III, p. 221) and Panca
(p. 207).
In contrast with all other known accounts o f the bodhipdksika, the samyakprahana are not the practice
that follows on the smrtyupasthdna in the Bdp. Defying the traditional order, the next practices cited are
the bodhyahga. However, in order to do justice to the integration o f the thirty-seven factors into a
logically consistent description o f the path, I discuss the seven sets in their standard order. Just what might
have prompted this change in sequence— no doubt a major issue— is discussed further below.
781. See, for instance: Mvs (N), p. 50.19-24; Abhidh-sam (R), p. 120; Mpps, iii, pp. 1176-77.
782. R, folio 672.2-673.4.

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hatred and delusion, they arise from attachment, anger and ignorance and are removed by
considering the antidotes of impurity, benevolence and causality.783 By virtue of dharma-
sameness, pacification itself induces abandonment in the sense of non-apprehension
(anupalambha) and hence becomes a stepping-stone in the bodhisattva’s attitude towards
reality.784
Having distinguished virtuous from non-virtuous dharma through correct reflection, the
bodhisattva applies himself to generating wholesome dharma.185 This process consists of
three phases, that is, initial intent (chanda), acquisition of diligence (vlrya) and perseverance
(asthitikriya). While each of these is fundamental to the planting of roots of virtue, it is only
through their combined presence in the practitioner’s mind that virtue hitherto unarisen is
produced. The magnitude of the bodhisattva’s aspiration means that this operation knows no
limit.786 Motivated by the commitment to universal welfare, the bodhisattva does not allow
his newly accumulated merit to disperse uncontrolled. On the contrary, he goes to great
lengths in securing the roots of virtue in order to transform them into enlightenment. Such
roots persist, says the Bdp, because the thought that led to their becoming was itself
supramundane and because they are founded in lokottara practices independent of the
traidhatuka. By this context, the Bdp indicates that the generation of wholesome dharma
itself pertains to the lokottara realm.787 Since the perfect efforts are anchored in laukika
practice, the Bdp appears to be drawing a line between a laukika effort and a lokottara
realisation of that effort.788
In a way, the Bdp therefore has accommodated its discussion of the samyakprahana to the
ancient belief that the four correct efforts embrace the whole Buddhist path. Already
characterised in the nikaya as general endeavours of restraint, abandonment, development
and protection—and thus furnishing each part of the formula with a positive content—the

783. R, folio 673.5-7.

784. R, folio 673.7-674.1.
785. For the Sbh ($rdv-bh (Sh), pp. 318.12-320.19), a person who cultivates the samyakprahana possesses
eight types o f effort-predisposition (prahdnasarnskdra) that are designed to destroy his propensities (anusaya)
and to fulfil his meditations. These are (1) zeal (chanda), (2) endeavour (vyaydma) corresponding to
vigour (vlrya), (3) faith (sraddha), (4) tranquillity (prasrabdha), (5) mindfulness (smrti), (6) awareness
(samprajanya), (7) volition (cetana) and (8) equipoise (upeksd).
786. R, folio 674.2-3.
787. R, folio 674.7-675.2.
788. Such a position would seem to echo the view o f the Vibhahga commentary (Vibh-a, p. 219; ref. Gethin, p.
630) which distinguishes between lokiya and lokuttara interpretation o f the sammappaddhana. Here,
depending whether the perfect efforts pertain to the ‘prior stage to all’ (sabbapubbabhaga)—which
represents a kind o f preparatory phase indicating advance to the practice proper—or go beyond this stage,
the sammappaddhana are either worldly or transcendental in nature.

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samyakprahana epitomise for the Bdp a blueprint of the course of practice complete in
itself.789 The difference between the nikaya and Bdp are that while the former provide a
specific focus for the four practices (restraint being characterised as the guarding of senses;
abandonment as the renunciation of thoughts governed by desire and hatred; development as
the cultivation of the bodhyahga and protection as the contemplation of ugliness)790, the latter
puts principles rather than individual practices in the foreground.
In most discussions of the bodhipdksika, probably all according to Gethin, the practices to
follow on the samyakprahana are the bases of success (rddhipada).791 In the Bdp, however,
the rddhipada are not discussed following the samyakprahana. In fact, there is no full
treatment of the rddhipada anywhere in the Bdp, though its author must have been aware of
them because of several brief references to the rddhipada in the Dhyana Chapter.792 Today, it
is difficult to establish the reasons that prompted their omission without comment in the
Prajha Chapter. A contributing factor for this may have been the consideration that the
rddhipada are not an absolute requirement for the destruction of the asrava.m Being particularly
associated with, mastery over meditative attainments and powers, they are not part of those
practices that aim at wisdom-acquisition, but pertain to the domain of meditation {dhyana).
We have seen that for the Bdp the single most important means to prajha is investigation
(pravicaya). Now, if we adopt Cousins’s distinction between the samatha- and vipasyandyana794,
investigation is doubtlessly closer to the ‘vehicle of insight’ so neglect of the rddhipada
might almost be expected. Moreover, the fact that they have already been referred to in the
Dhyana Chapter—albeit only sketchily—might have been reason enough for their omission
in the prajha context.
Bypassing the rddhipada, the Bdp therefore moves directly from the samyakprahana to the
faculties {indriya). However, of all the faculties’ traditional members only sraddha is given
fall consideration.795 Characterised as confidence in the existence of other worlds, in the law
of karma, in the bodhisattvacaiyd, in causality and in the ontological doctrines of the Mahayana,

789. A II, p. 74. ■

790. D III, p. 225; A II, pp. 16-17.
791. Gethin, 1987, pp. 508-9.
792. R, folio 569.3-570.2
Note that the rddhipada are also omitted from a list of bodhipdksika dharma on folio 277.7.
793. Compare, for instance, the lists o f khinasavabala that are found in A V, p. 175 and Patis, ii, pp. 173-4
with that o f the D III, pp. 283-4 where the iddhipada have been omitted (Gethin, 1987, pp. 496-7, 498).
794. Cousins, BSHS, pp. 56-68.
795. For a definition o f the five spiritual indriya, see: Kosa (ii, pp. 154-7) and Siddhi (pp. 309-314).

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faith becomes in the Bdp very much a spiritual foundation.796 Again, this role of faith is
already attested in the nikaya797 where—essentially affective in nature and directed at the
Buddha or his enlightenment—its function is to instigate and set in motion a process culminating
in wisdom, for which it also provides continuing support.798 As if to underline this point, the
remaining indriya are only mentioned by name and in relation to the forces that shape the
succession of their occurrence. In order to obtain the result in which he believes, the bodhisattva
makes an effort (virya).199 When he exerts effort, mindfulness (smrti) is initiated. From
mindfulness springs concentration of mind (samadhi) as to avoid distraction and from that
arises consciousness that corresponds to the object (prajna). The logic behind this concatenation
is perfectly sound and it is perhaps not very surprising that there is an almost verbatim
passage in the Kosa.m
Of still greater interest are the advantages that accrue from the indriya. For the Bdp, these
are of the highest order since they include the buddha-qualities and access to the stage of
prediction (vyakaranabhiimi) which is generally held to correspond to the acalabhumi.m
Most other schemes place mastery over the indriya well before the eighth stage.802 Yet, the
association of the faculties with the event of the prediction might provide the key to their
796. This, o f course, is true for Buddhism in general. See, for example, the nature and names o f the seven
categories o f arya where the sraddhdnusarin occupies the lowest rank (Kosa, vi, 273-282). Note, however,
that in Kosa (vi, p. 289) all indriya are actually aimed at supramundane dharma. For the Theravada, the
five spiritual indriya are the exclusive domain o f the arya-pudgala and are therefore always lokottara
(Gethin, p. 264).
797. M I, pp. 142, 294, 444,479; S IV, pp. 226, 298-9; A III, p. 165.
798. Research documenting the reciprocal relationship between sraddha and prajha has been carried out by a
number o f scholars. For summaries o f their findings, see: Carter, Dhamma, Tokyo, 1978, pp. 103-6;
Ergardt, 1977, pp. 144-6; La Vallee Poussin, 1908, ii, pp. 32-43.
799. According to the Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 7-8, sraddha first must provide a basis to chanda that, in turn,
becomes a foundation for the generation of virya.
800. Kosa, vi, p. 287
A similar relation between the five indriya is also posited in the Mpps and Red. The Mpps includes, like
thQBdp, faith in the bodhisattva training, faith in causality and moral integrity and confidence in emptiness,
sameness, etc., as manifestations o f the sraddhendriya (Mpps, iii, pp. 1195-96). For the Red, it is above
all rejection o f the heretical views positing a self (atmadrsti) and faith in buddha-qualities (pp.
240.5.6-41.2.7). Compare these with the expositions on sraddha given in the Sbh and Kp. But for one or
two minor points, their explanations have virtually nothing in common with that o f the Bdp. In the Kp we
learn that the five faculties function as antidotes to doubt, inertness, forgetfulness, distraction of mind,
absent-mindedness and misconceptions (pp. 137-39, § 95-96). In the Sravakabhumi, the faculty o f faith
should be taken as the four types o f faith verified, vigour as the perfect efforts, mindfulness as the bases of
mindfulness, meditation as the four dhyana and wisdom as insight into the noble truths (&rav-bh (S), p.
232.7-18; cf.M vs (N ),p. 53.4-8).
801. The various types and occasions at which predictions to buddhahood take place, I have discussed in note
233 o f my translation o f chapter eleven.
802. According to the Sarvastivada Abhidharma(Kosa, vi, pp. 287-89, Abhidh-d, p. 362.16-17), the attainments
o f the indriya correspond to the ksdnti stage o f the nirvedhabhdgiya that, traditionally, is situated on the
prayogamarga. For alternative locations on the path, but always situated on the prayogamarga, see:
Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 116-7 and Abhidh-h (W), ii, p. 140.
For Mahayana schemes, see: Dasa-bh p. 39.3—4; Bbh, pp. 338.24-341.6.

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unusual arrangement after the bodhyanga and drydstdhgamarga. But more of this later.803
The discussion of the five powers (bald) does not pose any of such difficulties.804 Conforming
to the well-known proposition that the powers represent little more than an advanced, actively
more effective phase of indriya practice, the B dp’s main concern is to illustrate the bodhisattva’s
invincibility in sraddha, vuya, etc.805 To this effect, the Bdp sets each of the bala in contexts
that render their practice particularly laborious and concludes that even in the most adverse
situations faith, etc., is unassailable at the level of bala. That is to say, the bodhisattva’s faith
in the Dharma is not deflected by the treachery of Mara.806 He is unsurpassed in vigour by
even the combined determination of all gods and men. His mindfulness cannot be shattered
by intrusion of any type of defilement. When contemplating, he maintains deep absorption
during the first dhyana regardless of persisting in altruistic conduct that involves him in the
bustle of worldly life; he sustains investigation during the second dhyana, sympathetic joy
during the third dhyana and finally disquiet at universal suffering during the fourth dhyana.
Indefeatable in cognition, he acquires the most formidable crafts and skills that, springing
from wisdom and knowledge, he puts to use in his quest of liberation.807 The presence of such
impediments is, of course, far from accidental. For, his initial resolve (pranidhana) constrains
not only escape from the pressures of samsara but, more to the point, actually requires that

803. It is evident that the only viewpoint from which the Bdp examines the faculties is a spiritual one. That is
to say, it excludes from consideration the remaining seventeen constituent indriya that shape human
experience in general (La Vallee Poussin, Nirvana, 1925, Paris, p. 237). For the Mvs, in contrast, it is
chiefly these ‘controlling principles’ that stand in the centre o f its discussion o f ‘skill’ in indriya. Giving
the illusion o f dominion in the sense that certain powers are held to fall to specific faculties for specific
purposes— e.g., the eye having the ability to see objects and hence be sovereign over the object— the Mvs
(Mvs (N), p. 46.23) warns that there is no agent that rules over these faculties since they are independent.
For our purposes, it is o f interest that the five spiritual indriya are thought to pertain to worldly purification
(laukikavisuddhi) o n ly , w h ile the ‘fa cu lties o f know ing what is not k n o w n ’
(andjhatamdjhasyamindriya)— the second type of purification—are sovereign with regard to transcendental
purification (lokottaravisuddhi). This confirms what we learned about their status from Sarvastivada
schemes and tallies with the positioning in the Akn and its commentary. The andjhatamdjhasyamindriya
are manifest on the darsanamarga and inspire desire to know the four truths, etc., (Kosa, ii, p. 117) while
lokottaravisuddhi is ‘eradication o f d efilem en ts through transcendental co n d u c t’
(lokottaramdrgenaklesanamprahattam; Mvs~t, p. 156.7).
804. For parallels in the fruits o f bala see: Red (pp. 241.2.7-242.1.4) and Amrt (B), p. 205.
805. For Pali references to this effect, see: M I, pp. 121, 168,244; S V, p. 220; Pads, i, pp. 6-7 and Atthasalini,
p. 295. A good Sanskrit reference is found in the commentary to the Arthav (S), pp. 226-7; cf. Kosa, vi, p.
286).
806. See, Red (p. 241.2.7-3.1) where we come across exactly the same theme in conjunction with the sraddhdbala.
The R ed abounds with other, rather interesting, manifestations o f bala (pp. 241.2.7-^42.1.4). For, instance,
it proposes that sraddha causes the acquisition of the seven riches (5.4) and power over zealous application
(adhimukti); power o f virya leads to the accomplishment o f the bodhyanga (5.4) and power over liberation
(3.7); smrti entails the six recollections o f the bodhisattva (5.5) and power over the fifth dharmaskandha
(3.7); dhyana eliminates the seven bases o f consciousness and prompts great mental power (3.8); prajha
removes the eightfold mistaken conduct (5.5-6) and purifies the conduct of all beings (3.8).
807. R, folio 677.4—679.6.

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he expose himself to the very conditions from which he seeks release. Taking account of
these constraints, the Bdp merges two concepts in its exposition of the five bala. On the one
hand, it follows the traditional line that the bala are superior to the indriya in attainment,
while on the other hand, it employs typical bodhisattva imagery to illustrate the origin, scope
and nature of the obstacles that must be overcome by the cultivation of faith, etc.808

Few traces of such adaptation are found in the treatment of the factors of enlightenment
{bodhyanga). Emulating the bodhipdksika tradition of early Buddhism, the Bdp provides
rather terse, definitive accounts of the focus and nature of each of the seven limbs. Judging
by my reading of sutra material, its explanations have no parallels in other texts. In spirit and
practice, they correspond for the most part to ancient interpretations. Only in the ontological
domain do differences prevail. For example, there is the conclusion in the smrtibodhyahga
that the recollection of dharma establishes knowledge of the lack of own-being of dharma—an
opinion seemingly at odds with the ancient ideas of reality.
The Bdp explains smrti in terms of recollection and presence of mind that, manifesting
careful examination and analysis, command a vision of things just as they are. Next, the
bodhyanga of Dharma-discemment {dharmapravicaya) is explained in terms of contextually
adjusted approaches to the various types of instructions that make up the Dharma. As Gethin
shows, this interpretation is one of several aspects that stand at the very heart of the concept
of dharmapravicaya in the nikaya.809Vigour (virya) is portrayed as a quality of strength and
dedication, specifically directed at those factors that contribute to awakening, viz., Dharma-
discemment, purification, meditation and equipoise.
This choice of ‘vigour targets’ contains a clue to the bond between the next two bodhyanga,
namely, joy (priti) and tranquillity (prasrabdha). Traditionally linked as factors that bring
about a positive mental disposition, priti and prasrabdha are intimately related to each other
in practice and result.810 The nature of this relationship is best summed up in the ancient
808. R, folio 679.6
Note also that preference is given to the bala over the indriya as practices leading to the accumulation o f
pristine cognition. Here, as in the bala section proper, each o f the bala is specifically adapted to the
bodhisattva training, when it says that faith promotes reverence; vigour is targeted at learning; mindfulness
prevents oblivion o f the thought o f enlightenment; meditation helps faith in dharma-sam&ness and that
wisdom assists acquiring the power o f learning (R, folio 646.1-3). For examples o f sources where
reference to the bala (when subsequent to the indriya) are given only scant attention, see: Abhidh-sam (R),
pp. 123—4; Amrt (B)t p. 205; Mvs (N), p. 52.20; Mpps, iii, p. 1200; Satya-s (S), p. 43.
809. Gethin, 1987, pp. 283-295; cf. Abhidh-sam (R), 1980, p. 123.
810. See, for instance, Mahdparinirvanasutra (Waldschmidt, 1956, p. 292, 30.27) where we read that joy
(priti) associated with the body leads to tranquillity (prasrabdha) of the mind (cf. Mvy 1587-95).

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formula, saying that “the body of one whose mind is joyful becomes tranquil and one whose
body is tranquil experiences happiness”.811 As this cohesion of emotional fulfilment and
mental quietude is mediated through the body and involves purification of body and mind in
meditation812, priti and prasrabdha are closely coupled and, to some degree, dependent on
each other.813 It is not a coincidence that we also find close terminological parallels echoing
this link in the B d p ’s description of the bodhyanga of joy and tranquillity.
The sixth bodhyanga, meditation (samadhi), has two aspects, on the one hand effecting
realisation of the Dharma and, on the other hand, awakening to the workings of dharma. In a
sense, this characterisation goes beyond the standard definitions of the samadhibodhyanga
which content themselves with one-pointed, sustained meditative examination of the nature
of dhatma .814 However, since both aspects contribute equally to the destruction of the depravities
(asrava) and go hand in hand, this deviation should perhaps not be given undue weight.815
Equipoise (;upeksa), to early Buddhism, is essentially a feeling that is neither painful nor
pleasant (aduhkhasukha vedana).m As a bodhyanga, however, it is less a feeling pertaining
to the vedandskandha than a skilful mental factor of the samskaraskandha.817 Having the
quality of balance, specifically regarding co-nascent dharma—that in the context of the
bodhyanga must mean perfect balance between smrti, etc.—it settles a restless mind into a
state of equipoise thereby rendering it conducive to enlightenment.818 It is exactly these
concerns that are addressed in the upeksabodhyahga of the Bdp. Eschewing the latent tendencies
to attraction and dislike, it is characterised as a quiescent mental state that is not diverted by
the extremes of worldly experience. In other words, it is thought freed from all types of
turbulence and anxiety, unaffected by hatred and desire and in harmony with the noble path

811. Gethin, 1987, p. 299

The idea that prasrabdha affects body and mind in equal measure is disputed by the Sarvastivada because
it would expose a factor o f awakening, belonging by definition to the lokottara path, to the impurities of
the body pertaining to the laukika domain. For a full discussion, see: Kosa, ii, pp. 157-59.
812. Cousins, Religion, III (1973), pp. 120-2.
813. A mrt (B), p. 206:
“Ici, quand il medite, le corps et la pensee sont legers, dociles et en securite (yogaksema) et ils
s’adaptent a la concentration {samadhyanuvartin)— c’est le membre relaxation.” Cf. Mpps, iii,
p. 1202.
814. Vism, xiv, p. 139; Mpps, iii, p. 1201; Amrt (B), p. 207; Msl, p. 144.18-19; cf.Red, p. 242.1.4-5.2
For a considered discussion o f the operational scope o f meditation in Theravada Buddhism, see: Cousins,
Religion, iii, 1973, pp. 115-131 (especially, p. 122).
815. Gethin, 1987, pp. 288-292.
816. S V ,p .210; Vibh,p. 123.
817. Arthav-t (S), p. 230.3-5; cf. Kosa, ii, pp. 159-60.
818. A good account o f the different viewpoints on the intent, scope and operations o f upekkha in early
Buddhist literature is found in Aronson, 1979, pp. 1-18. For a resourceful interpretation o f Aronson’s
findings, see: Gethin, 1987, pp. 302-8.

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itself.819

The noble eightfold path {drydstdhgamarga) is itself the object of investigation under the
ninth type of ‘skill’. Here, in contrast to its ‘mainstream’ description of the bodhyanga, the
Bdp casts aside the old-established explanations of the nikaya to replace them with a set of
altogether new interpretations. The picture that emerges of the eight limbs—although in spirit
compatible with the ideal of the path itself—is to my knowledge unique to the Bdp.820
I shall give here a brief outline of the standard presentation in the nikaya to show just how
much it differs.821 In this scheme, right view (sammadditthi) is knowledge concerning the
constituents of the four noble truths and becomes accordingly a form of wisdom. Right
resolve (sammasankappa) covers three areas of thought, that is, thoughts of non-desire
(nekkhamma), non-hatred (avyapada) and non-violence (avihimsa). Right speech (sammavdcd)
is manifested by refraint from falsehood (musdvada), slander (pisunavdcd), harsh speech
(pharusavdcd) and idle talk (samphappalapa). It is right conduct {sammdkammanta) to refrain
from assaults on sentient beings (panatipata), not taking what is not given (adinnddana) and
avoidance of violations of celibacy (abrahmacariya). The contents of right livelihood
(sammdjlva) are rarely spelled out, but generally explained as “renouncing wrong modes of
livelihood and making a living by means of right livelihood” (micchdjivam pahaya sammajivena
jivitam kappeti). Right effort (sammdvdyama) is explained in terms of the basic sammappadhana
formula in the same way that it is found in the Bdp. Right mindfulness {sammasati) is
characterised by the basic satipatthana formula822 and right meditation (sammdsamadhi) is
illustrated by way of the customary sketch of the four jhana.
Before contrasting this presentation with the eightfold path in the Bdp, I wish to make three
general remarks. First, as already observed by Gethin, the wording and type of characterisation
of the eight members is not coincidental, but was designed to link into many of the regularly
recurring themes of the nikaya.823 This might have put constraints on its phrasing and

819. The discussion o f the individual factors o f enlightenment extends in the Bdp over three folios, starting on
folio 662.7 and ending on folio 665.4.
820. To be precise, it is only found in the textual lineage where the Bdp appears to be the foundation text. As
indicated, it is also contained almost verbatim in the Akn (pp. 70,4.4-71.2.1) and Arthav (S), pp. 320-322.
821. M III, p. 251; see also: D II, p. 311; S V, pp. 8-10; Pads, i, pp. 40-2; Vibh, pp. 104-5. The bare list o f the
eight factors appears, o f course, at many more places throughout the nikaya. According to Gethin (1987,
p. 314), it is itemised no less than sixty-four times.
822. For examples o f the basic formula, see: D II, p. 290; D III, pp. 58, 141, 221, 276; M I 339-340; S V, pp.
141-192,294-306; A IV , pp. 457-8.
823. Gethin, 1987, p. 364.

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terminology. Second, several of the definitions have close parallels where their members
form part of other sets of practice. So, right view, right effort, right mindfulness and right
meditation all display practically identical explanations in the faculties (and powers) of
wisdom, vigour, mindfulness and meditation.824 Finally, the contents of right speech, right
conduct and right livelihood epitomise the very concerns of the early Buddhist ideal of
morality. Recurring as principal items in the silakkhandhavagga of the Dighanikaya825, identical
to four of the pancasila and corresponding to six of the ten kusalakarmapatha, they rank
among the most visible indicators of a monk’s spiritual progress.
If we turn now to the description of the noble eightfold path in the Bdp, we immediately
notice that such features are absent. In content, none of the descriptions of the eight factors
shows any traces of linking either its definition with the wider frame of reference of the
bodhisattva training—be it through the inclusion of key terminology or adaptation of otherwise
well-known formulae—or to secure moral conduct as its spiritual epicentre. On the contrary,
the whole presentation has a generality of tone that is practically devoid of references to
concrete practices.
The first limb, right view (samyagdrsti), is explained in terms antithetical to its opposite,
wrong view (mithyadrsti), and displays little positive argument. This also holds true for the
explanation of right resolve (samyaksamkalpa), only declaring that right resolve does not
result in rdga, dvesa or moha, but that it establishes the five pure aggregates {dharmaskandha)
co-resident with bodhi,826 The following three factors, that is, right speech (samyakvac), right
conduct {samyakkarmanta) and right livelihood (samyagajiva), traditionally epitomising ethical
integrity, do not contain any of the ‘morality markers’ that are brought up in the early
formula. In their place, the Bdp rather sweepingly defines right speech as intrinsically worthwhile
and innocuous dialogue that abounds with beneficial application and is persuasive of the
tiuth of the sameness all paths. Right conduct is measured by the kind of reward it is likely to

824. For concurring definitions with the indriya and bala see, for instance: S V, pp. 196-200.
825. D I, pp. 1-4.
826. R, folio 666.5-6
According to the Kp (p. 209, § 144), cited here in Weller’s German translation, these five skandha define
nirvana'.
“Die geistige Sammlung, die Weisheit, die Erlosung, die Schau des Erkenntniss der Erlosung,
ihr Ehrwiirdigen, wandem nicht durch die Wiedergeburten and erloschen nicht vollig. Durch
diese Gegebenheiten, ihr Ehrwiirdigen, wird das Nirvana angedeuted, doch sind diese
Gegebenheiten leer, abgesondert, nicht zu fassen as reale Objekte.”
For Pali references, see: D III, p. 279; S I, p. 99; A I, p. 162. Alternative titles o f the dharmaskandha are
found in Dhsgr § 23 (lokottaraskandha); Mvy 104-8 (asamasamaskandha); Kosa, i, p. 48; vi, p. 297;
Kosavydkhyd, p. 607.10 (anasravaskandha), (ref. Lamotte).

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produce. A fortiori, it excludes unwholesome action, but—aspiring to a lasting cessation of

all consequences of action—is aimed ultimately at the exhaustion of all types of activity.
The next limb, right livelihood, being characterised by a series of concrete attributes, is the
single exception to these general descriptions. Its content is the ideal of mendicant life and, in
particular, the four precepts of the dryavamsa conduct.827 Besides, it is free from foolishness,
hypocrisy and violence but governed by modesty, vigilance, contentedness and moral purity.
In spirit, many these characteristics are very close to the path ideal that was introduced in the
silaparamita which might, therefore, be legitimately taken to provide for the moral base in
the eightfold path. The references to the mendicant ideal and, specifically, to the dryavamsa
seem to suggest, however, that these facets go well beyond the moral domain, and trace, in
fact, a paradigm of the bodhisattva’s way of life interpreted in terms of right livelihood.
Right effort (samyagvydvama) marks a return to the rather condensed and yet imprecise
explanations. Accordingly, we learn veiy little of its exact application other than generalities.
Right effort is held to advocate virtuous conduct against mistaken conduct, to promote the
eradication of the propensities of defilement and to introduce to the truths and the noble path
itself.
In its explanation of right mindfulness {samyaksmrti)—notably eschewing references to the
stock formula of smrtyupasthdna—the Bdp draws on elements that pertain to mindfulness in
the nikaya.828 That is to say, it is seen as a self-possessed, composed and attentive state of
mental awareness manifesting in the practitioner a high degree of presence of mind.829 Then,
it examines the phenomena that surround the bodhisattva and tests them for their usefulness
or inadequacy—as the case may be—in relation to the path. Finally, and perhaps most
importantly, samyaksmrti is a force of recollection calling to mind the commitment to the
path and, by implication, to universal liberation.
It is this concern with the suffering of beings that also resonates in the definition of right
meditation (,samyaksamadhi). Its psychological content—in principle no doubt related to the
experience of the Sravaka—is declared as composure towards reality, particularly in view of

827. R, folio 667.4.

828. Gethin, 1987, p. 88.
829. This association with mental awareness is not particular to the nikaya, but became a generally characteristic
o f mindfulness. For the Sarvastivada, we read:
“The faculty o f mindfulness is a name for accurate designation concerning the body, etc., as it
is discerned by wisdom. A mind that has become acquainted with [mindfulness] does not
experience loss o f object. Such lack o f loss is the faculty o f mindfulness” (Abhidh-d, p.
360.14-16).

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its constituents (dharma). To the Bdp, however, this alone does not suffice to turn ‘meditation’
into ‘right meditation’. For this transformation to take place, it is vital that serenity is acquired
with a higher, very specific goal in mind, namely, the liberation of all sentient beings. As if
to underline this element of altruism, preaching is included as an important aspect of right
meditation.830 This adjustment grew no doubt from the re-invigorated concern for the fate of
the world the Buddhist communities in ancient India became preoccupied with and so is by
no means coincidental.
The differences in approach between the path formulae of the nikaya and Bdp are so
evident that they require, I think, no further illustration. As shown, apart from the reinterpretation
of right meditation, most do not affect the spiritual core of the path, but centre on stylistic
matters and detail of explanation. Most striking perhaps is the lack of reference to key
bodhisattva terminology and the little use of established formulae. This is not a general
feature of atydstahgamarga descriptions in Mahayana literature. Usually, the eight factors
are harmonised with the other bodhisattva practices in terms of a large degree of common
vocabulary.831 A good example of this is the account given in the Red .832 Its explanations of
the individual members are interspersed with a wealth of key concepts that occur elsewhere
in connection with the bodhisattva training. Thus, right view is explained in terms of sunyata
and advayam ', right resolve consists of ‘skill’ in samatha and vipasyana, producing insight
into dharma-sameness834; right livelihood is specifically developed in order to purify and
ripen other beings835; mindfulness means, above all, recollection of the practice of the paramitd
and postponement of entry into nirvana836 while meditation, although overtly concerned with
the four noble truths conduces to a profound understanding of emptiness and all-knowing.837
A similar abundance of key terminology is manifest in the Mahayana interpretation of the
atydstdhgamarga given in the Mpps.838 Here, however, emphasis is not so much placed on
specific bodhisattva practices as on philosophical concepts, such as bhutalaksana,
anabhisamkdralaksana, sunyata, sarvajhajndna and sarvakarmasamatd. Although not as

830. R, folio 668.4-6.

831. E.g., &sp (Ghosa), pp. 1427-39; Ugt p. 269.3.8-4.2; Red, pp. 242.5.2-44.3.6; Arthav (S), pp. 34-42;
$rdv-bh (Sh), pp. 327.8-330.18; Mpps, iii, pp. 1203-7; Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 123-4.
832. 24, pp. 242.5.2-244.2.6.
833. op. cit., pp. 243.1.3-2.5.
834. op. cit., pp. 243.3.3.
835. op. cit., pp. 243.5.6.
836. op. cit., pp. 244.4.1-8.
837. op. cit., pp. 244.2.2-5.
838. Mpps, iii, pp. 1203-1207.

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convincing an example as the account in the Red, the Mpps nevertheless documents the
tendency in the Mahayana to adjust the descriptions of the eightfold path to contemporary
thinking. For good reason, this trend is not manifested in the Bdp.

Interpolated into the discussion of the bodhipaksika dharma, between the noble eightfold
path and the perfect efforts, is an exposition of ‘skill’ in perfect mental quietude {samatha)
and insight (vipasyand).839One key element in the description of samatha is mental composure
{cittasanta). Effecting serenity, contentment, patience, ease of mind and imperturbability
with regard to the senses, it stands at the very heart of the bodhisattva’s meditative experience
and is as such recognised in the Bdp. The attainment of composure itself signals the eradication
of a series of factors certain to obstruct absorption. According to the Bhdvandkrama, these
include indolence (kausidya), forgetfulness with regard to the object of meditation
(ialambanavismarana), distraction (viksepa), agitation (auddhatya), absence of effort
(avyayama) and effort (yydyama).m In the Bdp, none of these is explicitly referred to, but we
find their presence in a number of terms that betray their elimination.841 Further details of the
meditative contents are revealed by the inclusion of reflection (manasakdra) and thorough
examination (pratyaveksanaj.842According to the Bhdvandkrama, reflection plays an important
role particularly during to the first phase of samatha practice where it is concerned with the
body and dharma—objects that are also given in the Bdp. It is essentially a preparatory
practice, technically known as ‘images devoid of concepts’ (nirvikalpakapratibimba), because
the bodhisattva has not yet succeeded in evaluating their true value, that leads to full investigation
(‘images accompanied by concepts’ savikalpakapratibimba) during vipasyana.m As structure,

839. For references to samathahipasyana in the nikaya, see: M I, p. 494; III, pp. 289, 297; S IV, pp. 194-95,
295, 350, 352; V, p. 52; A II, p. 157. For the Mahayana, see the contribution made by the Samdhis on
samathahipasyana. (Samdhis (ELa), pp. 88.1-97.27). Good expositions in the scholastic literature are
found in the Bbh (pp. 109.7-110.13), Msl (p. 146.6-28) and, above all, in the account drawn up by
Kamalasila in his Bhdvandkrama (MBT, ii, pp. 205-214; iii, pp. 1-13).
840. MBTi ii, § 14, pp. 207-8; MBT, iii, pp. 9-11.
841. R, folio 669.2-3.
842. At first sight, to find references to pratyaveksana and manasakdra in the samatha section comes somewhat
as a surprise, since both terms are elsewhere specifically associated with vipasyand. See, for instance, $gs,
p. 256; Samdhis (&La), pp. 89,92, 96 and MBT, iii, pp. 4.16, 5.17. However, as made clear by the context,
for the Bdp their focus is not the nature o f the pudgala or dharma—as it is during vipasyand practice—but
the functioning o f the yogin’s body. Therefore, in the Bdp they carry less the meaning o f the sharp,
analytic investigation that is the characteric o f them during vipasyand practice than an generally observing
purpose. For a discussion o f these terms in the context o f meditative practice, see: Demieville, 1987, pp.
79-80.
843. MBT, iii, pp. 1.13-2.5
The Bhdvandkrama stresses that part o f this reflection is particularly concerned with the body o f the
Tathagata— a topic not mentioned in the Bdp. For a list o f alternative objects o f meditation during the

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the Bdp accepts the traditional eight branches of meditation supplemented by the apramdna—a
division also found in the Samdhis.844 In contrast to the Bhdvandkrama845, the setting of
samatha practice and its preparations are little discussed in the Bdp, although it indicates that
seclusion away from the bustle of worldly life is the ideal location.
The bodhisattva, having come into contact with true reality through reflection, produces
insight {vipasyand) into the nature of reality. For the Bdp, this newly won realisation is
threefold.846 First, focused on his own body, it allows him to penetrate its true nature and to
conclude that the individual (pudgala) does not exist. Then, he widens his field of vision and
applies the principles behind this insight to the world at large. Grasping the workings of
causality and fruit attainment, he penetrates reality and sees that dharma are non-existent
(,dharmanairdtmya).847 According to the Bhdvandkrama, it is exactly this vision of reality,
manifesting insight into pudgalanairdtmya and dharmanairdtmya, that distinguishes vipasyand
from other types of cognition and turns it into correct analysis (bhutapratyaveksa).848Finally,
having acquired accurate vision of dharma and the context where they occur, the bodhisattva
shifts his attention to the objects of his meditation (alambana) only to realise that they also
lack own-being (svabhava)*49 At this stage, his understanding of reality has passed beyond
all mental constructions to allow him to perceive the absence of concepts (nirvikalpa) and
developments (nisprapahca).m Thus accomplished, insight is no longer to him a part of
conventional cognition, but rests in equal measure on seeing and non-seeing. Also called
perfect seeing (samyagdarsana), it establishes him in the highest form of bodhisattva activity
that incurs no karmic traces whatsoever.
For this achievement to take place, it is essential that samatha and vipasyand are practised
jointly throughout. As the two principal factors in meditation, they are inextricably linked
like “two oxen harnessed to a plough”, to quote a canonical simile.851 With well-developed

samatha cultivation, see: Samdhis (&La), pp. 88.8-89.19 and Abhidh-sam (R), p. 126.
844. Samdhis (&La), p. 93.1—10
For material on the psychological experiences that distinguish upeksd from samatha, see: Samdhis 0 L a ),
p. 97.11-26; Kosa, ii, pp. 25, 159; viii, p. 147; Siddhi, pp. 334, 370, MBT, iii, p. 9.20-21.
845. MBT, iii, pp. 3.4-4.12.
846. The threefold division o f vipasyand in the Bdp is mirrored in the account o f the Bhavanakrama (MBT, iii,
pp. 5.18-8.17). For an alternative division, see: Samdhis (&La), p. 92.14-30.
847. R, folio 670.1-2.
848. MBT, iii, p. 5.14—17.
849. R, folio 670.6.
850. MBT, iii, p. 7.14-15.
851. D III, pp. 213, 273; M I, pp. 494, 289; AII, pp. 156-7; Patis, ii, p. 92; See also: Siks, p. 119; Bbh, p. 207.
2-6; Msl, p. 91.25-26; MBT, iii, p. 10.4-7. For further references, see: Kosa, viii, p. 131.

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vipasyand but weak samatha, thought is agitated like a lamp exposed to strong winds so that
reality is not clearly seen. But, if samatha prevails over vipasyand, sleep is close at hand and
reality will never be perceived.852 Hence, the view that samatha precedes as practice the
cultivation of vipasyand—although ocassionally expressed in Buddhist literature and also
implied in the Bdp—appears to be a more theoretical proposition.853

The Acquisition o f Wisdom

The last type of ‘skill’ that is considered in the Bdp is ‘skill’ in dharma. Not included
amongst the ten primary kinds of ‘skill’, but appended to the introductory statement, its
function is to conclude the prior discussion. The key element in all six examples of ‘skill’ in
dharma is the bodhisattva’s dexterity in transforming attainments of the conditioned into
attainments of the unconditioned. He transforms the predisposition (samskara) of body,
speech and mind into all-knowing; he does not depreciate Perfect Wisdom through the five
preliminary perfections; he leads sentient beings to enlightenment through the means of
conversion; he does not cut the fetters of samsdra, but cleanses himself of worldly defilements;
he remains unaffected by impurity in spite of his presence in the traidhatuka; he is acquainted
with the teachings of emptiness, etc., and yet, he does not realise the unconditioned.854
The significance of these examples is twofold. First, it is shown that a bodhisattva who is
skilled in dharma—conditioned and unconditioned alike—is in fact equipped with all-knowing.
Second, since spiritual realisation devoid of ‘skill’ and wisdom cannot produce liberation, it
testifies to their indispensability and discloses the benefits skilful interaction between the
conditioned and unconditioned delivers.855 Emulating the ancient model of the integration of
means (upaya) and wisdom (prajhd)—the former being part of the conditioned, the latter
epitomising the unconditioned— ‘skill’ in dharma accentuates the functional relationship
852. MBT, iii, p. 9.22-10.5; Sarndhis (&La),p. 90.15-21.
853. In a sutta o f the Anguttaranikaya, for instance, we have Ananda declaring that a bhikkhu who claims to
have attained arhantship is in possession o f one o f four paths, that is, the path cultivating vipassand
preceded by samatha; the path cultivating samatha preceded by vipassand; the path in which both are
yoked together or a path where the bhikkhu’s mind is agitated by dhamma (A II, pp. 156-7). See also
Papaiicasudani (v, p. 504) where Buddhaghosa proposes that samatha and vipassand belong to different
moments (ndnakkhanika), leading to a serial attainment o f the three marks and vipassand (ref. Ruegg; cf.
K osa, viii, p. 131). In Mahayana texts, consult: Samdhis (kLa), p. 90.3-14; Siddhi, p. 597; MBT, iii, pp.
1-3; D PP, p. 17.
854. R, folio 685.1.
855. R, folio 685.4-5.

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 Prajnaparamita

coupling the actual practices to the cognitive realm. This accounts also for the positioning of
‘skill’ in dharma at the very end of the discourse outside the formal structure of the ten skills.
For, ‘skill’ in dhaima sets out to establish their interconnection by fusing the worldly paramita
with the perfection of wisdom; by uniting learning, reflection and contemplation; by merging
the pratisarana with the pratisamvid; by joining punyasambhdra with jhdnasambhara; and
by blending samatha and vipasyand.
This interpretation, obvious on textual grounds and well-known from other sources, does
not present much of a problem. Difficulties arise, however, if we attempt to reconcile the
Bdp fs intent behind ‘skill’ in dharma with that of the ten ‘skills’ in the Mvs. As already seen,
for the Mvs ‘skill’ is essentially a means of illustrating the futility of the belief in a self
(iatmadrsti). In line with this thinking, ‘skill’ in conditioned and unconditioned dharma
(likewise placed as the tenth ‘skill’ at the end of the discussion) is employed to show the
‘illusion of an entity that is either bound or released’ (amuktamuktatvagraha).856 The idea is
that such illusion consists in imagining that a self is at first tied to samsdra by defilements
and later liberated from them. Since only conditioned dharma are subject to the samyojana,
‘skill’ in conditioned and unconditioned (i.e., all) dharma is explained to counteract this
illusion.857
While this approach to ‘skill’ in dharma is consistent with the interpretation of the preceding
nine types of ‘skill’, it does not show any obvious relation to our passage in the Bdp. The
only link with the M vs’s standpoint is perhaps the Bdp's proposition that the transformation
to enlightenment takes place on the basis of discerning all dharma as unconditioned
enlightenment in the first place.858 This eliminates the need for purification and explains the
abstention from realising the unconditioned. It would also account for the bodhisattva’s
twofold approach to reality. Moreover, in a sense, it removes by implication the process of
deliverance from the individual that is of key concern to the Mvs.

Phases in Perfect Wisdom

I now propose to investigate the structural principles that underlie the arrangement of the
856. Mvs (N), p. 44A0.
857. Mvs (N)t p. 48.6-7.
858. R, folio 683.7.

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 Prajndpdramita

prajhaparamitd practices. Following the bodhisattva practice proper,859 the Bdp discusses
material that seems to include a blueprint of the bodhisattva’s career phases. This
blueprint—integrated into the discussion of ‘skill’ in solitary wandering—gives an approximate
idea of the scope and nature of the various phases. However, since the text itself is anything
but explicit I have had to turn once again to the Akn-fika that contains a brief passage on a
parallel section in the Akn.860 Guided by its analysis, it became possible to break up the
contents of ‘skill’ in solitary wandering as follows.861 At first, during the initial phase extending
from the first cittotpdda to the adhimukticarydbhumi, the bodhisattva practises only in his
own interest, as he is unable to dispense instruction and benefit to others.862 During this
period, wholly independent and self-sufficient, he lives the life of a recluse and is isolated
from the world. In spite of immense effort, his practice of the paramita is flawed. The
process of paramita purification takes place during the second phase and follows on the
attainment of patience. Although the Akn-tika does not indicate the span of this period, our
analysis of ksdnti has revealed that this is unlikely to occur prior to the seventh (sudurjayabhumi)
or possibly the sixth stage (<arcrismatibhumi). Still left to his own devices, he secures the
perfections all by himself and resolves to achieve unsurpassed attainments. Advance to the
third phase is marked by the acquisition of the vision of dharma-sameness. Having removed
all obstacles related to defilements (klesdvarana) and having decisively weakened those
pertaining to knowledge (Jneyavarana), the bodhisattva attains mastery of the means of
conversion (samgrahavastu). This allows him to develop fellow beings and plant the roots of
virtue with unprecedented impact.863 Finally, at the fourth stage, freed from all impurity, he
overcomes the last remaining obstacles and, taking a seat on the vajra-throne, attains
enlightenment. This, of course, signals the end of the bodhisattva’s advance to buddhahood.
Clearly, this division, however plausible, is rather general. Moreover, it does not seem to
stand in direct relationship to the content of the Prdjnd Chapter, since it aproaches the
bodhisattva path in a much broader fashion. I suggest to leave its evaluation on the side for
859. For reasons that will become apparent, I take them to include the pratisamvid, pratisarana,
punyaljhanasambhara, bodhipaksika as well as samathahipasyana.
860. Akn, pp. 72.1.8-73.2; Akn-tika, pp. 271.4.4-272.2.1.
861. Text references to key sentences in the Akn-tika and discussions of the terminology are given in my notes
to the translation o f chapter eleven.
862. Akn-tika, p. 272.1.1; Bbh, pp. 84.21-85.7, 86.4-11.
863. As reference to the means o f conversion is omitted in the Bdp but found in the Akn, we must ignore the
samgrahavastu phase. This, however, is immaterial to the characterisation o f the path phases since vision
o f <f/iarma-sameness is in any event fixed to the eighth stage 0 g s, p. 131) at which point the bodhisattva
has already attained mastery over the samgrahavastu and sets out to ripen beings with immense effect
(Dasa-bh p. 57.16).

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the time being and to turn instead to the structures of the wisdom-practices themselves.
Reading through the chapter, the first thing one notices is the break between the section
leading up to ‘skill’ and the discussion of ‘skill’ itself. The former section, starting with the
seventy-two kinds of learning and ending with the bodhisattva’s emancipation from defilements,
is markedly less structured than the other parts of this chapter. Although much of its material
is well-known from earlier sources, insufficient use of ‘context markers’ introduces some
ambiguity regarding the conceptual interrelation between the practices and the training phases
they represent. Notwithstanding, it is possible to outline a general structural pattern. As
shown, large areas of the arrangement of the practices bear reminiscence to the first four of
the five traditional path phases, comprising the sambharamdrga,prayogamarga, darsanamarga
and bhdvanamarga. In establishing this correlation, I considered the few ‘context markers’
available and compared the B dp’s position with the contents of the various stages known
from other sources. The picture that emerged from this analysis—although not beyond
controversy in detail— supplies continuity between the individual practices.
Next, the Bdp introduces a series of ‘skills’ that are apparently related to the foregoing
accomplishments. Most commentaries agree that the first four of these represent the cognitive
attainment of the Sravaka. Since their objective (that is, the eradication of the belief in a self)
is not particular to the training of the Sravaka, but equally pertains to the bodhisattvacarya,
they are cited also in the Bdp.m When we turn to the pratisamvid difficulties arise because
these exhibit no clear conceptual link with the destruction of the belief in a self. What is
more, our sources disagree on their position in the path, some arguing that the pratisamvid
spring from ‘skill’ in skandha, etc., while others assert the contrary. Judgement on this matter
will have to await further research. Whatever their exact relation to the first four types of
‘skill’, the pratisamvid are an integral part of prajndpdramita865 and their overall task is well
attested by their content. Above all, they introduce the bodhisattva to those areas of knowledge
that will be of greatest demand in his career; that is, they give an accurate understanding of
reality—in conventional and absolute terms—and the ability to communicate effectively with
other beings.866 Their relation to the bodhipaksika is of utmost importance to the bodhisattva.
For, not only do they allow for the perception of the individual dharma ‘in accordance with

864. Bbh, p. 4.6-8.

865. Bbh, p. 214.9-15.
866. In the Akn-tika (p. 242.1.4-7), this interpretation is brought out by the purpose to which the pratisamvid
are set, that is the ‘attainment o f power in teaching’.

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reality’ (yathabhuta), but moreover, prompt him to postpone indefinitely their realisation.867
The rationale for joining the pratisarana with the pratisamvid poses fewer difficulties,
since both are closely related in contents and spirit. This is particularly true of the
arthaprcttisamvid and dharmapratisamvid, as knowledge of the own-being of things and
designations becomes almost a prerequisite for considered reliance on any of the four
pratisarana. The impact of the niruktipratisamvid on the pratisarana is smaller, since the
knowledge o f languages has immediate bearing only on the artha/vyanjana and
neydrthafnltartha distinction. In a sense, three out of four pratisamvid represent something of
a basis of cognition to the pratisarana therefore. Once established, their conceptual proximity
could be taken to explain the irregular order in which the pratisarana are presented. That is
to say, by beginning the discussion of the pratisarana with the artha/vyanjana combination
in the place of the dharmatalpudgala pair—which most other texts cite as the first
pratisarana—the Bdp might have intended to express a parallelism with the pratisamvid
where artha is cited as the first item.868
Being thus trained in knowledge and well-focused in his practice, the bodhisattva embarks
on the training proper. Dual aspected from the very beginning, it begins with the accumulation
of merit and pristine cognition. By accumulating merit, the bodhisattva works for the benefit
of sentient beings, since it furnishes him with the roots of virtue that he dedicates to their
liberation. By the accumulation of pristine cognition, in contrast, he accomplishes the destruction
of his own, personal defilements. This division—although rather theoretical since both practices
go hand in hand—is remarkably well-delineated in the Bdp, with each accumulation mirroring
its designated task. For the Akn-tika, referring to the slightly edited path model of the Bdp in
the Akn, this path phase represents the very beginning of the bodhisattva’s ‘organised career’,
that is, it coincides with the sambharamdrga,869 This, of course, is a standard classification

867. Bbh, p. 259.9-13.

868. Note that in the scheme o f the Bbh (pp. 256.23-259,6) and Msl (pp. 138.3-139.17), the pratisarana
precede the pratisamvid on the basis that the former give rise to the latter. This view is also expressed in
the Bhadra-vy (pp. 45.31-46.2). While Regamey (p. 100) is certainly mistaken in considering the pratisarana
to be a “free interpretation o f the four normal pratisam vid\ in terms o f their conceptual proximity, his
observation is perhaps not as out o f place as might at first appear. O f some interest in this context is the
B bh’s comment that the pratisamvid are the agency giving rise to the cultivation o f the bodhipaksika
dharma (p. 259.9-11). This gives a logical connection to its order o f beneficial dharma listed in the
Bodhipaksyapatala, v iz ., pratisarana, pratisamvid, punyaJjhanasambhdra, bodhipaksika,
samathahipasyana. But for the reversal o f the pratisarana and pratisamvid (and perhaps the positioning
o f the samyakprahana, indriya and bald), this is exactly the order that is found in the Bdp (note that the
same order o f practices is also found in the Msl, pp. 138.3-149.4).
869. Akn-tika, p. 248.5.2.

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that need not be discussed here.870 Of far greater import to the present context is the question
whether this position is reconcilable with our earlier identification of sambharamdrga. If not,
we would have to reconsider most of our observations on the first section of chapter eleven.
However, as this problem is not isolated but recurs on three other occasions and requires
detailed analysis, I shall postpone its discussion for the time being.
Subsequent to accumulation, that according to the Akn-tika constitutes the only element of
the s a m b h a ra m d r g a the Bdp introduces the four smrtyupasthana. To the Akn-tika their
practice, emulating the Sarvastivada path model, signals entry on theprayogamarga.872While
this classification is in itself not remarkable and is found with minor variation at several
places, its adaptation for the Bdp raises a whole series of questions. The reason for this is
quite simple. In the Akn, the bases of mindfulness introduce the traditional order of the
bodhipaksika (with the samyakprahana, rddhipdda, indriya and bala all part of the
prayogamarga), whilst in the Bdp the smrtyupasthana are immediately followed by the
bodhyanga. According to the Sarvastivada path, this would mean that for the Bdp the
prayogamarga consists only of the bases of mindfulness, since the bodhyanga already herald
entry into the next phase—the darsanamarga.m Practically all sources agree that the
darsanamarga consists only of one set of practices, be it the bodhyanga or arydstdhgamdrga 874
Depending on which choice is made for the darsanamarga, the bhavanamarga as the
penultimate stage of the path is occupied either by the factors of enlightenment or the
eightfold path. According to the explanations of the Akn-tika on the parallel scheme in the
Akn this would be the dtyastdhgamarga.875 The eightfold path, being traditionally the last of
the seven sets, concludes the treatment of the bodhipaksika in most texts.876At first sight, this

870. Siddhi, pp. 564-74; Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 104-3; D PP, pp. 33-34.
871. A bi-tika, pp. 248.5.3-49.4.2.
872. Akn-tika, p. 249.5.3-4
See, for instance, K osa, vi, p. 287; Abhidh-d, p. 362.12-13.
873. Abhidh-h (W), ii, p. 140; Afvi, iv.8-10
There exists some disagreement on the distribution of the bodhyanga and arydstahgamarga to the darsana-
and bhavanamarga. For the Kosa (vi, p. 288) and the Abhidh-d (p. 362), the bodhyanga represent the
bhavanamarga with the darsanamarga being taken up by the eightfold path, while the opposite is asserted
by the Vaibhasika {op. cit.) and Akn-tika (p. 266.1.3). The differences between the two schemes have,
however, little bearing on substance, since both paths form part of the transcendental realm; it is chiefly a
question o f reconciling the traditional order o f the bodhipaksika with the view that the meditative context
o f the bodhyanga should be associated with the contemplation of the bhavanamarga.
874. Abhidh-d, p. 365; Kosa, p. 288; Mvs (N), pp. 33.14-16; Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 116-7 (different terminology);
Abhidh-h (W), p. 140.
875. Akn-tika, p. 267.3.5.
876. For references to examples in the nikaya, see: Gethin, 1987, pp. 501,510,524-6; for Mahayana references,
consult any o f the following texts: Kp, § 95; Vbi, p. 20; Dasa-bh, pp. 38.16-39.11; Red, pp. 235.3.4-44.2.6;
Akn, pp. 66.4.3-71.2.1; Arthav (S), pp. 28-42; Pahca, pp. 204-208.

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model is also endorsed in the Bdp, since the practices that immediately follow on the
drydstahgamarga, that is, samatha and vipasyand, do not belong to the bodhipaksika. On
their analogous occurrence in thvAkn, the commentary remarks that samatha and vipasyand
constitute the means by which the practical aspects of the path are taught.8771 shall demonstrate
below that this position, although unusual, is not irreconcilable with other path interpretations.
The presence of the samyakprahana, indriya and bala following samatha and vipasyand
poses far greater difficulty.
In order appreciate the problems given by this presentation, it may be helpful to recall some
of the more general features of the bodhipaksika dharma. Embodying Buddhist spiritual
training at the higher stages of the path, the bodhipaksika are not a random assortment of
practices, but constitute a coherent body of methods specifically designed to bring about
enlightenment. On the one hand, whether in the form of individual sets, or from the point of
view of their ‘ingredients’ (<dravya), each of the seven categories is understood to reproduce
the Path in its own right. On the other hand, epitomising the collective and individual means
of reaching awakening, full development of any one of the sets brings to fulfilment all seven.
Thus, as a spiritual unity whose individual members stand in close relation to each other,
they constitute the very hub of the path.
This and the mnemonic constraints of oral literature, led to an early standardisation in their
presentation, including stockphrases and formulae to aid elucidation. As a result, beyond
abhidharmic detail, explanations of their contents generally display few differences in substance.
Also the number of practices shows little variation, so that all thirty-seven are usually discussed
en bloc. The order in which they are treated is nearly always the same, starting with the
smrtyupasthana and ending with the drydstahgamarga. Even in expanded lists it is extremely
rare that the seven sets are separated. When juxtaposed to other practices, the thirty-seven
dharma regularly stand at the centre with the remaining practices clustered around them.
When differences occur, these are mainly due to variations in context affecting the status of
individual practices. In several works expanded lists of bodhipaksika are met with. Generally,
this occurs in the context of meditation practices. Depending whether they are addressed
collectively on the lokottara path or individually in conjunction with higher applications of
samatha and vipasyand in the phase immediately preceding the emergence of lokottara
consciousness, the bodhipaksika are ranked either as lokottara or as laukika practices.
877. Akn-tika, p. 267.3.6.

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Finally, in their attempts to draw up a coherent scheme of the Buddhist experience, scholars
have developed several models correlating the seven sets to the stages of the path. Of these,
the best documented account is by the Sarvastivada school. However, even their distribution
of the bodhipaksika fluctuates, showing that these endeavours were never brought to a
conclusion. Indeed, we also meet with propositions that indicate a continuous and simultaneous
presence of all thirty-seven factors at the higher, transcendental levels of the path.
With these considerations in mind, let us return now to the bodhipaksika in the Bdp and
reassess those areas where anomalies occur. The first incongruity we have noted is the
isolation of the smrtyupasthana on the prayogamarga, with three of its traditional co-residents
being separated from the bulk of the bodhipaksika. Editorial adjustments in the order of their
presentation in the Akn—resulting in the interpolation of the samyakprahana, rddhipada,
indriya and bala between the smrtyupasthana and bodhyanga—indicate that such positioning
was already viewed with suspicion in ancient Indian Buddhist circles.878 Besides depriving
the pt'ayogamdrga of much of its contents, their position at the very end overturns a whole
tradition. For, as Gethin has shown, the order of the seven sets was already established during
the four primary nikaya and rapidly assumed an air of inviolability.879 Indeed, judging by
Gethin’s survey of Pali sources and my own reading in the Mahayana, the B dp’s sequencing
has no parallel anywhere in Buddhist literature.
The sole presence of the smrtyupasthana on the prayogamarga is less problematic. First, as
already noted, Buddhism never produced any fixed and final scheme of distribution of the
bodhipaksika to the stages. Discrepancies are greatest with regard to the first two path
phases, some placing the smrtyupasthana on the sambharamdrga, others on the prayogamarga
or their equivalents.880 Second, the very nature of the smrtyupasthana could conceivably be
taken to allow for this interpretation. Since they are well-known from the Mahasatipatthdnasutta
as embodying on their own the whole Buddhist path and of great importance as basic
instructions in meditation, the smrtyupasthana—it could be argued—stand at the centre of all
types of practice.881 This consideration, it seems, led the compiler of theKosa to refer to the
smrtyupasthana twice, distinguishing a lower and higher level of cultivation; first, as the
practice dominating especially the adikarmikamarga and, second, as the foundation to all
878. Akn, pp. 66.4.3, 68.5.1, 69.3.2, 69.4.1, 69.5.6, 70.2.3.
879. Gethin, 1987, pp. 500-26, and conclusions: pp. 527-533.
880. Compare, for instance, the schemes o f the Kosa, vi, pp. 287-88; Abhidh-d, p. 362; Abhidh-h (W), p. 140;
Abhidh-sam (R), p. 116-7; Mvs (N), pp. 50-55 and Mpps, iii, pp. 1148-1149.
881. D II, p. 290; M I, p. 55.

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four nirvedhabhagiya,882 Since the nirvedhabhagiya are the very practices that make up the
contents of the prayogamarga™, the Bdp’s identification of the smrtyupasthana with the
prayogamarga perhaps is less inept than it appears at face value.
Having already considered the omission of the rddhipada and the inverted correlation
between the bodhyanga!drydstahgamarga and darsana!bhavanamarga, I shall proceed directly
to the interpolation of samatha and vipasyand. To be sure, the occurrence o f samatha and
vipasyand alongside the bodhipaksika is by no means unusual. They are found in a great
number of expanded bodhipaksika lists from both the Pali and Sanskrit traditions.884Furthermore,
the meditative experiences pertaining to perfect mental quietude and insight are integral to
most aspects of bodhipaksika cultivation. While for some texts this connection is only manifest
in selected sets885, others define all thirty-seven factors in terms of their association with
samatha and vipasyand. A good example of the latter approach is found in the Satyasiddhisastra
where all but three of the bodhipaksika practices are identified as belonging either to samatha
or vipasyand.886 However, the exact role of perfect mental quietude and insight in relation to
the thirty-seven bodhipaksika is little discussed. Gethin, quoting a passage from the
Nettippakaranattha, suggests that in certain lists the seven sets might have served to exemplify
how samatha and vipasyand are fulfilled.887In other contexts, most notably the Dhammasahgani
and Visuddhimagga, they further the arising of active skilful consciousness that operates in
the phase prior to (pubhabhaga) the lokottara path.888This would place samatha and vipasyand
in the final phase of the prayogamarga.

882. K o sa ,v\, pp. 159-178,287.

883. This view is expressed in numerous texts. It is found in the Abhidh-sam (R), pp. 105-6; Kosa, vi, pp.
169-78; Mvs (N), pp. 33.14-16, 52; Abhidh-d, p. 362 and is discussed in DPP, pp. 20,34-37. There are
only a few texts that reject the nirvedhabhagiya at the heart o f the prayogamarga. One such example is
the Abhidh-h (W), ii, p. 194. However, rather than outright rejection, their omission from the prayogamarga
is perhaps the outcome o f a different terminology, since the association o f the perfect efforts, bases o f
success, faculties and powers with striving (vyayama), one-pointedness (cittaikdgratd), weak (mrdu) and
sharp itiksna) is also present in the description o f its equivalent to the prayogamarga.
884. For examples o f such lists, see: Gethin, 1987, pp. 510,524-26
See also: Srotabhumi (p. 287.3.2-7) which interpolates the pratisamvid between the eightfold path and
samtha and vipasyand.
885. See, for instance, the Sbh (&rav-bh (Sh), pp. 325-7) relating samatha and vipasyand to the bodhyanga,
with prasrabdha, samadhi and upeksa manifesting samatha', dharmapravicaya, virya and priti constituting
vipasyand while smrti is held to consist o f both samatha and vipasyand.
886. According to this text, samatha is manifest in the first three types o f smrtyupasthana, in all rddhipada, in
the first four itidriya and bala, in three o f the bodhyanga and two o f the drydstahgamarga. All others,
with the exception o f the three sila factors o f the drydstahgamarga, the smrtendriya and smrtibala are
held to pertain to vipasyand {op. cit., ii, pp. 448-9).
887. Gethin, 1987, p. 515.
888. Dhs, pp. 9-29; Viism, pp. 137-38, iv.74-5; p. 459, xiv.121; pp. 669-70, xxi.129-30; Sp, ii, p. 494; 5V, ii, p.
564; iii, pp. 883-4; Ps, iii, 243-4. For these and farther references, see: Gethin, 1987, pp. 625-27.

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In Mahayana works, their relationship to the bodhipaksika is explained differently. Typically

cited after the description of the bodhipaksika, they are given a firm place in the lokottara
consciousness and interpreted as the culmination of the seven sets.889 Thus, we read in the
Bbh that samatha secures non-discrimination (avikalpana) of the bodhipaksika, whilst
vipasyand embodies their accurate perception in accordance with the highest truth and
differentiation (yyavasthana).m It is probably in this context that one has to interpret the
statement in the Akn-tika that samatha and vipasyand jointly embody the practice of the
bhavanamarga. That is to say, dwelling on the path of contemplation linked with wisdom891,
the bodhisattva is no longer concerned with the individual practices or their particular fruits
of realisation892, but looks at them from the absolute point of view. Citing smrti as example,
the Bbh explains:893

“In which fashion does the bodhisattva perceive the thirty-seven bodhipaksika
dharma from the viewpoint of the Mahayana? Here, the bodhisattva dwells
considering the body as body, but he does not perceive the body as an existing
body, nor as a body that does not exist in any way. He perceives the exact nature
of the foundation of being of the body. This is for him to consider the body from
the absolute point of view.”

For the bodhisattva, samatha and vipasyand are therefore not so much part of the dhyanic
processes that lead to the acquisition of the bodhipaksika, as the group of factors that establish
their position in the Mahayana scheme of things.894 In the Bdp, awareness of this frame of
reference is dependent on composure and reflection and produces a vision of reality whose
parameter consist in pudgalanairatmya, dharmanairdtmya and animitta. Inevitably, the pursuit

889. E.g., Srotabhumi, p. 287.2.4—5

This is only true if cited in conjunction with the bodhipaksika dharma. Their overall functions in the path
as a whole are far more multifarious and vary, depending on the respective phase o f the training. A
description o f their changing roles on the path— starting with their function as causal basis to the attainment
o f the adhimukticaryabhumi and ending with their contribution to the purification o f the buddha-field
during the eighth, ninth and tenth stages—is given in the Msl (p. 146.10-26).
890. Bbh, pp. 260.11-261.2,
891. R, folio 670.1.
892. R, folio 671.3.
893. Bbh, p. 259.15-22; cf. Msl, p. 146.6-27.
894. Besides samatha and vipasyand, these include the four pratisamvid and a general knowledge o f means.
They prompt the bodhisattva to look at the thirty-seven factors o f enlightenment in accordance with
reality, but without realising them (Bbh, p. 259.9-11).

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of the bodhipaksika within this framework cannot but be affected by such understanding,
generating a novel type of consummation that is based on their very non-existence
{anupaladhitam upadaya).m This insight does not occur by chance, but is inspired by the
meditative and cognitive exercises that lie at the heart of the seven sets themselves. Thus, as
factors finalising the conceptual context for the bodhisattva’s bodhipaksika practice, the
positioning of samatha and vipasyand after the bodhipaksika proper makes particularly good
sense since it takes into account the role of the thirty-seven practices in securing their
realisation.896
This cannot be said about the position of the samyakprahana, indriya and bala. Apart from
infringing on the traditional order of exposition, their location beyond the bodhipaksika
series raises the question of their status. That is to say, since they follow on practices that are
to all intents part of the lokottara consciousness, is it safe to conclude that they also pertain to
the lokottara phase of the path? If not, what are the effects on our scheme? Does it mean that
our signposts have to be cast aside or re-interpreted?
In order to answer these questions, it is necessary to consider the status of the bodhipaksika
in general, and that of the samyakprahana, indriya and bala in particular. In the Kosa,
echoing the ancient view that all bodhipaksika pertain to the higher stages of the path, we
learn that the seven sets may be without asrava.m By implication, this must mean that all
thirty-seven factors are potentially part of the lokottara consciousness. Summing up the
Theravada position on this matter, Gethin writes:898

“Strictly speaking, from the point of view of abhidhamma, we can only say that
the satipatthana, sammappadhdna, iddhipada, bala, bojjhariga and maggahga
function truly and fully when brought to the stage of the lokuttaracitta\ this is
their natural and proper level.”

Conceding that this is not the whole truth since the Pali commentaries do in fact allow for
895. Mpps, iii, p. 1135.
896. A very revealing passage to this effect is found in the Msl, where it says that samatha, here likened to
stillness (sthana) o f thought, and vipasyand, held to correspond to dharma investigation, are in fact based
on the bodhipaksika factors of samyaksamddhi and dharmapravicaya (p. 146.6-10). Indeed, their positioning
following the bodhipaksika is found in a number o f important works. It is given in the Bbh (p. 259.15-22),
M sl (p. 146.6-27), Abhidh-sam (R), (p. 126), Pahca (pp. 208-210; as parts o f the string o f meditative
attainments) and in the Vkn, p. 40.
897. K osa, vi, pp. 284,290.
898. Gethin, 1987, p. 240.

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laukika cultivation of the bodhipaksika, Gethin draws attention to the work of Bareau who
established that worldly indriya practice is also catered to in the Vatslputriya path.899 Here,
the indriya are ranked as laukika in the context of the four nirvedhabhagiya, to be precise, as
laukikagradhaima immediately preceding the emergence of lokottara consciousness.900 The
proposition of the Vatslputriya ties thus in with the distribution of the bodhipaksika to the
various path phases. As already indicated, according to the Sarvastivada, the samyakprahana,
indriya and bala fall all into the prayoga phase. Allocated to three of the four
nirvedhabhagiya—with the murdhan level reserved for the missing rddhipada—in terms of
the path at least, they are thus clearly of laukika rank.
For the commentaries of the Pali tradition the situation is more fluid than that. Proposing
that the shift from the laukika to the lokottara experience rests more than anything on the
context in which they are pursued (that is to say, depending on whether they are practised
during the ‘prior stage’ separating ordinary practice from transcendental practice or during
the lokottara path and fruit itself) the bodhipaksika are either laukika or lokottara in nature.
In theory, it seems, this would allow for both levels of cultivation of the thirty-seven factors.
Yet, in practice, as Gethin has shown, this principle does not apply evenly to all seven sets,
but is only valid for the samyakprahana, indriya and bala—with the other sets pertaining
invariably to the lokottara mind.901
Now, without going into the details of why this is so, we note that it is precisely these three
practices which are ‘out of order’ in the Bdp. Bearing in mind what has been said on the
laukika!lokottara potential of the bodhipaksika, two explanations spring to mind. First, we
cannot discount the possibility that the samyakprahana, etc., had been randomly positioned
in their present location. This would explain the presence of laukika practices in a section of
the path that, by common agreement, arises within the lokottara consciousness. Spotted as an
error by a learned reader, it was not allowed to perpetuate itself, but got redressed and
brought into line with the traditional bodhipaksika sequence when adopted for the Akn. The
problem with this interpretation lies in the improbability that such a major structural defect

899. Bareau, 1955, p. 118.

900. Note that the. interpretation o f their status is far from resolved. To the Vibhajyavada, for instance, the five
indriya are exclusively lokottara because they are held to have immediate bearing on the acquisition o f
four fruitions o f arhantship (Bareau, 1955, p. 172). The Sarvastivada protagonists, in contrast, appear to
have adopted the Theravada view and interprete the indriya as characterising the five components in their
generality (op. cit., pp. 143, 145-6). For a full treatment o f the understanding o f the indriya formula in
Pali literature, see: Gethin, 1987, pp. 231-269
901. Gethin, 1987, pp. 240, 630.

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should have escaped notice, particularly in view of the renown and early codification of the
seven bodhipaksika sets.902
Alternatively, if not a mistake, their placement is deliberate and grew out of some undisclosed
consideration. Whatever the reason, their installation towards the end of the path suggests
that the three were not interpreted as laukika practices in their prayogamarga context, but in
the bodhipaksika’s original role as spiritual exercises of the highest order.903 Epitomising the
‘practice’ of the bhavanamarga, they could arguably represent a phase that develops the
meditative pursuits of the smrtyupasthana, bodhyanga, dryastangamarga, samatha and
vipasyand. Their contents would seem to correspond to the practices that the bodhisattva
undertakes after emerging from meditation.904 Moreover, taken together, they cover most of
the antidotes designed to prevent meditative defeat, viz., faith, zeal, effort, tranquillity,
mindfulness, attentiveness, reflection and equipoise.905
Needless to say, if this interpretation is accepted we cannot maintain the allocation in the
Akn-tika, since this would interfere with the presumed lokottara status of the samyakprahana,
indriya and bala. We would also be at a loss to explain the editorial modifications in thQAkn.
One would think that such carefully devised scheme would not be abandoned without due
consideration. Equally intriguing is the fact that Buddhist literature does not record the
rationale behind this scheme. I have not found a single text in which the samyakprahana,
indriya and bala are similarly placed.
Taking all factors into consideration, it would thus appear that their positioning—novel but
probably deliberate and, in a sense, consistent with the B dp’s path model—failed to attract
support in Buddhist circles, became isolated and was soon forgotten. Even when encountered
(as it must have been by the author of the Akn), its structure was not accepted but modified
and brought into line with the established order of the bodhipaksika. While the rationale may
therefore be lost, the very fact of its survival in the Bdp reminds us, once more, of the
fluctuations in thought that influenced the shaping of the bodhisattva doctrine and the multiple

902. The possibility that the Bdp was unaware o f the traditional sequence can be safely ruled out, as it gives a
complete and orderly listing o f the seven sets at R, 630.3-6. In other places, however, without apparent
reason or clear pattern, it gives only a selection of the bodhipaksika (R, folio 592.1; 596.5-98.1).
903. Theoretically, there is still the possibility that their presence on what is to all purposes the bhavanamarga
might point to the impure (anasrava) or laukika phase of path o f contemplation (Kosa, vi, p. 119, ii, p.
117, v, pp. 103-4). Their positioning after the noble eightfold path and after the lokottara practices of
samatha and vipasyand, however, does not give much credibility to this hypothesis. Cf. Abhidh-sam (R),
p. 110, which distinguishes between a laukika and lokottara phase of the bhavanamarga.
904. MBT, iii, pp. 9.1-11.20.
905. MBT, iii, p. 10.8-12.

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forces that were party to this process.

Leaving behind the intricacies of the bhavanamarga, we shall now turn to the last phase of
the bodhisattva path. Interpreted by the Akn-tikd as ‘isolated awakening’ (pratyekabodhi), it
covers the attainment of enlightenment and the cognitive realisations that stand in wisdom at
its very heart. For the Bdp, as for most other treatises, the chief components of prajna are
penetration into the laws of dependent co-origination and insight into the general characteristics
of dharma. Accordingly, the Bdp divided the climax of the path into ‘skill’ in solitary
wandering (ekaydnamdrga), ‘skill’ in dependent co-origination (pratltyasamutpdda) and ‘skill’
in all dharma.
The connotations of ‘skill’ in solitary wandering are many and vary to some degree within
each context in which they appear.906Broadly speaking, we can distinguish five concepts that
are united in the term ekaydnamdrga. First, there is the idea that the ekaydnamdrga covers
the totality of Buddhist practices, specifically with reference to the seven categories of
bodhipaksika dharma™ Second, it describes the mystical nature of a path that is well-delineated
and easily followed since it does not deviate into side-roads. Third, being only wide enough
for one person, it can only be travelled alone.908 Fourth, the path is one in the sense that it is
traversed and accomplished only by the best, the Buddha. Finally, the ekaydnamdrga is one
in as much as it leads to only one place, namely nirvana.909
The reason why I have reiterated the findings of previous research here is straightforward.
Practically all of these aspects of the ekayana concept are mirrored, in one way or another, in
the Bdp’s ‘skill’ in solitary wandering. That the ‘single path’ is all-encompassing and includes
all practices corresponds to the bodhisattva’s commitment to the six perfections. Its description
as a path that unified, well-defined and without forks is played on when the bodhisattva’s
conduct is characterised as self-sufficient and independent of others. On a path whose course
is straight and unambiguous, external guidance is obviously unnecessaiy. Next, as the path is
906. The term ekayana is, o f course, not a new entity to Buddhist research and has already attracted the
attention o f several scholars. For interpretations o f the term ekayana in the context o f the smrtyupasthana,
see: Gethin, 1987, pp. 117-129 and Ruegg, 1969, p. 178; for an assessment in Prajndpdramita works, in
the Vkn and Samdhis, see: Lamotte, 1976, pp. 109-111.
907. Nidd, i, pp. 455-6.
908. Bohtlingk; Roth (pw).
909. These interpretations are largely taken from the Pali commentaries where they occur at several places.
See, for instance, Sv, iii, pp. 743-4, Ps, i, pp. 229-30 (ref. Gethin). The gist o f these meanings is
corroborated by the Worterbuch (Bechert, vi, p. 442), attributing the following interpretations to ekayana:
‘zu nur einem Ziel gehend oder fiihrend’; ‘sicher, zuverlassing’; ‘notwendiger Weise zu einem bestimmten
Punkt hin oder vorbei fuhrend’ and ‘der einzige W eg\

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narrow and grants place only to one traveller, the bodhisattva is unaccompanied and on his
own. Knowing that it is only travelled by the best, the bodhisattva resolves to accomplish
attainments that have not been achieved by any other member of the aryan-fold. The idea that
the ekayana is one in the sense that is has only one destination is expressed in terms of
ending in enlightenment under the Bodhi-tree. Appropriately, this is attained through one
thought-moment only after the bodhisattva has defeated the host of Mara single-handedly.
The import of this imagery for the path scheme is obvious. The presence of all paramita,
the proposition that the ekayana is only traversed by the most advanced practitioners, their
total independence from other agencies, the vision that its final destination is nothing less
than enlightenment—all these attest great achievement and place the bodhisattva very close
close to the goal of buddhahood.910In other words, ‘skill’ in solitary wandering is a metaphorical
way of signalling the conclusion of the training in Perfect Wisdom. Drawing on imagery
belonging to the ekayana concept, it illustrates the bodhisattva’s resolve, strength and
independence as well as the uniqueness of the attainment itself.
The exact contents of these achievements are laid down in ‘skill’ in pratltyasamutpdda and
‘skill’ in dharma. First, the bodhisattva discerns the causal mechanisms underlying conditioned
existence. Realising that causality is not limited to sentient life but lies at the basis of all
phenomena, he perceives dharma as inactive, motionless and non-self and therefore
fundamentally inapprehensible (<anupalambha):911

“All dharma are subject to causes, conditions and their combinations. What is
subject to causes, conditions and their combinations is not the basis of a self,
life-force or person. It is without reckoning whatever.”

Notwithstanding this recognition, the bodhisattva does not abandon sentient beings to their
fate, but subscribes to attainments in ‘non-cessation’ and ‘non-exhaustion’. Thus schooled in
the conditioned and unconditioned, the bodhisattva now reaches the pinnacle of his training.
No longer concerned with his personal advance or the prospect of merit, he dedicates his
resources entirely to universal liberation. Since he is in perfect command of all practices and

910. See, for example, the scheme o f the Abhisamayalamkdra (I, le, 21) where the penultimate generation o f
the bodhicitta is linked with the ekaydnamdrga. Subordinate in importance only to the cittotpdda o f the
dharmakdya, the ekaydnamdrga manifests unmistakably only towards the very end o f the path.
911. R, folio 682.6-683.1.

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fully acquainted with true reality, he does not fall prey to the defilements of the world in spite
of constant exposure to their influence. The reason for this immunity lies in the integrated
presence of ‘skill’ and wisdom that, being the underlying principles of his progress through
the final path phases, will lead him eventually to all-knowing.912

912. The reference to the combined presence o f ‘skill’ and wisdom in a truly accomplished bodhisattva adds
another dimension to our perception o f the role o f ‘skill’. We have seen that so far, ‘skill’ is primarily
portrayed as a means bringing about understanding o f reality— in short, wisdom. It contributes to the
elimination o f the belief in a self and involves training in a number of ancillary practices. Now, however,
it is cited alongside wisdom as a separate factor o f apparently equal importance. This shift in interpretation
is not wholly unexpected but reflects the general drift in the description o f ‘skill’ in dharma, announcing
in clear terms the interaction between ‘means’ and ‘wisdom’. The nature o f their interaction and its
manifestations are not discussed in the Prajha Chapter, but are given separate treatment in the chapter
twelve in the context o f the samgrahavastu.

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The Means of Conversion

No practice exemplifies the coordinated interaction between cognitive attainments and

practical ‘skills’ better than the means of conversion (samgrahavastu).913 Technically pertaining
to Perfect Wisdom although essentially complementary, the samgrahavastu achieve great
momentum particularly during the final stages of the path.914 They enable the bodhisattva to
attract the attention of his fellow beings and secure conditions where he can effectively
communicate the Dharma. By virtue of this capacity, the samgrahavastu are frequently
considered as a sub-species of skilful means particularly concerned with the maturation of
sentient beings.915 Like so many other bodhisattva practices, their presence in the path has its
origin in the suttas of early Buddhism.916 Starting as secondary practices in the nikaya, their
status increased dramatically in the Mahayana where they came to rank amongst the most
important bodhisattva practices.917 The basic constituents of the samgrahavastu are giving
(idana), friendly speech (pnyavadita), service rendered (arthacarya) and pursuit of a common
aim (samanarthata). Judging by a passage in the Bdp and the explanations of the Bbh,
acquisition and function of each member is to some extent dependent on the presence of the
former.
First let us consider the account of the Bbh. People are attracted to the bodhisattva through
his generosity, thinking that to listen and behave as proposed by the bodhisattva is profitable.
Then, having shown generosity, the bodhisattva prompts them to accept his reasoning through

913. Noting that in Sanskrit works often only one or two o f samgrahavastu occur, Dayal infers that the set of
four is a rather ‘later development’ in Sanskrit literature. Evidence in several early Rkt sutras, however,
suggests otherwise. In the Ug (p. 262.5.6-7), Kp (pp. 41, 50; § 19, § 25), Bhadra-vy (R) (pp. 44, 97) and,
o f course, in the Bdp references to the samgrahavastu are invariably to the set of four. Already well-known
in pre-Mahayana texts, it seems more likely that the four were taken over en bloc by the newly emerging
movement as part o f the established and widely recognised features o f the path, as indeed were many
other o f the early practices (viz., pratisarana, pratisamvid, bodhipaksika, etc.). Moreover, the texts to
which Dayal points are markedly later in origin. He cites, for instance, the composite Mvu (iii, pp. 383.11,
407.13), Ssp (Ghosa, p. 280.12) and Jatakamala (pp. 2.1, 92.12), texts which hardly pertain to the first
wave o f Mahayana works.
914. Bbh, p. 213.4-7.
915. Bbh, pp. 261.20-62.8; Msl, p. 147.4.
916. For occurrences o f the four means o f conversion in the nikaya, see: D III, pp. 152, 191, 232; A II, pp. 32,
248; IV, pp. 219, 364; S V, p. 330. In Pali called sangahavatthu, they occur as dana, peyyavajjam,
atthacariyd and samdnattata. See, also, Mvu, i, p. 3.11; ii, p. 395.8; Dhsgr, § 19; and Lai, pp. 38.16,
160.6,182.6, 429.13.
917. For a measure o f their prominence, see their position and the detail that is dedicated to them in the Bbh
(pp. 217-230) and Msl (pp. 116.8-117.21). Fora treatment o f upayakausalya, see: Pye, Skilful Means,
1978.

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friendly speech. Thus enchanted by his logic and instructed in the Dharma, they are separated
from evil tendencies and introduced to virtue through his service. Finally, providing an
example to others, the bodhisattva adjusts his own conduct to the ideal of the Dharma so that
beings will not accuse him of hypocrisy, but will emulate his behaviour.918
In the Bdp, while accepting the gist of this account, the connection between the individual
elements is explained differently:919

“Giving is of bodhisattvas who have generated the thought of enlightenment for

the first time. Friendly speech is of bodhisattvas who persist in their practice.
Service rendered is of bodhisattvas who are irreversible. Pursuit of a common aim
is of bodhisattvas who are held back by only one birth.”

This passage contains three important elements.920 First, it suggests that the practice of the
samgrahavastu is not reserved to advanced bodhisattvas, but figures right from the beginning
in the training. Second, it indicates that the acquisition of the members is separated by vast
time-spans. Let us recall that even the most conservative estimate separates the four points
that are mentioned here by one world-age (asamkhyeya) each.921 Third, it hints at some form
of interconnection between the samgrahavastu and suggests that the attainment of each
member builds on the preceding one. The exact nature of this link is eloquently expressed in
the imagery of the next paragraph:922

“Giving is the ground of the roots of enlightenment. Friendly speech is the developed
shoot of enlightenment. Service rendered is the blossoming flower of enlightenment.
Pursuit of a common aim is the resulting fruit of enlightenment.”

In its characterisation of the samgrahavastu, the Bdp draws a great deal on material from
the foregoing chapters. It describes giving as generosity inspired by thoughts of benevolence;
friendly speech as charming words rich in sympathetic joy; service rendered as exertion in

918. Bbh, pp. 112.18-113.6.

919. R, folio 698.2-4.
920. Compare this distribution o f the samgrahavastu with the scheme that is drawn up in the M sl (p. 117.3-9).
921. Dasa-bh, p. xvii
For further detail on the length o f the bodhisattva’s career, see: Siddhi, pp. 731-33.
922. R, folio 698.4-6.

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worldly conduct bom from compassion and pursuit of a common aim that is marked by
equipoise transformed to all-knowing.923 Alternatively, it speaks of generosity in terms of the
danaparamita; of friendly speech in terms of the slla- and ksantiparamita\ of pursuit of a
common aim as the dhydna- and prajndpdramitd. To interpret th$ samgrahavastu in terms of
the apramana and pdramita is rather unusual and not found in any of the standard reference
works. This is perhaps of particular interest to the Bbh, since this work—like the Bdp—discusses
the samgrahavastu immediately after the pdramita.924
In substance, however, most sources give remarkably uniform descriptions of the means of
conversion. Thus, the ddnasamgrahavastu is invariably held to encompass material and
spiritual gifts. Since a supreme value is placed on the giving of the Dharma, their focus rests
invariably on dana-factors that affect the bodhisattva’s preaching activity. To a large degree
this is also valid for the Bdp, although it includes ‘protection’ as the third object of giving.
Also the pnyavaditasamgrahavastu is chiefly referred to in conjunction with the gift of the
Doctrine.925Having established the Dharma as focus, it is here the positive attitude to preaching
that stands in the foreground. When practising arthacarya, the bodhisattva’s perspective in
teaching shifts once more. Now, it is no longer the mode or tone of his words that matters,
but the concern to demonstrate the practical and spiritual benefits of the Dharma.926 For the
spiritually more advanced, the bodhisattva acts as guide and supervises their progress along
the path. That is to say, he dispenses instructions in the three vehicles, he establishes people
in equipoise and the accumulation of merit and knowledge, he praises the advantages of
solitude and meditation.
These characteristics, all taken from the Bbh, aim quite clearly at the benefit of others. For
the Bdp, however, rendering service is also concerned with the bodhisattva’s own progress.927
This proposition is surprising since, according to the B dp’s own scheme, the
arthacarydsamgf'ahavastu is not practised before the stage of irreversibility. The most likely
explanation is that the arthacarydsamgrahavastu is seen to link up with the
samdndrthatasamgrahavastu at which the bodhisattva is expected to display personal
achievements for others to emulate. For these to be perfect, he would naturally make his
personal advance an objective of the previous samgrahavastu.
923. R, folio 696.2-4.
924. Bbh, pp. 217-230.
925. Bbh, pp. 217.5-221.7; Msl, p. 116.2-9.
926. Bbh, pp. 222.20-223.7,225.4-20.
927. R, folio 695.5.

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According to the Bbh, progress in the samdndrthatasamgrahavastu falls into four phases.928
At first, the bodhisattva does not show his capabilities to the full as he does not wish to boast
about them. Then, having become more confident, he modestly begins to explain them to
beings, always looking for the most appropriate means. Next, in order to instruct in the
accumulation of merit, he encourages to the maxims of his own conduct. Finally, now facing
a well-disposed audience, he censures heterodox practices and warns his listeners not to
swerve from the Buddhist path. His attitude during these phases does not change. He guides
sentient beings to roots of virtue; he adheres to the Vinaya and acts in accordance with the
Dharma, hoping that others will emulate his conduct.
These concerns also dominate the B dp’s understanding of the samdndrthatasamgrahavastu.
Committed to the liberation of beings, the bodhisattva promotes only those aspirations that he
himself considers to be of highest quality. For this purpose he generates the thought of
all-knowing with the firm intention to pass it on as soon as he himself acquired it.929 As in the
Bbh, the rationale is twofold, that is, to establish beings in the Dharma and to fulfil for
himself the buddha-qualities.930
The one issue in which the Bdp differs markedly from the views of the Bbh, and indeed
most other works I have consulted, is the spiritual status of the persons to whom he addresses
the samgrahavastu. For the bodhisattva of the Bdp, these are invariably mendicants (ydcanaka)
who have renounced worldly concerns and subscribe to a life of renunciation. Accordingly,
giving means for him pleasing mendicants; friendly speech is paying respects to mendicants;
rendering service means attaining the goal of the mendicants and to pursue a common goal is
pursuing a goal similar to theirs.931 For the Bdp, the practice of the samgrahavastu is therefore
confined in scope.
Several reasons could have led to this attitude. First, there is the possibility that the Bdp
was composed at a time when the path was not yet fully open to the laity. If this could be
proved, it would lend further support to my hypothesis that we are dealing in the Bdp with
Mahayana text of very early origin. Then, it might reflect historical circumstances where the
bodhisattva—himself a recluse or wandering ascetic—would shun the distraction of worldly
life and mix only with like-minded practitioners. Alternatively, it is not inconceivable that

928. Bbh, pp. 226.15-227.2.

929. R, folio 696.7.
930. R, folio 697.7.
931. R, folio 695.6-7.

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the mendicant audience was simply a device to raise the status of the bodhisattva. For a
bodhisattva to be in the company of bhiksus and ascetics would surely have added to his
prestige, at a time when lay participation was on the increase.
Whatever the reasons for this limitation, it is clear from later literature that it was not
destined to last. The vast majority of Mahay ana sutras, including many of the sastras leave
no doubt that the path with all its practices—if not expressively pursued by monks and
laymen alike—was unanimously understood to embrace all categories of sentient beings in
its final objective of universal liberation.

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Conclusion

The foregoing analysis of the B dp’s practices and doctrines now provides sufficient data for
us to establish the approximate position of the Bdp in Mahayana literature. Comparison with
other texts has shown that its treatment of the bodhisattva ideal bears all the hallmarks of an
early date of composition. Evidence of its antiquity is found in practically all areas of
discussion, including the nature of the practices, the doctrinal frame in which they are
developed, in the path structure and in the ideal itself.
First to the presentation of the practices. Repetitions in their discussion, the loose rambling
style of presentation, the predominantly descriptive approach and a certain lack of organisation
all suggest that the underlying structures of the practices were still fluid and had not yet been
codified by the time the Bdp was composed. This is most evident in the treatment of the
dana-, ksdnti- and vlryaparamita but applies also to the bodhipaksika dharma. In each of
these we find repetitions, variant classifications, inteijections of unrelated thought and outlines
of contents that are not adhered to. In later writings many of these structural ‘anomalies’ are
corrected and brought into line with the current thinking on the bodhisattva. Immediate
evidence of this process is contained in the Akn whose editorial adjustments of the material
of the Bdp clearly reflect discontent with some detail of its overall design. In addition, the
Bdp gives little information on the interrelation between the various practices. Explanatory
comments are generally restricted to the practices themselves and do not clarify the context
where they occur. For instance, the Bdp goes to great lengths to enumerate the objects of
generosity and to describe the hardship encountered during the training in patience. And yet,
it gives little attention to the psychological processes underlying both dana and ksdnti. This
is particularly evident in its discussions of the apramdna and dhyana where there is virtually
no information on the meditative experience itself. Here, as in most other chapters, the Bdp is
mainly concerned with providing a description of the practices themselves and to illustrate
their implications for the bodhisattva’s spiritual progress. Hence, we learn a lot about the
scope of their implementation and the benefits they bestow, but are left in ignorance about
the psychological mechanisms of their functioning. We have seen that such emphasis on
detailed descriptions and lengthy enumerations is particularly widespread among the earlier

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bodhisattva works.
The B d p ’s antiquity is also borne out by the nature of its practices, many of which show
traits of early Buddhism. The exposition of the akusalakarmapatha in the $Tla Chapter, the
detailed discussion of the bodhipaksika dharma and its insistence on traditional moral discipline
indicate that the Bdp originated at a time when early Buddhist maxims had still considerable
influence on Mahayana thinking. In its exposition of sila, for example, the Bdp closely
follows the prescriptive approach of the Sravaka Vinaya and does not allow for adjustments
in moral observance even if the bodhisattva’s vow should require it. Furthermore, it identifies
desire as the chief source of moral impurity. We have seen that in both respects significant
shifts in interpretation occur in later literature. Further evidence is found in the B d p ’s conception
of prajnd. Unlike later sources which tend to conceive of prajnd predominantly as
dharmanairdtmya, the Bdp emphasises the destruction of the belief in a self and realisation of
dependent co-origination. Also its threefold division of wisdom, distinguishing sruta, yoniso
manasakara and pratipatti as the fundamental causes of prajnd is, in a variant form, already
found in. the earliest strands of Buddhist literature. The fact that the scheme in the Bdp shows
some terminological divergencies indicates that it was conceived before the exact terms had
been codified.
The description of the practices themselves is marked by a high degree of realism. That is
to say, it is conceived in terms of real sacrifice, hardship and struggle. In all chapters, except
for the eleventh, the impact of Mahayana ontology is very small and does not affect the
implementation of the bodhisattva practice. Again, this is a common feature especially among
the works belonging to the first waves of Mahayana sutras.
Also of interest is the B dp’s position on skilful means. References to the term upayakausalya
occur at three places altogether. And yet, despite this lack of technical referral, there is an
implicit employment of principle of skilful means throughout. In chapter eleven, for example,
skilful means is closely associated with compassion and the welfare of others. Here, it
becomes instrumental to both the bodhisattva’s personal accomplishments and to the spiritual
purification of sentient beings. In chapter ten, skilful means is placed at the very centre of the
discussion and becomes the underlying force behind the bodhisattva’s training in the abhijna.
Epitomised by the joint cultivation of ‘means’ (updya) and ‘knowledge’ (jnana), it allows the
bodhisattva effective communication of his insights to this fellow beings. Updya, in this
context, stands above all for the practice of the abhijhd which create the conditions through

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which he leams of people’s spiritual requirements. Adaptation to other people’s needs is, of
course, the very foundation of the concept of upayakausalya. And yet, there is no provision
of a separate chapter of skilful nor is it treated in anywhere near the detail of the other
paramitd. The conclusion must be that at the time of the B dp’s composition upayakausalya
had not yet received the status it was granted in later centuries when it became a paramitd in
its own right.
Training in the practices themselves proceeds within the narrow confines of the mendicant
ideal and is only open to practitioners who have renounced all ties with society. Except for
one brief section, the Bdp does not even contemplate the possibility of a lay path for bodhisattvas.
On the contrary, the Buddha warns repeatedly of the blemish of worldly life and strongly
urges that the mendicant life should be taken up. The dismissal of the lay ideal is not
surprising if we recall that most of the discourse is set in a loose narrative of Sakyamuni’s
previous lives. Traditionally, his strivings have always been closely associated with the
mendicant ideal and physical austerity.
Other indications for an early origin of the Bdp are found in the bodhisattva doctrine. The
exposition of the cittotpdda, for instance, lacks several important elements that found their
way into later discussions. It does not mention either adhyasaya or gotra and is rather unclear
about the relationship of the cittotpdda and asaya. Also the distinctions between the various
types of cittotpdda are rather vague. Although the Bdp speaks of ten different kinds of
cittotpdda and indicates that these are generated successively, in content all ten are very
similar and allocated only approximate places on the path. Since later treatises distinguish
quite regularly between ten types of cittotpdda, it is fair to assume that the scheme in the Bdp
must have been something of an ‘embryo’ for later developments.
This applies also to the Bdp s treatment of the apramdna and paramitd which contains
many of the ingredients that, in later times, were brought together into a coherent doctrine.
For instance, it proposes the paramitd context for the practice of the apramdna and recognises
three levels of training in maitri. It does not endorse the reward of a high rebirth, but
distinguishes between a Sravaka and bodhisattva way of apramdna practice. In dana the Bdp
differentiates between external and internal gifts and associates the practice of giving with
the generation of the thought of enlightenment. When discussing ksdnti, it discriminates
between patience with regard to suffering, hostility and dharma. Also its thought on vigour is
divided into three spheres, that is, armoured vigour, vigour in the accumulation of roots of

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virtue and vigour in benefiting sentient beings. In the context of dhydna, the Bdp speaks of
nine preparatory types of meditation and distinguishes between meditation of production
(marked by the abhijna) and meditation that is aimed at the welfare of beings. We have seen
that it was exactly these divisions that became the cornerstone of the paramitd practice in
later works. The loose fashion in which the Bdp speaks of these divisions is evidence of its
position at the beginning of the development of the paramitd doctrine. In the perfection of
vigour and meditation, for example, no formal division is put forward, but the contents of
their expositions allow us to identify three distinct categories of vlrya and dhydna. For ksdnti
the Bdp proposes its own division. Although the individual types differ by name, in contents,
they run in fact very close to the ksdnti categories of later treatises. In addition, the dynamics
of the practices invariably match the order of the more advanced schemes. First, the Bdp
expounds the preparatory practices, followed by the practice proper aimed at the bodhisattva’s
personal advance and finally it introduces a shift in concern towards the welfare of beings.
There are, however, issues that later writers criticised. When these were of little significance,
they were simply not adopted and fell into oblivion. This appears to have happened to the
threefold division of upeksa, to the order of the abhijna and their division into ordinary and
non-regressing abhijna. More important matters were modified or supplemented with additional
material. Examples of such changes are found in the Akn’s samadhi list and in its eighty-four
types of learning, both of which originated in the Bdp.
Other adjustments affected the arrangement of the practices. We have seen that the Bdp
does not possess any formalised, linear path structure. Progress to buddhahood is primarily
conceived in terms of practices, beginning with training in the apramdna and ending in
mastery of the samgrahavastu. History has shown that this design did not win acceptance.
The first changes occurred already in the Akn that places the apramdna well behind the
paramitd and brings the means of conversion forward into the middle of the path before the
pratisamvid, pratisarana and bodhipaksika dharma. The Akn also altered the order of the
seven sets of bodhipaksika dharma to comply with their traditional presentation. Quite clearly,
these changes were deliberate editorial adjustments that did not occur by chance, but were
meant to improve on the B dp’s arrangement of practice.
These modifications are significant in two respects. First, they allow us to trace the
development of the bodhisattva doctrine and highlight some of the concerns that led to
changes in the perception of the training. Second, they are testimony of the communication

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existing between the various Buddhist circles in ancient India. Although we do not know for
how long this exchange of ideas persisted, it must have continued for several centuries since
we find elements of the B dp’s path design in the Bbh and Msl. While it is not possible to
establish that the parallels between the Bdp and Bbh!Msl are the result of direct borrowing,
the fact that they occur in no other texts allows for few alternatives. This would mean then
that the arrangement of practices in the Bdp—although criticised in detail—was highly esteemed
even two or three centuries after its composition. Rivalry with the dasabhumika plan probably
never occurred, since the B dp’s account of the training is not based on a set of codified career
stages, but revolves around a concatenation of practices.
In summary, we can distinguish the following training-phases in the Bdp. First, having
generated the thought of enlightenment, the bodhisattva subscribes to the preliminary aspects
of the path. This involves the practice of the apramdna and schooling in the perfections of
dana, sila, ksdntU virya and dhydna. Coursing in the lower levels of their practice (that is, the
preparatory level and the practice proper), the bodhisattva passes through the sambharamdrga,
prayogamarga, darsanamdrga and bhavandmdrga. When he has reached the bhavanamarga,
the bodhisattva begins to train in skill. In order to establish a sound psychological basis for
the more advanced phases, he focuses at first on the destruction of the belief in a self. Next,
the bodhisattva endeavours to acquire knowledge and merit to secure his personal progress.
For this purpose he trains in the pratisamvid, pratisarana, punya and jhana. These practices
liberate the bodhisattva from the obstructions of defilements and mistaken views, establish
him in moral conduct and bestow the powers and faculties. Thus schooled, he is able to
embark on the pursuit of the bodhipaksika dharma. He now devotes most of his attention to
the practice of meditation through which he acquires proficiency in faith, vigour, recollection,
wisdom, etc. On the basis of these attainments, the bodhisattva comprehends eventually the
insubstantiality of dharma {dharmanairatmya). This insight is reached for the first time
during the joint practice of samatha and vipasyand and signals the high-point in his cognitive
training.
In order to acquire mental stability the bodhisattva withdraws into seclusion. Referred to as
‘solitary wandering’, it establishes the bodhisattva in emotional independence and cuts him
off from all worldly constraints. Moreover, as the penultimate phase of the training proper, it
leads him directly to the seat of enlightenment, thus placing buddhahood within reach. The
acquisition of wisdom occurs when the bodhisattva penetrates ‘skill’ in dependent co-origination

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and attains mastery over all dharma. It brings the bodhisattva ‘face to face’ with reality and
creates the preconditions for universal liberation. The scope and nature of the liberation-process
are summed up by the four practices that are included in the means of conversion. The
bodhisattva bestows gifts, uses benign language, renders service and adopts unsurpassed
conduct for others to emulate. When he has mastered all four samgrahavastu, he is only one
birth away from buddhahood. Apart from the immense gnoseologic realisation, this achievement
marks also the bodhisattva’s return to the world. That is to say, he abandons his training in
the ekaydnamdrga and resumes his duties towards humankind.
This leads us to the bodhisattva ideal. For the Bdp, entry in the bodhisattva path is entirely
in the hands of the practitioner and takes place independent of external forces. For this all
important step to take place, the bodhisattva must acquire a high degree of moral purity and
be equipped with a determined resolve towards enlightenment. In addition, he must possess
personal initiative and self-responsibility as there is no outside support apart from the sustaining
power of the buddhas. Although devotional elements such as teacher veneration occur in
several passages in the Bdp, buddha-worship itself plays no active role in the process of
purification.
The B d p 's position on the bodhisattva’s relationship with sentient beings is ambiguous. On
the one hand, it affirms repeatedly and with great eloquence that the overriding concern of all
practices is universal liberation. However, this commitment is not bome out by the description
of the practices. On balance, the Bdp gives notably more attention to their acquisition than to
exploring how they could be used to liberate sentient beings. The discussion of the samgra­
havastu covers less than five folios while the exposition of the perfections runs into hundreds
of pages.
This kind of indifference is also found in its exposition of dana where freedom from birth
in the lower destinies is given among the benefits that accrue from perfect giving. The lower
realms are clearly excluded as an outcome for more advanced bodhisattvas. Accordingly, hell
figures only as a deterrent and is never promulgated as a particularly beneficial ‘training
ground’. Once bodhisattvas have attained the stage of the prediction their interaction with
beings of the evil destinies abates and gods and men become the object of their attention.
Quite clearly, the B dp’s vision of the bodhisattva contains a high degree of spiritual realism.
It is primarily concerned with the practical aspects of the training and shows little interest in
the more breathtaking prospect of universal liberation. The picture it draws of the bodhisattva

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 Conclusion

is of a person who is wholly absorbed by his yearning for enlightenment. Aiming to show
how this goal is realised, the Bdp goes to great lengths to explain the underlying processes of
purification. In a sense, the spirit of the exposition is therefore not so far removed from
descriptions of the Sravaka training. It speaks of the importance of moral integrity, it emphasises
the need for a disciplined spiritual environment, it urges self-reliability and warns of compla­
cency. Moreover, references to the Sravaka are generally amicable and free of antagonism.
These factors alone would point to a period of composition when the two ideals had still very
much in common.
Further weight is lent to this hypothesis by the fact that many of the B dp’s propositions
belong to the incipient phase of the bodhisattva doctrine; the early nature of the practices and
their loose divisions, the formal exclusion of skilful means, the basic path structure and the
ill-organised form of presentation, they all imply an early origin of the Bdp. We have thus
identified in the Bdp a text of fundamental importance in the evolution of the bodhisattva
ideal. Looking back at the history of the Bdp, we notice that we are not the first to do so. The
composers of the countless texts referring to the Bdp for its exposition of the paramitd, the
compilers of the Ratnakuta collection who placed the Bdp at the centre of their bodhisattva
works and last, but not least, Hsiian-tsang, all of these have come to the same conclusion
many centuries ago.

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 Introduction to the Translation

Chapter Five

Translation o f Chapter Eleven o f the Bodhisadv^stakasutia

Introduction

The original version of the Bdp in the Indie language in that it was composed is no longer
extant. As so many other Mahayana sutras, it is preserved only in Chinese and Tibetan
translations. For the present study, I utilised the following versions of the Bdp.

1. The ninth-century Tibetan translation made by Surendrabodhi, &Ilendrabodhi and

DharmataSIla, entitled: hphags pa byah chub sems dpahi sde snod ces bya ba thegpa
chen pohi mdo (drya-bodhisattvapitaka-nama-mahayana-sutra).
In editing and translating chapter eleven, I used or consulted the following four editions
of the Tibetan hKah-hgyur,
a. sTog Palace (R), Leh— 1979, vol. 37, folio 590.1-695.1
b. sD-dge (D), vol. 42, folio 315.1-384.2
c. Peking (P), vol. 23, pp. 73.1.7-89.2.2
d. sNar-than (N), vol. 3 (ga), folio 327.3-386.4
2. Tun-huang Manuscript: Bibliotheque Nationale (Lalou, 1950), Pelliot, item no. 977
3. Tun-huang Manuscript: India Office Library (La Vailee Poussin, 1962), item no.
380.109, 635.32, 705.2

In addition, I utilised several works that either paraphrase passages of the Bdp or contain
selected quotations. These are:
1. Aksayamatinirdesasutra: hphags pa bio gros mi zad pas bstan pa zes bya ba theg pa chen
pohi mdo (P 34, pp. 35.2.3-74.2.2).
2. A ksayamatinirdesatika: hphags pa bio gros mi zad pas bstan pahi rgya cher hgrel pa (P
104, pp. 137.1.1-273.3.7).
3. Arthaviniscayasutra: Samtani, NH, 1971.
4. Arthaviniscayatlka: Samtani, NH, 1971.
5. Siksasamuccaya: Bendall, C, 1902.

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 On several occasions, I was able to identify passages from the Bdp that are found in later
Buddhist Sanskrit literature. For the most part these are not attributed to the Bdp but were
taken from the Akn. While they show some minor divergencies from the Tibetan of the Bdp,
they do give us a fairly good impression how the original Sanskrit text might have looked
like.
Having said this, it is important to bear in mind that the conventional usage of the notion of
a ‘Sanskrit original * is rather misleading, since the Indie versions themselves were often
subject to interpolation, rearrangement or shortening. Whether this was also the case with the
Bdp is impossible to tell, although we have no reason to assume that it was exempt from such
alterations. Assuming that certain changes were made, the Tibetan of the Bdp reflects only
the Sanskrit text that existed in India in the eighth/ninth century that was used by the
Indo-Tibetan translation team as basis for their work. Whether they founded their translation
on only one version or had access to several manuscripts we cannot tell.
As we are dealing in the Tibetan with a translation from the Sanskrit (which turns my
translation into a translation of translation), it was important not to lose the Sanskrit referent
out of sight. For this purpose, I endeavoured to gain as close an understanding of the
underlying Sanskrit as possible. In order to communicate my understanding to the reader, I
provided in the notes Sanskrit equivalents to Tibetan technical terms. In establishing these, I
drew generally on the vocabulary of the Mahavyutpatti. While the use of (reconstructed)
Sanskrit terms is helpful to demarcate the context of the discussion and to provide translation
markers, it has the potential to create a whole series of linguistic problems. Wishing to avoid
a fully-fledged discussion of each reconstruction, I limited myself to those terms that occur
with some frequency in Buddhist literature. Even then, they are to some degree tentative and
should be used only with caution.
In the translation of the technical terms my overall objective was to be as consistent as
possible. Whenever the context allowed I would use the same English word for a given
Tibetan/Sanskrit term. While this worked fine in many instances, in others it did not. When
in difficulties, I provided the Tibetan or Sanskrit term in order to draw attention to my
‘non-standard’ rendering. In these cases my interpretation is generally based on the available
commentarial sources that indicate the particular meaning of a word.
The most important commentary for the study of the Bdp is the Akn-tika. The textual
parallels between the Bdp and Akn allowed me to draw quite regularly for explication on the
annotations in the Akn-tika. Whenever the explanations of the Akn-tika affected my translation,
I indicated this in the notes. Other texts of importance are the Arthav and Sifa since both
contain quotations from the Akn.
With my English translation I hope to have produced an accurate and readable version of
the meaning and contents of chapter eleven. In doing so, I found myself often confronted to
chose between the literal meaning and that what I thought the text intended to say. The

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 Introduction to the Translation

principle of guidance in those situations was to be as literal as possible so long as it was

reconcilable with the syntactical requirements of the English language. At times, this generated
a rather Tibetanised English. Whenever in doubt, I followed the literal reading of the Tibetan,
hoping that future research will throw light on those passages that I failed to penetrate fully.
Not wishing to temper with the wording of the Tibetan, I kept additions or interpolations in
my translation to a bare minimum. Again, this did not always further its readability, but
constitutes, I believe, a methodological requirement for every translation activity, especially
if presented to an academic audience for scrutiny.
The division of the text into sections is not found in the Tibetan but was introduced by me
in order to make it more manageable. In essence, the choice by which I divided the text and
the wording of the section-headings reflects my understanding of the content and are thus
interpretative. Apart from exposing the structure of the exposition, their value is primarily
methodologic in that they facilitate references to my edition.
Finally, the in-text folio numbering to the Bdp in my translation and edition refers to the
sTog Palace Edition. For reasons of legibility, I based the translation and edition on the large
type of the sTog Palace manuscript. All other reference to the Tibetan canon, whether in the
notes to my translation or elsewhere in this dissertation, relate invariably to the Peking
Edition.

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 Translation o f Chapter Eleven

English Translation of Chapter Eleven of the Bodhisattvapitakasutra

S e c t io n i

1J Accumulation

(590) O Sariputra, what is the Perfection of Wisdom of a bodhisattva, mahdsattva who

cultivates the bodhisattvacarya whenever he applies himself to it? Concerning this, O Sariputra,
a bodhisattva listens diligently to the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka. He takes
hold of it and retains it. He reads it and fully absorbs it. He also explains it to others and
propounds it at length,
O Sariputra, when a bodhisattva has diligently listened to the Dharma-enunciation of the
Bodhisattvapitaka, when he has taken hold of it, retained it, read it, fully absorbed it, and
when he has also explained it to others and propounded it at great length, he attains the
following forms of wisdom. But that wisdom, what is its form and what is the method by
which it is acquired?1 Its form is learning2 and the method by which it is acquired is
correct reflection3.

1. hjugpa: pravesa (Bohtlingk; Roth, pw, pp. 1082-1083).

2. In the Akn-tikd, founded on the variant reading in the Akn (34, p. 50.4.6) we read:
“What is the form (dkara) o f wisdom? What is its mode of acquisition {pravesa)? Learning is
the form and correct reflection is its mode o f acquisition.”
Vasubandhu explains that the form o f wisdom is learning (sruta) and that learning constitutes the own-being
(svabhava) o f wisdom, whereas discerning the marks o f dharma indicates correct reflection. He qualifies
this position by stating that the eighty-four types o f learning originate in wisdom and says— with akdra
being likened to hetu— that the question ‘What is the cause o f wisdom?’ corresponds to the question
‘What is the form o f wisdom?’ (104, p. 181.3.2-6).
3. tshul biin y id la byedpa: yoniso manasakdra
As a general term indicating close mental examination, the meaning o f yoniso manasakdra is well-defined.
According to the Kosa (ii, p. 154) it is “earnest application (abhoga) o f thought (cetas); submitting or
applying the thought to its object”. In the nikaya, it is depicted as the first sign heralding the acquisition o f
the arydstdhgamdrga and to be preparing the attainment o f the samyakprahana (S V, p. 31). For the
Mahayana, manasakdra became an essential ingredient to wisdom that was thought to arise on the basis o f
learning (Msl, p. 7.3). Its role on the path grew steadily until it was proposed that “a single instant o f
seeing founded in wisdom-based correct reflection (yonisomanasakdraprajhapratyaveksana) can eradicate
innumerable defilements o f action” (Kp, p. 106, § 71.8). Cf. Srotabhumi, 109, p. 287.5.3-4.
Buddhist sources came to differ, however, on the exact scope of yoniso manasakdra. Depending on the
context and viewpoint from which it is commented upon, we find a number o f variant explanations. The
Abhidh-sam (R), p. 7, defines manasakdra as earnest application o f thought (cetasa abhoga), intended to
fix thought (cittadhdrana) on the object (dlambana). Discussing the means by which the bodhisattva
enters into the first dhydna (p. 112), the Abhidh-sam lists seven kinds o f reflection, viz., (1) reflection
penetrating the characteristics (laksanapratisamveda), (2) reflection adhering to determination (adhi-
moksika), (3) reflection adhering to the state o f solitude (pravivikta), (4) reflection attracting contentment
(ratisamgrahaka), (5) reflection that investigates (mimdmsaka), (6) reflection o f accomplishing practice
(prayoganistha) and (7) reflection o f the fruits o f the accomplishment o f practice (prayoganisthdphala).

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 Translation o f Chapter Eleven

1.1.1 Seventy- Two Forms o f Learning

What are the forms of learning? They are zest4, intent5, determination, spiritual friend,
lack of conceit, (591) reverence6, veneration7, congeniality, compliance in speech, reverend
service, willingness to listen, paying respect, correct reflection, attentiveness, considering the
sacred word as a jewel, considering it as a remedy, considering it as calming all ailment, a

Capable o f manifesting three different degrees of intensity (intense-weak, intense-mediocre and intense-
intense, p. 160), it is either innate (upapattiprdtilambhika), arising from learning (srutamayi), arising from
reflection (cintamayi) or arising from contemplation ( bhdvandmayi). According to the Kosa (ii, p. 328),
the first three types o f manasakdra take place within the kamadhdtu, whereas the fourth can either operate
in the rupa or ariipyadhdtu. See also Kosa (ii, p. 325) where—in a discussion o f prerequisites for
path-entry— we meet with three other types o f manasakdra, viz., reflection directed at specific characters
(svalaksanamanasakdra), reflection directed at common characters (samanyalaksanamanasakdra) and
reflection o f earnest application (adhimuktimanasakdra).
Edgerton’s observation (p. 418, col. 1) that in its verbal form (manasi karoti) correct reflection appears
often in conjunction with cintayati led Meadows (1986, p. 109) to infer that manasakdra represents
specifically the “method by which one acquires prajnd consisting in pondering ( cintdmayiprajhd)”. While
a general association o f cinta with manasakdra is no doubt correct, the view o f the Kosa linking manasakdra
on equal terms with learning, reflection and contemplation (and inbomess) casts some doubt on her
narrow interpretation. Furthermore, according to the Abhidharmasamuccayabhasya (p. 81), the second
type o f manasakdra, adhimoksikamanasakdra, transcends both learning (sm ta) and reflection (cinta) to
realise samatha and vipasyana. The Akn-tika (p. 185.4.1-4), commenting on the parallel passage in the
Akn, explains:
“Reflecting and contemplating in accordance with [the noble path and cessation] is correct
reflection. By means o f correct reflection one penetrates things in accordance with reality,
thus it is called penetration (pravesa) through correct reflection. Concerning penetration into
meaning (artha); the meaning is understood after one has discerned through the wisdom
arising from contemplation (bhdvana) the dharma that were discerned with the wisdom arising
from reflection (cinta). Hence, [correct reflection] is to be known as wisdom concerned with
reflection and contemplation.”
In the Bdp itself, manasakdra figures at thirteenth place amongst the seventy-two kinds o f learning. It is
identified with the bodhisattva’s keen wish that bad, unwholesome dharma that have hitherto not arisen
are not produced (R, folio 672.1-3). It is said to prompt him to abandon those unwholesome dharma that
have already arisen (R, folio 673.3-4) and it is accredited with the elimination o f desire (rdga) by way of
contemplating impurity (R, folio 673.5-6).
Note that the Patis (p. 195), when discussing breathing exercises, speaks o f seventy-two kinds o f knowledge
through insight. However, as these are exclusively concerned with the three marks o f existence and
restricted in their operation to a meditative context, it shows no parallels to our list.
4. Taking zest (chanda) as example o f all other forms o f learning, Vasubandhu explains their role as follows.
First, as the cause o f both learning and wisdom, each of them leads to wisdom. Second, the forms o f
learning itself becomes the cause o f chanda, etc., with which it forms jointly the basis to wisdom. Third,
each o f the types o f learning represents also the own-being o f wisdom (Akn-tika, p. 181.3.6-4.1):
“Zest is the keen wish to hear the Dharma. From the keen wish to hear, learning and insight
occur but without the keen wish they do not. Hence, zest should be understood as the cause
(hetu) through which wisdom arises. Again, zest arises from learning, but not from non-learning.
Hence, learning becomes the cause from which zest arises. If the two are taken together, they
are therefore the one cause [of wisdom]. Again, what is the own-being o f wisdom? The form
o f zest means that the own-being o f insight is zest. With regard to the following items, the
form o f resolve, etc., should be understood accordingly.”
5. As part o f its explanation o f intent (dsaya), the Akn-tika (p. 181.4.3-4) draws attention to a passage in the
Bbh (p. 18.17-21). However, this passage deals with adhyasdya and not with dsaya—a confusion that
exemplifies the conceptual proximity o f both terms (cf. Edgerton, pp. 17-18). A good definition o f dsaya
is found further below in the Bbh (p. 313.4-6), stating that the intent o f the bodhisattva is based on faith
and Dharma-discemment and manifests a resolute belief accompanied by certain knowledge and determi­
nation towards the Buddha’s teachings.
6. Akn: b a g y o d p a (apramadya).
7. Akn: gus p a r byedpa (satkrtya).

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 Translation o f Chapter Eleven

receptacle of recollection, knowledge arising from awakening8, search for understanding,

penetration of reason, insatiability through hearing the Buddha’s doctrine, propagation of
renunciation, erudition through restrain9, adherence to great learning, experiencing joy in
devotion, bodily cheerfulness, joyful mind, untiring listening, pursuit of the own-being of
things, pursuit of designations, pursuit of good conduct10, lack of desire for other vehicles,
pursuit of the perfections, pursuit of the bodhisattvapitaka?1, pursuit of the means of conversion,
pursuit of skilful means, pursuit of the pure abodes, pursuit of the super-knowledge (592),
pursuit of the bases of mindfulness, pursuit of the perfect efforts, pursuit of the bases of
success, pursuit of dependent co-origination, pursuit of impermanence, suffering and non-self,
pursuit of serenity, pursuit of emptiness, signlessness and wishlessness, pursuit of non­
accumulation of karmic formations, pursuit of the accumulation of roots of virtue, self-assertion,
reflection on the Doctrine, contemplation of unsuitable associations, severing of all defilement,
delight in skilfulness, adherence to noble ones and rejection of ignoble ones, pursuit of noble
[qualities], faculties, bases of mindfulness, factors of enlightenment and the noble eightfold
path, the Tathagata’s powers, assurances, great benevolence, compassion, sympathetic joy,
equipoise12, unique knowledge (593) and eighteen exclusive buddha-qualities.
8. Vasubandhu’s commentary on this term runs as follows (Akn-tika, pp. 182.4.5-7):
“Awakening is wisdom arising from reflection. Also, wisdom arising from reflection has two
different aspects, e.g., the assumption and non-assumption o f composure. But he who is
awakened since he is knowledgeable, that one is of knowledge arising from awakening. By
means o f the teaching o f the knowledge arising from awakening, he acquires composed
wisdom.”
Now, the term rtogs p a ses p a (gatibodhana) is ambiguous as it may carry several meanings (Edgerton,
pp. 208, 402). In his English rendering o f the Siksasamuccaya (1981, p. 185) Bendall translates gati­
bodhana— erroneously I think— as ‘illuminating the destinies’. This interpretation was also adopted by
Meadows (1986, p. 107), translating it as ‘understanding the course’, while Braarvig (1989, p. 254)
follows Vasubandhu’s understanding. Since gati may indeed mean ‘awakening’ (Edgerton, p. 208)—a
meaning that brings it much closer to Vasubandhu‘s commentary of the term gatibodhana— Meadows and
Bendall are probably misguided in their translation. In addition, to render gatibodhana as ‘knowledge
arising from awakening’, being possibly an antecedent to the technical term cintdmayiprajnd fits the
context in which it is cited in the Bdp, while the translation ‘illuminating the destinies’ does not.
9. This is one o f the few instances in which, in spite o f a common Sanskrit source term, the Tibetan
translations o f the A bi and Bdp do not correspond. While in the Bdp the Sanskrit term ddttdjaneya is
rendered as sbyin nas mi smodpa, we find in XhtAkn the phrase dul tin can ses pa. Notwithstanding these
discrepancies in wording, both phrases concur closely in their respective meanings. Vasubandhu’s explana­
tion o f that term runs as follows (Akn-tika, pp. 183.2.1-183.3. 5):
“As regards restraint, he is restrained since he is endowed with improved meditative expedients
and does not enter into the realm o f the sense organs such as that o f the eye, etc. He
suppresses the defilements such as passion, etc. That is the cause. He who is restrained in that
way is all-knowing. He is all-knowing, because he arrives at the place where he should be
walking to all the time via the true path. That is the fruit. The true path is the union o f
knowledge and means, the noble eightfold path, that o f the four noble truths and so forth. As
regards the place to which he should be going, this is nirvana. Thus it is that the learned one
who originates in learning, although he is marked by the characteristic o f the fruit and cause
[of] the noble path becomes erudite through restraint.”
10. According to the Akn-tika (p. 183.4.1), good conduct is here understood to apply to practices that are
included in the drydstahgamarga since it is primarily these that liberate the practitioner from suffering.
11. Vasubandhu informs us in this context that the Bodhisattvapitaka is the vaipulya o f the twelvefold
division o f scriptures. (Akn-tika, p. 184.2.7).
12. These four preceding items constitute, o f course, the four immeasurables (apramdna), (Mvy 1504-7). Note

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 Translation o f Chapter Eleven

1.1.2 Forty-One Methods o f Acquiring Learning

Thus, O &ariputra, in whatever one is learned in that one becomes knowledgeable and
being knowledgeable one performs good conduct. Why?
One who aspires to the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka, he will listen to it. On
hearing it, he becomes knowledgeable and being knowledgeable, he performs good conduct.
One who pursues with determination the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka, he
will listen to it 13
One who applies himself to the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka, he will listen
to it. ... .
One who adheres to a virtuous friend, he will listen to it......
One who is free from conceit, he will listen to it......
One who is well-disposed towards the greatly learned, he will listen to it.......
One who honours the greatly learned, he will listen to it.......
One who persists in congeniality towards them, (594) he will listen to it.......
One who is compliant towards them, he will listen to it......
One who pays respect to the greatly learned, he will listen to it......
One who is willing to listen, he will listen to it......
One who venerates the greatly learned, he will listen to it......
One who reflects on great learning14, he will listen to it......
One who considers the sacred word as a jewel, he will listen to it......
One who considers the sacred word as ambrosia, he will listen to it.......
One who after hearing the sacred word thinks that it appeases desire, hatred and delusion, he
will listen to it.......
One who after hearing the sacred word considers holding on to it, he will listen to it.......
One who penetrates the realisation of dharma, he will listen to it.......
that unlike the ten powers (bala), four assurances (vaisaradya) and four unique knowledge (pratisamvid),
the apramdna are listed individually and not subsumed under their title.
13. Each o f the following forty-one examples, specifying the acquisition o f learning, concludes in the stock
phrase | ... de ni thos p a r hgyur ro \ thos nas bar du ses so | ses nas nan tan byed do ||
These I have translated as: “ ... will listen to it. On hearing it, he becomes knowledgeable (prajanati) and
being knowledgeable, he performs good conduct (pratipadyate).”
In order to achieve a better English reading, I omitted these rather cumbersome, prolix and repetitive
phrases. The omissions have been indicated by the insertion o f three ellipsis points in the appropriate
hiatus. O f the forty-one methods o f acquisition of learning, only sixteen have been directly taken from the
list o f seventy-two forms o f learning, that is akara no. 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 15, 20, 22, 27. A
further seven methods o f acquisition have counterparts in spirit, though not in letter, in the list o f learning.
These are no. 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 26, 28. None o f the remaining nineteen methods o f acquisition exhibits
any immediate parallels to the forms o f learning. More importantly, none o f the Bdp 's forty-one methods
o f acquisition corresponds to the thirty-two methods o f acquisition o f correct reflection that are given in
the Akn. Both lists seem to have been construed along differing lines and have little in common except for
the context in which they appear and the shared purpose to represent a further stage in the cognitive
process leading to wisdom (Akn, p. 51.1.6-2.7).
14. My translation o f this phrase is based on a passage in the Abhidh-sam (R), p. 137, saying that application
(adhana) is correct reflection (yoniso manasakdra) that has great learning (bahusruta) as object.

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 Translation o f Chapter Eleven

One who wishes for understanding of the sacred word, he will listen to it.......
One who after hearing the sacred word experiences mental inspiration, (595) he will listen to
it.......
One who is insatiable in hearing the sacred word, he will listen to it.......
One who after hearing a discourse on giving considers the act of renunciation, he will listen
to it.......
One who after hearing a discourse on moral conduct guards morality, he will listen to it.......
One who after hearing a discourse on forbearance acts with patience, he will listen to it.......
One who after hearing a discourse on vigour acts with flawless vigour, he will listen to it......
One who after hearing a discourse on meditation acts with his mind free of inattention, he
will listen to it.......
One who after hearing a discourse on wisdom exerts his mind to suppress the impurities,
(596) he will listen to it.......
One who generates joy in great learning15, he will listen to it......
One who attains bodily cheerfulness16on listening to the Dharma, he will listen to it.......
One who rejoices on hearing the Dharma , he will listen to it......
One who on hearing of the Mahayana aspires to it, he will listen to it.......
One who produces a friendly disposition on hearing about the means of conversion, he will
listen to it.......
One who embarks on mindfulness with regard to body, feeling, thought and dharma on
listening to a discourse on the bases of mindfulness, he will listen to it.......
One who becomes shameful and embarrassed by non-virtues that have already been sown
and arisen on listening to a discourse on the perfect efforts, he will listen to it.......
One who constantly retains in mind virtuous dharma that have already been sown and arisen,
(597) he will listen to it.......

15. According to Edgerton the term man du thos pa (bahusruta) carries several, albeit related, meanings. He
gives ‘sacred word’ (p. 536, col. 1)— that is most often the Dharma—and ‘great learning’ (p. 399, col. 1)
as the most frequently occurring ones. Monier-Williams (p. 726, col. 1) gives ‘one who has studied much’,
‘very learned’, ‘being o f deep erudition’ as the principal meanings o f the term bahusruta. Already in the
nikaya, great learning (bahussuta) assumed an important position and monks bearing this title were greatly
revered. It occurs in the Vinaya (ii, p. 95), Majjhimanikaya (HI, p. 11) and at two places in the Anguttaranikaya
(II, p. 22; III, p. 114) where it is cited among the four things that bestow the rank o f Elder on a monk:
“He has heard very much and memorised what he has heard. He retains in his mind what he
has heard; the teachings are good at the beginning, in the middle and at the end in the sense
that the meaning and letter are good. He follows the way o f the brahmacariyd in every respect
and with great purity. To these teachings he has listened very often, he has borne them in
mind, repeated them aloud, investigated them for their meaning and well understood them
through right view.”
The bahusruta p a r excellence was, o f course, Ananda who was singled out in recognition o f this quality as
the person responsible for the preservation o f the Doctrine (D II, pp. 144-46). Listed among important
qualities (A I, pp. 24-25; for its place in an alternative list o f seven see; D III, p. 252; M III, p. 23), it
became a title that bestowed great prestige and covered the sutta, vinaya and matikd (A II, pp. 147,170).
16. I follow here Bendall (1981, p. 185) in translating the term lus sim pa (kdyaudbilya) as ‘bodily cheerfulness’.

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 Translation o f Chapter Eleven

On listening to a discourse on the bases of success, one whose body, mind and determination
become agile, he will listen to it.......
On listening to a discourse on meditation, one who establishes his mind in unfaltering
reflection, he will listen to it......
On listening to a discourse on the immeasurables, one who becomes benevolent towards all
sentient beings, greatly compassionate towards the poor, well disposed towards the Dharma
and remains in the state of equipoise with regard to non-virtue, he will listen to it.......
On listening to a discourse on the faculties, one who applies his mind to the faculty of faith,
vigour, mindfulness, meditation and wisdom, he will listen to it.......
On listening to a discourse on the factors of enlightenment, one who applies his mind in
order to understand all the dharma perfectly, he will listen to it.......
On listening to a discourse on the path, one who applies his mind to the pursuit of nirvana,
(598) he will listen to it....
One who directs his mind towards unsurpassed and perfect enlightenment on listening to the
immeasurable teaching of the Buddha, studying the Tathagata’s powers, assurances, benevo­
lence, compassion, joy, equipoise, unique knowledge and the eighteen exclusive buddha-
qualities, such a person leams. On learning, he becomes knowledgeable and being knowl­
edgeable, he performs good conduct.
O Sariputra, these are the forty-one methods of acquiring the forms of learning.17 O
Sariputra, it is in this manner that a bodhisattva courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.

1.1.3 Good Conduct

Furthermore, O Sariputra, when a bodhisattva who courses in the Perfection of Wisdom has
properly listened to the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka, when he has taken

17. In the Akn (p. 51.1.6), the contents o f this section is called “thirty-two methods o f acquisition by means of
correct reflection”. For the Akn, this ties well to the introductory passage o f ‘learning’ where learning is
identified as the form (or cause) of wisdom and correct reflection as the method o f acquisition. Accordingly,
Vasubandhu explains that “acquisition (pravesa) is either to persist in correct reflection or realise own-being
and distinction by means o f these [manifestations of] correct reflection” (Akn-tika, p. 185.4.5-7). In view
o f the purely cognitive orientation o f theA k n ’s thirty-two methods o f acquisition this interpretation is
appropriate (Akn, p. 51.1.5-2.7).
In spite o f the fact that the list contained in the Bdp does not match the contents o f that in the Akn, the
same assumption can be made for the Bdp's enumeration. While it is true that the cognitive element in the
forty-one kinds o f penetration is less evident, its presence, joined with bhavanamayiprajha, is difficult to
overlook in the phrase: “On hearing it, he becomes knowledgeable and being knowledgeable, he performs
good conduct”. The concept o f knowledge implies no doubt the element o f reflection and correct conduct
could be interpreted to correspond to contemplation (bhavana) o f those insights that were revealed to the
bodhisattva in the course o f the foregoing cognitive process. In the Bdp we have therefore a catalogue o f
forces that promote the generation o f wisdom, given in the order in which they influence each other. First,
there is learning, divided into seventy-two kinds. Second, if combined with a wholesome mental disposition
the forms o f learning lead to knowledge o f what has been learned. Third, comprehension then modifies the
bodhisattva’s practice and causes him to apply himself correctly to its cultivation.

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hold of it, retained it, read it, fully absorbed it, when he has also explained it to others and
propounded it at great length, he performs good conduct18.
What is his good conduct with regard to dharma? Just as one complies with the instructions,
he performs good conduct with regard to dharma.
Furthermore, performing good conduct with regard to dharma is non-apprehension any
dharma. Why? If one apprehends dharma, one’s conduct becomes misguided. As regards
people who adhere to grasping dharma; (599) there is no place or occasion19that arises from
these dharma. They are unestablished. But even people who do not apprehend them because
they are cleansed and are established in good conduct become insecure20 towards these
dharma, how much more those who grasp dharmal Hence, non-apprehension of any dharma
is good conduct.
Furthermore, one who is unobstructed with regard to dharma is of good conduct. One who
lacks assertion, grasping and attachment towards dharma and realises that they are unarisen
and unceasing is of good conduct. In addition, seeing the absence of increase and decrease in
dharma is good conduct.
Furthermore, I have not explained much here. Just as it did not become perceptible in
accordance with the explanation, in the same way all dharma are imperceptible, inapprehensible
and have one characteristic. What is this characteristic? It is the lack of characteristic. The
characteristic is without characteristic. This is due to two factors. Why? Binary reflection and
right understanding21 themselves, I declare to be without characteristic. This is their charac­
teristic, but it is a non-characteristic. Consequently, one who understands that all dharma are
imperceptible, inapprehensible and without characteristic is of good conduct. Embark diligently
on good conduct. Attain the vision that all dharma are pure. (600)

18. nan tan hin p or b yedpa yin pa: pratipattisara (Mvy 1810)
According to the Bhavanakrama (MBT, ii, p. 222 § 21), good conduct o f bodhisattvas is at all times aimed
at the welfare o f sentient beings. Based on perfect knowledge and exempt from despondency, agitation or
meditative faults, a bodhisattva ponders on the illusory nature o f the skandha, dhatu, dyatana, etc.,
without, however, to bring the realisation o f their insubstantiality to conclusion. Wishing to establish
beings in true vision o f all dharma (sarvadharmayathabhutadarsana), he observes the three areas o f
practice (adhisila, adhicitta, adhiprajha) in order to set an example and manifests vigour and purity in
conduct o f body, speech and mind. Judging by the number o f references Edgerton cites in his entry o f
pratipatti, these elements constitute for most texts the cardinal aspects o f good conduct (p. 364). Precise
definitions, however, are rare largely because the concept of pratipatti itself is rather broad and ill-delineated,
changing with context and doctrinal orientation.
19. The Tibetan gnas dan skabs could conceivably represent a misinterpretation o f the Sanskrit term avasthita
(gnas skabs; Abhisaml, p. 119) or avastha (Mvy 7588), in which case the translation ‘condition’ would be
more appropriate. While this would make better sense, expressing that unestablished dharma do not
produce any conditions that might perpetuate the causal chain, the Tibetan reading does not support this
interpretation.
20. the tshom du gyurpa: sanisayita (Edgerton, p. 542; Monier-Williams, p. 1117, col. 3).
21. kitn brtags pa: parikalpita; yah dag p a r brtags pa: sampratipanna.

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Then, on that occasion, the lord composed these verses:

Whoever fares in truly good conduct

According to the Bodhisattvapitaka
Such a wise person does not cling to phenomena.
Thus, non-clinging emulates good conduct.

A man who obtains dharma does not profess emptiness.

The wise one does not take pride in empty dharma.
He has not attachment to empty dharma whatsoever.
Thus non-attachment resembles good conduct.

One does not grasp nor reject the dharma.

There is non-practice of grasping dharma.
Hence non-grasping is the characteristic of dharma.
It is this kind of emulation that is good conduct.

Why is the bodhisattva never attached to dharma'}

His pristine cognition does not apprehend dharma.
He does not even attach himself to the non-grasping pristine cognition.
It is this kind of emulation that is good conduct.

The wise one should abide in the qualities of purification.22

He should apply himself to these dharma.
When he has persisted in good behaviour and comportment.
At that time, his introduction to the Doctrine23becomes pure.

When he has purified his deportment,

He understands such teaching.
Then, he also perceives the resolve of the thought of enlightenment.
Truly, at that time, once he has perceived this resolve, the wise one explains such teaching.

After he has acquired knowledge of the absolute truth of this profound teaching,

22 sbyahspahiyon tan: dhiitaguna (Edgerton, p. 286, col. 1).

23. sgo'. mukha (‘entrance’, ‘ingress’, ‘introduction’)
Cf. Edgerton, p. 433, col. 2; Monier Williams, p. 819, col. 3 ff. See also entries for dharmamukha
(Edgerton, p. 280, col. 1) and dharmdlokamukha (Edgerton, p. 281, col. 2) on which my translation is
based.

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He will always abide in truth.

He is noble due to his infinite conduct and excellent qualities.
The great learning of this wise man is like an ocean.

Truly, as regards the meaning and words of this teaching (601),

Their limit is beyond comprehension.
Both, words and meaning are infinite.
One who fares in good conduct remains unperturbed.

O Sariputra, it is in this manner that the bodhisattva courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.

1.1.4 Vision
Furthermore, O &ariputra, after the bodhisattva who courses in the Perfection of Wisdom
has properly listened to the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka and has taught it in
great detail to others, he attains light as regards all dharma, because he has dispelled the
impenetrable, shadowy darkness of clouding ignorance. This is the light of wisdom.24 Since
he has attained this vision, he knows virtuous and non-virtuous dharma. For the sake of life,
he never adheres to non-virtuous dharma. But, because he abandons non-virtuous dharma
and comprehends the teachings that he has thus heard he is virtuous, mighty and calm25.
Then, on that occasion, the lord composed these verses:

Just like one who has entered into a house

That is dim and filled with darkness,

24. ses rab kyi shan: prajhdloka

If prajhdloka. corresponds to jhanaloka, it would indicate the presence o f the first nirvedhabhagiya, viz.,
usmagata or ‘heat’. Springing from the simultaneous pursuit o f samatha and vipasyana, light o f knowledge
reveals to the Sravaka for the first time the meaning of the four noble truths in their sixteen aspects (DPP,
p. 20). The evidence suggesting such identity o f prajha- and jhanaloka is, however, rather thinly spread
and not necessarily conclusive. Even if one accepts the identity o f prajha and jhana as it is postulated by
the Kosa (vi, p. 246), we have little material to go by. Most of the standard treatises do not contain any
reference to prajhdloka. It is not found in the Mpps, Kosa, Abhidh-sam, Msl or Msg and appears unknown
even to the Bbh. Indeed, besides two highly ambiguous references in the Mvu (iii, p. 332.15), the only text
in that I located the term prajhdloka is the Dbh. Here, it appears on its own on the ninth stage, standing for
the ‘light o f wisdom’ that the bodhisattva continually discharges into samsara to benefit beings (p. 71, R).
Elsewhere in the Dbh (p. 62, N)> the bodhisattva applies himself on the seventh stage to all practices by
means o f the light o f the attainment, wisdom and knowledge (samapattiprajhajhandlokend). The most
instructive reference yet to prajhdloka is found on the prabhakaribhumi (Dbh, p. 32, H) where the
bodhisattva— contemplating the nature o f conditioned existence— realises that to perceive all things truly
is impossible unless by unproduced wisdom whose light (alokd) is dependent for unfolding on ‘sk ill' in
learning (srutakausalya). It appears, therefore, that for prajhdloka to become manifest, the bodhisattva is
required to devote himself to learning (and teaching)—a proposition that tallies well with the context in
which prajhdloka is mentioned in the Bdp.
25. dge ba thub pa zi ba\ subhamunisanta.

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Does not see with his eyes even those shapes

That exist in that house,

In the same way, by some of those in whom

impurity has arisen,
Virtuous and non-virtuous dharma
Are not perceived unless they listen to the Bodhisattvapitaka.

Once they have listened to it, they distinguish dharma.

On listening to it, they relinquish sin.
Once they have listened to it, they renounce all harm.
On listening to it, they attain nirvana. (602)

Since they desire to learn, their erudition increases.

By learning, their wisdom increases.
By wisdom, their intentions become pure.
Once they have attained pure intentions, they attain happiness.

Those who reach the goal have sharp minds.

At the time when they reach nirvana,
Being secure in the Doctrine and skilled in purity,
They attain great happiness.

As regards the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka;

Once they have listened to it, they abide in the essence of the Doctrine.
After they have realised it in the world,
They will cultivate enlightened conduct.

O Sariputra, it is in this manner that the bodhisattva courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.

1.2 Application
Furthermore, O &ariputra, a bodhisattva who courses in the Perfection of Wisdom generates
the notion of a virtuous friend towards a person who adheres to the Bodhisattvapitaka.
Having done so he purifies him in this very Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka.
He purifies him completely. He generates in him a keen wish for this Bodhisattvapitaka. He
causes him to strive and apply himself diligently. He causes him to retain it in his mind and

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to endeavour zealously to that end26. Since he has fully penetrated the four perfect efforts he
attains freedom from obstruction concerning any dharma whatsoever.27
Then, at that time, the lord pronounced these verses:

A person who pronounces the Dharma

Is thought of as a virtuous friend.
Once he permanently fares in good conduct,
He applies himself to the Doctrine and studies it. (603)

He never reduces his determination.

His vigour is always unsurpassed.
His wisdom is irrevocably completely purified.
He constantly abides in pristine cognition.

He understands my Dharma.
Due to his faith, he lives in this world.
He understands it as the imperturbable Dharma
That was fully explained by the Buddha.

The wise ones are skilled in analysing words.

Being learned, they comprehend their meaning.
They practice perpetually wholesome conduct.
They renounce perpetually unwholesome conduct.

Their minds are always free of blemish.

They are truly free from despondency concerning any teaching.
Just as easily as a body, they attain swiftly
26. yah dag p a r rab tu hjog p a r byed pa\ samyakpradadhdti (cf. Edgerton, p. 370, col. 2).
27. According to the Abhidh-sam (R), p. 120, adopting the line o f reasoning that prevails in the nikaya, the
fruit o f the cultivation (bhavanaphala) o f the four correct efforts (samyakprahdna) consists chiefly o f the
abandonment o f dharma that are detriment (vipaksa) to skilful dharma and the growth o f dharma that
counteract (pratipaksa) unskilful dharma. Marking the stage o f usmagata, the practitioner succeeds in
eliminating the coarse impediments and prepares for entry on the transcendental path (Kosa, vi, p. 287). In
the B dp, by saying that the samyakprahdna contribute to the elimination o f all hindrances (avarana), no
immediate connection to such a fruit o f perfect effort is attested. Moreover, it is also left open whether the
bodhisattva is freed from the klesdvarana and jheyavarana—the standard division o f the Bbh (pp. 3.13,
37.6) and M sl (pp. 2.25-3.4)— or whether he is still subjected to one o f them. The fact that the Bdp makes
a point in saying that he is liberated from hindrances o f all dharma, suggests perhaps the former. In this
event, the attainment o f the samyakprahdna would establish the bodhisattva on the transcendental path—a
remarkable progress from the cultivation o f the usmagata phase o f the prayogamarga that tallies ill with
other path-schemes (cf. Kosa, vi, p. 184; Mvs (N), pp. 53.13-54.19). The likelihood o f imminent entry into
the lokottara path is however strengthened by the content of the following section since this lays down the
attainments o f the darsanamdrga that mark the first phase of the transcendental path.

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The mind of enlightenment, vigour and determination.

By listening to the Doctrine, their wisdom increases.

Because of realisation arising from pristine cognition, their recollection stays flawless.
Once they constantly persist in pristine cognition and recollection,
They fully understand virtuous and non-virtuous dharma.

On learning the highest teachings,

They attain the supreme powers of understanding, recollection and wisdom.
Having studied like myself for a long time,
They know the disposition of sentient beings.

Once they have listened to the Doctrine they acquire excellence.

On acquiring excellence, their pristine cognition having become pure,
They perceive the disposition of sentient beings.
For this reason they teach the Dharma in accordance with the disposition of sentient
beings28.

O &ariputra, it is in this manner that the bodhisattva courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.
(604)

1.3 Seeing

1.3.1 Right View

Furthermore, O Sariputra, the bodhisattva who courses in the Perfection of Wisdom, having
thus purified his mind and cleansed his entry into the light of the Doctrine, studies in the
following way. So far as the emergence of the noble, right view is concerned, it has two
causes and two conditions. What are the two? These are other people’s statements and
correct inner reflection.29
He considers thus: “What are the statements of other people and what is correct inner
reflection?” While he reflects correctly in this manner, he considers the following in his
mind: “Those who cultivate yoga do not hear the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka.
28. The word sems can is not found in the Tibetan text. I assume that its presence is implied, since sems can is
the object o f the preceding verse to which this verse is contextually closely related.
29. The origin o f this concept goes back to early Buddhism. It is found at several places in the nikaya and was
adopted at a later stage by the Mahayana. “Statements o f others (paratas ca ghosah) and inner correct
reflection (adhyatman ca yoniso manasakdra) are the causes of right view” (A I, p. 87; Kosa, ii, p. 245; iv,
p. 100; Msg, p. 65).

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After they have obtained gratification through meditation alone without hearing the noble
Dharma and Vinaya, they fall into great conceit through the power of pride. They are not
liberated from birth, old-age, disease, death, misery, lamentations, suffering, grief and agitation.
They are not liberated from the mass of suffering.”
Pondering these, the Tathagata proclaimed: “One who listens congenially to the statements
of others becomes liberated from old-age-and-death.”
The lord spoke again:

On hearing these teachings, bodhisattvasunderstand them.

On hearing them, they do not commit offences. (605)
On hearing them, they abandon harm.
On hearing them, they attain nirvana.

A listener who wishes to leam becomes exuberant,

Because it is by learning that wisdom increases.
His intentions are purified through wisdom.
When he reaches the goal, he gains happiness.

Those who reach the goal have sharp minds.

At that time, they reach nirvana.
Those who are skilled in pure dharma are purified
And attain supreme happiness.

1.3.2 Practice and Seeing

O Sariputra, it is in this manner that the bodhisattva should study carefully the Dharma-
enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka as the noble Dharma and Vinaya. He should take hold
of it and retain it. He should read it and fully absorb it. He should also explain it to others and
propound it in great detail. O Sariputra, those who do not hear this Dharma-enunciation of
the Bodhisattvapitaka and do not engage in correct practice violate the noble path.
Pondering this, the Tathagata proclaimed: “Correct inner reflection is liberation from old-
age-and-death.”
He studies in this way: “On contemplating the bodhisattva’s correct practice, viz., what this
practice is actually like, he leams that a bodhisattva, mahasattva does not pursue any dharma;
he leams that he does not pursue any practice. Correct practice is an expression for non-practice.
Furthermore, the bodhisattva who practises correctly does not send out sound or murmurs.
(606) He does not construe a place from which sound emerges. But, investigating its starting-

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point and end-point, he thinks: “Sound emerges from and disappears into sound itself’. He
studies, thinking: “If one researches all sounds ever pronounced, by whom they were pro­
nounced, for what purpose they were pronounced and in order to comprehend what they were
pronounced, without apprehending sound as an aspect of the past, present or future, this is
correct practice31*4.
How does the bodhisattva who practises correctly in this manner see correctly? He studies
in this way. At the time when the bodhisattva sees that all dharma are suppressed by their
nature, at that time he sees correctly. At the time when he sees that all dharma are appeased
by their nature, at that time he sees correctly. At the time when he sees that all dharma are
tranquil by their nature, at that time he sees correctly. At the time when he sees that all
dharma are unattained31 by their nature, at that time he sees correctly. At the time when he
sees that all dharma are unborn by their nature, at that time he sees correctly. (607) At the
time when he sees that all dharma are unarisen by their nature, at that time he sees correctly.
At the time when he sees that all dharma are absolutely unbecome by their nature, at that
time he sees correctly. At the time when he sees that all dharma are in a state of nirvana by
their nature, at that time he sees correctly. Also investigating by whom they are seen, he
realises that they are altogether unseen and unexamined. If he sees it in this way he is of
correct vision.
Once again, he studies in this way. A bodhisattva who practises correctly has no doubt or
uncertainty concerning any dharma whatsoever. He is free from obstruction concerning any
dharma whatsoever. He who practises correctly will always be at the door to liberation
concerning any dharma whatsoever. He who practises correctly does not exert himself to
renounce any dharma whatsoever. He who practises correctly does not exert himself to
contemplate any dharma whatsoever. He who sees rightly all dharma and looks at them in
accordance with reality is of right view.
What is looking at all dharma in accordance with reality32? It is non-seeing. Non-seeing is
an expression for unborn. Unborn is an expression for unarisen. What is unarisen? It is an
expression for invisibility.
Pondering this, the Tathagata proclaimed: “If one realises that all karmic formations are
unborn, one penetrates the certainty of truth33. (608) Penetration of the certainty of truth is
30. The syntax o f this paragraph is ambiguous and I am not certain that I have correctly interpreted the
thought that stands behind it.
31. shorn p a ma zugs pa: asamapanna (cf. Edgerton, p. 570, col. 1).
32. According to the Bbh (p. 294.14-20) to see dharma in accordance with reality involves four fields o f
cognition. These are (1) seeking out names (nama), (2) seeking out things (yastu), (3) seeking out the
manifestations o f own-being (svabhdvaprajhapti) and (4) seeking out manifestations o f distinction
<yisesaprajhapti).
33. yah dag p a hid du hes pa: samyaktvaniyata
The term samyaktvaniyata has two related, though conceptually somewhat different, meanings. On the one
hand, it represents one o f three categories (rasi) classifying the various people according to the degree of
spiritual attainments. First, there is the category of beings that are ‘permanently fixed in falsehood’

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right view.”
He studies in this way, thinking: “Why is it called penetration of the certainty of truth?
Because all dharma are completely uniform with the buddha-qualities; therefore it is penetration
of the certainty of truth.”
Hence, those who wish to penetrate the certainty of truth should listen carefully to this very
Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka. They should take hold of it and retain it. They
should read it and fully absorb it. Indeed, they should apply themselves correctly to this very
Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka.
O Sariputra, it is in this manner that the bodhisattva courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.

1.3.3 Peneti'ation and Speech

Furthermore, 0 Sariputra, when the bodhisattva who courses in the Perfection of Wisdom,
having thus purified his mind and cleansed his entry into the light of the Doctrine, penetrates
correctly he realises correct speech. What is correct penetration? What is correct speech?
A bodhisattva’s correct penetration is as follows. He penetrates the basis of perfect mental
quietude and the binary thinking of insight34. This is correct penetration. (609) Although he
(mithyatvaniyata). People belonging to this group are permanently unable to comprehend the teachings of
the Buddha and excluded from the tathagatagotra. Having committed grave offences, they are always
bom in the lower destinies, unless they move up to the next rasi. The second type, ‘persons settled
permanently in truth’ (,samyaktvaniyata) will come in contact with the Doctrine and understand it whether
it is preached by a buddha or not. Springing from a combination o f cognition and past virtuous conduct, it
is the domain o f advanced practitioners (according to the Digha ‘non-returners’; D III, p. 217). Having
entered into the path, their progress to nirvana is assured and rapid. Third, the Buddha identified a group
o f people that are undetermined (aniyata) in the sense that they will only understand the Doctrine after
lenghty expositions (Mvu, iii, pp. 318, 347). Numerically, this category is said to be largest o f the three
since it contains the majority o f people. According to the Sukhdvativyuha (p. 44), the heaven o f Amitabha
is inhabited only beings o f the first category. References to these three types o f rasi may be found in the S
I, p. 196; II, p. 25; III, p. 225; Kathavatthu, p. 186; Nett, p. 96; Dhs, p. 186; Kosa, iii, p. 137; iv, pp. 177,
202; Lai, pp. 351.9, 400.2; Bbh, p. 404.23).
On the other hand, as far as the path is concerned, entry into the certainty o f truth marks an important
turning-point in the spiritual advance o f the adept. Being the point o f embarkation on the bhavanamdrga,
samyaktvaniyata establishes the practitioner in the aryan-fold and guarantees liberation after no more than
seven births (Abhidh-sam (R), p. 152). For the bodhisattva, the stages are as follows (Bbh, p. 290.11-23):
First, he enters into the fold o f bodhisattvas. Provided that he fulfils a number o f spiritual conditions, he is
certain to attain buddhahood in future. Second, there is the generation o f the thought o f enlightenment. At
this point he cannot be turned away from buddhahood and is beyond conditions. The third stage is marked
by the acquisition o f the bodhisattva’s special powers (vasita). Being the outcome o f his dedication to the
welfare o f beings and his correct vision o f reality, he has now attained the certainty o f the prediction and
traverses the final phase o f the path (cf. Asia, p. 33.18 ff, p. 322.5; Siks, p. 270.4). For a sound discussion
o f a number o f connotations associated with the term niyata/niyama in the various strands o f Buddhist
literature, see: Bbh, Lexikalisches ..., pp. 28-31.
34. The association o f binary thinking (vikalpa) and insight (vipasyana) indicates that we dealing here still
with the preparatory phase o f vipasyana. For, when brought to its highest point, vipasyana is no longer
subject to recollection (smrti) and reflection (manasakdra), but operates as non-discursive knowledge
(nirvikalpajhana) manifesting analytical investigation (of the real) (bhutapratyaveksa) that is devoid o f
mental and verbal proliferation (prapahcopasama). According to the Bhavanakrama (MBT, iii, pp. 15-16),
recollective attention and reflection figure only during the initial stages o f vipasyana development, while,
at the pinnacle o f its evolution, asmrti and amanasakara— springing from analytical investigation—become

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penetrates the body of solitude35, favourable dispositions, indestructibility, impermanence,

the causes and conditions, dependent co-origination, the belief in a living being, a life-force
and a person, the non-existence of the past, present and future, investigation into immutability,
imperishability of causes and retribution, emptiness of causes as well as acquaintance36 with
signlessness and wishlessness, he does not realise emptiness and wishlessness.
Although he acquires meditations and attainments, he is not reborn through the power of
contemplation. Although he acquires the knowledge of the super-knowledge, he does not
enter into the suppression of impurity. Although he penetrates the notion of no-birth, he does
not enter into the state of perfection. Although he penetrates the notion of non-self of all
sentient beings, he does not renounce great compassion. Although he penetrates the notion of
the destruction of all beings, he [does not] realise the inconceivable state of existence.
Although he longs for nirvana, he does not to embark on realising the Dharma. Although he
penetrates the purity of objects of sense pleasure and abides in equipoise, he does not dismiss
the joy of the Doctrine. Although he abandons all discursive proliferation37, (610) he does
not renounce skilful means38. O Sariputra, this is correct penetration.

the hub o f the yogin’s vipasyana experience (MBT, iii, pp. 15-17). This division is also borne out by the
vipasyana account in the Abhidh-sam (R), p. 126, where, at first, insight is characterised by examination
(vicaya), discernment (pravicaya), judgment (prativitarka) and investigation (jmimdmsa). Cf. Samdhis
$ L a ), p. 90.3-22.
35. The Srotabhumi (109, p. 286.5.2-3) distinguishes five objects from which the bodhisattva achieves freedom
when abiding in the ‘body o f solitude’. These are bad conduct (duscarita), desire (kama), utensils (pariskdra),
sexual intercourse (samsarga) and defilements (klesa).
36. hdrispa: paricaya (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 593, col. 2).
37. rtog p a spros pa: prapahca
Prapahca is a difficult term o f which Edgerton’s translation as ‘spreading out’, ‘activity’, ‘error o f false
statement’ or ‘false imagining’— although linguistically sound—is not quite adequate (Edgerton, p. 380,
col, 2). He comes somewhat closer when, on the basis o f Chinese translations, he proposes ‘frivolous talk’
as its meaning. According to Stcherbatsky, prapahca is the “expression o f conceptually differentiated
reality in words” (Nirvana, 1975, p. 38*, pp. 137, 168, 216). The same line o f thinking is taken up by
Honda, when (citing Stcherbatsky as authority) he defines prapahca as “diffusion or diversification as
function o f craving, the expression o f conceptual conceit and wrongly differentiated reality in words and
view, or the expression o f conceptually differentiated reality in words” (1968, p. 233).
Note also that, according to the Siddhi (p. 607), this type o f abandonment does not take place before the
bhavanamdrga. Although not explicitly linked with a path scheme, indications to this effect are also found
in the Bhavanakrama (MBT, iii, p. 17.10-11) and Ratnameghasutra (cited in MBT, iii, p. 7.16-18).
38. The role o f upayakausalya is twofold. On the one hand, it brings about personal welfare for the bodhisattva
and, on the other hand, it furthers the liberation of beings. Taking this division as foundation, the Bbh (pp.
261.6-272,8) distinguishes several aspects within each category. First, as regards the bodhisattva’s own
welfare— epitomising the acquisition o f buddha-qualities—it involves compassionate attention to sentient
beings, accurate knowledge o f all conditioned dharma, thirst for knowledge o f unsurpassed enlightenment,
non-defiled passing through the round o f rebirth and ardent vigour (p. 261.6-19). Second, skilful means in
the service o f others— accomplishing the ripening o f beings—is dominated by the cultivation o f the four
means o f conversion (samgrahavastu). Through their presence, manifesting six kinds o f effect, the bodhisattva
multiplies the otherwise negligible fruits that accrue from the small roots o f virtue o f beings; he occasions
the acquisition o f great roots o f virtue with little effort; he averts obstacles that would prevent beings from
embracing the Buddha’s teachings; he causes beings who are yet undecided to embark on the path; he
ripens those who have already embarked on the path and he liberates those who have already ripened (p.
261.20-27).
The M sl (p. 147.3-9) speaks o f five different types of means. First, there is non-constructive knowledge
(jnirvikalpajhana) that occasions the acquisition o f the buddha-qualities. Second, the means o f conversion

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O Sariputra, what is correct speech? His speech is logical. Furthermore, O Sariputra, it is

attentive. It consists of sound and is articulate. It is investigative, non-contradictory and
amiable. It is imperturbable, inapprehensive and compliant. It is judicious and well-balanced.
It is unborn and lacks all foundation of quarrel. It is dependable and devoid of acrimony.39
It is speech of suchness. It is speech of thusness, genuine thusness, unfailing thusness, truth
and actuality.40 It is speech of the sameness of the three times. It cuts off the fetters and is
independent of form, feeling, perception, karmic formations and consciousness.
It is independent of the element of the eye, form and visual consciousness. It is independent
of the element of the ear, sound and auditory consciousness. It is independent of the element
of the nose, scent and olfactory consciousness. It is independent of the element of the tongue,
flavour and gustatory consciousness. (611) It is independent of the element of the body,
touch and tactile consciousness. It is independent of the element of the mind, its objects and
mental consciousness.
His speech relies on the spirit, foundation of being, pristine cognition and on sutras of
precise meaning.41 O Sariputra, this is correct speech.
It is in this way that a bodhisattva who applies himself to correct penetration and sees
correct speech does not realise seeing. He sees just like one who lacks vision and clear
insight42. When he sees in this way, he is of correct vision.
Again, O Sariputra, the bodhisattva who practises correctly will never become confused
concerning any dharma whatsoever. A bodhisattva who practises correctly will always be at
the door to liberation concerning any dharma whatsoever. He who practises correctly does
not exert himself to renounce any dharma whatsoever. He who practises correctly does not

that assist sentient beings to mature. Third, the confession of faults, joy in the Buddha, invitation to the
buddhas and transference (of merit) that speed up the attainment o f enlightenment. Fourth, cultivation of
meditations (samddhi) and formulae (dharant) that purify his conduct. Fifth, generation o f unsupported
(apratisthita) nirvana that prevents the bodhisattva from interrupting his course in samsara (ref. Lamotte).
39. Up to this point, the characterisation o f correct speech shows many parallels to the discussion o f the
bodhisattva’s ‘unique knowledge o f eloquence’ (pratibhanapratisamvid) that is discussed at 2.5.4 in my
translation o f chapter eleven (folio 629.6-631.4). However, the cognitive element, associating correct
speech with insight and thus turning the bodhisattva’s speech into a mirror o f his profound understanding
o f the nature o f reality, is specific to correct speech and not touched upon in the discussion o f the
pratibhanapratisamvid.
40. The four preceding attributes are translations o f the following technical terms (Mvy 1709, 1711, 1716)
that, but for the last, serve as synonyms for the absolute (paramdrtha): (1) de biin hid: tathdta, (2) gian
m ayin p a de biin hid: ananyatathata, (3) ma log pa de biin hid: tathata, (4) j i Ita ba biin: yathdvat.
41. This sentence, qualifying the foundation o f speech, contains a reference to the bodhisattva’s four types o f
reliance, viz., reliance on the spirit (artha) as opposed to the letter (vyahjana); reliance on the foundation
o f being (dharmatd) as opposed to the person (pudgala); reliance on pristine cognition (jhana) as opposed
to discursive insight (vijhdna); and reliance on sutras o f precise meaning (nithdrtha) as opposed to those
o f provisional meaning (neyartha). The exact nature and scope o f the bodhisattva’s four reliances is
considered in great detail at 2.6 as one o f the skills leading to ‘disceming-wisdom’.
42. rnam par mthoh pa: vidarsana (Mvy 1141)
On the conceptual closeness o f vipasyana and vidarsana, see: Abhidh-d, pp. 355-7 (n. 440); Kosa, vi, pp.
279-281.

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exert himself to contemplate any dharma whatsoever. He who sees rightly all dharma and
looks at them in accordance with reality is of right view.
What is looking at all dharma in accordance with reality? It is non-seeing. What is non-seeing?
It is an expression for unborn. What is unborn? It is an expression for invisibility.43 (612)
Just as it was previously discussed at great length, in the same way it should be formulated. It
is in this way that the bodhisattva courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.

Furthermore, O Sariputra, the bodhisattva who courses in the Perfection of Wisdom studies
in this way. “It is correct that all dharma are like the self.” He realises that just as the self is
non-self, so all dharma are non-self. He realises that just as the sentient being is non-self, so
all dharma are non-self. When he looks at them in this way, he sees correctly.
Seeing correctly that the sphere of samsara is endowed with the sphere of nirvana; this is
correct practice.44 Then, he realises that the own-being of all dharma is invariably that of
impurity. Indeed, he does not take pride in either yoga or non-yoga. Through correct practice,
he sees correctly. Correct practice is as manifold as all bases of sentient beings. Not seeing
the bases of sentient beings and to be imperturbable concerning the basis of the Doctrine; this
is correct practice of the bodhisattva. O Sariputra, it is in this manner that the forms of
learning, correct penetration, correct vision and those which are the result of accurate vision
are called wisdom.
O Sariputra, it is in this manner that the bodhisattva courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.
(613)

1.4 Emancipation
Furthermore, O Sariputra, the bodhisattva who courses in the Perfection of Wisdom is by
virtue of his wisdom not linked to any conditioned dharma*5. That is to say, he is emancipated
from46ignorance. Having become strengthened through emancipation from karmic formations,
he is emancipated from old-age-and-death. Since he is emancipated from the belief in a self,
he is emancipated from the sixty-two heretical views that are based on the belief in a self.47

43. This passage starting with “Again, O Sariputra” up to “invisibility” is almost identicalwith a previous
section on folio 607 starting with “Once again, he studies ...” (folio 607.3-608.2).
44. The thought o f the identity o f samsara and nirvana is taken up in greater detail at2.3,discussing the
bodhisattva’s ‘skill’ in elements (dhatu).
45. hdus byas la spyodpahi chos thams cad mi gnas pa
lit.: ‘to be independent o f all dharma that participate in the conditioned’.
46. lhan cig tu mi gnas: sahanvasthana.
47. The doctrinal foundations to most o f the sixty-two heretical views (drstigata) are either the views of
existence or non-existence (bhavabhavadrsti) or the views o f eternity or annihilation (sasvatocchedadrsti).
Representing the beliefs in extremes (antagrahadrsti) that run counter to the ‘middle path’ of the Buddhists,
they are rejected in equal measure by early Buddhists and later Mahayana writers dike. For references in
the nikaya, see: D I, pp. 52-59; S II, p. 17; S III, p. 135; fine expositions o f the Mahayana position are

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He is emancipated from lofty and wretched thoughts. He is emancipated from the eight
worldly conditions. He is emancipated from the twenty secondary defilements48 including
self-conceit, grave conceit and perverted conceit.49He is emancipated from all defilements,
including minor, mediocre and major ones. Having become ensnared by the impenetrable,
obscuring, dark mist of delusion, he is emancipated from all lowly and wicked dharma. He is
emancipated from the activity of all evil, including contentious and defiled activity, activity
of the aggregates, activity of the lord of death and activity of the Evil One.50
He is emancipated from all heretical views concerning the self, including the belief in a

found at Kp, pp. 86-108; Asta, p. 66; Madh. vrtti, pp. 272.14, 445.3. Additional material has been
collected together by May (1959, p. 213, n. 720) and Lamotte (1976, p. 57, n. 36) from whom these
references stem.
48. According to the Siddhi (p. 362), the twenty secondary defilements include (1) anger (krodha), (2)
spitefulness (upanaha), (3) hypocrisy (mraksa), (4) malice (praddsa), (5) jealousy (irsyatha), (6) avarice
(mdtsarya), (7) deception (mdya), (8) concealment (sathya), (9) complacency (mada), (10) violence (vi-
himsa), (11) lack o f self-esteem (dhrlkya), (12) indecency (anapatrapya), (13) inertness (styana), (14)
agitation (auddhatya), (15) lack o f confidence (asraddhya), (16) idleness (ikausidya), (17) indolence (prama-
da), (18) confused recollection (musitasmrtitd), (19) inattentive ness (asamprajanya) and (20) distraction
(viksepa).
Other lists that show comparable, but not identical, contents are found in the Kosa (v, pp. 88, 89-109),
comprising twenty-one secondary defilements and in the Dhsgr (§ 69), listing twenty-four items.
49. ha rgyal: mana\ che bahi ha rgyal: mahdmdna', log bahi ha rgyal: mithyamdna
According to the Kosa (v, pp. 26-27), conceit falls into seven categories. O f these, only the first (viz.,
mana) and last (viz., mithyamdna) are cited in the Bdp. Mana refers to a general arrogance o f mind
leading to feelings o f superiority. Mithyamdna, in contrast, is more specific and causes that one attributes
to oneself spiritual qualities that one does not possess {Kosa, v, p. 27). I have not found a text where
mahdmdna figures among the various types of conceit as an independent type o f conceit. As mana and
mithyamdna constitute respectively the first and last limb in the list o f seven, it likely that the Bdp made
this selection in order to indicate the presence of all seven types without actually listing all o f them (Mvy
1945-52).
50. This, o f course, is a reference to the four types o f mara. Personifying the forces o f evil, Buddhist texts
distinguish (1) the ‘evil of defilement’ (klesamara), (2) the ‘evil of aggregate’ (skandhamara), (3) the ‘evil
o f death’ (mrtyumdra) and (4) the ‘Evil One’ (devaputramara). This is the most common division (Mvu,
iii, pp. 218.7, 273.2; Lai, p. 224.18-19; Madh, vrtti, p. 49.10; Dhsgr § 80; Mpps, i, pp. 340-46), although
we read elsewhere {Udana-a, p. 216.11) also o f other types o f mara, viz., the ‘evil o f formation’ (ab-
hisamskara-mara) and the ‘evil o f misdeed’ (dpattimara). Already in the nikaya, the internal armies o f
Mara are identified with personal faults, such as desire, sadness, hunger, thirst, greed, etc., (Sn, vss.
436-449) and were named accordingly as Tanha, Arati, Raga, etc. (S I, p. 124; III, p. 286). On the moment
o f their destruction during the last existence o f bodhisattvas, the Akn-tikd says:
“The four kinds o f mara are the devaputramara, klesamara, skandhamara and the mrtyumdra.
Among them, the devaputramara is vanquished by the meditation o f benevolence
(maitrisamadhi) underneath the tree o f enlightenment. The klesamara is vanquished at the
time o f comprehension o f enlightenment. The skandhamara is vanquished by the reversal o f
the support o f the storehouse consciousness {alayavijhdndsrayapardvrtti) at the time o f com­
prehension o f enlightenment. Shortening the formation of long life (ayuh-saniskdra) in VaiSali
three month prior to the parinirvana, the mrtyumdra is vanquished by obtaining power over
life.”
For further details on interpretations o f mara and the contexts in which they appear, see: E. Windisch,
Mara and Buddha, Leipzig, 1895; A. Wayman, ‘Studies in Yama and Mara’, IIJ, 1959, pp. 112-32; M pps,
ii, pp. 880-884, 906-908; Malalasekera, Proper Names, ii, pp. 611-620. A list of disguises o f Mara is
given in the Ratfiaketudharani, Dutt, vi, 1941-53, pp. 77.7-79.2. For further references to the notion o f
mara in Buddhist literature, see: Lamotte, 1976, pp. 99-101. In the same volume (pp. 169-70), Lamotte
provides an excellent list o f material that discusses the term dsrayaparavrtti (e.g., Bbh, pp. 367-70; see
also: Msg, pp. 16*, 48*). On the circumstances accompanying the Buddha’s abandonment o f the long-life
samskdra, see: Waldschmidt, 1950, ii, p. 218.

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self, a living being, a life-force, a feeder, a person, a human being and an individual. (614)
He is emancipated from all continuity brought about by the traces, including the obstruction
of action, impurity, dharma, heretical views, retribution and nescience. He is emancipated
from reflection, binary thinking, marks, mental constructions [brought about through] seeing,
hearing and recollection, discursive knowledge and all adventitious bonds51. He is emancipated
from [the dichotomy of] avarice and generosity, morality and immorality, patience and malice,
vigour and indolence, meditation and disquietude, wisdom and folly, furtherance and impedi­
ments of the perfections, knowledge and nescience.
He is emancipated from antitheses of all dharma, including truth, falsehood and peijury,
virtue and depravity, reproach and approval, samsara and nirvana. He is emancipated from
all multiplicity, including multiplicity of buddha-fields, buddhas, sentient beings and dharma.
He is emancipated from conditioned reflection52 of all sentient beings, including nescience,
knowledge, discursive insight, conventional truth and absolute truth. (615) He is emancipated
from the bases of all reflection, thought and consciousness; including perseverance [to]
formlessness, signlessness, causelessness and unconditioned wisdom. He is emancipated from
these and other incalculable, conditioned dharma. It is in this way that the wisdom of a
bodhisattva who courses in the Perfection of Wisdom is emancipated from all conditioned
dharma.
O Sariputra, it is in this manner that the bodhisattva courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.

S e c t i o n ii

2. Skill
Furthermore, O Sariputra, a bodhisattva who adheres to the Bodhisattvapitaka and courses
in the Perfection of Wisdom is skilled in discerning the Perfection of Wisdom. He attains
skill in all dharma.
What is discerning wisdom? It is tenfold, viz., skill in aggregates, skill in sensefields, skill
in elements, skill in truth, skill in unique knowledge, skill in reliance, skill in discursive
insight and direct knowledge, skill in the factors of enlightenment, skill in the path and skill
in dependent co-origination.53 (616) Investigation by means of these ten kinds of skill is
discerning wisdom.

51. sgros hdogs pa. aropita (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 151, col. 1).
52 mtshan ma y id la byedpa: nimittamanasakara (cf. Edgerton, p. 207, col. 2).
53. Skt.: skandha-, dyatan adh dtu satya-,pratisam vid-,pratisaran avijn dn a-Jn an abodh yan gan i-, marga-
and pratityasamutpadakausalya. According to Vasubandhu, ‘skill’— referring to the eight kinds of ‘sk ill'
in the Akn— constitutes the sphere of wisdom (Akn-tika, p. 193.5.7).

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2.1 Skill in Aggregates

What then is skill in aggregates?54He expounds the aggregates by way of allegories. That
is to say, he shows that they are like froth, a mirage, a water bubble, a plantain tree, an
illusion, a dream, an echo, an illusory appearance and a reflected image.
Matter is like froth and froth too is without a self, a living being, a life-force, a person, a
man, a human being or an individual. The own-being55 of froth is also the own-being of
matter. Skill concerning this is skill in aggregates.56
Feeling is like a water bubble and a water bubble too is without a self, a living being, a
life-force, a person, man, a human being or an individual. The own-being of a water bubble is
also the own-being of feeling. Skill concerning this is skill in aggregates.57
Perception is like a mirage and a mirage too is without a self, a sentient being ... or an
individual. The own-being of a mirage is also the own-being of perception. Skill concerning
this is skill in aggregates.58(617)
54. Vasubandhu, in his commentary on the Akn, elucidates the meaning o f ‘skill’ in aggregates on pages
193.5.8-195.5.1. The corresponding passage in the A bi is found on page 52.2.8-4.6. According to the
A bu ‘skill' in aggregates means that the bodhisattva is capable o f explaining the nature and role o f the
aggregates by way o f comparisons. This is also the only instance where both Bdp and A bt cite an equally
phrased, direct answer to the question that is posed at the beginning of each kind o f ‘skill’. After that, only
the A bi provides brief direct answers to the initial questions, whereas the Bdp does not re-refer to the
question (for details, see: Abi-tika, pp. 194.1.1-2.6,194.2.6-195.3.6, 195.3.6-5.1).
55. According to the Mvy, the Tibetan term rah bzin has two principal meanings, viz., (1) svabhdva meaning
‘own-being’ (Mvy 3390, 4458, 7498) and prakrti meaning chiefly ‘nature’ (Monier-Williams, p. 1276, col.
1; p. 654, col. 1 respectively). Both meanings do overlap o f course and it is difficult to decide with
certainty which o f the two is intended in this passage. Although prakrti is listed as the first, and thus
principal term, I believe that it is in this context more appropriate to translate the term rah Min as
‘own-being’ since reference is taken to the very nature, character or indeed ‘own-being’ o f the dharma in
question. The term ‘nature’ has a broader, slightly more encompassing and hence rather vague connotation
that, I think, is here out o f place.
56. The Abi-tika comments (p. 194.3.1-3; cf. Akn, p. 52.2.8-3.1):
“That is to say, in the great ocean some people see froth possessing matter and colour like
crystals. Believing that it possesses substance and own-being, they grasp for it with their
hands, but it flies away and disintegrates, whereupon they think: ‘Alas, this is only froth, this
is worthless, vain and lacks own-being’.”
57. In the words o f the Abi-tika (p. 194.3.8-4.4; c f Akn, p. 52.3.1-2):
“When rains falls into water, some people perceive the water bubbles as if they constitute
various types o f crystals or gems. Thinking that they possess substance and are suitable [to be
worn as] adornments, [people] grasp for them with both hands in order to arrange them but
they disintegrate. Even those that they did not reach for burst as soon as they arise. Realising
that they are devoid o f substance, they learn and exclaim: ‘Alas, these are water bubbles,
without a self and own-being. They are worthless and vain.’ It is in this way that also the
aggregate o f feeling [whether pleasant, unpleasant, etc.]— lacking a self or own-being— is
worthless and vain just like the water bubbles. If grasped with the eyes and hands o f wisdom,
examining them whether they are existent or non-existent, one realises that all o f them bear
the mark o f suffering and perish by nature as soon as they have arisen.”
58. To quote again from the Abi-tika (p. 194.4.4-8; cf. Abi, p. 53.3.2-3):
“Perception is to grasp the distinguishing marks o f objects. Objects are matter, sound, etc.
Distinguishing marks are the [colours of] white, red, etc. To grasp is to decide ‘this is
white— not red’. The perception aggregate is like a mirage. Why? It lacks a self and is
insignificant. That is to say, thirsty people who are tormented by the sun during the hot season
see mirages such as fountains o f water with their eyes. Believing them to be o f water, they
hurry to drink it. On discovering that it is not water, they exclaim: ‘Alas, this is a mirage. It
lacks a self and own-being. It is worthless and vain.’ Likewise, with the eye o f wisdom,

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Karmic formations are like a plantain tree and a plantain tree too is without a self, a living
being, a life-force ... or an individual. The own-being of a plantain tree is also the own-being
of karmic formations. Skill concerning this is skill in aggregates.59
Consciousness is like an illusion and an illusion too is without a self, a living being, a
life-force, a person, a man, a human being, an individual or a being that arises and feels. The
own-being of an illusion is also the own-being of consciousness. Skill concerning this is skill
in aggregates.60
Furthermore, the aggregates are of this world and the world, too, bears the characteristic of
destructibility.61 The own-being of the worlds is also the own-being of aggregates. But what
is the own-being of the world? Its own-being is that of impermanence and suffering.62This,
too, is the own-being of aggregates. Skill concerning this is skill in aggregates.
It is in this manner that the bodhisattva who is skilled in aggregates courses in the Perfection
of Wisdom.

bodhisattvas realise that perception is full o f thought construction concerned with misunder­
standings.”
59. The Abi-tika explains (p. 194.5.1-6; cf. Aim, p. 52.3.3-4):
“Karmic formation create various kinds o f wholesome, unwholesome and neutral [actions].
The sum total o f karmic formations is great. Why is the aggregate of karmic formation is like
a plantain tree? It lacks a core. People who wish for a hard tree and cut down a plantain tree,
stripping it o ff its bark from top to bottom, see that there is no core when they examine it in
this regard and exclaim: ‘Alas, this has the core o f a plantain tree; it is empty, without
substance or own-being.’ In this way, when contemplating on the presence o f a core or
essence in the aggregate o f diverse karmic formations [concerned with wholesome, unwholesome
and neutral actions], one realises— when looking at it with the eye o f wisdom— that it is
thought-only (cittamatrata), unborn, beyond being and non-being. Having thus contemplated
with effort on the duality o f existence and non-existence, one sees that it is just like a plantain
tree beyond one or many, self or others, without a core, essence or a self.”
60. In the words o f the Abi-tika (pp. 194.5.7-195.1.4; cf. Akn, p. 52.3.4-5):
“Consciousness is perception o f objects such as form, etc. It consists o f eight types, viz.,
consciousness pertaining to the eye, etc. The consciousness aggregate is like an illusion.
Why? It is insubstantial. A magician conjures up with his art o f magic trickery various
illusory forms o f gods, men, demons and animals. But, even though they are perceived with
the eye, if one examines them with the expectation that they might possess an own-being and
a lasting existence, on realising that they lack own-being and perish all the sudden, one
exclaims: ‘Alas, this is only an illusion; it is empty and devoid o f own-being.’ In the same
way, if one examines with the eye of wisdom the own and general own-being in the consciousness
aggregate generated by the different traces o f action, expecting it to possess own-being and
lasting existence, one realises that it perishes each moment like an illusion and is empty o f
own-being.”
61. hjig rten yah hjigpa: loko ‘p i lugla (cf. Mvy 3061 which gives hjigpas na hjig rten for luyjata iti loka).
62 This section is explained in the Abi-tika in terms o f Yogacara thinking (p. 195.4.1—4; cf. Akn, p.52.4.4-b):
“The meaning o f impermanence is the meaning o f non-existence. The imagined that is empty
o f own-being as it is universally non-existent—bearing the character o f being imagined like
the horn o f a hare— is impermanent. The sutra says that it is undergoing suffering by nature.
The meaning o f imagining the non-existent is the meaning of undergoing suffering by nature.
Again, it bears the characteristic o f dependence (paratantralaksana). To the degree to which
one imagines object and subject throughparatantra [vision], to that degree the own-being o f
suffering comes into being and becomes the cause of various types o f suffering.”

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2,2 Skill in Elements

Next, what is skill in elements?63 That is to say, although it is true that the sphere of the
Dharma64 is the element of earth, it has not the characteristic of compactness. Although it is
true that the sphere of the Dharma is the element of water, it has not the characteristic of
moisture. (618) Although it is true that the sphere of the Dharma is the element of fire, it has
not the characteristic of heat. Although it is true that the sphere of the Dharma is the element

63. Vasubandhu (pp. 193.5.1-196.4.5) explains that ‘skill' in elements signifies ‘skill' in pristine cognition
that penetrates the elements o f dharma— that is, the qualities and practices o f a bodhisattva (p. 195.5.4)—with
the element (dhdtu) representing the cause and condition leading to the attainment o f the individual
buddha-qualities— that is the dharma themselves (p. 195.5.5). Note also the usage o f the term dhdtu in the
A bi (pp. 52.4.6-53.2.3) that distinguishes carefully between khams and dbyihs, a distinction that is not
upheld in the Bdp. Theoretically, it is possible that chos kyi khams refers here to the twelfth dhdtu or sixth
kind o f external object (visaya), viz., the class o f non-sensuous objects. Contextual considerations render
this explanation implausible, since they point to the ‘sphere o f the Doctrine’ or Dharmadhatu— o f which
chos kyi khams is a highly unusual translation—and not to the series o f elements (dhdtu) that are represented
in the composition o f an individual stream o f life (santana). What is more, in the Akn's parallel reading
the term chos kyi khams (except for one unambiguous reference to non-sensuous objects) is invariably
replaced by the ‘correct’ rendering o f chos kyi dbyihs. This modification establishes beyond any doubt
that, in the Akn, it is the Dharmadhatu and not the dharmadhatu that is referred to. All other occurrences
o f the term khams, whether in conjunction with nam mkhahi, hdodpahi or otherwise are preserved as they
occur in the Bdp. Thus, the Akn puts forward what is in effect a (re)interpretation o f the B d p ’s reading. As
we have seen, this is a general feature o f their relationship and does not pose much o f a problem.
What is puzzles me is the mechanism by which this particular incongruity arose in the Tibetan, since their
chronological order could not have been o f any concern to the translators. They found presumably in both
texts— assuming that they were translated from the Sanskrit which seems certain— the term dharmadhatu.
And yet, they opted for a different term to translate the same word in the same sentence, passage and
context, singling out chos kyi khams for the Bdp and chos kyi dbyihs in the A b i. In the Abi, their choice
might have been influenced by the explanation given in the Akn-tikd (pp. 195.5.1-7), since it establishes
quite clearly the Dharmadhatu and not non-sensuous objects as point o f reference. But again, we cannot
be certain that the commentary was at hand when the translators set about their task. In search for an
explanation, I thought to find the key to this discrepancy in the terminologic revision (sgra gsar bead) that
took place in Tibet at the beginning o f the ninth century. That is to say, I expected to learn that the Bdp
had been translated before the Great Revision and was then left unrevised. This assumption proved
ill-founded, since its translation was carried out by the very persons who played a major role in the Great
Revision, namely Surendrabodhi, &ilendrabodhi and DharmataSlla (Simonsson, 1957, p. 241). Even if
they translated the Bdp before receiving the royal command to undertake the general revision, they surely
would have redrafted it afterwards. Moreover, already the first unrevised translation o f the Akn contains
the terms chos kyi dbyihs. I then discovered that Dharmata&la had not only part in the translation o f the
Bdp, but also revised the early translation the o f A bi. It is probably safe to assume that he would have
employed consistent terminology had he held the word dharmadhatu to refer to the same concept in both
texts. Alternatively, he might have contributed to the translation o f the Akn after he had worked at the Bdp
and neglected to go back to it for revision. In any event, it is quite unthinkable that he should have failed
to notice the close parallelism that exists between the Akn and Bdp while working at them. Today, it is
impossible to say whether Dharmatd&la translated the Bdp before or after revising the old Akn version, but
given that an unrevised translation o f the Akn was already extant, one would expect him to turn first to the
Bdp. On the other hand, being a thorough and accomplished scholar, he might as well have given priority
to correcting the old faulty translations before looking at new texts. To whatever view one chooses to
subscribe, there seems to be no hard and fast evidence to support either o f them. As far as the translation
o f the passage is concerned, it is probably safe to follow the reading o f the Akn. First, it fits the context
very well and it is confirmed by Abi-tika. And yet, it fails to address the question that lies at the heart o f
the problem, that is, why such incongruence arose in the first place. Furthermore, it raises the methodological
problem o f basing the translation o f a passage on a reading that is not found in the text itself, however
close its affiliation to this text may be. Finally, it does not account for the highly unusual practice to
employ the term chos kyi khams to render Dharmadhatu (‘sphere o f the Doctrine’) into Tibetan.
64. For alternative meanings and translations o f the term dharmadhatu, see: Ruegg (1962, p. 327) and Kosa (i,
pp. 54-65, 100).

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of wind, it has not the characteristic of agitation.

Although it is true that the sphere of the Dharma is the element of visual consciousness, it
has not the characteristic of seeing. Although it is true that the sphere of the Dharma is the
element of auditory consciousness, it has not the characteristic of distinguishing sound.
Although it is true that the sphere of the Dharma is the element of olfactory consciousness, it
has not the characteristic of perceiving scent. Although it is true that the sphere of the
Dharma is the element of gustatory consciousness, it has not the characteristic of savouring
flavour. Although it is true that the sphere of the Dharma is the element of tactile consciousness,
it has not the characteristic of contact. Although it is true that the sphere of the Dharma is the
element of mental consciousness, it has not the characteristic of cognition.
The sphere of the self and the sphere of the Dharma are identical. The spheres of desire,
form and non-form are identical. The spheres of nirvana and samsara are identical.65 Thus,
the sphere of all dharma and the sphere of space are identical. Since they are identical with
emptiness, they are uniform. Since they are identical with non-becoming, they are uniform.
Because of penetrating the spheres of the conditioned and unconditioned, his teaching about
them is infinite.66(619) By means of that penetration, he investigates; this is skill in elements.
It is in this manner that the bodhisattva, mahasattva who is skilled in elements courses in
the Perfection of Wisdom.

2.3 Skill in Sensefields

Next, what is the bodhisattva’s skill in sensefields?67 Concerning this, the bodhisattva
perceives the eye in accordance with reality, thinking: “It is empty in itself and by itself, such
is its own-being.” This is the bodhisattva’s skill in sensefields. Corresponding to the former,
the bodhisattva perceives also the ear, nose, tongue, body and mind in accordance with
reality, thinking: “They are empty in themselves and by themselves, such is their own-being.”68
Not encouraging those who gather various objects and items in their sensefields for the sake
of accumulating virtue, he does not discriminate virtuous and non-virtuous dharma69. This is
the bodhisattva’s skill in sensefields.
Although he thus looks unperturbed at the eye and form, thinking: “This is the visual
sensefield and that is the tactile sensefield”, he does not realise [absolute] imperturbability.

65. Cf. Akn-tika p. 196.1.7-3.4.

66. Akn-tika p. 196.3.4-4.3.
67. Akn-tika, pp. 196.4.5-197.5.6
In the Akn, the corresponding passage is found on page 53.2.3-4.4. Here, the passage on sensefields is
slightly longer than that o f the Bdp, interpolating an introductory section modelled on that o f the preceding
topic which runs as follows: “Even though the sensefield of the Dharma ..., it has not the characteristic o f
ii

68. In my translation, I disregarded the Tibetan clause yid kyi since reference is clearly taken to all five
remaining sense organs— not only to the mind (R, folio 619.4).
69. Akn-tika, p. 197.1.3-2.1 (lit.: ‘ . he does not embark on two notions (viz., dual thinking) concerning .. . ’).

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This is the bodhisattva’s skill in sensefields. Corresponding to the former, although he thus
looks unperturbed at the ear and sound, nose and scent, tongue and taste, body and touch as
well as at the mind and mental objects, he does not realise [absolute] imperturbability. (620)
This is the bodhisattva’s skill in sensefields.
The sensefields consist also of noble and ignoble sensefields. Now, while a noble sensefield
causes appreciation of the path, an ignoble sensefield causes withdrawal from the path.70
This is to say, while the bodhisattva who persists in the path generates great compassion in
support of sentient beings who have relinquished their zeal on the path, he himself never
renounces the sensefields of the path. This is the bodhisattva’s skill in sensefields.
It is in this manner that the bodhisattva who is skilled in sensefields courses in the Perfection
of Wisdom.

2.4 Skill in Truth

What then is the bodhisattva’s skill in truth?71The bodhisattva’s skill in penetrating truth is
fourfold. That is to say, it is knowledge of suffering, knowledge of its origin, knowledge of
its cessation and knowledge of the path.
What is knowledge of suffering? Knowledge that the aggregates are unborn is knowledge
of suffering. What is knowledge of its origin? Knowledge that thirst has been vanquished is
knowledge of its origin. What is knowledge of its cessation? Knowledge that suffering is free
from origination and destruction is knowledge of its cessation. What is knowledge of the
path? Not drawing mistaken inferences72 concerning uniform dharma is knowledge of the
path. (621) Even when he thus understands these four truths by means of wisdom, the
bodhisattva does not realise them in order to develop sentient beings. This is skill in truth.73

70. Quoting a passage from the Msl (p. 124.3-15), Vasubandhu cites ten kinds o f ignoble paths. These are the
paths o f (1) beings that are set alight with desire for bliss and sense-pleasure, (2) beings that have fallen
under the power o f Mara, (3) beings that are afflicted by suffering, (4) beings that are enveloped by
obstruction, (5) beings that follow a path leading to the evil destinies, (6) beings that are tied by great
fetters, (7) beings that long for indulgence in food, (8) beings that lose their way, (9) beings that follow a
wrong path and (10) beings that are o f little strength. On the basis o f his infinite compassion, the
bodhisattva’s does not forsake these wretched sentient beings but extends his sympathy to them (Akn-tika,
p. 197.4.1-5.5).
71. In the Akn, the corresponding passage is found on pages 53.4.4-54.2.8. Judging by the great attention
Vasubandhu devotes to this section in the Akn-tika, he must have considered ‘skill’ in truth as central to
the training in prajha (pp. 197.5.6-203.4.8).
72. sgro mi hdogs pa: adhydropa (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 23, col. 2).
73. Akn-tika, pp. 198.5.6-199.1.3:
“To comprehend the own characteristic is wisdom, but to understand the general characteristic
is pristine cognition. Here, however, the quoted wisdom is just wisdom and pristine cognition
is to understand the notion o f emptiness just as it is explained above; this is included (parigrhita)
in wisdom. For the sake o f sentient beings [the bodhisattva] does not realise [wisdom and
pristine cognition] but, according to the sutra, ripens sentient beings. Although the bodhisattva
understands the four noble truths, he does not realise nirvana, but being totally at ease like the
Sravaka he ripens sentient beings with great compassion and numerous means for their benefit.
This then is included in means. Knowledge of the four truths as expounded above is included
in wisdom and means; this is the bodhisattva’s ‘skill' in truth.”

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Furthermore, skill in truth is threefold. These are the conventional truth, absolute truth and
the truth of characteristic. Now, conventional truth is just worldly convention and is expressed
by letters, language and symbols. This is the conventional truth. What then is the absolute
truth? The mind itself does not wander, how much less letters? This is the absolute truth.
What then is the truth of characteristic? That is to say, all characteristics are of one characteristic
and one characteristic is also a non-characteristic. The bodhisattva does not tire of explaining
the conventional truth. He does not lapse into realising absolute truth. He discerns the truth of
the characteristic by way of the non-characteristic. This is the bodhisattva’s skill in truth.
Furthermore, truth is one, not two. This is the truth of cessation. He does not draw mistaken
inferences concerning the one truth, but establishes in truth sentient beings who have lapsed
into mistaken inferences. This is the bodhisattva’s skill in truth.
Furthermore, the five aggregates are suffering. (622) That the five aggregates bear the
characteristic of suffering, this is the noble truth of suffering. Knowledge that the characteristic
of suffering bears the characteristic of emptiness, this is the noble truth of suffering. That
heretical views arising from thirst are the cause for the proclivity to the five aggregates, this
is the noble truth of the origin of suffering.74 That heretical views are also the cause of
thirst—without drawing mistaken inferences concerning them, holding on to them or asserting
them—this is the noble truth of the origin of suffering. That due to complete exhaustion the
five aggregates are in a state of cessation—that they have not arisen in the past, do not exist
in the present and will not perish in the future—this is the noble truth of cessation. To attain,
following persistence in the path, besides knowledge of suffering, its origin and cessation
also consecutive knowledge75 is the noble truth of the path that leads to the cessation of
suffering. Reflection on knowledge of truth causes erroneously projecting sentient beings to
discern it; this is skill in truth of bodhisattvas.
Furthermore, all feelings are suffering. Knowledge of feeling through discernment and
understanding; this is the noble truth of suffering. The cause by which feeling is known as it
is when it arises, the cause of its perception, this is the noble truth of suffering. Renouncing
feeling and prompting [others] to experience non-feeling, investigating its cessation, but not
realising the cessation of feeling, this is the noble truth of the bodhisattva’s cessation of
suffering. (623) The feeling by which one is attracted to the path is like a ferry; there is

74. The structure o f this sentence is unclear. I follow in my translation the interpretation given in the Akn-tika
(p. 201.3.5-7).
75. rjes las rtogspa: anvayajndna
According to the Kosa, ‘consecutive knowledge’ is a type o f understanding that—being a non-propositional
form o f knowledge— arises in the practitioner after he has experienced and accepted the validity o f the
four noble truths in the three spheres o f existence (Kosa, vi, p. 184). As a consequent knowledge bearing
on the subject (grdhaka), it is one o f the four factors that are brought in relation with each o f the four
truths (aryasatya). Arising in response to the gradual comprehension o f each o f these four truths, it
represents three o f the fifteen events making up the darsanamarga, while the appearance o f consecutive
knowledge in response to the experience of the last truth—the path—belongs already to the bhavanamdrga.

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neither a requirement for feeling nor is feeling a requirement of the path, this is the noble
truth of the path that leads to the bodhisattva’s cessation of suffering. After he has understood
them in this way, realising that the four truths are uniform, his vision is never fully purified;
this is the bodhisattva’s skill in truth.
Furthermore, birth is suffering. Knowledge that arises from careful investigation in no-birth,
this is knowledge of suffering. Birth arises through the condition of becoming. Knowledge
that things existing perish is knowledge of its origin of suffering. Knowledge that everything
bom is unborn and that—there being absolutely no cessation in the unborn—it is unceasing,
this is knowledge of its cessation and exhaustion. This kind of considering, evaluating,
pursuing, discriminating and penetrating knowledge is knowledge of the path.76 Although he
is placed in this knowledge of truth, [the bodhisattva] does not persist in this knowledge of
truth; this is the bodhisattva’s skill in truth.
It is in this manner that the bodhisattva who is skilled in truth courses in the Perfection of
Wisdom.

2.5 Skill in Unique Knowledge

Next, what is the bodhisattva’s skill in unique knowledge?77 The unique knowledge of the
bodhisattva is fourfold. (624) What are the four? These are the unique knowledge of the
own-being of things, the unique knowledge of designations, the unique knowledge of languages
and the unique knowledge of eloquence.

2.5.1 Skill in the Unique Knowledge o f the Own-being o f Things

What is the unique knowledge of the own-being of things?78 It is knowledge that the

76. The Abi-tika (p. 203.2.3-4.3), quoting the Msl (p. 58.8-13), distinguishes eleven types o f penetration.
These are (1) sudden, adventitious penetration (agantukatvaprativedhata), (2) penetration into the aspects
o f reckoning (samkhydnanimittaprativedhata), (3) penetration into the inconceivability of objects (arthanu-
palambhaprativedhata), (4) penetration into the inconceivability o f reality (iupalambhdnupalambhapra-
tivedhata), (5) penetration into the sphere o f the Dharma (dhamiadhatuprativedhata), (6) penetration into
the insubstantiality o f a person (pudgalanairdtmyaprativedhata), (7) penetration into the insubstantiality
o f dharma (dharmnairdtmyaprativedhata), (8) penetration into inferior intent (hinasayaprativedhata), (9)
penetration into the most exalted intent (udaramahdtmyasayaprativedhata), (10) penetration into dif­
ferentiation according to the accomplished Dharma (yathadhigamadharmavyavasthanaprativedhata); and
(11) penetration into dharma arrangement (vyavasthapitadharmaprativedhata).
77. Vasubandhu’s annotation o f the corresponding passage in the Akn is found on pp. 240.2.7-244.5.4. In the
Akn (and thus also in the Akn-tika) the bodhisattva’s unique knowledge (pratisamvid) is not being dealt
with in the section on ‘skill’, but figures as an independent aksaya.
78. The term artha carries several meanings, with ‘purport’, ‘aim’ and ‘meaning’ being probably the most
frequent ones. In the present context, however, none of these renderings seems appropriate. As Lamotte
has shown, the most accurate translation o f the term artha here is ‘thing’ or ‘object’, referring to the
‘own-being’ (svalaksana) or ‘chose designee’ (bhasitartha) o f the item in question (Mpps, pp. 1614, 1616,
n. 1). This interpretation is supported by the Abi-tika (p. 240.3.3-4), stating that “in order to instruct in
knowledge o f the characteristic (laksana), it is asked what is the unique knowledge o f the own-being o f
things?” For further evidence o f this position, see: Bbh, p. 258.8-10, Msl, pp. 138.21-139.1, Aloka, p. 455.
25 ff; Kosa, vii, pp. 89-94; Abhidh-d, pp. 393.1-94.1; and for the nikaya: A I, p. 24; II, p. 160; III, pp.
113,120. For references to the pratisamvid in the agama and Chinese translations o f Sarvastivada Abhidharma

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teachings of the Buddha are statements of absolute truth79. It is knowledge of the causes,
conditions and circumstances of non-duality. It is knowledge of the infinitude of inter­
connections. It is knowledge of the basis of spiritual fruition. It is knowledge of the pure
sphere of the Dharma. It is knowledge in conformity with thusness. It is knowledge of the
unclassifiability80of nirvana.
It is knowledge arising from81the realisation of emptiness. It is knowledge arising from the
understanding of signlessness. It is knowledge that wishlessness is wishlessness. It is knowledge
that the non-accumulation of karmic formations is a non-accumulation of karmic formations.
It is knowledge penetrating sameness.82
It is knowledge penetrating the non-existence of the living being and self. It is secure
knowledge that the life-force comes to an end and that the non-existence of the person is the
absolute truth. It is knowledge that the past is determined, that the future is without limit and
that the present is everywhere. It is knowledge that the aggregates are an illusion, that the
elements resemble venomous serpents and that the sensefields are defined as emptiness.83
(625)
It is knowledge that diseases abate, that there is no agitation in the beyond and that there is
no substance84to objects. It is knowledge that mindfulness is the basis of spiritual fruition. It
is knowledge that comprehension is absorption, that understanding is realisation and that
truth is awakening. It is knowledge that suffering is non-existent, that its origin is a non­
accumulation of karmic formations, that its cessation is signless and that the path is salvation.
It is knowledge that the Doctrine consists of versatile statements. It is knowledge that the
faculties penetrate and that the powers are invincible. It is knowledge that perfect mental
quietude is the basis of spiritual fruition and that insight is true vision. It is knowledge that
illusions are fabricated, that mirages are deceptive and that dreams are untrue vision. It is
knowledge that echoes occur only in certain circumstances and that miraculous appearances
are subject to change.
It is knowledge that diversity of characteristic is one-characteristic, that unity is separation,

works, see: Amrt (B), p. 214.

In the Tibetan, the following specification o f the nature and scope o f the bodhisattva’s unique knowledge
o f things assumes the form o f a long enumeration. In order to achieve a better English reading, I have
treated each o f the fifty-one items o f that specification as an individual clause.
79. Here, the Bdp agrees with the Mpps which gives also the absolute truth (paramdrtha) as the object o f the
arthapratisamvid {Mpps, iii, p. 1616), Other texts, however, most notably the Kosa, Vibh and Nyayanusara,
give artha as its object while, for the Aloka, it is dharmalaksana {Mpps, iii, p. 1616, n. 3).
80. mi gnas pa: anisrita (cf. Edgerton, p. 25, col. 2).
81. rjes su rtogs pa ses pa: anvayajhdna {Mvy 1224, 1228,1232,1236).
82 tsul g c ig ekarupa
Akn-tika, pp. 240.5.8-241,1.1:
“That is, [the bodhisattva] realises that the characteristics o f all dharma are o f one characteristics,
that their nature is o f one characteristic.”
83. hespa rtogpa: nirupana (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 554, col. 1).
84. yul m edpa: avisaya (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 110, col. 2).

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It is knowledge that purification does not lead to future rebirth85. When concerned with the
Sravakayana, it is knowledge understanding in conformity with statements. When concerned
with the Pratyekabuddhayana, it is knowledge understanding causal dependence and unsur­
passed knowledge of solitude. When concerned with the Mahayana, it is knowledge of all
kinds of accumulation of roots of virtue. This is the bodhisattva’s unique knowledge of the
own-being of things. (626)
Furthermore, as regards the unique knowledge of the own-being of things; it is to rely on
the spirit conforming to reliance on the spirit of every dharma-foundation of all dharma.
Why? All dharma being without exception empty, emptiness is the own-being concerned. All
dharma being without exception signless, signlessness is the own-being concerned. All dharma
being without exception wishless, wishlessness is the own-being concerned. All dharma
being without exception non-manifest86, non-manifestation is the own-being concerned. All
dharma being without exception devoid of a living being, a life-force or a person, personlessness
is the own-being concerned.87
Such understanding of dhatma is the unique knowledge of the own-being of things. The
teaching of the own-being of things is an unestablished and inexhaustible teaching. This
unique knowledge is a teaching of the awakened truth88. It is conferred by the lord buddhas
and gives lasting pleasure. It is genuine, authentic and factual; it is well-realised89 through
wisdom and altogether beyond reproach. This is the bodhisattva’s unique knowledge of the
own-being of things.

2.5.2 Skill in the Unique Knowledge o f Designations

Next, what is the unique knowledge of designations?90It is knowledge penetrating dharma

85. mtshams sbyor ba m edpa: apratisamdhi (cf. Edgerton, p. 372, col. 1).
86. mam p a r pye ba: vicita (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 959, col. 1).
87. According to the Mpps, reliance on dharmata as opposed to pudgala and the resultant recognition o f the
own-being o f dharma pertains to the sphere o f the dharmapratisamvid {Mpps, iii, p. 1621).
88. rtogs pahi don: adhigamdrtha (cf. Edgerton, p. 12, col. 2).
89. sin tu rtogs pa: supratividdha (cf. Edgerton, p. 600, col. 1).
90. In my translation o f the tenn dharmapratisamvid I follow once again Lamotte {Mpps, iii, pp. 1614, 1617,
n. 1), who cites several passages that liken it to ‘knowledge o f instruction’ (desand) (Vibhahga), ‘knowledge
o f enunciation’ (paryaya) (Aloka) or ‘knowledge of names’ {naman) {Nyayanusara). The dharmapratisamvid
is hence primarily a knowledge that assists the bodhisattva to understand the designations (bhasitdrtha),
names (naman), phrases (pada) or syllables (vyahjana) that are employed to designate any kind o f object.
In practice, however, the scope o f the dharmapratisamvid is much more limited. That is to say, it is only
concerned with the word o f the Buddha {Vibh, p. 294.22-24). In the words o f thsAbhidh-d (p. 393.5-6):
“The pratisam vid is the indestructible knowledge concerning the categories o f names, etc.,
that are contained in the twelve branches [of the Dharma]. It relates to matters o f expression
and pertains to discussion.”
In the Bbh (p. 258.4-8) no such detail is found as the dharmapratisamvid is only taken to address, rather
generally, the characteristics o f dhamia (dharmalaksana). The text is similarly unhelpful with regard to
the objects o f the other pratisamvid (p. 258.8-24).
According to the Abi-tika (p. 242.3.5-8; cf. Akn, pp. 62.5.4-63.2.4), the difference between artha and
dharma is one o f voice:
“While it is true that between artha and dharma there is no difference, artha should be

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that pertain to virtue and non-virtue, reproach and approval, impurity and purity, (627)
worldliness and supra-worldliness, conditioning and non-conditioning, contamination and the
fortune of purification91, samsara and nirvana. It is knowledge of the sameness of the sphere
of the Dharma, knowledge of the sameness of enlightenment and knowledge of the sameness
of the elements. This is [the bodhisattva’s] unique knowledge of designations.
Furthermore, as regards the unique knowledge of designations;92 it is knowledge of the
thoughts of those who act with desire, fictitious desire, severe desire, slight desire, unarisen
desire, constant and infinite desire as well as with presently conditioned desire.
It is knowledge of sentient beings who act with desire. That is to say, it is knowledge of
those who, while being externally free from desire crave internally; of those who, while
being internally free from desire crave externally; of those who are internally as well as
externally free from desire; of those who crave internally and externally; of those who, while
being free from desire for sound crave for form; of those who, while being free from desire
for form crave for sound; (628) of those who crave for both form and sound; of those who do
not crave for either sound or form; of those who, while craving for form are free from desire
for scent; of those who, while craving for scent are free from desire for touch; of those who,
while craving for touch are free from desire for flavour and of those who, while craving for
flavour are free from desire for form or scent.
By means of this acumen, there being twenty-one thousand modes of desire, twenty-one
thousand modes of hatred, twenty-one thousand modes of delusion and twenty-one thousand
modes of conduct that partake uniformly in desire, hatred and delusion93, it is knowledge of
the thoughts of eighty-four thousand modes of conduct.94
It is knowledge of appropriate instructions and knowledge of instructions that are neither
too long nor too short. It is knowledge of sentient beings who transcend desire and knowledge
of those who are superior receptacles. It is knowledge of instructions that are efficacious.
This is the unique knowledge of designations.

perceived as the object that should be instructed in and understood, but dharma should be
perceived as the agent that instructs and prompts understanding. Again, dharma are conditioned
and unconditioned things, etc., that are cited by name, while artha is the meaning o f them that
should be discerned and examined. Again, knowledge o f artha is accurate cognition (avi-
paritadhigama) o f the characteristics o f all dharma while knowledge o f dharma is knowledge
o f the names o f these dharma.”
91. mam p a r byah bahi cha dan hthun pa: vyavadanabhagin (cf. Edgerton, p. 515, col. 2).
92 See, M 1, p. 59 and Mpps, iii, p. 1199 for parallel passages. Cf. Akn-tikk, p. 213.1.5-2.3.
93. In the fourth item, ‘partaking in the three uniformly’, our text deviates from elsewhere well-established
patterns. Most texts, like the Kosa (i, p. 47; ii, p. 297), cite ‘pride’ (lobha) as the fourth member o f the
root-defilements o f raga, moha and dvesa.
94. The notion that the dharma -aggregate o f the Buddha consists o f 84. 000 units covering the mental conduct
o f all beings is, o f course, an ancient one. It is found, for instance, in the Saddhp (p. 254.11), Kosa (i, pp.
46-47), Rgv (p. 232) and is cited in the Msg (p. 229). The division into the 21 000 varieties o f desire,
hatred, delusion and pride is less frequent as it is only found in the Kosa (i, p. 47). Note that according to
the Mpps (iii, p. 1623) knowledge o f the dispositions o f sentient beings falls within the scope o f the
pratibhanapratisamvid — not the dharmapratisamvid

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2.5.3 Skill in the Unique Knowledge o f Languages

Next, what is the unique knowledge of languages?95Penetrating all languages non-verbally,
he explains the Doctrine to people by way of the language of gods, naga,yaksa, gandharva,
mahoraga, southern mahoraga, kinnara and ancestors as well as by way of sounds and
melodies. This is the unique knowledge of languages. (629)
It is in this way that he should discern, acquire and retain the practices. It is in this way that
he should model his practice to the letter.
The bodhisattva knows the appellation of words that are in the singular, dual or plural. He
knows words that are of feminine, masculine or neuter gender. He knows contracted and
expanded words. He knows abusive and laudatory words. He knows words of the past,
present and future. He knows how to infer by means of one letter. He knows how to infer by
means of many letters. This is the unique knowledge of languages.
Again, as regards the unique knowledge of languages; it is free of error, neither repetitive
nor hasty. He is well-acquainted96 with texts that clarify the meaning of practices. By all
means, this knowledge is of insightful cognition, profound, versatile and prompts delight in
samsara. It is embellished with conventional and absolute truth. It is subject to self-induced
cognition. It is conferred by the Buddha and gives pleasure to all sentient beings. This is the
bodhisattva’s unique knowledge of languages.

2.5.4 Skill in the Unique Knowledge o f Eloquence

Next, what is the bodhisattva’s unique knowledge of eloquence?97 It is articulate speech
that teaches instructions free-speakingly. It is speech that is fluent, (630) eloquent, spirited
and dynamic. It is impeccable and non-evasive. It is completely flawless, non-contradictory,
95. For the Mahayana, the object o f the niruktipratisamvid is primarily knowledge o f languages. This departure
from the early conceptions according to which it covers chiefly grammar (Kosabhasya, p. 419.17-18)
minors a revised understanding o f the training requirements that sprang from the bodhisattva’s pledge to
universal liberation (Akn-tika, p. 243.3.3-4; cf. Akn, p. 63.2.4-3.5):
“In order to instruct in knowledge o f language conventions (vyavaharajha), it is asked what is
the unique knowledge o f languages?”
For further evidence o f this interpretation see: Bbh (p. 258.11-13) and Msl (p. 139.1).
96. yohs su byah ba: paricita (Mvy 2412).
97. Akn-tika, p. 243.5.4-5; cf. Akn, p. 63.3.5-4.8:
“in order to instruct in knowledge o f expression (abhildpajha), it is asked what is the unique
knowledge o f eloquence?”
Once again, this interpretation is also attested in the Bbh (p. 258.14-17) and Msl (p. 139.1-2). The reasons
for the bodhisattva’s eloquence are explained in the $gs (p. 188):
“Pourquoi le bodhisattva est-il doue d’eloquence (pratibhdnasampanna)? Le devaputra - Le
bodhisattva parle sans utiliser la notion du soi (atmasamjha), sans utiliser la notion d’autrui
(parasamjha) et sans utiliser la notion de dharma: il est done ‘doue d’eloquence’. Lorsqu’il
preche la Loi, les phonemes (aksara) sont inepuisables (aksaya), et les dharma aussi sont
inepuisables. Parlant ainsi, il ne parle pas de dualite (dvaya): il est done ‘doue d’eloquence’.
Kulaputra, si le bodhisattva ne rejette pas le caractere de magie (mdydlaksana) inherent aux
dharma et ne rejette pas le caractere d’echo {pratisrutkdlaksana) inherent aux sons (svara), il
est ‘doue d ’eloquence’.”

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non-contentious and preoccupied with the Doctrine. It is patient, profound and versatile. It is
eloquent in conventional and absolute truth. It is eloquent attending to ail forms of giving,
morality, patience, vigour, meditation and wisdom. It is eloquent in mindfulness, right efforts,
bases of success, faculties, powers, factors of enlightenment, path, perfect mental quietude
and insight.98 It is eloquent in that it knows all entrances into contemplation, liberation,
meditation, attainment and truth. It is eloquent in all vehicles as well as in the mental activity
of all sentient beings.
It is eloquent in that it is of resourceful, congenial and orderly speech. It consists of subtle,
smooth, taintless, emancipated, nonpartisan, honourable, articulate, fitting, impeccable, renown,
sympathetic and laudatory speech. It is speech that is praised by all noble ones. Its sound
reverberates with knowledge of infinite buddha-fields. (631) Its pure sound resembles melodies.
It is the one sound that induces awakening. By means of this buddha-bestowed eloquent, [the
bodhisattva] teaches the Doctrine to humans and other living beings. Also this liberating
Dharma-discourse of his brings to a halt suffering in those who practice it. This is the
bodhisattva’s unique knowledge of eloquence. This is bodhisattva’s skill in eloquence.
It is in this manner that the bodhisattva who is skilled in eloquence courses in the Perfection
ofWisdom.

2.6 Skill in Reliance

Next, what is the bodhisattva’s skill in reliance?99 The reliances of bodhisattvas are four.
What are the four? They rely on the spirit rather than on the letter. They rely on direct

98. This is the only instance in the Bdp where the bodhipaksika dharma are listed in their entirety. All other
references to their categories, including their detailed discussion as one o f the bodhisattva’s skills under
2.7.2 and 2.8-10, fail to mention the ‘four bases of success’ (rddhipada).
99. For a commentary on the terms and concepts that are involved in this section, see: Akn-tika (1) spirit/letter:
pp. 244.5.8-246.3.8, (2) direct knowledge/discursive insight: pp. 246.3.8-247.2.5, (3) sutras o f precise/pro­
visional meaning: p. 247.2.6-5.3 and (4) foundation o f being/person: pp. 247.5.6-248.4.7.
The translations o f the Sanskrit terms included in this category has not been agreed upon. Compare, for
instance, those o f Wayman (1974, p. 103), viz., ‘meaning/letter’, ‘doctrines/personalities’, ‘knowledge/per­
ception’ and ‘final meaning/provisional meaning’ with those of La Vallee Poussin {Kosa, ii, p. 246). In my
translation, I was guided by the terminology that is employed by Lamotte in his article: “La critique
d’interpretation dans le bouddhisme’ {Annuaire de Tlnstitut de Philologie et Histoire Orientales et Slaves,
9, 1949).
The concept o f the four reliances is no doubt an ancient one. It is already found in several o f the early
suttas. For brief, often archaic statements on individual aspects o f the four pratisarana, see for instance: D
III, pp. 127-129; M I, p. 265; II, p. 240; A I, p. 60; Mahavagga I, p. 23. 4; Nett, p. 21. Other early
commentarial references to the pratisarana are found in the Dipavamsa (ed. Oldenburg, p. 36), in the
introduction to the commentary on the Kathavatthu (JPTS, 1889, p. 3), Vism (pp. 473, 499) andAtthasalini
(p. 91; ref. La Vallee Poussin).
In many o f these early works comparatively little importance is being attached to their attributes. Their
rise to one o f the major sets o f practices in the spiritual training o f the religious seems to have taken place
in the later scholastic or analytic period o f Buddhist thought. In particular, Asanga has made major
contributions to the process o f defining the exact scope and application o f the pratisarana. In both the Msl
(p. 138.1-14) and Bbh (pp. 256.23-58.3), for instance, we have detailed passages where their significance
is analysed with considerable scholastic exactitude. I have incorporated this material into my discussion of
the pratisarana in chapter four.

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knowledge rather than on discursive insight. They rely on sutras of precise meaning rather
than on sutras of provisional meaning. They rely on the foundation of being rather than on
persons.

2.6.1 Skill in Reliance on the Spirit and not on the Letter

What is the spirit? What is the letter? The letter penetrates the activity of mundane dharma.
The spirit realises supramundane dharma. The letter instructs in generosity, benignity, discipline
and bravery. The spirit perceives benignity, tranquillity, non-arising and non-decaying. (632)
The letter proclaims the teachings100 of samsara. The spirit relies on inconceivability. The
letter proclaims the qualities of nirvana. The spirit does not discriminate dharma that by their
nature are in nirvana101. The letter preaches according to the differentiation of the vehicles.
The spirit is knowledge that arises from realising dharma-sameness. The letter instructs not
to abandon any sentient being. The spirit purifies the three spheres of giving102.103
The letter—disciplining body, speech and mind—instructs in achieving all attainments of
learning and purity. The spirit—not apprehending body, speech and mind—purifies the non­
accumulation of karmic formations. The letter, suppressing malice, anger, pride and self-conceit
instructs in patience and bravery. The spirit achieves the conviction of the non-arising of
dharma. The letter instructs in vigour concerning all roots of virtue104. The spirit is vigour
independent of apprehension or renunciation. The letter instructs in contemplation, liberation,
meditation and attainment. The spirit is knowledge of entering the attainment of cessation.105
(633)
The letter, being the receptacle of all that has been heard, is the root of wisdom. The spirit
is the ineffable meaning. The letter instructs in the practice of the thirty-seven bodhipaksika
dharma.106 The spirit realises the fruit of the practice107 of the thirty-seven bodhipaksika
100. Cf. Pelliot, 977, la.3 which has rgyus meaning ‘knowledge’, ‘intelligence’; ‘history’, ‘tale’ instead ofyohs
su bsadpa.
101. rah bzin gyis yohs su mya nan las hdas pa', prah'tiparinirvrta (cf. Edgerton, p. 356, col. 2).
102 hkhor gsum: trimandalaparisuddha (Mvy 2537; cf. Edgerton, p. 258, col. 1).
103. Pelliot, 977, la.2-4:
“The spirit penetrates the meaning o f the supramundane. The letter penetrates the activity o f
mundane dharma. The spirit perceives benignity, tranquillity, non-arising and non-decaying.
The letter preaches generosity, benignity, diligence and great joy. Furthermore, the letter is
proclaimed through causes o f samsara. The spirit looks at the inconceivable. The letter proclaims
praise o f the qualities o f nirvana. The spirit does not discriminate dharma that by nature are in
nirvana.”
104. I follow here the Pelliot reading.
105. Pelliot, 977, folio la .5 -lb .l:
“The letter— disciplining body, speech and mind—instructs in achieving all attainments of
learning and purity. The spirit—when seeing body, speech and mind—purifies the accumulation
o f karmic formations. Furthermore, the letter heals the defilement o f malice, anger, pride and
self-conceit and instructs in patience and joy. The spirit achieves the conviction o f the non-arising
o f dharma. Furthermore, the letter instructs in vigour concerning all roots o f virtue. The spirit
is free from discrimination and discernment. It is vigour that is independent.”
106l Pelliot, 977, lb.2-3:
“The letter generates the practice o f the thirty-seven bodhipaksika dharma.”

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dharma. The letter instructs in suffering, its origin and the path. The spirit realises its
cessation. The letter instructs in ignorance, etc., up to old-age-and-death. The spirit realises
the cessation of ignorance, etc., up to the cessation of old-age-and-death. The letter instructs
in the accumulation of perfect mental quietude and insight. The spirit realises knowledge and
deliverance.
The letter explains the Doctrine to those who act with desire, hatred or delusion or who
partake uniformly in all three. The spirit is the unperturbed liberation of the mind. The letter
points to all dharma that cause obstruction. The spirit is the unobstructed pristine cognition
and liberation. The letter displays the incalculable, excellent qualities of the three jewels. The
spirit accomplishes the imperturbable state of being and the unconditioned qualities of the
Sahgha.m (634)
The letter instructs in learning and attainments that are accomplished by the bodhisattva,
starting with the first production of the thought of enlightenment, the point of departure, up
to the seat of enlightenment.109 The spirit is perfect enlightenment arising from pristine
cognition of all-knowing since is endowed with a single moment of thought. In brief, that
which instructs in up to eighty-four thousand dharma-aggregates is the letter. The ineffable
meaning of all sounds, letters and syllables is the spirit.110

107. nan tan du byedpa:pratipatti (cf. Edgerton, p. 364. col. 2).

108. Pelliot, 977, l.b3-4:
“Furthermore, the letter explains the Doctrine to those who partake uniformly in desire, hatred
or delusion. The spirit is the unperturbed liberation. Furthermore, the letter points to all
obstructing dharma. The spirit is the unobstructed pristine cognition and liberation. Furthermore,
the letter analyses the colour o f the qualities of the three jewels.”
109. by an chub kyi shin p o : bodhimanda
The Tibetan rendering o f the term bodhimanda is explained in the Aloka (p. 206.7):
“The bodhimanda, used as a seat, is a spot so named because the manda, that is the quintessence
o f bodhi, is present there.”
There exist two types o f interpretation o f the concept of bodhimanda. First, when understood as a seat, it
refers to the seat underneath the Bodhi-tree under which all buddhas are held to attain enlightenment
(iSaddhp, p. 316.3-4). As a physical entity, the seat o f enlightenment became soon subject to a cult.
Already during Mauryan times, the tree o f enlightenment received royal attention and became a sanctuary
that was enclosed by brick walls and regularly worshipped (Bloch, Inscriptions d ’Asoka, p. 112, Divya, p.
404.2). By the seventh century the cult o f the bodhimanda had progressed to assume cosmic dimensions.
Hsiian-tsang (Beal, 1981, ii, pp. 115-6) saw in the enclosure surrounding the Bodhi-tree a ‘diamond seat’
(vajrasana) o f which he was told that it would appear at the beginning o f a Bhadrakalpa and stood,
immovably, at the exact centre o f the trichiliomegachiliocosm. Second, as a spiritual concept, the term
bodhimanda stands for the presence o f the Dhanna as it is preserved in the sutras or as it is embodied by
the dharmakdya o f all buddhas. As such it is non-spatial and may be found in any location where the
presence o f the Dharma is manifest. To this effect, we read in the Saddhp (p. 391.6-13, trsl. Kern):
“And wherever on earth, son o f good family, this Dharma-enunciation shall be made known,
read, written, meditated, expounded, studied or collected into a volume, be it in a monastery
or at home ... in that place one should erect a stupa in dedication to the Tathagata; for such a
spot must be regarded as a bodhimanda.”
The same thought is also expressed in the Vkn (p. 99, trsl. Lamotte) when Vimalakirti announces that all
bodhisattvas “whether they go somewhere or return from it, whether they advance or stop ... come always
from the seat o f enlightenment.” For these and further references to the development o f the concept o f
bodhimanda, see: Lamotte, 1976, p. 94, n. 105.
110. Pelliot, 977, lb.6-7:
“The spirit is perfect enlightenment arising from pristine cognition o f all-knowing composed

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Next, what are sutras whose meaning is provisional? Texts that propound the letter should
be absorbed meticulously just as they are preached. These are sutras of provisional meaning.
What are sutras whose meaning is precise? Texts that propound the spirit should be absorbed
meticulously just as they are preached. These are sutras of precise meaning.111
Why does one rely on the foundation of being rather than on persons? Since the provisional
meaning is that of persons, one does not rely on these. Rather, since the precise meaning
corresponds to the foundation of being, one relies on it.
These are the bodhisattva’s four reliances.112 It is in this manner that the bodhisattva,
mahasattva who is skilled in reliance courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.113

Next, what is the bodhisattva’s skill in the letter?114 (635) Concerning this, the bodhisattva
who is skilled in two dhatma courses in the Perfection of Wisdom. What are the two

o f a single moment o f thought. In brief, that which preaches all eighty-four thousand dharma-
aggregates is the letter. That which is truly ineffable through any sound or letter is the spirit.”
111. Pelliot, 977, folio lb.7-2a.l:
“Next, what are sutras whose meaning is provisional? Sayings that should be absorbed meticu­
lously just as they are preached, these are sutras o f provisional meaning. What are sutras
whose meaning is precise? Sayings should be understood in detail just as they are preached,
these are sutras o f precise meaning.”
11Z This is evidently not the case, as the pairjhana/vijhdna has not yet been treated. For a discussion o f this
incongruity, see note 114. In the^for, this confusion has been redressed.
113. Pelliot, 9 7 7 ,2a.l-2a.2:
“How does one rely on the foundation o f being rather than on persons? That which is the
provisional meaning is the meaning o f the person. Through that there is no liberation. That
which is the precise meaning corresponds to the foundation o f being. Through that there is
liberation.”
114. The sequence in which the material is presented is quite evidently out of order. This irregularity appears in
all blockprint editions consulted by me, that is, the sDe-dge, sNar-than, Peking and sTog-Palace bKah-hgyur
and, to a lesser extent, also in the Pelliot manuscript. Although it is true that one cannot speak o f a
universal agreement as to the sequence in which the four pairs of pratisarana should be cited (compare,
for instance, the sequence proposed in Mvy 1545-49 and.ko.ya, ii, pp. 246-8), the actual order in which
the pairs are discussed corresponds invariably to that put forward in the respective subject listings. To my
knowledge, the Bdp is the only text in which this is not the case. What is more, in the Bdp the pairs
nithartha/neydrtha and dharmata/pudgala are dealt with twice. The sequence runs as follows:
1. Arthalvyahjana (R, folio 631.6-634.4; Pelliot: la.2-2a.7)
2. Nithartha/neydrtha (R, folio 634.4-5; Pelliot: 2a.7-2b.l)
3. Dharmata/pudgala (R, folio 634.5-6; Pelliot: 2b.l-2b.2)
Interpolation
~ Stockphrase: Tt is in this manner that. . . . ’ This phrase concludes elsewhere major sections in the Bdp.
- Re-introduction o f the theme, linking the discussion o f jhana/vijhana to ‘skill’ in the letter. This connects
not only the discussion o f the pairjhana/vijhana to the previously interrupted exposition, but leads also to
the sequence found in the subject heading (R, folio 631.3-6, viz., arthalvyahjana; jhana/vijhana;
nithdrtha!neydrtha’, dharmata/pudgala)
- Coursing in the Perfection o f Wisdom is acted out by ‘skill’ in two dharma, that is Jhana and vijhdna.
End o f Interpolation
4. Jhana/vijhana (R, folio 634.7—636.5; Pelliot: 2b.2—3a.l)
5. Nithdrtha/neydrtha (R, folio 636.6-638.1; Pelliot: 3a.2-3b.l)
6. Dharmata/pudgala (R, folio 638.1-639.4; Pelliot: 3b.l-3b.7)
The whole interpolation is absent in the Pelliot manuscript. Here, the discussion o f the pair dharmata/pudgala
is immediately followed by an exposition o f jhana/vijhana.

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dharma? He is skilled in discursive insight and direct knowledge.115

2.6.2 Reliance on Direct Knowledge and not on Discursive Insight

What is discursive insight? What is direct knowledge? As regards discursive insight; there
are four abodes of discursive insight. What are the four? Matter in which discursive insight
rests and is firmly rooted is its abode. Feeling, perception and karmic formations in which
discursive insight rests and is firmly rooted are its abodes. This is discursive insight.
What is direct knowledge? Cognition that persists in the five appropriating aggregates and
knows the aggregate of consciousness, this is direct knowledge.116Perception of the element
of earth, fire, water or wind is discursive insight. Cognition that does not attend to the four
elements, but perceives the pure sphere of the Dharma, this is direct knowledge.
Furthermore, as regards discursive insight; perception of form, sound, scent, flavour, touch
or mental objects through the respective consciousness is discursive insight. Tranquillity in
internal sensefields, imperturbability in external sensefields and non-apprehension117 of any
dharma whatsoever by relying on direct knowledge, this is direct knowledge.118
Furthermore, as regards discursive insight; knowledge that is bom from false mental con­
structions and imagination is discursive insight. Imperturbability and refrain from grasping,
asserting, constming and discerning, this is direct knowledge.
Furthermore, discursive insight persists in the sphere of conditioned dharma but does not
wander in the unconditioned. Perception of the unconditioned, this is direct knowledge.
Furthermore, discursive insight attends to the notions of birth and decay. Independence of
the unborn and unceasing, this is direct knowledge.119

2.6.3 Reliance on Sutras o f Precise and not on Sutras o f Provisional Meaning

Next, what are the sutras whose meaning is precise? What are the sutras whose meaning is

115. This paragraph is missing in the Pelliot manuscript.

In the Akn-tika, this subcategory is explained on pages 246.3.7-247.2.5. For a discussion o f the terms
vijhana/jhdna, see: Wayman, 1980, p. 251-267.
116. Pelliot, 977, folio 2a.3-4:
“What is direct knowledge? Cognition that does not persist in the five appropriating aggregates
and knows the aggregate o f pristine cognition, this is direct knowledge.”
117. g zo g p a r mi byedpa: samnidhapayate (cf. Edgerton, p. 58, col. 2).
118. Pelliot, 977, folio 2a.5-6:
“Furthermore, as regards discursive insight; [absorption of external objects through conscious­
ness], starting with absorption o f form through the eye and ending with absorption o f mental
objects through mentation, this is discursive insight. Tranquillity concerning internal sensefields,
inactivity concerning external sensefields and non-apprehension o f any dharma whatsoever
for the sake o f proceeding to pristine cognition, this is direct knowledge.”
119. Pelliot, 977, folio 2a.7-2b. 1:
“Furthermore, discursive insight penetrates conditioned dharma. Discursive insight does not
participate in the unconditioned. Knowledge through the unconditioned, this is direct knowledge.
Furthermore, discursive insight attends to the notions o f birth and origination. Non-attending
to the unborn and unceasing, this is direct knowledge.”

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provisional? Sutras that introduce to the path are of provisional meaning. Sutras that introduce
to its fruit are of precise meaning.120 Sutras that cause to accomplish the conventional truth
are of provisional meaning. Sutras that preach the absolute truth are of precise meaning.121
Furthermore, sutras that introduce to action and duties are of provisional meaning.122 (637)
Sutras that are taught in order to bring action and impurity to a final halt are of precise
meaning.
Furthermore, sutras that are taught in order to explain impurity are of provisional meaning.
Sutras that are taught for the sake of complete purification are of precise meaning. Sutras that
cause weariness with samsara are of provisional meaning. Sutras that do not partake in the
duality of samsara and nirvana are of precise meaning. Sutras that are taught with manifold
words and letters are of provisional meaning. Sutras that are profound, hard to fathom and
difficult to understand are of precise meaning. Sutras that delight the hearts of sentient beings
with many words are of provisional meaning. Sutras that cause sentient beings to gain
confidence with few syllables and words are of precise meaning.123
Furthermore, sutras that proclaim with various words a self, a living being, a life-force, a
person, a man, a human being, an individual or a being that arises and feels saying that there
is an owner when there is no such owner124are of provisional meaning. Sutras that instruct in

120. This section contains a good example o f the doctrinal advance of the Akn over the Bdp. Preserved in the
Sanskrit o f the Madh. vrtti (p. 43.4-6), the Akn reads:
“Sutras that have been expounded in order to teach the path o f penetration (mdrgdvatara) are
o f provisional meaning. Sutras that have been expounded in order to teach the fruit o f penetration
(phaldvatdra) are o f precise meaning.”
It continues:
“All sutras that instruct in emptiness, signlessness, wishlessness, non-accumulation (anab-
hisamskdra), non-birth (ajdta), non-origination (anutpdda), non-becoming (abhava), non-self,
the absence o f life-force, person and a master (svamin), such texts are o f precise meaning”
{Madh. vrtti, p. 43.6-9).
A corresponding section is found in the Bdp at 637.5-638.1.
121. Pelliot (977, folio 2b. 1-3) lias:
“iSutras that preach the conventional truth are o f provisional meaning. Sutras that preach the
absolute truth are o f precise meaning.”
According to the Mpps (ii, p. 539), sutras are o f provisional meaning if they contain the following sayings:
“Among all omniscient, the Buddha is the foremost; among all texts, the sutras are the
foremost; among all beings, monks are the foremost.”
These Lamotte identifies as the three agraprajhapti proclaiming the superiority o f the triratna (A II, p. 34;
III, p. 35; Itv, p. 87). In addition, nitartha sutras explain that “one acquires great merit through generosity,
that morality allows for rebirth among the gods”. Neydrtha sutras, in contrast, are held to teach that a
master o f the Doctrine (dharmacarya) gains the following five advantages (anusamsa): (1) great merit, (2)
affection from human beings, (3) beauty, (4) renown and (5) eventual arrival at nirvana. These, o f course,
are exactly the benefits that are said elsewhere (A III, p. 41) to accrue to persons who engage in generosity.
122 Pelliot, 977, folio 2b.3-3:
“Furthermore, sutras that introduce to action are o f provisional meaning.”
123. Pelliot, 977, folio 2b.3-6:
“Furthermore, sutras that are taught in order to cleanse impurity are o f provisional meaning.
... Furthermore, sutras that delight the minds of sentient beings with many classifications are
o f provisional meaning. Those which are straightforward for the mind in [showing] few
classifications and words are o f precise meaning.”
124. bdag po m edpa bdag po yodpa: asvamikasvamika (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 124, col. 1).

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emptiness, signlessness and wishlessness, in non-birth, non-arising and non-becoming, in the

non-existence of a living being or person as well as in the gateways to liberation from the
three times are of precise meaning.125 (638)

2.6.4 Reliance on the Foundation o f Being and not on the Person

Next, what is the foundation of being?126What is the person? One who attends to the belief
of the existence of a person and pursues religious practice, this is the person.127 The Dharma-
continuance of one who acquires the belief of the existence of a person, this Dharma-sphere
is the foundation of being.
Furthermore, as regards the person; in order to convert sentient beings the Tathagata explains
everything with the help of conventional methods in terms of persons, saying: “The unique
person who is bom in this world and appears for the sake of the benefit and well-being of
many sentient beings, who feels compassion for the world and accomplishes the welfare,
benefit and happiness of hosts of beings among gods and men, viz., the Tathagata, Arhant,
Samyak Sambuddha as well as lay persons, virtuous lay persons, faithful persons, Dharma-
observing persons, persons of the eighth rank128, stream-enterers, once-retumers, non-returners,
arhants, pratyekabuddhas and bodhisattvas, [all] these are persons.” Now, those who become
attached to such [appellations] have nothing to rely on.129 In order to establish beings in
understanding, the lord said that rather than to rely on the notion of the person they should
rely on the foundation of being. (639)
Next, what is the foundation of being? All dharma bear the characteristics of unbecome,
unmade, unproduced and unaccomplished; of changeability, fluctuation, rootlessness and
complete sameness, viz., sameness in equality, non-equality and in both equality and non­
equality; of non-discrimination, non-undertaking, certainty and lack of own-being. This is the

125. Pelliot, 977, folio 2b.6-7:

“Furthermore, those which explain the assembly of a self, a living being, a being that feels and
a person are o f provisional meaning.”
126. Pelliot, 977, folio 3a. 1-1:
“Next, what is the foundation o f being?”
127. The structure o f this sentence is ambiguous. I follow here the interpretation of the parallel passage in the
Akn (p. 64.4,7-8) as proposed by Vasubandhu in the Akn-tikd (pp. 247.5.3-248.1.1).
128. aryastamaka
The term astamaka is problematic. Given in the Pali as atthamaka, it is interpreted by the PED and CPD
as a reference to that person among the driya-puggala who has reached the eighth stage, that is to say, he
is a person who has just entered on the lowest stage o f the Sravaka-path (sotapattiphala-sacchikiryaya
patipanno', Puggalapahnati, p. 73). While such a definition is quite acceptable, difficulties arise since
there appears to be no reference to a seventh, sixth, etc., person. In the Nett (pp. 49-50; ref. Gethin), the
term atthamaka serves to define the anagamin. On the basis o f these findings, but somewhat evading the
problem, ftanamoli suggests to consider the meaning of atthamaka as corresponding with that ofpatipannaka
(‘one who has entered on the path’)—an assumption that is probably correct in essence as the practice o f
atthamaka refers in the Netti (pp. 95-6) to a person practising on the transcendental path. La Vallee
Poussin comes to a similar conclusion (1907, p. 266, n. 2). The Mvy (1143) speaks o f a astamakabhumi,
being the third o f the seven bhumi o f the Sravaka (cf. Edgerton, p. 81).
129. rton pa m ayin pa: apratisarana

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foundation of being.
Those who rely on the foundation of being never rely on elements. Hence, because they
rely on all dharma by means of penetrating the door to Dharma-observance, [they know that]
the totality of dharma is such foundation of being.130
These are the four reliances of bodhisattvas. This is the bodhisattva’s skill in reliance. It is
in this manner that the bodhisattva who is skilled in reliance courses in the Perfection of
Wisdom.131

2.7 Skill in Accumulation

2.7.1 Skill in the Accumulation o f Merit

Next, what is the bodhisattva’s skill in accumulation? The accumulation of the bodhisattva
is twofold. What are the two? These are the accumulation of merit and the accumulation of
pristine cognition.
What is his accumulation of merit? It contains the bases of meritorious work that arise from
generosity, moral conduct and contemplation.132 (640) It contains the bases of meritorious
130. Lit: ‘the totality o f dharma is such foundation o f being.’
Pelliot, 977, folio 3a.4-7:
“What is the foundation o f being? Existence has the foundation o f the unmade, unproduced,
unestablished and unsupported. All dharma bear the characteristics o f complete sameness,
viz., non-equality and equality, o f non-discrimination, non-undertaking, non-originating and
lack o f own-being. This is the foundation of being. The dharma o f those who rely on the
foundation o f being do not reappear. Hence, having relied on all dharma by means o f entering
into the door o f Dharma-observance, they seize them. All dharma are such a foundation.”
131 This paragraph, starting with ‘These are’ up to ‘o f Wisdom’ is missing in the Pelliot manuscript.
132 bsod nams bya bahi dhospo: punyakriydvastu
In the suttas o f the Pali tradition, we find three kinds o f bases o f merit, viz., the basis o f meritorious work
arising from generosity, arising from morality and meditation (dana-, sila-, and bhavandmayakriydvatthu).
Brief references to these three are found in D III, p. 218 and/riv., p. 51. In the Aiiguttaranikaya IV, p. 241,
the Buddha expounds the various fruits that accrue to practitioners o f the. three bases o f meritorious work,
in particular, the sublime spheres o f rebirth.
The most instructive explanation o f their role and functioning is found in the Kosa (iv, pp. 231-33).
Distinguishing, like the Pali, meritorious action arising from generosity, morality and meditation (dana-,
sila-, bhavanapunyakriydvastu), it characterises each o f the three as merit (punya), action (kriya) and basis
(vastu). Dana, sila and bhavand themselves are the bases o f meritorious action (punyakriya), because in
process o f their realisation the practitioner undertakes the preparation for merit.
Generosity, consisting o f vocal and physical action is that which produces the action. But it is not so much
the object that is given that matters and determines the resulting merit, than the reason why a certain thing
has been granted. Hence, volition (cetana) or the collection o f thought and mentation ( cittacaittakalapa) is
crucially important to the accumulation o f merit o f which dana, sila and bhavand are merely objects
(vastu) or bases (adhisthana). Depending on cetana, generosity can either display a pure or impure
disposition. Founding its views on the eight factors o f the Sahgitisutta (D III, pp. 258-60), the Mpps (v, p.
2249) distinguishes sixteen types o f impure giving, including generosity out o f desire for retribution, out
o f hope for heavenly rebirth, fame, etc. Pure generosity, in contrast, is always motivated by the desire to
purify one’s thought and to adorn the spirit, and leads to nirvana.
Morality as a basis o f meritorious work is like generosity manifested in vocal and physical action.
According to the Mpps, its scope o f application is limited to the pahcasila consisting in abstention from
killing, theft, lying, adultery and intoxication. Capable o f showing three degrees o f accomplishment (low,
mediocre and high) and qualified by the motivation and circumstances surrounding moral violations, the
amount o f merit it produces varies with the integrity o f the practitioner (A IV, pp. 241-43).

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work that are furnished with a calm, benevolent disposition, compassionate conduct, exertion
for all roots of virtue and the elimination of one’s own and other peoples’ sins.
It contains the bases of meritorious work that are furnished with gratitude133 towards all
sentient beings of all times for their roots of virtue, viz., towards all learned ones and
unlearned ones, towards all pratyekabuddhas and those who have produced the thought of
enlightenment for the first time, towards all who have embarked on virtuous conduct, towards
all irreversible bodhisattvas, towards those who are separated from buddhahood by just one
birth134 and towards the buddhas of the past, present and future. It contains the bases of
meritorious work furnished with the request of the Doctrine from all buddhas and noble ones.
It contains the bases of meritorious work that are furnished with the transformation of all
virtue into enlightenment.
He generates the thought of enlightenment in sentient beings who have not generated the
thought of enlightenment. He teaches the Path of the Perfections to those who have generated
the thought of enlightenment. He provides the poor with riches and dispenses medicine to the
ill. He pays homage to the worthy ones. He is patient and congenial with the weak. He does
not conceal his sins but eliminates evil. (641) He shows all forms of reverence and worship
to those lord buddhas who dwell in the world and to those who have passed into nirvana. He
venerates his instructors and preceptors just as the teaching. He is diligent in seeking the
Doctrine like a priceless jewel. He delights in the Dharma-pronouncement and even goes one
hundred miles to hear them. He is not satisfied with hearing to the Doctrine, but explains it
without aiming at worldly rewards. He honours his father and mother. He observes and
stands by his deeds. He refrains from wickedness and is insatiable for accumulating merit.135
Since he constrained his body, speech and mind with vows, he is free from physical, verbal

Meditation as the basis o f meritorious work— according to the Ittv (pp. 19-22) the highest and most
productive o f all three types—is above all concerned with the generation o f benevolent thought (maitricitta).
Convinced o f the prevalence o f hatred (dvesa) and distraction (viksepa) in the kamadhatu, the Mpps (v,
pp. 2255-7) argues that maitri is the most urgent object o f meditation that generates more merit than any
o f the other apramana.
Finally, concluding the discussion o f the punyakriydvastu, the Mpps (v, pp. 2258-60) adds detail by
highlighting the role that is played by material gifts and the gift o f the Dharma as bases o f merit.
According to the Kosavydkhya (pp. 352.31-354.31), citing a passage from the Madhyamagama (T 26, k.
2, p. 427 c 25-428 c 25), merit consisting o f material gifts (aupadhikapunya)—being sevenfold— is
greatest if it is aimed at establishing and sustaining a monastic establishment. Immaterial bases o f merit
(anaupadhikapunyavastu), in contrast, concern primarily instructions and religious service but are as
fruitful in terms o f merit as material gifts.
In the Mvy (1699-1704) the number o f bases o f meritorious work is increased to five (dana-, sila-,
bhavana-, aupadhika-, and gunyaputiyakriyavastu.), the last o f which I have not been able to trace in any
o f the texts I consulted for this thesis.
133. rjes s u y i rah ba: anumodhand (cf. Edgerton, p. 32, col. 2).
134. skye ba gcig gis thogspa: ekajatipratibaddha.
135. Pelliot, 977, folio 3b.5-4a.l:
“Bodhisattvas generate the thought o f enlightenment for those who have generated the thought
o f enlightenment.... They conceal their sins and eliminate s in .... They are not satisfied with
hearing to the Doctrine, but explain the stainless Doctrine. ... They know, recollect and feel
their deeds.”

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or mental hypocrisy. He attains pure merit by building a Tathagata-jft/pa. He accomplishes

the marks of a great person by gathering endless offerings. He accomplishes the eighty
secondary marks by accumulating numerous stores of roots of virtue. His body is adorned
with freedom from conceit. His speech is adorned with freedom from all offensive speech.
His mind is adorned with freedom from intellectual impediments.136
He is an embellishment of the buddha-fleld through the miracles of the super-knowledge.
He is an embellishment of the Dharma-characteristic by virtue of his purified pristine cognition.
He is an embellishment of the great retinue by renouncing slander, despondency and dissent-
sowing words. (642) He is an embellishment of the imperturbable Doctrine by retaining the
Doctrine. His Dharma-discourse does not intimidate since he applauds when he is pleased,
saying: “Well done!”. He explains in a fruitful manner by listening to the Doctrine with
devotion and casting sin and ignorance aside. He is an embellishment of the Bodhi-tree by
offering meditation-groves to the Buddha. He is an embellishment of the seat of enlightenment
by virtue of retaining the thought of enlightenment—the factor that precedes all roots of
virtue.
His life and death are pure since he does not generate actions and impurities. His hand is
blessed since he gives away all his jewels and precious objects. His wealth is inexhaustible
through the attainment of an inexhaustible resolution.137Since he does not contract his eye-brows
angrily, sentient beings gain faith as soon as they see him and greet with a smiling face138. He
is an embellishment of sameness by directing light-rays at all sentient beings.139 Since he
does not despise the ill-instructed, he emits much light. By virtue of accumulating moral
merit, his birth is pure. Because he does not abuse lowly people, the womb is completely
pure at his birth.140
By virtue of the complete purity of his tenfold virtuous activity141, he is bom as god or man.
136. Pelliot, 977, folio 4a.2-3:
“His body is adorned with emanations by accomplishing the marks [of a great person], by
gathering endless offerings, by accomplishing the eighty secondary marks and by accumulating
numerous stores o f roots o f virtue.”
137. According to Vasubandhu’s commentary on the Dbh (Dasa-bh, p. 219), the accumulation o f merit is the
first o f four blessings (guna) that pertain to bodhisattvas who have progressed to the seventh stage with a
set o f ten superior practices and is held to generate great wealth:
“Superiority in wealth and personality is obtained according to requirement. Superiority o f
wealth and personality depends on the accumulation o f merit.”
138. bzin hdzum pa s gsoh po r smra ba: smitimukhapurvdbhibhasanta (cf. Edgerton, p. 614, col. 1).
139. I adopted here the argument found in Pelliot, 977, folio 4a.7.
140. Pelliot, 977, 4a.7-7:
“He attains sameness by uniformly [directing] light-rays at all sentient beings. Since he exerts
himself for the ill-instructed, he emits adorned emanations. By virtue o f accumulating moral
merit, his birth is pure. On account o f his prediction, the womb is completely pure at his
birth.”
141. Here, the tenfold virtuous conduct o f the bodhisattva refers, in all probability, to abstention from o f the
traditional ten akusalakarmapatha, viz., killing, theft, sexual misconduct, falsehood, slander, harsh and
frivolous talk, covetousness, animosity and wrong views. This conclusion is, however, not completely safe
as Buddhism developed several other enumerations o f dharma consisting o f ten kinds o f virtue. There is,
for instance, a group o f ten pardjika dharma in the Brahmajdlasutra, containing besides the pahcasila (6)

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He has conquered desire for worldly objects142 by contemplating all precepts.143 Since he
readily shares his knowledge144he masters the Doctrine. Due to his pure resolve, he appears
in all worlds. He has faith in the magnificent Doctrine since he is not intend on the limited
practice of the layman-observing-two-of-the-/?tfwc<ziz7a145. (643) Since he does not give up the
mind of all-knowing, he retains all of his merit. He acquires the seven riches of the universal
monarch146 since he is motivated by faith. Acting in accordance with147his previous resolution,
he does not deceive the worlds. He acquires all buddha-qualities by accomplishing virtuous
dharma. This is the bodhisattva’s skill in the accumulation of merit.

2.7.2 Skill in the Accumulation o f Pristine Cognition

Next, what is the bodhisattva’s skill in the accumulation of pristine cognition? Pristine
cognition arises on the basis of causes. He contemplates all causes and conditions of pristine
cognition in this way.
What are its causes and conditions? He endeavours zealously to procure the Doctrine. He
adheres to friends who comply with pristine cognition. He relies on the pristine cognition of
the Buddha rather than on that of Sravaka and pratyekabuddhas. Rather than assuming a

bringing other in disrepute, (7) avarice, (8) boastfulness at the cost o f others, (9) malevolence and (10)
calumny o f the triratna (DeGroot, 1967, pp. 32-39).
Even the ten duskaracaryd o f the bodhisattva might be included among the candidates, viz., the exploit of
(1) promise (pratijhd), (2) non-regression (avivartana), (3) not turning the back when facing misery
(aparahmukhibhdva), (4) dedication (abhimukhibhdva), (5) purity in the face o f constant exposure to
samsara (anupalepa), (6) commitment (adhimukti), (7) penetration (prativedha), (8) comprehension
(iavabodha), (9) non-abandoning and stainlessness (aparityaganihsamklesa) and (10) effort (prayoga) in
order to fulfil the tasks o f a buddha (Msg, pp. 223-4). An alternative list o f duskaracaryd is given in the
Lai (pp. 243-60; trsl. Foucaux, 1988, pp. 210-224).
For a full study o f the duskaracaryd, see: J. Dutoit, 1905.
142. gdon mi za bar: avasya; lit.: ‘hoarfrost’ (cf. Edgerton, p. 76, col. 1).
143. Pelliot, 977, folio 4a.7-4b.3:
“By virtue o f the complete purity o f his tenfold virtuous activity, he is bom as god or man. He
attains certainty by holding steadfastly on to all precepts.”
144. slob dpon kyi dpe mkhyud pa: acaryamusti; lit.: ‘close-fistedness o f a teacher to share things with his
pupils’ (cf. Edgerton, p. 89, col. 1).
145. hi tshe bahi spyodpa: pradesakarin (Mvy 1610)
The meaning o f the term pradesakarin is ambiguous. If one were to follow the context in which it is
presented in the Mvy where pradesakarin appears among the twenty-eight types o f religious austerity, it
would appear to refer to some form o f ascetic practice that is practised in a certain region or place
(pradesa). This interpretation is not supported by the Kosa (iv, p. 73) and Mpps (ii, p. 821) that clearly
associate the term pradesakarin with a type o f upasaka adhering to a selection o f the pahcasila. In the
K osa, this upasaka is said to observe two o f the five rales, while in the Mpps he may observe two or three
o f the pahcasila. As neither o f these texts mentions which o f the five rales the pradesakarin chooses to
observe, we learn little o f the moral maxims pertaining to this class of upasaka.
146. According to the Mvy (3621-28), these are a parasol (cakra-ratna), elephant (hasti-ratna), horse (asva-ratna),
jew el (mani-ratna), royal consort (stri-ratna), householder (grhapati-ratna) and an officer or minister
(parinayaka-ratna). Compare the contents o f this enumeration with a list o f seven treasures (dhana) o f the
bodhisattva (Mvy 1565-72), viz., faith (sraddha), morality (sila), sense o f shame (hri), fear o f blame
(apatrapya), learning (srutd), renunciation (tyaga) and wisdom (prajha), The seven riches are well known
from the nikaya where they occur, for instance, in D III, p. 163, p. 251 and in A IV, p. 4. The same list
occurs in the Bdp on folio 337.5-338.3.
147. hams su lenpa byedpa: asthitikrtya(cf. Edgerton, p. I l l , col. 2; p. 86, col. 2).

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proud attitude towards his superiors and teachers, he rejoices in them. When his virtuous
friends have realised that he possesses a good resolve, they do not hesitate to instruct him in
all discourses of pristine cognition. When they have realised that he is a receptacle, they
instruct him constantly148 with great concentration in the Doctrine. After he has heard the
Doctrine, he exerts himself in the accumulation of virtuous practice. Exertion in the accumulation
of virtuous practice itself is exertion in the accumulation of pristine cognition.
What is exertion in the accumulation of virtuous practice? (644) He is content with little
profit, little activity and few words. He sleeps neither at dawn nor at dusk and applies himself
diligently to yoga. He contemplates the meaning of dependent co-origination and attempts
subsequently to grasp it. His mind is unperturbed. He conquers sin. He knows when he is
liberated from sin.149 He is free from grudge and manifestations of evil tendencies150. He
performs good conduct and endeavours in virtuous practice. He is inclined to, and has a
propensity for, virtuous practice. He applies himself to it as if his head and clothes were
constantly alight.151
He persists in his search for pristine cognition. He is vigilant and sustains his efforts. He
gains distinction and withdraws into seclusion152. He takes delight in solitude and contemplates
the bliss of quietude. He cherishes the [four practice of] the noble lineage. He does not turn
away from purification. He takes delight in the great joy of the Doctrine and aspires to it. He
does not heed the esoteric formulae of the materialists. He is impeccably mindful in his
search for supramundane dharma. When contemplating, his mind his well-focused on the
meaning.153 His understanding operates in accordance with the path. He exercises constraint

148. bar chad med pa: nirantara (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 539, col. 2).
149. huh ba las hbyuh b a rsesp a ;
The meaning o f this sentence is ambiguous since it does not indicate the scope o f the attainment. That is to
say, it is not clear whether it refers to the sixth abhijha conferring ‘knowledge o f the destruction of
defilements’ (asravaksayajhana), or whether it is simply an expression o f the bodhisattva’s control over
the process o f purification. The wording o f the Tibetan suggests that it has a more general meaning since,
according to Mvy (209), asravaksayajhana has its equivalent in za g p a zadpa ses p a . On the other hand,
the concept o f ‘loiowledge o f the purification o f sin’ runs arguably rather close to that o f asravaksayajhana
and might overlap. Since ‘knowledge o f the destruction o f defilements’ is a highly technical concept— its
application being practically restricted to the attainment o f arhantship or buddhahood— the taking o f a
more cautious approach, pointing to vague parallels only, is perhaps appropriate.
150. kun nas Idah p a med pa; paryutthana (cf. Edgerton, p. 335, col. 2).
151. Pelliot, 977, folio 4b.7-5a. 1:
“Contemplating the meaning o f exertion, he removes afterwards the defilement o f indolence—the
ruin o f the mind. ... He is not covered by it. He is not encircled by it. Being endowed with
good conduct, he endeavours in virtuous practice.... In this way, he persists in his search for
pristine cognition.”
152 hdu hdzis dben pa: samsarga
lit.: ‘to be solitary as to commingling’ (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 1119, col. 3).
Pelliot, 977, folio 5a.2:
“He is vigilant and does not long for honour. He does not gain distinction but withdraws into
seclusion.”
153. This last phrase is essentially a paraphrase o f the Tibetan clause. The literal translation would run as
follows: “When contemplating, he complies with understanding the meaning.” See also: Pelliot, 977, folio
5a.3.

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with regard to sense-pleasure.154

He penetrates pristine cognition by way of its conditions.155 He is an embellishment of
modesty and chastity. He treads the path of the Buddha. He removes nescience, ignorance
and the mist of delusion.156 (645) His eye of wisdom is stainless. He is fully purified. His
understanding is excellent. He reveres his superiors. His mind is extremely versatile. He
acquires direct knowledge157. In his attainments, he does not depend on others and he does
not boast with them. He discerns alien attainments.158 He undertakes wholesome actions159.
He does not refute the ripening of deeds, though he knows that deeds are perfectly pure. This
is the bodhisattva, mahdsattva’s accumulation of pristine cognition.
Furthermore, his accumulation of pristine cognition is acquired through four kinds of
giving.

(1) He gives bark of the birch tree, pencils, ink and books to reciters of the Doctrine.
(2) He gives various cushions to them.
(3) He gives all kinds of goods, shows respect and composes verses for them.
(4) He shows sincere gratitude to reciters of the Doctrine for bringing together all
teachings.

These four kinds of giving augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. There are four
kinds of guard that augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. What are the four?

(1) He guards the body of the reciters of the Doctrine.

(2) He guards their welfare.160
(3) He guards them when they enter into his region and district.
(4) He guards propitious objects.

These four kinds of guard augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. There are four
kinds of support161 that augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. What are the four?
154. Pelliot, 977, folio 5a.2-3:
“He adheres to the vow.”
155. I follow here Pelliot, 977, folio 5a.3 which reads: rkyen gyisye ses chudpa.
156. Pelliot, 977, folio 5a.3:
“Disapproving o f nescience, he does not cleanse the mist of ignorance and delusion.”
157. mhon sum tu sespa\pratyaksajhana (cf. Edgerton, p. 374, col. 1).
158. Pelliot, 977, folio 5a.3-4:
“He does not (sic) discern alien attainments.”
159. legs p a r bya bahi las byedpa:sukrtakarmakarin (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 1220, col. 2).
160. Omitted in Pelliot, 977, folio 5a.7,
161. he p a r rton pa: upasthambana (cf. Edgerton, p. 143, col. 2)
The Mahavastu (ii, p. 280.16-17) cites five kinds o f support that enable the bodhisattva to display his
noble, fearless smile (aryasmita). These are zeal (cltanda), vigour {virya), recollection (smrti), meditation
(samadhi) and wisdom (prajha). According to the Dbh (Dasa-bh, p. 15), the bodhisattva depends for

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(1) It is support of the teachings of the reciters of the Doctrine. (646)

(2) It is support of pristine cognition.
(3) It is support of worldly possessions.
(4) It is support of enlightenment.162

These four kinds of support augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. There are five
powers that augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. What are the five?

(1) It is the power of faith in order to pay homage.

(2) It is the power of vigour in order to attain learning.
(3) It is the power of mindfulness as not to forget the thought of enlightenment
(4) It is the power of meditation in order to gain faith in d/wmifl-sameness.
(5) It is the power of wisdom for the sake of the power of learning.

These five powers augment his accumulation of pristine cognition.163 There are four kinds
of moral conduct that augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. What are the four?

(1) It is moral conduct that is assured in the Doctrine.

(2) It is moral conduct that pursues the Doctrine.
(3) It is moral conduct that has faith in the Doctrine.
(4) It is moral conduct that transforms into enlightenment.

These four kinds of moral conduct augment his accumulation of pristine cognition.164 There

accomplishing the cittotpada on (1) support o f true instructions o f the path o f the stages, (2) support o f
instructions in the purifying impact o f the six perfections and (3) support o f generosity.
In the Abhidh-sam (R), p. 162, in contrast, support (upasthamba) is cited as one of eleven aspects in which
the training o f the bodhisattva differs from that the Sravaka, specifically with regard to the duration o f the
training and the ensuing need for an accumulation o f virtue. See, also Kosa (ii, p. 314) where upasthambahetu
is interpreted as the ‘cause o f maintenance’ since the mahabhuta are the cause o f the continuation o f the
bhautika (cf. Edgerton, drambana, p. 103, col. 1).
Judging by the ill co-ordination o f these references and the lack o f common ground, it is doubtful whether
the Mahayana ever developed a theory o f the bodhisattva’s support. In the eyes o f many, this might have
seemed quite superfluous with Mahayana writers readily adopting the four types o f reliance (pratisarana)
from early Buddhism.
162. Pelliot, 977, folio 5b. 1:
“It is support o f intelligence (buddhi)T
163. These five kinds o f power (bala) correspond to the five bala o f the thirty-seven bodhipaksika dharma,
viz., sraddha, virya, smrti, samddhi and prajhd. They are treated in greater detail in section 2.10.5 (R,
folio 677.2-679.5).
164. Compare these types o f moral conduct with those proposed by later exegetical writers (Bbh, p. 138.21-23),
distinguishing morality o f the vow (samvarasila), morality involving the accumulation o f virtue (kusalad-
harmasamgrdhakasila) and morality involving efforts directed at the welfare o f sentient beings (sat-
tvdrthakriyasila).

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are four kinds of patience that augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. What are the
four?

(1) Since he exerts himself diligently to attain the Doctrine, he bears patience with
the words of those who speak evil and utter slander.
(2) Since he exerts himself diligently to attain the Doctrine, he endures patiently
wind, warmth, cold, heat, thirst and hunger.
(3) Since he exerts himself diligently to attain the Doctrine, he complies patiently
with his instructors and preceptors.
(4) Since he exerts himself diligently to attain the Doctrine, he is patient towards
the empty, signless and wishless nature of dharma.

These four kinds of patience augment his accumulation of pristine cognition.165 (647) There
are four kinds of vigour that augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. What are the
four?

(1) It is vigour in learning.

(2) It is vigour in retaining.
(3) It is vigour in teaching.
(4) It is vigour in application.

These four kinds of vigour augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. There are four
factors of contemplation that augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. What are the
four?

(1) He takes delight in seclusion

(2) And in solitude.
(3) He seeks pristine cognition and the super-knowledge.
(4) He enters the pristine cognition of the Buddha.

These four factors of contemplation augment his accumulation of pristine cognition. There

165. O f all classifications o f bodhisattva practices presented in this section, it is the scheme o f patience that
bears closest resemblance to the divisions o f later scholasticism (Bbh, p. 189.7-11). That is to say, the first
type corresponds to the category o f parapakdramarsanaksanti, representing patience supporting injury
and verbal abuse at the hand o f other. The second type runs parallel to the bodhisattva’s willingness to put
up with painful sensations caused the four elements (duhkhadhivasanaksdnti), while the fourth type,
‘patience towards the empty, signless and wishless nature of dharma' is close to the bodhisattva’s ‘conviction
o f the non-arising o f dharma' (anutpattikadharmaksdnti) that is the highest development o f patience
contemplating dharma (dharmanidhyanaksdnti). It is only the third type o f patience, bearing with instructors
and preceptors, that is not accounted for as an independent category in later writings.

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are four wisdom-manifesting dharma that augment his accumulation of pristine cognition.
What are the four?

(1) He refutes the notion of nihilism.

(2) He impugns the notion of permanence.
(3) He does not challenge dependent co-origination.166
(4) He rejoices in the belief of the non-existence of the self.

These four wisdom-manifesting dharma augment his accumulation of pristine cognition.

There are four dharma that augment his accumulation of pristine cognition of means.167What
are the four?

(1) He complies with the world.

(2) He complies with the sutras.
(3) He complies with the Doctrine.
(4) He complies with pristine cognition.

These four dharma become his accumulation of pristine cognition of means. There are four
dhanna that cause him to penetrate the pristine cognition of the accumulation of paths. (648)
What are the four?

(1) It is the path of the paramita.

(2) It is the path of the bodhipaksika dharma.
(3) It is the Noble Eightfold Path.
(4) It is the path that leads to pristine cognition of all-knowing.

These four dharma cause him to penetrate the pristine cognition of the accumulation of
paths. There are four kinds of insatiability that augment his accumulation of pristine cognition.
What are the four?

(1) He is insatiable for learning.

(2) He is insatiable for instructions.
(3) He is insatiable for investigation.
(4) He is insatiable for pristine cognition.

166. Pelliot, 977, folio 5b.6:

“Assembling causes and conditions, he does not challenge origination.”
167. Cf. Pelliot, 977, 5b.7 which reads thabs dan ye ses kyi tshogs.

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These four kinds of insatiability augment his accumulation of pristine cognition.

Furthermore, as regards his accumulation of pristine cognition; complying with all sentient
beings and with all buddha-fields, the accumulation of pristine cognition should be seen as
arising from giving. The accumulation of pristine cognition should be seen as arising from
morality, patience, vigour, meditation, wisdom, benevolence, compassion, joy and equipoise.
Why? Because all undertakings of the bodhisattva are dependent on, as well as motivated and
supported by, pristine cognition. By persisting in pristine cognition, the holder of pristine
cognition becomes a universal support. Moreover, none of the evil ones obtains an occasion
to harm him. He acquires not only the sustaining power of the Buddha, but he is also
established in the pristine cognition of all-knowing.168(649)
These two are the bodhisattva’s accumulations of merit and pristine cognition. A bodhisattva,
mahasattva who is skilled in these two kinds of accumulation courses in the Perfection of
Wisdom.169

2.8 Skill in Bases o f Mindfulness

Next, what is skill in the bases of mindfulness of bodhisattvas? They generate the four
bases of mindfulness of bodhisattvas. What are the four? They generate the basis of mindfulness
considering the body as body. They generate the basis of mindfulness considering feeling as
feeling. They generate the basis of mindfulness considering thought as thought. They generate
the basis of mindfulness considering dhartna as dharma.110

2.8.1 Skill in the Basis o f Mindfulness concerning the Body

What is the generation of the basis of mindfulness considering the body as body? O

168. Pelliot, 977, folio 6a.2^1:

“Furthermore, as regards his accumulation o f pristine cognition; complying with all sentient
beings and with all buddha-fields, also giving should be seen as the accumulation o f pristine
cognition. Also morality, patience, vigour, meditation, wisdom, benevolence, compassion, joy
and equipoise should be seen as the accumulation of pristine cognition.... Having persisted in
pristine cognition, he gathers all sentient beings [around him]. None o f the evil ones obtains
an occasion to harm him and he is established in the pristine cognition o f all-knowing.”
169. This paragraph is missing in the Pelliot manuscript. The section that follows in Pelliot 977 on ‘skill in
accumulation’ appears in all block-print editions o f the Bdp at the very end o f chapter eleven. In my
edition, it corresponds to section 3.1 and 3.2 (R folio 686.4-690.1).
170. On the relationship between the smrtyupasthana and prajhd, the commentary on the Arthaviniscayasiitra
remarks (Arthav-t (S), pp. 210.6-211.3):
“When considering the body, feeling, thought and dharma, the bodhisattva acquires a thought
that is exempt from misconception (viparyasa). He considers the body as body; that is to say,
he considers it in accordance with reality; this is the sense o f ‘considering’. This is valid in
equal measure with regard to mindfulness concerning feeling, thought and dharma. Because
they take as object a personal series, a series o f others and both (svaparobhayasantatyalamba-
natvat), the bases o f mindfulness have individually as own-being (svabhava) the threefold
science (traividya); that is to say, their own-being consists of wisdom springing from learning,
reflection and contemplation.”

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Sariputra, a bodhisattva who dwells, considering the body as body contemplates the origin,
present condition and future destiny of the body:
“Alas, this body is arisen from delusion171. It is born from causes and conditions. It is
motionless, inactive, non-self and without proprietor. For instance, by reason of dharma that
are neither a self nor of a self, neither permanent, steadfast or abiding this body that resembles
grass, bricks, wood, ass or a mirage and consists of the aggregates, sensefields and elements
is empty just like the grass, tree branches, plants or forests, that too emerge from causes and
conditions and are without a self or proprietor. Rather than developing a sense of owner-ship
for my body, I should patiently put up with the fact that the own-being of my body is
insubstantial.
What is substantial? The body of the Tathagata is substantial. The Tathagata’s body is the
body of the Doctrine. It is the vajra-body. It is imperishable and firm.1721 shall accomplish
this most distinguished body of all three worlds. Though indeed this body of mine has
produced sin through many offences, notwithstanding, it will become the Tathagata’s impec­
cable body.”
Once he has duly realised thus through his powers of investigation, he guards his body—the
abode of the mahabhuta—carefully and thinks: “May this body of mine perish [complying
with] eveiy requirement whatsoever of sentient beings. May this body of mine that has arisen
from the mahabhuta become the subsistence of sentient beings through the assorted doors,
bases, enunciations and enjoyments, just like the four external mahabhuta, viz., the element
of earth, water, fire and wind support sentient beings through the various doors, bases, (651)
enumerations, favours and enjoyments.”
Although it is true that he has discerned the body to be impermanent, he truly does not
weary of death and birth. Although it is true that he has discerned the body to be suffering,
physical suffering does not distress him. Although it is true that he has discerned the body to
be non-self, he does not weary of developing sentient beings. Although it is true that he has
discerned the body to be calm, he does not enter into indifference through a calm body.
Although it is true that he has discerned the body to be empty and solitary, he does not enter
* * “* 1 7T
into nirvana.
When he dwells, considering the body as a body he does not consider it to be substantial or

171. phyin ci log', viparyasa (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 974, col. 2).

172. The Red (p. 236.3.3-5) employs the same argument in its description of the bodhisattva’s mindfulness
concerning the body:
“By means o f this defiled body I shall attain unassisted the body o f the Tathagata; the body o f
the Dharma, the body o f merit and pristine cognition, the vajra-body, the blissful and non-afflicted
body; a body that exalts in innumerable deeds in the triple world, a body that, when seen in its
shape, appeases all sentient beings.”
Descriptions o f the Tathagata’s body in these terms are by no means uncommon and found in several
other siitras. See, for instance: Mahayana Mahdparinirvanasutra (T 374, k.3, p. 382c27; ref. Lamotte).
173. Very similar thought is expressed in Bbh, p. 259.15-22.

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real. When he dwells, considering the body internally he does not permit the arising of
internal, consequential defilements. When he dwells, considering the body externally he is
emancipated from external, consequential defilements.
Since his body is without defilements, the bodhisattva is rich in pure physical activity.
After he has purified his body, he attains a body that is adorned with the eighty secondary
marks. After his body has been adorned, he converts gods and men. This is the bodhisattva’s
generation of the basis of mindfulness considering the body as body. (652)

2.8.2 Skill in the Basis o f Mindfulness concerning Feeling

Again, how does the bodhisattva generate the basis of mindfulness considering feeling as
feeling?174 Concerning this, the bodhisattva thinks: “Whatever I feel, it is all suffering.” Even
though he experiences pleasant sensations, because he realises feeling that is awakened175 by
pristine cognition, wisdom and means he is not inclined towards the propensity of desire.
Although affected by painful sensation, he produces great compassion for all those who are
bom in the evil destinies, but he is not inclined towards the propensity of hatred. Even though
he is affected by feelings that are neither pleasant nor painful, he is not inclined towards the
propensity of delusion. He experiences every sensation—whether it be pleasant, painful,
unpleasant or painless—through a recollection subsequent to that feeling and sees their
origin. In order to fully understand and appease the feelings of all sentient beings, he penetrates
these himself, thinking:
“Since sentient beings do not know the origins of their feelings, they rejoice in pleasant
sensations. They become angry at painful sensations. At sensations that are neither pleasant
nor painful, they are confused. But me, my sensations being awakened by wisdom and
pristine cognition, I have carefully purified all feelings. (653) By virtue of my accomplishments
that I attained through skilful means and great compassion, I shall teach the Doctrine in order
to bring all feelings of sentient beings to a final halt.”
Why is it called feeling? An awakened feeling leads to happiness. A feeling that is not
awakened leads to suffering. What then are awakened feelings? Concerning this, although
there is no self, sentient being, life-force or person that produces feeling, feeling is attachment;
feeling is appropriation; feeling is grasping; feeling is delusion; feeling is binary thinking;
feeling is inclination to false doctrines. Feeling is the notion of the eye up to the notion of the
mind, this is feeling. Feeling is the notion of form up to the notion of mental objects, this is

174. The Akn-tika explains (p. 256.2.2-5; cf. Akn, p. 67.2.1-4.4):

“What is [the bodhisattva’s] feeling? Persisting in mindfulness concerning feeling, he achieves
transcendence beyond the three kinds o f suffering and experiences an unstained, pure and
peaceful feeling. Thus, it is asked how do bodhisattvas generate the basis o f mindfulness
considering feeling as feeling? Feeling is understood by bodhisattvas and should be contem­
plated. That feelings are pleasant or unpleasant is stated elsewhere.”
175. rtogs pahi tshor ba: adhigamavedand.

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feeling. Any sensation that emerges from the condition of touch in conjunction with the
eye—whether it be pleasant, painful, unpleasant or painless—this is feeling. Corresponding
to the former, any sensation that is linked with external or internal dharma and emerges from
the condition of touch in conjunction with mental processes—whether it be pleasant, painful,
unpleasant or painless—this is feeling. (654)
Furthermore, by way of enumeration feeling is one, viz., knowledge by a single moment of
thought176; feeling is twofold, viz., internal and external; feeling is threefold, viz., knowledge
of the past, present and future; feeling is fourfold, viz., knowledge of the four elements;
feeling is fivefold, viz., reflection on the five aggregates; feeling is sixfold, viz., mistaken
imagining of the six sensefields; feeling is sevenfold, viz., the seven states of consciousness177;
feeling is eightfold, viz., the eight mistaken modes of practice178; feeling is ninefold, viz., the
nine abodes of sentient beings179; feeling is tenfold, viz., the path of tenfold virtuous activity.180
Corresponding to the former, all this is feeling. To the degree that there exists mental
construing and reflection, everything will be felt. Hence, the feeling of incalculable sentient
beings is infinite.
Now, the bodhisattva who dwells, considering feeling as feeling generates pristine cognition
of the feelings of all sentient beings as they arise, persist and disappear. He who knows
feeling with regard to the virtuous and non-virtuous feelings of all sentient beings has generated

176. serns gcig pus mam p a r rig p a

It appears that this statement is an indirect reference to the sixteen moments (ksana) o f thought that mark
the practitioner’s gradual cognition o f the four noble truths (Kosa, vi, pp. 178-193). Rejecting the notion
o f gradual advance as postulated by the Sarvastivada (Kosa, vi, pp. 185-9), the Bdp follows the view o f
the Mahasanghika and early MahiSasaka (Masuda, 1929, pp. 21, 59) suggesting that comprehension o f the
four noble truths occurs simultaneously and is not subject to measured progress. Since the reasoning on
which this theory rests is very complex, I shall mention only one explanation for this proposition. According
to the Aloka (ii.12, p. 171) intuition o f the darsanamdrga as a single-moment intuition (ekaksandbhisamaya)
takes place because o f the emergence o f pure knowledge (andsravjndna). This knowledge makes known
the nature o f all modes and has within its scope the totality o f all factors (sarvadharmavisaya). Being fully
comprehensive, it allows only for the presence o f one thought-moment. An excellent account o f the
psychological intricacies tliat are involved in the controversy between those who propose that comprehension
(abhisamaya) takes place on the basis o f a gradual progress and those maintaining that it is subject to
simultaneous/instantaneous attainment has been produced by Ruegg, 1989, pp. 150-182.
177. According to the Kosa (iii, pp. 16,21-22), the seven bases of consciousness are (1) beings diverse in body
and mentation (ndndtvakayasamjha), (2) beings diverse in body but identical in mentation
(nandkdyayaiksamjha), (3) beings o f identical body but diverse mentation (ekatvakayandndtvasamjha), (4)
beings o f identical body and mentation (ekatvakdyaikatvasamjha), (5) beings belonging to the infinitude
o f space (dkdsanantyayatand), (6) being belonging to the infinitude of consciousness (vijhandnantydyatana)
and (7) beings belonging to the infinitude o f nothingness (dkihcanyayatana). References in the nikaya are
found in D n, p. 68; III, p. 253 and in A IV , p. 39. The same list is also found in the Mvy (2289-95).
178. log p a r ties pahi sbyor ba\ samniyojana (lit.: ‘to put into effect or employment’).
179. These nine abodes o f beings (sattvavasa) consist o f the seven basis o f consciousness (vijhanasthiti), o f the
abode o f beings beyond perception (asamjiiisattva) and o f the sphere o f neither perception or non-perception
(naivasamjhdnasamjhdyatana). For canonical references, see: D III, pp. 263, 263; A IV , p. 401, (cf. Amrt
(B), P- 219).
180. Canonical sources speak o f two, three, five, six, eighteen, thirty-six and one hundred and eight kinds o f
feeling (S IV, pp. 231-32). The most common variety is that which distinguishes between pleasant
(sukha), unpleasant (dukkha) and neither pleasant nor unpleasant (adukkhdsukha) feelings (cf. Mpps, iii, p.
1174).

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the bodhisattva’s basis of mindfulness considering feeling as feeling.

2.8.3 Skill in the Basis o f Mindfulness concerning Thought

Next, what is the bodhisattva’s basis of mindfulness considering thought as thought?181
(655) The bodhisattva is mindful of the thought of enlightenment; he guards it, secures it and
does not turn his attention away from it.182He looks at it in this way:
“Once a thought has arisen, it disintegrates. It is induced. Since it is fickle, it does not
persist internally and it does not perish outwardly. The thought of enlightenment that I
produced at first has disappeared. It does not exist. It changed. It is not found in any place.
Since it is not found anywhere, I am not able to retain it. The thoughts that produced my
roots of virtue have also disappeared. They do not exist. They changed. They are not found in
any region or quarter.
Even the thoughts that transform [roots of virtue] into enlightenment do not bear any
characteristic of own-being. Thought is not discerned by thought. Thought is not seen by
thought. If thought is not known by thought, what then is the thought by which I shall attain
supreme and perfect enlightenment? The thought of enlightenment is not tied to the thought
of roots of virtue. The thought of roots of virtue, too, is not tied to the thought of the
transformation into enlightenment. The thought of the transformation into enlightenment,
too, is not tied to either the thought of enlightenment or to the thought of roots of virtue.”183
If he ruminates thus, he does not become terrified, frightened or fearful but thinks again:
“Truly, in the profound law of dependent co-origination the causes and retribution are
imperishable. (656) Yet, even though the foundation of thought has such own-being all
dharma are dependent on causes and conditions; they are motionless, inactive and non-self.
Because I act just as I wish, I shall apply myself diligently to creation184 and not weaken this
foundation of thought.”
What is the foundation of thought? What is creation?185 Thought is like an illusion. There is

181. On the basis o f mindfulness concerning thought, the Akn-tika comments (p. 257.4.6-5.1; cf. Akn, pp.
67.4.4-68.2.5):
“What is an established (pratisthita) bodhisattva? He traverses the basis o f mindfulness con­
cerning thought as thought. He transcends all states of consciousness and accomplishes the
infinite bodhisattva-meditation. Thus, it is asked what is the bodhisattva’s basis of mindfulness
considering thought as thought? That which is to be cultivated by the bodhisattva is the
thought o f enlightenment.”
18Z Akn-tika, p. 257.5.1-4:
“Unlike the practice o f recollection concerned with the impermanence o f one’s own thought
o f Sravaka and pratyekabuddhas, bodhisattvas do not forget through mindfulness and unfailing
memory the first thought o f enlightenment.”
183. We find the same argument—investigating the nature of thought and reconciling its apparent transitoriness
with role o f the thought o f enlightenment— in the Red’s discussion of the mindfulness concerning thought
(pp. 237.4.7-38.2.1).
184. Cf. Akn (p. 67.5.5) which has mam pa r sgrub pa (yithapana) for the Bdp ’s sgrub pa. Both texts agree on
the second member o f the pair, that is, sems kyi chos hid (cittadharmata).
185. Compare this section on cittadharmata and vithapana with B dp’s thirty-two pairs o f mental vigour

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nobody whosoever that causes its obstruction. This is the foundation of thought. To transform
all possessions after one has renounced them into the pledge that effectuates the buddha-field
is creation. Thought is like a dream and bears the characteristic of calm. This is the foundation
of thought. Gathering the accumulation of the vow and transforming it swiftly into intuitive
knowledge of all methods is creation. Since thought disintegrates like an illusion, decay is the
foundation of thought. To transform the power of patience and bravery in order to accomplish
the pledge of enlightenment is creation. Since thought is solitary like the reflected image of
the moon in water, solitude is the foundation of thought.
To transform all undertakings of vigour in order to accomplish all buddha-qualities is
creation. (657) Thought is inapprehensible and imperceptible. This is the foundation of
thought. To transform all contemplations, liberations, meditations and composures of mind
into buddha-meditation is creation. Thought is beyond form. It is inobservable, intraceable
and not verifiable. This is the foundation of thought. To transform knowledge of all instructions
in the various wordings as requested in order to accomplish buddha-knowledge is creation.
Thought arises towards various objects. This is the foundation of thought. To produce186 a
disposition for the roots of virtue is creation. Thought does not arise in the absence of its
cause. This is the foundation of thought. To produce the mental conditions of the bodhipaksika
dharma is creation. Thought does not arise in the absence of an object. This is the foundation
of thought. To produce the mental conditions of the buddha-sphere is creation.
O &ariputra, it is in this manner that the bodhisattva generates the basis of mindfulness
considering thought as thought.
When he dwells, considering thought as thought he converges with thought for the sake of
acquiring the super-knowledge. After he has acquired the super-knowledge, the bodhisattva
perceives the thoughts of all sentient beings by means of a single thought. (658) Truly, once
he has perceived them he explains the teaching of such own-being. Furthermore, when the
bodhisattva dwells, considering thought as thought he converges with thought for the sake of
attaining great compassion. By virtue of the attainment of great compassion, he does not
weary of developing all sentient beings.
When he dwells, considering thought as thought, he does not sustain thought for the sake of
achieving the cessation and final end of thought. Rather, he generates thought through the
fetters of the stream of existence. Even though knowledge of the recollection of thought
persists by means of dhatma that settle him in certainty of the unarisen and unbecome, he
does not descend on to the level of Sravaka and pratyekabuddha. And until he has accomplished
all buddha-qualities he perpetuates the succession of thought. It is by virtue of wisdom that is
endowed with a single moment of thought that he acquires supreme and perfect enlightenment.

(cittavlrya) that distinguish between activity (pravrtti) and stillness (sthiti) o f the mind (R, folio 474.2-76.5).
186. her bar sbyor ba: upasamhara (cf. Edgerton, p. 142, col. 2).

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O Sariputra, it is in this manner that the bodhisattva generates the basis of mindfulness
considering thought as thought.

2.8.4 Skill in the Basis o f Mindfulness concerning Dharma

O Sariputra, how does the bodhisattva generate the basis of mindfulness considering dharma
as dharma?187 O &ariputra, concerning this, bodhisattvas who look at dharma with the eye of
noble wisdom are not confounded until they reach the seat of enlightenment. (659)
When they dwell, considering dharma as dharma they do not see dharma of even the size
of an atom that are exempt from emptiness, signlessness or wishlessness, the unborn, unarisen,
non-accumulated or beingless. They do not perceive dharma of even the size of an atom that
are exempt from dependent co-origination. When the bodhisattva dwells, considering dharma
as dharma he perceives their foundation of being, but he does not perceive them incorrectly.188
What is the foundation of being? The truth of the non-existence of a self, a sentient being, a
life-force or a person, this is the foundation of being.
What is incorrect? Belief in a self, a sentient being, a life-force or a person, thebelief in
nihilism or permanence and belief in origination or destruction, this is incorrect.
Again, O Sariputra, all dharma are truth. All dhatTna are error. Why? Because of understanding
emptiness, signlessness and wishlessness, all dharma are truth. (660) Because of mistaken
inclinations to consider dharma as a self or of a self, all dharma are error.189
Now, when the bodhisattva dwells, considering dharma as reality he sees not even a
dharma of the size of an atom amongst all dharma that is not a buddha-quality and becomes
transformed into enlightenment, buddhahood, the path, liberation or deliverance.190 After he
has realised that all dharma exist he acquires a great compassion called ‘Unobstructed’191.

187. On the basis o f mindfulness concerning dharma, the Abi-tikd says (p. 259.2.8-3.2; cf. Akn, p. 68.2.5-5.1):
“What is a purified bodhisattva? He persists in the basis of mindfulness concerning dharma.
He transcends possession (paryavasthana) o f hindrances, fetters, ties, latent defilements and
impurities and attains mastery over all dharma. Thus, it is asked ... .”
188. According to a brief discussion o f the VaiSesika understanding of dharma and adharma in the Kosa (iv, p.
7), dharma corresponds to merit and adharma to demerit. Elsewhere {Kosa, iv, p. 155; iii, p. 207), the
meaning of adharma is given as stain or passion (raga).
189. Philosophically, this interpretation o f the nature of dharma and adharma evolves from the postulate o f the
sameness o f all dharma (sarvadharmasamata). Fundamentally, it rests on the proposition that “this indif­
ferentiation (ananarthata) is a mark o f reality because o f the sole flavour o f emptiness (sunyatayaikara-
s a tv a tf (Madh. vrtti, p. 375.7). On the moral level, suggesting that both dharma and adharma are causes
o f birth and destruction o f all types o f phenomena, the Bdp seems to follow the view o f the Sarvastivada
Abhidharma, postulating moral neutrality ton dharma (Kosa, iv, p. 7).
190. Akn-tika, p. 259.4.7-5.4 (cf. Akn, p. 68.3.5-6):
“Therefore, [because o f universal emptiness, non-existence and non-apprehension] the bodhi­
sattva who considers dharma does not see any dharma that is not a buddha-quality, deliverance,
the path, liberation or the way leading out [of the triple world].”
191. non mons p a med pa: anavarana (cf. Edgerton, p. 23)
In the Siks (p. 236.8), quoting the Akn, a samadhi bearing this name is found. This samadhi recurs in the
Aloka (Obemiller (DDP), p. 36) where it signals—if accompanied by the anvayajhana concerned with
subjects (grahaka)—acquisition o f the fourth nirvedhabhagiya, that is, the laukikagradharma. It therefore
constitutes the last psychic experience o f laukika status and—being traditionally associated with the

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Recognising that even the defilements of all sentient beings show no trace of impurity, he
considers them to be contrived.
Why? Thus penetrating true meaning, bodhisattvas are enlightened because they themselves
are awakened by the insight that there is neither an accumulation of impurity nor a substance
to the aggregates. The own-being of impurity is also the seat of enlightenment. The seat of
enlightenment is also the own-being of impurity. Although bodhisattvas are mindful of this,
they do not achieve even a little. They do not advance or secure [anyone].192 (661) They
realise that intransitoriness193 is the foundation of being. Hence, the sphere of the Doctrine is
intransitory. The place where the sphere of the Doctrine is situated, there is also the sphere of
sentient beings. The place where the sphere of sentient beings is situated, there is also the
sphere of space. Hence, ail dharma are identical with space.
When the bodhisattva dwells, considering dharma as dharma he relies on the teaching of
the Buddha. Even though considering all dharma, he delights in the teaching of the Buddha.
Although it is true that he is aware of destruction, he does not realise unconditioned destruction.
Although it is true that he is aware of no-birth, he does not give way to the conclusions of
no-birth but reappears in order to look after sentient beings.
This basis of mindfulness establishes him in mindfulness of all dharma. However numerous
the dharma and £//iarma-designations of the Sravaka, pratyekabuddhas or buddhas are, he is
established in their impeccable, unfailing recollection that is not darkened until the end of
time.
This basis of mindfulness considering dharma as dharma is an infinite teaching because it
does not belong to the sphere of ordinary conduct, but is included194 in all teachings of the
Buddha and because it (662) appeases the minds of all sentient beings, suppresses all evil and
is spontaneous awakening. O Sariputra, it is in this manner that the bodhisattva generates the
basis of mindfulness considering dharma as dharma. These are the four bases of mindfulness.
O Sariputra, it is in this manner that the bodhisattva who is skilled in the four bases of
mindfulness courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.

2.9 Skill in the Factors o f Enlightenment

Next, what is the skill in the factors of enlightenment of bodhisattvas?195 The factors of
attainment in bala— allows the bodhisattva to pass into the darsanamdrga. As the darsanamdrga itself is
taken up by the cultivation o f the seven bodhyahga— the next set o f practices in the Bdp— it is probably
safe to see in this reference (and, in particular, in the modification o f the Akn, turning anavarana from a
type o f compassion to a form o f meditation) a further indication o f a consciously perceived path-structure
in the Bdp.
192. I take the Tibetan terms he bar hjogpa to stand for upasthapayanti; rab tu hjogpa forprasthapayanti and
hjog p a for sthapayanti.
193. gnas p a hid: sthititd (Mvy 1720).
194. yah dag p a r hdus pa: samavasarana (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 1157, col. 3).
195. According to the Akn-tika (p. 266.1.3), the factors of enlightenment make up the path o f seeing (darsana­
mdrga): “The title to summarise these seven factors is darsanamdrga.”

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enlightenment of bodhisattvas are seven. What are the seven? These are the factor of enlight­
enment of mindfulness, the factor of enlightenment of Dharma-discemment, the factor of
enlightenment of vigour, the factor of enlightenment of joy, the factor of enlightenment of
tranquillity, the factor of enlightenment of meditation and the factor of enlightenment of
equipoise. O Sariputra, these are the seven factors of enlightenment of bodhisattvas.
What is the factor of enlightenment of mindfulness?196 It is recollection by which they
consider the Doctrine mindfully, by which they examine and investigate it thoroughly, (663)
by which they research, analyse and distinguish it. By that recollection they are led to the
characteristic of the own-being of dharma . Again, what is knowledge of the characteristic of
the own-being of dharmal It is recollection and realisation that all dharma are empty of
own-characteristic. This is the factor of enlightenment of mindfulness.
What is the factor of enlightenment of Dharma-discemment?197 It is knowledge discerning
the eighty-four thousand dharma-aggregatQS. It is discerning the Dharma just as it should be
discerned, viz., discerning its teachings that are of precise meaning in terms of precise
meaning, teachings that are of provisional meaning in terms of provisional meaning, teachings
that are of conventional truth in terms of conventional truth, teachings that are of absolute
truth in terms of absolute truth, symbolic teachings in terms of symbols and investigative198
teachings in terms of investigation. This is the factor of enlightenment of Dharma-discemment.
What is the factor of enlightenment of vigour? It is exertion to attain joy of Dharma-
discemment, purification, meditation, equipoise and the receptacle of pristine cognition; it is
exertion to attain perseverance, power, valour, irreversible aspiration, strength, resolute ardour
and intuitive perception of the path. (664) This is the factor of enlightenment of vigour.
What is the factor of enlightenment of joy? It is delight, joy and supreme pleasure in the
Doctrine leading to fearlessness and courage. It is fearless delight that purifies not only the
body and mind, but removes also impurity. This is the factor of enlightenment of joy.
What is the factor of enlightenment of tranquillity? It is pacifying body, mind and defilements,
freedom from obstruction and one-pointedness while in meditation. This is the factor of

On the factors themselves, Vasubandhu comments (Akn-tika, p. 266.1.3-5; cf. Akn, p. 70.2.3-4.4):
“As regards the factors o f enlightenment; enlightenment is knowledge o f destruction and
non-origination. It has the own-being o f lack o f thought-construction. These seven factors,
mindfulness, etc., are its causes or associates (sahdya); hence they are called factors.”
Note that according to the Abhidh-sam (R ),p. 118, the sahdya are associates to the factors o f enlightenment
and not the factors themselves (ref. Braavrig).
196. Akn-tika, p. 266.1.6-7:
“A bodhisattva who is linked with mindfulness acquires certainty that he will reach truth and
attains the factor o f enlightenment o f mindfulness.”
197. Akn-tika, p. 266.2-3:
“A bodhisattva who is linked with discernment progresses in the factor o f enlightenment o f
Dharma-discemment.”
An identical formula is used in the commentary to introduce the remaining five factors o f enlightenment.
198. mam pargtan pa la bab pa: nirnaya (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 555, col. 1).

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enlightenment of tranquillity.199
What is the factor of enlightenment of meditation?200 It is a composed mind by means of
which knowledge and realisation of the Doctrine becomes—not a distracted mind. It is a
composed mind by means of which awakening to dharma becomes—not a distracted mind.
Apart from those who apply themselves to dharma-sameness and the Doctrine, no sentient
beings understand this since they are ensnared by attachment. This is the factor of enlightenment
of meditation. (665)
What is the factor of enlightenment of equipoise? It is thought that is quiescent because it is
not seized by dharma taking part in pleasure or discomfort, that is not diverted by worldly
dharma, but dwells in perfect rest. It is thought that is free from turbulence, discomposure
and anxiety, that does not take up desire or hatred, but is in harmony with the noble path
itself. This is the factor of enlightenment of equipoise.
O Sariputra, it is in this manner that bodhisattvas who are skilled in the seven factors of
enlightenment course in the Perfection of Wisdom.

2.10 Skill in the Path

2.10.1 Skill in the Noble Eightfold Path

Next, what is the bodhisattva’s skill in the path? The path of bodhisattvas is eightfold.
What are the eight? These are right view, right resolve, right speech, right conduct, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness and right meditation. These are the eight limbs of
the path of bodhisattvas.201
What is right view? (666) It is a view that is noble and transcends the mundane realm. It

199. In several places in the Samyuttanikaya (S V, pp. 66, 104, 111) a distinction is proposed between
tranquillity o f the body (kayapassadhi) and tranquillity o f the mind (cittapassadhi). Following this dif­
ferentiation, the Dhs (pp. 14-5, 66) defines kayapassadhi in terms o f calmness o f the aggregates o f feeling
(vedana), perception (saiihd) and formations (samkhara), while explaining cittapassadhi as calmness o f
the consciousness-aggregate (vihhana). By implication, it is then vedand, saiihd and samkhara that link
the practitioner’s physical and mental experience and might be taken to bridge the attainment in joy and
tranquillity— with the former pertaining to the body and the latter to the mind (Waldschmidt, 1956, p. 292,
30.27).
200. Akn-tika, p. 267.1.1-2:
“Meditation by means o f which thusness is known through one’s own [effort] and then
realised; this is the factor o f enlightenment of meditation.”
201. Vasubandhu indicates in the Akn-tika that the eightfold path constitutes the bhavandmdrga (p. 267.3.5-6):
“Out o f these, the summarising title (pindartha) ‘path of cultivation’ is taught by means o f the
noble eightfold path while its ‘practice’ is taught by means o f perfect mental quietude and
insight.”
The eightfold path itself is defined as follows (Akn-tika, p. 267.3.8^4.2; cf.Akn, pp. 70.4.4-71.2.1):
“The path is pristine cognition by means o f which the arya attain unsurpassed enlightenment.
The eight [factors], viz., right view, etc., are called limbs since they are associates o f the
pristine cognition o f the path. They are right because they have turned away from mistaken
views o f the world.”

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does not arise from the belief in a self, a sentient being, a life-force or a person; it does not
arise from the belief in nihilism or permanence, origination or destruction. It does not arise
from heretical views, starting with that which distinguishes virtue and non-virtue and ending
with the view of [permanent] nirvana; this is right view.202
What is right resolve? A resolve through which impurities such as desire, hatred and
delusion, etc., prevail does not suffice. Rather, it is a resolve through which morality, contem­
plation, wisdom, deliverance and the knowledge and vision of deliverance come into being203;
this is right resolve.204
What is right speech? It is right speech through which neither oneself nor others are
distressed. It is rich in utterances of beneficial application205. It is through this speech that one
penetrates path-uniformity; this is right speech.206
What is right conduct? Concerning unwholesome action; a bodhisattva does not perform
action of the kind that produces evil retribution. (667) Concerning wholesome action; he
performs action of the kind that produces wholesome retribution. Concerning wholesome/un­
wholesome action; he does not perform action of the kind that produces wholesome/unwhole­
some retribution. Concerning action that is neither wholesome nor unwholesome; he performs
action of the kind that leads to the exhaustion of action since it produces no retribution.
Hence, confidence in one’s doings and diligent exertion to right action, this is right conduct.207
What is right livelihood? It is to live without abandoning the noble lineage208 or the virtues
202 Akn-tika, p. 267.4.2-3:
“A bodhisattva who transcends binary thinking acquires right view on the path o f contemplation.”
203. Akn-tika, p. 267.5.1-2:
“Right resolve does not construct objects that generate klesa, it does not generate the origination
o f klesa.”
204. Akn-tika, p. 267.4.7-8:
“A bodhisattva who professes good resolve attains right resolve on the bhdvanamarga.”
205. rjes su sbyor ba: anuyoga (cf. Edgerton, p. 32, col. 2).
206. Akn-tika, p. 267.5.1-2:
“A disciplined bodhisattva who is attracted to the bhdvanamarga by right speech acquires
moral conduct that was approved by the arya.”
207. Akn-tika, p. 267.5.6-7:
“A composed bodhisattva who is attracted to the bhdvanamarga by right conduct acquires
moral conduct that was approved by the a rya ”
208. hphags pahi rigs: dryavamsa
To define right livelihood in terms o f the dryavamsa is significant, since it throws some light on the Bdp's
position regarding the bodhisattva’s sphere o f conduct. The dryavamsa, literally ‘lineage o f noble ones’
describes a set o f ascetic disciplines that are held conducive to liberation. Their purpose is to lead to
contentment and the eradication o f desire. Although its practice is technically known as ‘lineage’, it is by
virtue o f one’s way o f life rather than birth that membership is attained. Unlike the notion o f gotra to
which one belongs by birth (for exceptions to this rule, see: Bbh, pp. 1-11), the dryavamsa—although
notionally parallel to gotra—is a matter o f personal decision.
Its frequent occurrences in the nikaya suggest that the dry>avatnsa gained high esteem from relatively early
on. Detailed discussions o f the practices that belong to the dryavamsa are found, for instance, at M I, p. 2
and A II. 27, 28 (ref. Schuster). The practices that are included in the dryavamsa are (1) contentment with
robes made o f rags (civard), (2) contentment with alms-food consisting o f scraps (pindiyalopa), (3)
contentment with roots o f trees (rukkhamula) as lodging and (4) contentment with strong-smelling urine
(putimutta) as medicine.
Besides the more explicit references, the four practices appear in number o f other places in the early

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of mendicant life209. It is to live without joking, hypocrisy or violent retaliation and to be

easily satisfied with food and medicine210. It is to live without assuming negligence in one’s
training or to envy other persons’ property, but to be content with one’s own belongings. It is
to live beyond reproach as it was prescribed by the noble one; this is right livelihood.211

suttas, First, all but the last practice are included in the dhutahga ( Vism, pp. 24, 30-36, 40). Second,
among the practices that Devadatta wished to make obligatory for all monks, we note that it was mainly
the concerns o f the first three dryavamsa practices that stood at the centre o f his aspirations (Vin, iii, x.1.1,
Cullavaggat vii.3).
That the dryavamsa continued to enjoy high esteem is shown by Buddhaghosa’s (Vism, pp. 93-94)
recommendation o f four texts that should be used by monks as guides to their practice. These include
besides the Ariyavamsasutta, the Rathavinitasutta (M I, p. 24), Malakasutta (Sn, iii.l 1) and Tuvatakasutta
(,Sn, iv.14), all o f which are concerned with issues of discipline and contentment. Similar concerns are also
expressed in the seven suttas that are cited by ASoka in his Bhabra edict as works that monks, nuns and
lay-persons should study in detail (Warder, 1980, pp. 255-57). Finally, mirroring the ideal o f practitioners
who elected the disciplinarian vigour o f seclusion, the dryavamsa correspond to the four types o f requisites
that a pratyekabuddha is allowed to possess, viz., robes, almsfood, a place to rest and medicine (Kloppenberg,
1974, p. 26). All o f this suggests that the ascetic ideal that is epitomised by the four dryavamsa prac­
tices— always voluntary and free from the extremes o f self-mortification—enjoyed broad support among
the Buddhist community during the first centuries of Buddhism.
Not surprisingly, this concern for discipline, moderation and self-control did not wane in the course o f
time, but maintained much o f its appeal for later generations of Buddhists. In scholastic writings, the four
dryavamsa are treated in the Kosa (iv, pp. 146-8), Mpps and the Sarvastivada Dharmaskandha (chpt. vi).
Among the early sutras o f the Mahayana, they are given prominent treatment in the Ug (pp. 268.1.6-69.3.1),
Rp (p. 13.17-18, p. 14.7-8) andAjo (pp. 13-14, 174, 179-181; § 6, 123, 126). In particular, the Ug stands
out for its detailed discussion. Here, they dominate practically the whole o f section seven and stand at the
heart o f the bodhisattva’s training in solitude and contentment. Two aspects o f its discussion are especially
noteworthy. First, there is the fact that the Ug's presentation o f the four practices corresponds almost
verbatim to that o f A 11.28, pp. 26-7. This reinforces the assumption that the dryavamsa acquired great
renown already in ancient times for it to enjoy the use o f stockphrase in its description. Second, we note a
tendency in the Ug, Kp and Rp to make the dryavamsa specifically the domain o f thepravrajita bodhisattva.
All three texts make it obvious that they consider it elemental to the proper conduct o f recluse bodhisattvas.
In them the dryavamsa epitomise the basic mental disposition that is conducive to a proper attitude in
training, but are nowhere near the actual attainment o f bodhi. In the Kp their mastery is also open to those
of inferior understanding and is little more than preparatory to meditation practice.
Undoubtedly, this attitude reflects the Buddha’s thinking when he decreed that their practice should not be
made obligatory since he thought that they were o f benefit only to those who already possessed a
disposition o f asceticism. It appears, therefore, that the interpretation o f the aryavarnsa had changed little
since the early days. During the incipient Mahayana, the role o f the dryavamsa is associated only with a
minority o f practitioners— the pravrajita bodhisattva—and is valued as a preliminary practice to meditation
that instilled discipline, quietude and contentment in the adept. It is only with the rise o f scholasticism,
that this general appreciation became refined, leading to the detailed accounts in the Kosa and Vism.
The Bdp's position on the dryavamsa does not match fully either of these strands. On the one hand, to
include them in right livelihood would seem to assign the dryavamsa practices to the general model o f
Buddhist conduct and not specifically to the pravrajita environment. On the other hand, their positioning
as the first practice o f right livelihood suggests that they enjoyed a certain preeminence over the other
factors (e.g., absence o f hypocrisy, violence, jest). This prominence appears strengthened through the
practices that follow after the reference to the dryavamsa. Most o f them speak o f moderation, contentment
and moral integrity as the ideal life-style o f wandering mendicants. By implication their inclusion in the
general category o f right livelihood would seem to point to the modest, reclusive life epitomised by the
dryavamsa as the model training for the B dp’s bodhisattva to follow.
209. sbyahs pahiyon tan: dhiitaguna (cf. Edgerton, p. 286, col. 1).
210. dgah sla ba: suposa; gso sla ba: subhara(cf. Edgerton, p. 600, col. 1; p. 601, col. 1).
211. Akn-tika, p. 268.1.2-3:
“A peaceful bodhisattva who is attracted to the bhdvanamarga by right effort acquires moral
conduct that was approved by the arya
Most other works on the bodhipdksika include in the exposition o f right livelihood as brief account o f the
five mistaken forms o f livelihood (mithydjiva). These include (1) hypocrisy in order to obtain alms

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What is right effort? Effort that preaches mistaken conduct, effort that leads to the propensities
of defilements212 of desire, hatred and delusion—this is not intended. Rather, it is effort
that—introducing to the noble path and truth— accords with the effort that establishes in the
path leading to nirvana; this is right effort.213 (668)
What is right mindfulness? It is mindfulness that is well-composed, self-possessed, sincere
and truthful; it is mindfulness that investigates the faults and defects of samsdra and guides
the bodhisattva on the path to nirvana; it is mindfulness that causes recollection and is not
oblivious of the noble path; this is right mindfulness.214
What is right meditation? It is composure towards reality and all dharma. When one dwells
in this [type of] meditation, one penetrates reality. If one dwells in this [type of] bodhisattva-
meditation in order to liberate all sentient beings and penetrates reality, that is right meditation.215
0kuhana), (2) boasting (lapana), (3) divination (inaimittikatd), (4) extraction o f gifts from the laity
(naispesikata) and (5) unceasing concern for profit (labhena labharn niscikirsatd). In the nikaya, they are
found in D I, pp. 8, 67; M III, p. 75; A III, p. Il l ; for Sanskrit references, see: Kosavyakhya, p. 420; Bbh,
pp. 168.21-169.2; Abhidh-d, p. 309.9-11 and Siks, p. 183.15. A fine summary o f the significance o f the
five terms is given in ths Abhidh-d (p. 310.1-5):
“The five mistaken forms o f livelihood constitute particular thoughts. Hypocrisy is to resort to
manifold posturing in order to demonstrate qualities that one does not possess. Boasting is to
show o ff one’s qualities out o f own interest. Divination is to interpret signs either favourably
or unfavourably [for one’s own benefit] with the pretext to pay service [to others]. Extortion is
to extract favour through threats. Unceasing concern for profit is to strive for new gains by
virtue o f previously obtained profit.”
The best analysis o f the five types o f mistaken livelihood in European languages is probably that by
Wogihara (Bbh, pp. 21-26*). For other references of their occurrence in Buddhist literature, particularly in
exegetical material, see: Mpps, iii, pp. 1182-3.
212 non mohspa bag la hal ba: klesanusaya (cf. Edgerton, p. 198, col. 1)
The exact relationship between the klesa and anusaya is frequently glossed over in Buddhist literature. In
many texts both terms are used as near-synonyms and are only inadequately distinguished. Even in
scholastic works, their differences are not always made clear. According to the Dhsgr (§ 67) and Siddhi (p.
343), the klesa are sixfold, viz., desire (raga), aversion (pratigha), conceit (mdna), ignorance ( avidya),
mistaken views (kudrsti) and doubt (vicikitsd). In the Kosa (v, p. 2) these six factors (replacing the last two
with drsti and vimati respectively) are said to characterise the anusaya.
In the Sarvastivada Abhidharma (Jhanaprasthdna, T 26, p. 943a27; ref. La Vallee Poussin), this list of
anusaya is extended to include ten kinds o f anusaya by subdividing the kudrsti into the (1) belief in a self
(satkayadrsti), (2) false views (mithyadrsti), (3) belief in the extremes (antagrdhadrsti), (4) the esteeming
o f views (drstipardmarsa) and (5) the esteeming o f moral and ascetic practices (silavrataparamarsa).
Creating further subdivisions and addressing specific viewpoints, the basic list o f six has been variously
expanded with the highest number o f anusaya amounting to ninety-eight (Kosa, v, p. 13).
A key passage in the Kosa (v, p. 6) explains that the anusaya are not different from the klesa but constitute
klesa in a state o f sleep. They are said to be the opposite o fparyavasthana (active defilement) that is,
klesa in an awakened state. Because the anusaya are non-manifested they are in a latent state, bearing the
characteristics o f a seed belonging to a person who engendered the previous klesa. While the anusaya are
the cause o f the klesa, they are not solely responsible since the klesa depend for arising on the presence of
dharma as objects and on incorrect preparation. In the words o f the Kosa (v, p. 72):
‘K lesa arise from the non-abandoning o f the anusaya, from the presence o f their object and
from erroneous judgement.”
213. Akn-tika, p. 268.1.6-7:
“A bodhisattva who has gone forth to mendicant life acquires right livelihood on the bhdvandmar-
ga.
214. Akn-tika, p. 268.2.1-2:
“A bodhisattva who is full o f joy acquires the ability to retain words and meanings on the
bhdvanamarga.”
215. As this sentence differs from the preceding one only by qualifying meditation as bodhisattva-meditation, it

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After the bodhisattva has intuitively grasped the inexhaustible path of the lord buddhas of all
times he preaches, explains and fully elucidates it This is right meditation.216
These are the eight limbs of the path of bodhisattvas. This is the bodhisattva’s skill in the
path.

2.10.2 Skill in Perfect Mental Quietude and Insight

Furthermore, as regards their skill in the path; the path of bodhisattvas is twofold. What are
the two? (669) These are perfect mental quietude and insight. This is the twofold path.
What is perfect mental quietude? It is composure, serenity and stillness. It is imperturbability,
restraint with regard to senses and congeniality. It is freedom from conceit, arrogance and
folly. It is resoluteness, watchfulness and self-possession. It is non-delusion of mind, joy in
solitude, quietude and seclusion. It is reflection on physical seclusion, mental quietude and
the door to solitude. It is ease of mind and modesty. It is purity of life, excellence of practice
and guarded conduct. It senses timeliness. It is contentment with food and medicine. It is
analytical investigation217. It is mental poise and patient endurance of the words of those who
speak evil. It is generating the thought of enlightenment at the door to yoga. It is taking
pleasure in deep absorption and contemplating the branches of meditation. That is to say, it
producing benevolence, acquiring compassion, persisting in sympathetic joy, assuming equi­
poise and attaining successively all eight [types of] meditation. This is perfect mental quietude.218
Again, the accumulation of perfect mental quietude is infinite. Guidance to that accumulation
is perfect mental quietude.
What is insight? (670) It is the path of contemplation219connected to wisdom. It is knowledge
appears that the Bdp intends to point to a difference between the Sravaka-meditation and the bodhisattva-
meditation. That is to say, the Sravaka is concerned with his own liberation and may pass from the state o f
meditation into nirvana, but the bodhisattva’s motivation o f his meditative practice is the goal o f universal
liberation.
216 Akn-tika, p. 268.2.6-7:
“A bodhisattva who is o f great power attains the accomplishment o f his intended aims on the
bhdvanamarga."
An Italian translation o f the parallel passage in the Akn (as preserved in the Arthav) was composed by
Alfonsa Ferrari, 1944, pp. 6 0 3 -4 .1 have reproduced the Sanskrit of that passage in the notes to my edition.
Note, however, that her translation is based on the Tibetan, since in 1944 the Sanskrit text o f the Arthav
was not yet available.
217. so sor rtogpa: pratyaveksa
For a definition o f pratyaveksa, see: MBT, iii, pp. 3, 5,14-15, Bbh, p. 109.18-22.
218. According to the Bbh (p. 260.15-23), samatha falls into four categories. First, there is samatha that is
knowledge indicating the absolute truth (paramarthikasdmketikajhana). Second, there is samatha that— be­
ing the fruit o f the first type— is effortless perception o f discursive proliferation (prapahca). Third,
samatha is characterised as penetration o f the ineffability o f things and their signlessness. Fourth, by
cleansing the mind o f all discrimination, samatha leads to the essentially uniform single flavour o f all
dharma (sarvadharmasamata). By means o f these four aspects o f samatha, its practice accomplishes the
pristine cognition o f enlightenment. Other, less specific, classifications o f samatha are found in the
Samdhis (&La), p. 93.1-10.
219. sgom pahi lam: bhdvanamarga
At first sight, this reference to the path o f cultivation (bhdvanamarga) is surprising. According to the
Siddhi (p. 569) vipasyana constitutes the central vision of the darsanamdrga and plays a decisive role in

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seeing the imperturbability of dharma. It is knowledge seeing that there is no sentient being,
life-force or person and that the aggregates are illusory. It is knowledge seeing that the
elements are like the sphere of the Doctrine. It is knowledge seeing that the sensefields are
like an empty city and that the eye scrutinises discursively. It is knowledge seeing that
dependent co-origination is non-contradictory and that it is beyond the heretical view stipulating
the existence of a sentient being. It is knowledge seeing that causes and effects ripen. It is
knowledge seeing the manifestation of the fruit-attainment. It is knowledge seeing that pen­
etrating reality is attainment.
Again, as regards insight; it is accurate seeing of dharma. It is seeing the suchness of
dharma. It is seeing the unfailing thusness of dharma. It is seeing the emptiness, signlessness
and wishlessness of dharma.
Again, as regards insight; it does not consist of seeing through causes or the absence of
causes. It does not consist of seeing through causes that arise, abide and perish or that are
mentally construed; and although it is insight, one sees not even a little.220 (671)
Furthermore, as regards insight; it is seeing by seeing and non-seeing by seeing. When one
sees in this manner, then one sees rightly. When one sees rightly, one acquires skill in
insight. Now, concerning the insight of bodhisattvas; they neither fall into karma-producing
activity nor attend to accumulating roots of virtue; this is the insight of bodhisattvas.221

the establishing o f ‘seeing’. Indeed, most texts agree that the practice o f vipasyana belongs to the darsana­
mdrga and not to the bhdvanamarga (examples, see: Ruegg, 1989, pp. 186-88). It could, however, be
argued that bhdvanamarga constitutes essentially a refined renewal o f the ‘non-constructive gnosis’ (nir-
vikalpajhdna) first intuited during the darsanamdrga (Siddhi, p. 606). Judging by the characterisation of
vipasyana in the Bdp, it is probable that it is this parallelism that is played at, since the content—affirming
cognition o f the emptiness, sameness and ultimate non-existence of dharma— corresponds to the definition
o f the bhdvanamarga as “intuition dominated by supreme wisdom that is engaged in pondering, investigation
and contemplation o f the unreality o f the separate elements o f existence, their non-substantiality and
relativity” (DPP, pp. 41-42). In the Bbh (pp. 109.7-110.4) both samatha and vipasyana play a part in the
cultivation (bhavand) o f balagotra, leading to the elimination of evil dispositions and purification o f the
vision o f knowledge. This might explain why we find in several texts (e.g., Akn-tika, p. 267.3.5-6,
Abhidh-sam (R), p. 126) that the cultivation o f samatha and vipasyana is placed at the end o f the
bhdvanamarga, indicating the final consummation o f non-constructive gnosis.
220. The syntax o f this passage is ambiguous and I am not certain whether my translation represents its chain
o f reasoning accurately. The commentary on the Akn is of little help here, since the crucial portion is not
found in the root text (Akn, p. 71.3.5-8; Akn-tika, pp. 268.4.1-269.5.6). However, some light is shed on
the meaning o f this passage by a paragraph in the Samdhis 0 L a ) (pp. 90.21-91.17) that discusses the
ways in which thought perceived during meditation differs from ordinary thought.
221. Like samatha, also vipasyana displays four levels o f operation. First, at the lowest level, vipasyana
encompasses all four aspects o f samatha. Second, vipasyana removes the remaining mistaken mental
assumptions (samaropa) concerning dharma. Third, vipasyana eradicates all blame and contradiction
(apavada) and fourth, through infinite methods o f differentiation vipasyana penetrates dharma analysis
(Bbh, pp. 260.23-261.5).
Compare these four types o f vipasyana with the three types that are proposed in the Samdhis (&La) (p.
92.14-29). Here, we learn that vipasyana may either spring from notions (nimittamayi), striving
(prayesanamayi) or from analytical investigation (pratyaveksanamayi). The first is concerned with images
that carry reflection (vikalpabimba) perceived during meditation. The second addresses dharma that the
bodhisattva penetrated only partially through wisdom. The third type o f vipasyana investigates accurately
the Dharma in order to reach the bliss o f enlightenment. Further material on the various divisions and
aspects o f samatha and vipasyana is found in the Abhidh-sam (R), p. 126.

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It is in this way that the bodhisattva who is skilled in perfect mental quietude and insight
courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.

2.10.3 Skill in Perfect Efforts

Furthermore, as regards skill in the path; the path of bodhisattvas is fourfold. What are the
four?
They generate the keen wish that bad, unwholesome dharma that have hitherto not arisen
are not produced. They strive and apply themselves diligently, they control their mind and
endeavour zealously to that end.
They generate the keen wish that bad, unwholesome dharma that have already arisen are
abandoned. They strive and apply themselves diligently, they control their mind and endeavour
zealously to that end.
They generate the keen wish that virtuous dharma that have hitherto not arisen are produced.
They strive and apply themselves diligently, they control their mind and endeavour zealously
to that end.
They generate the keen wish that virtuous dharma that have already arisen persist, reappear,
(672) prevail and endure. They strive and apply themselves diligently, they control their
mind and endeavour zealously to that end.222
‘He generates the keen wish that bad, unwholesome dharma that have hitherto not arisen
are not produced’ is an expression for correct reflection. ‘He strives and applies himself
diligently to that end’ is an expression for not abandoning this correct reflection. ‘He controls
the mind and endeavours zealously to that end’ is an expression for correct, careful investigation.
Why? Because correct practices do not manifest unwholesome dharma.
What are unwholesome dharma ? Unwholesome dharma are the detriment of moral conduct,
meditation and wisdom. What is the detriment of moral conduct? Dharma that corrupt moral
conduct and some others that impair it, (673) viz., dharma that are detrimental to the morality-
aggregate, these are the detriment of moral conduct.
What is the detriment of meditation? Dharma that corrupt religious practice and some
others that distract the mind, viz., dharma that are detrimental to the meditation-aggregate,
these are the detriment of meditation.

222 Playing at the ambiguity o f the word-formation o f prahana/pradhana, Vasubandhu comments (Akn-tika,
p. 260.5.4-6):
“It is fitting to call ‘bad, unwholesome dharma that have hitherto not arisen are not produced’
and ‘those that have already arisen should be abandoned’ perfect abandoning (samyaiprahana).
But how can ‘so that virtuous dharma that have hitherto not arisen are produced’ and ‘those
that have arisen should endure’ be called perfect abandoning? To designate the two in this
way appears illogical, but there is no inconsistency here since ‘perfect abandoning’ is taken to
mean to abandon the detriment (vipaksaprahdna), to produce and make the virtuous dharma
endure and to abandon the detriment that takes place in order to produce and make endure
[virtuous dharma].”

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What is the detriment of wisdom? Dharma that corrupt vision and some others that obscure
his vision overwhelmingly, viz., dharma that are detrimental to the wisdom-aggregate, these
are the detriment of wisdom. These are bad, unwholesome dharma.
Due to correct reflection he generates the keen wish that such bad, unwholesome dharma
are abandoned. He strives and applies himself diligently, he controls his mind and endeavours
zealously to that end. Hence, these unwholesome dharma do not accumulate in his mind and
do not prevail in any region or quarter.
He perceives that these unwholesome dharma that—wandering in the mind—have arisen
from conditions and obstructions, viz., from desire by way of the disposition of affection,
from hatred by way of the disposition of anger and from delusion by way of the disposition
of ignorance. Then, the disposition of correct reflection acts to appease desire by way of
contemplating223 impurity, to appease hatred by way of contemplating benevolence and to
appease delusion by way of contemplating dependent co-origination.224 Pacification of these
impurities is abandoning after having qualified them.225 One who abandons does not apprehend
anything. (674) Since he is aware that all dharma are uniform, because of that, he abandons
correctly. This is the second right effort.
Again, the expression ‘he generates the keen wish that virtuous dharma that have hitherto
not arisen are produced. He strives and applies himself diligently, he controls his mind and
endeavours zealously to that end’ has an infinite basis. Why? Because the virtuous dharma
that should be accomplished by the mahdsattva, bodhisattva are incalculable. Here, ‘keen
wish’ is the foundation of all roots of virtue. ‘Acquisition of diligence’ is the foundation of
all roots of virtue. ‘Perseverance226 in controlling the mind’ is the foundation of all roots of
virtue.227 This is the third right effort.
Again, ‘he generates the keen wish that all virtuous dharma that have already arisen persist,
prevail and endure. He strives and applies himself diligently, he controls his mind and
endeavours zealously to that end’ is an expression for the roots of virtue that have been
transformed into enlightenment.
Why? Roots of virtue that have been transformed into enlightenment endure until he has

223. The word ‘contemplating’ (tib.: sgom p a ) is not found in the Tibetan text, but is to be supplied on
contextual grounds.
224 Compare this proposition with the view expressed in the Siddhi (pp. 359, 351) that defilements o f
speculation {parikalpitaklesa) can be abandoned through seeing (darsana) because they are coarse and
hence easily abandoned while innate defilements (sahajaklesa) because they are difficult to abandon are
eliminated through contemplation (bhavana).
225. tha shad du btags pah iph yir (lit.: ‘after having named them’)
The idea behind this thought appears to be that the bodhisattva cannot proceed to eradicate unwholesome
dharma until he has positively identified them.
226. ham su lenpar byedpa: dsthitikriyd(cf. Edgerton, p. I l l , col. 2).
227. Most other works do not elaborate the differences between the two poles o f the samyakprahana. For
instance, in the Kp (p. 139; § 95) the four perfect efforts are collectively the remedy (cikitsa) that prompts
the abandonment o f non-virtuous dharma and leads to the fulfilment (paripuri) o f all virtuous dharma.

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settled on the seat of enlightenment. Why? Because a thought thus produced is not dependent
on the triple world. (675) Roots of virtue that depend on the triple world perish. Why?
Because a thought thus produced is dependent on the triple world. All roots of virtue that are
transformed into all-knowing are independent of the triple world and do not perish. This is
the fourth right effort.228
It is in this manner that the bodhisattva who is skilled in the fourfold path courses in the
Perfection of Wisdom.

2.10.4 Skill in Faculties

Furthermore, as regards skill in the path; the path of the bodhisattva is fivefold. What are
the five? These are the faculty of faith, the faculty of vigour, the faculty of recollection, the
faculty of meditation and the faculty of wisdom.229
What is the faculty of faith? It is faith through which he gains confidence in four dharma.™
What are the four?

(1) While in samsara, he has faith in worldly right view231. He relies on the ripening
228. For the Akn-tikd, the attainment o f the four efforts mirrors the bodhisattva’s progress in vigour. To begin
with, during the first perfect effort, the bodhisattva exerts himself to produce the antidote to unwholesome
dharma, viz., vigour (p. 260.5.7). Second, in order to abandon those bad dharma that have already arisen,
he appeases them (p. 262.1.2-3). Third, now in possession o f vigour, the bodhisattva promotes the
becoming o f wholesome dharma (p. 262.2.7-8). Fourth, being established in vigour, he consolidates those
wholesome dharma that have already arisen (p. 262.3.6-7).
229. An Italian translation largely paralleling our ‘skill' in faculties (as cited in the Arthav from the Akn, but
made on the basis o f the Tibetan) was composed by A. Ferrari (op. cit., pp. 601-2). I have reproduced the
Sanskrit o f that passage in the notes to my edition o f chapter eleven.
230. The section o f ‘skill’ in faculties is one o f the few passages o f the Bdp that are extant in the Sanskrit. It is
found in the $iks citing from XhzAkti (pp. 316.13-317.13). An abbreviated Sanskrit version o f the parallel
passage in the Akn is also found in the Arthav (S), pp. 31.6-33.2 and in its commentary (Arthav-t (S), pp.
223-25).
According to the Akn-tikd (p. 263.5.4-5):
“A bodhisattva who posseses supreme faith progresses in the faculty o f faith. Supramundane
faith is superior to mundane faith, it is distinguished, greater and unsurpassed.”
231. laukika samyagdrsti: ’worldly right view’
According to the commentary on the Arthav, faith in worldly right view refers to the bodhisattva’s belief
in the existence o f the other world (paraloka) and pertains to laukika consciousness (Arthav-t (S), pp.
223-25). Merely concerned with the bodhisattva’s receptivity to, and knowledge of, the structure o f
samsara, it is to be distinguished from the samyagdrsti o f the arydstahgamarga (Kosa, vi, p. 290). The
Sarvastivada understood laukika samyagdrsti as tprajha associated with (samprayukta) mental perception
(manovijndna)' that allows for vision o f dharma. Wholesome by nature, but impure (sasrava) it is not the
right view o f the arhant which is always pure (Kosa, ii, p. 81). This would establish the indriya in the Bdp
as pertaining to the laukika consciousness— a possibility that is acknowledged by the Sarvastivada (Bareau,
1955, p. 143).
The issue o f the feasibility o f ‘worldly right view ’ is hotly debated and the Sarvastivada view remained by
no means unchallenged. Criticism came, for instance, from the Theravada tradition, arguing that there
exists neither a laukika right view nor a laukika faculty o f faith (op. cit., p. 66). For them, all mundane
qualities—be it faith, vigour, mindfulness, meditation or wisdom—exist, by definition, outside the way to
deliverance. As such, they are clearly distinct from the indriya, because they do not fulfil the purpose o f
the indriya, namely, the abandonment o f delusion and extermination o f desire that can only be achieved
through pure wisdom and pure faith (op. cit., p. 67). The Akn-tikd (p. 264.1.2-5), defines ‘worldly right
view’ as perception o f the conduct o f ignorant laymen, as knowledge o f the ripening o f deeds in retribution

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of deeds and refrains from sinful actions for the sake of life.
(2) He has faith in the bodhisattva training and, once embarked on this training,
does not long for another vehicle.
(3) He has faith in the precise meaning of the absolute truth, in the profound law of
dependent co-origination, in investigation concerning the sentient being and in
the notion that all dharma bear the characteristics of emptiness and signlessness.
(676) He does not harbour inclinations towards any heretical belief.232
(4) He has faith in all buddha-qualities, in the powers and assurances. After he has
heard of them, he becomes convinced and gathers these qualities trustingly.
'This is the faculty of faith.

What is the faculty of vigour? He produces dharma in that he has faith through the faculty
of vigour; this is the faculty of vigour. He retains dharma that he gathered with vigour
through the faculty of recollection; this is the faculty of recollection. He focuses his thought
by means of the faculty of meditation on dharma that he retained through the faculty of
recollection; this is the faculty of meditation. He examines by means of the faculty of
wisdom dharma on which he focused his thought through the faculty of meditation; knowledge
of these dharma is the faculty of wisdom.
It is in this way that his five faculties are connected with each other and cause him to
accomplish all buddha-qualities. They cause him also to attain the stage of prediction. For
instance, just like those who possess the five transcendental super-knowledge do not predict a
foetus in the womb until he has attained male or female faculties, (677) in the same way also
the lord buddhas do not predict bodhisattvas until they have attained these five faculties.233

and as knowledge o f existence o f the triratna. The issue o f the laukika/lokottara distinction does not
figure in the Akn-tikd*s explanation o f the passage on the sraddhendriya beyond the statement that worldly
observance o f sraddha, etc., contains the preconditions for the indriya to become a transcendental practice
(pp. 263.5.4—6,264.3.4).
232 Ita barbyas pa: drstikrta (cf. Edgerton, p. 269, col. 2).
233. This allusion to the prediction o f buddhahood refers no doubt to the fourth and last prediction o f the
bodhisattva. Being public and made in the presence o f the person concerned (sammukhapudgalavyakarana),
it is only conferred after the bodhisattva has developed the spiritual indriya (that, according to Kumarajiva,
are o f lokottara rank) and observes constantly the brahmacarya ideal, when he has attained the conviction
o f the non-arising o f dharma (anutpattikadharmaksanti) and resides on the acalabhumi (Sgs, pp. 212-13;
Msl, p. 166.9-17; Bbh, p. 290.6-7).
The preceding three vyakarana are explained as follows: The first prediction (anutpaditabodhicittotpa-
davydkarana) is conferred on a person who abides in the lineage of the buddhas (gotrastha) but has not
yet generated the thought o f enlightenment. He is endowed with weak faculties itiksnendriya) but of
honest aspiration (uddradhimuktika), Such a person is identified in the five destinies by the Buddha
through his great sight (apratihatabuddhacaksus) and prophesied to generate the bodhicitta in due course.
The second prediction is conferred on a bodhisattva who has already generated the thought o f enlightenment
(upaditacittavyakarana). It is conferred on those who have developed their roots o f virtue, who have
planted and cultivated the seed o f enlightenment, who possess acute faculties, who accomplish superior
conduct (krtacaryd) and show compassion towards beings. At this stage, their attainments are already
irreversible (avaivartika) and free from the eight unfavourable conditions o f birth (astdksana). The third
prediction (asamaksavyakarana or rohavyakarana) is secret in the sense that it is only known to the

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This is his fivefold path. It is in this way that the bodhisattva who is skilled in the fivefold
path courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.

2.10.5 Skill in Powers

Furthermore, O Sariputra, what is the bodhisattva’s skill in the fivefold path? The five
limbs are the power of faith, the power of vigour, the power of recollection, the power of
meditation and the power of wisdom.234
What is his power of faith? It is faith, confidence and devotion that is invincible. Even if
Mara were to assume the appearance of the Buddha and approached [the bodhisattva], someone
who has faith in the pristine cognition of the Doctrine would tell them apart, saying: “These
teachings are not the Doctrine of the Buddha.” Even if he deters him and dissuades him from
his resolution, by persisting in thorough investigation the mahabhuta are completely trans­
formed. However, this does not happen to a bodhisattva who trusts the power of faith. Thus,
Mara cannot separate him from the bodhisattva’s power of faith.
What is the bodhisattva’s power of vigour? Whatever vigour they acquire and however
many virtuous dharma they practice, although they attain a degree of firm power in these, the
worldings including the gods are not able to repulse, describe or generate the degree of his
power unless they are liberated in his place235. (678) This is the bodhisattva’s power of
vigour.
What is the bodhisattva’s power of recollection? In whatever state or dharma his mind is
established through the bases of mindfulness, no defilements whatsoever can perturb or
distract him from them. Through the force of the power of recollection he overcomes all
defilements. His recollection is truly invincible. This is the bodhisattva’s power of recollection.
What is the bodhisattva’s power of contemplation? He practises with composure in the
midst of all bustle of worldly affairs. When he reflects on all sounds of worldly paths, the
thicket of sound does not become an impediment to his first contemplation.236 Although he

assembly, but not to the bodhisattva concerned. The reason usually given in support o f this secrecy is that,
if conferred personally, the bodhisattva might forfeit his vigour in anticipation o f what is by now certain
buddhahood. On the other hand, the buddha’s address to the assembly is meant to provide inspiration to
the audience, to sustain their interest and to remove all remaining doubt o f the feasibility o f the goal (&gs,
pp. 202-213).
234. The difference between the practice o f the indriya and bala is that (Akn-tikd, p. 264.4.3-6):
“When treated as faculties [the bodhisattvas] attain only mastery in realising and fulfilling the
practices in which one should have faith, etc., but they are not such that they overcome their
antitheses. When treated as powers, however, faith, etc., provided that they are cultivated and
purified, gather force and become a bala in order to overcome its antitheses, viz., distrust,
etc.”
This explanation runs very close to the reasoning that is given in the Abhidh-sam (JR.), p. 123, where we
learn that the pahcabala are called power because they eliminate the danger posed by their antitheses and
because o f their distinction.
235. The last subclause represents only an approximate translation o f the Tibetan phrase gnas der ma bsgral gyi
bar du (R, folio 678.1). A more literal rendering would be: “unless they are removed from that place”.
236. The allegory likening sound to a thicket is also found in the Kathavatthu (pp. 202, 572-3; ref. Braavrig).

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discriminates when pursuing virtuous investigation, it does not become an impediment to his
second contemplation. Although delight and happiness arise in him and persist, it does not
become an impediment to his third contemplation. Although he is not indifferent for the sake
of developing sentient beings and to uphold the holy Doctrine, it does not become an impediment
to his fourth contemplation. (679) When he dwells in these four contemplations, he is invincible
by virtue of his contemplation and liberation. He does not renounce the state of contemplation
and is not reborn by reason of the power of contemplation. This is the bodhisattva’s power of
contemplation.
What is the bodhisattva’s power of wisdom. It is pristine cognition that is unconquerable by
mundane and supramundane dharma. As soon as the bodhisattva is bom in this world, he
accomplishes without a teacher all excellent practices, formidable actions and arduous attain­
ments in every manual skill. Indeed, it is by means of these supramundane dharma that he
delivers the worlds. Gods or men cannot defeat these dharma since they originate in the
bodhisattva’s power of wisdom and pristine cognition. This is the bodhisattva’s power of
wisdom. This is the other fivefold path.
It is in this manner that the bodhisattva who is skilled in these five limbs courses in the
Perfection of Wisdom.

2.10.6 Skill in Solitary Wandering

Furthermore, in brief, the path of bodhisattvas is solitary237. That is to say, it is a path that is
traversed alone. The bodhisattva is unaccompanied and on his own. (680) Being without
companion, he puts on his armour with the resolution that upholds the force of his diligent
power for the sake of unsurpassed and perfect enlightenment. He is self-sufficient and does
not dependent on others.238He practises all by himself. He excels by virtue of his own power.
Having put on a hardened armour, he reflects:
“I shall achieve that which no other sentient being has achieved. I shall achieve that which
no other noble one or newly-set-out bodhisattva has achieved. Generosity is not my companion,
but I am a companion of giving.239 Moral conduct, patience, vigour, meditation and wisdom
are not my companions, but I am their companion. I am not to be raised by the perfections,
but the perfections are to be raised by me. Corresponding to the former, I shall meticulously
237. mgo gcigpa\ ekdmsa (cf. Edgerton, p. 153, col. 2).
According to the Akn-tikd (pp. 271.4.4-272.2.1), the bodhisattva who pursues solitary wandering approaches
enlightenment. He practices his training effortlessly and is distinguished by four traits:
“A bodhisattva who practices without effort is o f four kinds. First, he is unable to dispense
(aviksipa). Second, he has attained patience (ksantiprapta). Third, he persists in equality
(samataviharin) and, fourth, he is free from hindrances (niravarana).”
238. Akn-tikd, p. 272.1.1:
“A bodhisattva who is unable to dispense, strives to attain mundane and supramundane qualities
only for himself.”
239. Akn-tikdy p. 272.1.3:
“A bodhisattva who has attained patience, purifies the perfections by himself.”

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understand all roots of virtue, that is, I shall not be raised by any roots of virtue, but all roots
of virtue shall be raised by me.240 Once I took a seat on the vq/ra.-throne without recourse to
such dharma241 and defeated Mara with his host single-handedly, I shall acquire supreme and
perfect enlightenment by means of wisdom that is furnished with just one moment of thought.”242
(681)
Earnest and determined practice243 to that end, this is the bodhisattva’s solitary wandering
along the path. It is in this manner that one who is skilled in the bodhisattva’s solitary
wandering along the path courses in the Perfection of Wisdom. This is the bodhisattva’s skill
in the path.
It is in this manner that the bodhisattva who is skilled in the path courses in the Perfection
of Wisdom.

2.11 Skill in Dependent Co-origination

Next, what is the bodhisattva’s skill in dependent co-origination? After the bodhisattva has
thus retreated into solitude and become absorbed in meditation, he ponders:
“What is the origin of this whole mass of suffering?” Then, he reflects: “Because superficial
reflection244 has arisen, ignorance arises. Because ignorance has arisen, karmic formations
arise. Because karmic formations have arisen, consciousness arises. Because consciousness
has arisen, name-and-form arise. Because name-and-form have arisen, the six internal sense-
fields arise. Because the six internal sensefields have arisen, contact arises. Because contact
has arisen, feeling arises. Because feeling has arisen, thirst arises. Because thirst has arisen,
grasping arises. Because grasping has arisen, becoming arises. (682) Because becoming has
arisen, birth arises. Because birth has arisen, old-age-and-death arises. Because old-age-and-
death has arisen, suffering, lamentations, misery, grief and despair arise.”
And again, he reflects: “I know that just as all these dharma that emerge from causes of
virtue, non-virtue, stillness and nirvana are still, inactive and non-self and arise from condi­
tions—sentient beings establishing by cause of action faculties that are the cause of correct
240. Akn-tikd, p. 272.1.4-5:
“A bodhisattva who persists in sameness attains the four means o f conversion, dharma that
ripen sentient beings.”
In the &gs (pp. 129-31), the Buddha addresses a brief discourse on the identity and non-reality o f the
Tathagata to a Brahma god called Samataviharin. Arguing from the empty and illusory nature o f dharma,
he shows that all dharma are in fact same—an attribute that he then applies to the Tathagata. Having
comprehended the gist o f this teaching, Samataviharin, advancing to the eighth stage, gains at the end the
‘conviction o f the non-arising o f dharma’.
241. According to the Abi-tika (p. 272.1.7-8), dharma should here be taken to include mundane and supramundane
qualities (guna), the six perfections and four means o f conversion.
242 Akn-tikd, p. 272.1.6:
“A bodhisattva who is without hindrances overcomes the hindrances so that he attains supreme
enlightenment by himself.”
243. ties p a r rtogpahi bsam pahi sbyor pa: avakalpanasayaprayoga.
244. tshul biin ma yin pa: ayonisa (cf. Edgerton, p. 64, col. 2)
Cf. &bh, Wayman, 1961, p. 170.

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knowledge and by cause of fruition of correct knowledge superior practice245—in the same
way arise the assembled causes for the acquired and non-acquired d h a r m a This is the
bodhisattva’s skill in dependent co-origination.
Then, he reflects: “But, what is cessation? Because superficial reflection has ceased, ignorance
ceases. Only when by reason of the cessation of ignorance karmic formations have come to a
final halt, only then ceases this whole mass of suffering.”
It in this way that knowledge with regard to this [causal flow] becomes skill in dependent
co-origination.
Then, he reflects: “But, all dharma are subject to causes, conditions and their combination.
What is subject to causes, conditions and their combination is not the basis of a self, a
life-force or a person. (683) It is without reckoning whatsoever.”
Such reflection is skill in dependent co-origination. It is in this manner that, as conditions
for his enlightened disposition, the bodhisattva raises all buddha-qualities and discerns that
these conditions are truly exhausted and ceasing; but, for the sake of looking after sentient
beings he attains also non-cessation and non-exhaustion. This is the bodhisattva’s skill in
dependent co-origination.

2.12 Skill in all Dharma

What then is the bodhisattva’s skill in all dharmal As regards the sum total of dharma; it
comprises conditioned and unconditioned dharma. Thus, the bodhisattva should be skilled in
the conditioned and unconditioned.
What is skill in the conditioned? His predispositions of body, speech and mind are pure. He
transforms the virtuous [predispositions]246 of body, speech and mind into all-knowing by
reason of discerning them as unconditioned enlightenment; this is skill in the unconditioned.

245. The meaning o f this sentence is rather obscure. If one were to go by sense only, it would appear that the
Tibetan have misinterpreted this passage, translating a bahuvrhi compound as a tatpurusa compound
(private communication with David Ruegg).
Vasubandhu’s comments on this section run as follows (Akn-tikd, p. 206.2.6-3.3; cf. Akn, p. 54.3.5-7):
“If [the bodhisattva] knows that dharma are not only exhausted but also arise from the cause
o f unceasing action, thinking: ‘Sentient beings who act in correct knowledge that penetrates
the cause o f faculties and think: ‘This is the origin of the cause o f faculties, this is the origin
o f the cause o f action’, are established in the cause o f spiritual fruition. Because the faculties
themselves are the cause that prompts and establishes virtue, non-virtue, samsara and nirvana,
it is the cause o f faculties. In this way, dharma emerge from the cause o f faculties, but [the
bodhisattva] perceives that the agent, etc., is not the object acts in correct knowledge that
penetrates action— the cause o f faculties. Although they are all virtue, non-virtue, samsara
and nirvana and emerge from the cause o f faculties and action, virtue, etc., are established as
action and faculties—the cause o f spiritual fruition.’ This is ‘skill'in dependent co-origination.
It is in this way that ‘skill' [seeing] that birth is the origin of causes because it turns into a
force that is able to produce fruits after having gathered causes and conditions perceives
spiritual fruition as birth.”
Other examples that correlate the indriya with pramana are found in the Lahkdv (pp. 133.9, 151.6,
190.4-6, 242.9).
246. Akn-tikd, p. 218.2.5-3.1.

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Furthermore, as regards skill in the conditioned; (684) it is gathering the five perfections
that lead to the perfection of wisdom, viz., the perfection of giving, morality, patience, vigour
and meditation. Again, due to knowledge of the unconditioned, he does not depreciate the
perfection of wisdom with the Five perfections; but, aspiring to skill in the entire accumulation
of perfections and to unstained enlightenment, he transforms them into all-knowing; this is
skill in the unconditioned.
Furthermore, as regards skill in the conditioned; it is attracting sentient beings by means of
all-penetrating light-rays that are directed at all of them and through the four means of
conversion. Because he is free from conceit, not believing in a self, he is skilled in the means
of conversion; and since he aspires to unconditioned enlightenment, he transforms them into
all-knowing; this is skill in the unconditioned.
Furthermore, as regards skill in the conditioned; he does not cut off the fetters of the stream
of existence, but rids himself of the impurities of the stream of existence; he continues
practices that are connected to enlightenment without taking up the practice of laymen who
observe only one of the pancasilcr247; this is the skill in the conditioned.
Knowing that he should be acquainted with the teachings of emptiness, signlessness and
wishlessness, he is manifestly skilled in them; (685) and although he settles in enlightenment
without depending on others, he does not realise the unconditioned; this is skill in the
unconditioned.
Furthermore, to be unaffected by the impurities of worldly conduct in spite of acting in the
triple world, this is skill in the conditioned. Not to fall into the sphere of deliverance, in spite
of knowing pristine cognition that liberates from the triple world; this is skill in unconditioned.
As regards skill in all dharma; it is an expression for ‘all-knowing’. Since the attainment of
realisation that arises from pristine cognition of all-knowing does not lead to liberation if it
lacks wisdom or skill, on account of that, he is skilled in all dharma. It is in this manner that
the bodhisattva who is skilled in all dharma courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.248
O Sariputra, it is in this way that a bodhisattva, mahdsattva who persists in the Bodhisat-
tvapitaka and courses in the Perfection of Wisdom and—being skilled in discerning wisdom—is
truly proficient in these ten kinds of skill courses in the Perfection of Wisdom.

247. sbyor baphyogs gcigpa: ekadesaprayoga

Cf. Mvy 1609 which gives sna gcig spyodpa for ekadesakarin {Kosa, iv, p. 73; Mpps, ii, p. 821).
248. Cf. Akn-tikd, p. 218.2.1-5.7.

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S e c t io n hi

3.1 Wisdom
What is wisdom? What is the meaning of perfection? Wisdom is comprehensive knowledge
of virtuous and non-virtuous dharma. (686) Wisdom is realisation of dharma that are conducive
to the four states of penetration249. Wisdom is correct knowledge because it leads to the
realisation of the noble Doctrine. Accurate discernment of dharma leads to correct knowledge.
Wisdom is discernment of all heretical views, manifestations of vices, impediments and
obstructions. Wisdom is separation from prayers concerned with wishes, yearning or desires.
Wisdom is the source of happiness250 by virtue of complete purification. Wisdom is the
source of delight because it does not cut the connection to joy in the Doctrine. Wisdom is
support because it realises complete pristine cognition. Wisdom is the basis of all bodhipaksika
dharma. Wisdom bears the characteristic of attainment, because it realises spiritual fruition in
accordance with the vehicles. Wisdom bears the characteristic of perfectly knowing naturally
illuminating pristine cognition. Wisdom is deliverance because it ferries across all rivers.
Wisdom is guidance to true reality. Wisdom is the receptacle of all virtuous dharma?51
249. hes p a r hbyedpahi cha dan hthun pa: nirvedhabhagiya
The four states o f penetration are ‘heat’ (usmagata), ‘summit’ (murdhan), ‘patience’ (ksanti) and ‘highest
mundane dharma ’ (laukikagradharma). In the Sarvastivada scheme o f the Sravaka-training, the nirved-
habhagiya constitute the four major practices of the prayogamarga. Being states conducive to enlightenment,
they mark the practitioner’s meditative progress particularly in respect to the understanding o f the four
noble truths. During the ‘heat phase’, representing a state of complete perfect mental quietude (samatha)
and insight (vipasyana), the light o f knowledge (jhdndloka) concerning the truths in their sixteen aspects is
revealed for the first time. In due course, the other three states add to this understanding, leading to full
intuition (abhisamaya) o f the truths at the first moment o f the darsanamarga. For the bodhisattva, the
experience o f the nirvedhabhagiya is similar in order but different in contents. Having entered the *usmagata
phase’, he sees with the clear light o f intuition the unreality o f external phenomena. Springing from the
meditation on emptiness practised before the sambhdramdrga, his attainment is still weak but is called
‘heat’ because it is “like the heat that precedes the fire of direct knowledge o f the truth on the darsanamarga”
(Aloka, Minaev, pp. 41a.l6-41b.l; ref. Obermiller). The '‘murdhan phase’ consolidates the attainments of
the ‘usmagata phase’, effectively preventing that the bodhisattva’s accumulation o f roots o f virtue is
brought to a standstill by klesa. At the ‘ ksanti phase’, the bodhisattva is fully awakened to the unreality o f
worldly phenomena. Now he begins to focus his mind on the unreality o f the subject o f experience,
leading to a “meditative state that is characterised by the origination, for the first time, o f the clear light of
knowledge, revealing the unreality o f subjective elements” (Aloka, op. cit., p. 48a.5, ref. Obermiller). It
bears the name ksanti because it establishes the bodhisattva in the ‘conviction o f the non-arising of
dharma1, leading to liberation from rebirth in the evil destinies. Subsequent to the *ksanti phase’, having
shed all distinctions o f the subject/object dichotomy, the bodhisattva passes into the imperturbable meditation
(anantaryasamadhi) from where he attains direct knowledge o f reality. Entitled ‘phase o f highest mundane
virtues’ (laukikagradharma), he is still an ordinary being and well below the rank o f the arhant. Hence, the
bodhisattva does not intuit as yet the Dharmadhdtu and his knowledge o f it is largely based on faith. Most
path-schemes do not allocate the four nirvedhabhagiya to any o f the stages proper, but associate it to the
preliminary efforts o f the adhimukticarydbhumi (Msl, p. 27.7-11, p. 93.6-23; KoSa, vi, pp. 169-177; Amrt
(.B), pp. 156-159).
For references to the nirvedhabhagiya in Pali sources, see: D III, pp. 251, 277; S V, p. 345; A III, p. 427;
Nett, pp. 21, 48, 143 ff, 153 ff and Vism, pp. 15, 88. Note, however, that while the term nibbedhabhagiya
itself is canonical, the list o f the four items is not. Most of these Pali references are taken up by Rahula in
his discussion o f the nirvedhabhagiya in Sravaka sources (Rahula, 1980, pp. 105-6, n. 4).
250. sim p a r byedpa:prahladankdrin (cf. Monier-Williams, p. 701, col. 3).
251. Pelliot, 977, folio 6a.4-6b.2:

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Wisdom is the source of purification of all propensities of impurity. Wisdom is the supreme
attainment, the crown of all dharma. (687) Wisdom is excellence in the much needed realisation
arising spontaneously from pristine cognition. Wisdom is separation from causation since it
is not stained by the triple world. Wisdom is obtained by all noble ones. Wisdom is elimination
of prayers since it abandons all reflection on the marks. Wisdom is detrimental to indolence
since it is wholly separated from the darkness of delusion.252
Wisdom is the practice of all those who are established on the stage of meditation. Wisdom
is guidance to those who persist in the path to pristine cognition of all-knowing. Wisdom is a
source of light since it suppresses the dark cloud of mist formed by the air of ignorance.
Wisdom gives perfect sight to those who delight in its sight accordingly. Wisdom is free
from impurity because it transcends the sphere of the eye and the sphere of form. Wisdom is
absolute truth since it issues from truth. Wisdom is imperturbable because it is fully tamed.
Wisdom is the light at the gates to pristine cognition. Wisdom, unfolding in all directions, is
inexhaustible.
Wisdom is not contradicted because it is seen as the entrance to dependent co-origination.
Wisdom is the path of liberation, since it prompts severing of all fetters of grasping. Wisdom
is unstained since it is emancipated from all sinful dharma.253, (688)
O Sariputra, thus the scope and application of the bodhisattva’s wisdom and pristine cognition

“O Sariputra, as regards wisdom; realisation of all virtuous practices is.wisdom that realises
because it realises all dharma. It is correct knowledge because it knows all dharma in accordance
with reality. It is wisdom arising from awakening because it is not defiled by any sinful
dharma that lead to heretical beliefs. It is separation from desire because it purifies constantly
all wishes, yearnings or desires. It is the source o f contentment since it appeases constantly all
suffering. It is the source o f happiness because it does not cut the connection to joy in the
Doctrine. It is reliance because it realises understanding o f the meaning. It is establishing
because it establishes all bodhipaksika dharma. It bears the characteristic o f attainment, because
it attains spiritual fruition in accordance with the vehicles. It bears the characteristic o f wisdom
o f perfect knowledge because it realises the bright nature of pristine cognition. It is deliverance
with compassion because it ferries across the streams o f all rivers. It is comprehension because
it comprehends that all dharma are truly unborn. It is agitation because it kindles all virtuous
dharma.”
252 Pelliot, 977, folio 6b.2-5:
“[Wisdom] is the source o f purification, because it is separated from reflection of the defilements
o f the propensities o f disease. It is unsurpassed because it proceeds to the crown o f all
dharma. It is contentment because it realises teachings through spontaneously arisen pristine
cognition. It is separation from causes since it is not stained by the triple world. It is attainment
because it is attained by all noble ones. It is elimination o f prayers because it removes all
reflection on the marks. It is non-self because it is wholly separated from the darkness o f
delusion.”
253. Pelliot, 977, folio 6b.5-7a.3:
“[Wisdom] is practice because it accomplishes the deeds o f all those who are established on
the stage o f meditation. It is travelling because it abides in all noble paths of pristine cognition.
... It is the source o f vision because it guides everyone in accordance with that vision. It is
freedom from impurity because it transcends the path o f intrigues through the eye o f wisdom.
It is absolute truth because it understands the great noble truth. ... It is splendour because it
becomes the gate o f pristine cognition. It is inexhaustible knowledge because it illuminates all
that which is moving. It is non-cessation because it sees constantly and extensively. ... It is
separation from abodes because it is emancipated from all impure, defiled dharma.”

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are truly as manifold as the mental activity of all sentient beings. The exploring of the
bodhisattva’s wisdom and pristine cognition is truly as manifold as the aspiration of all
sentient beings.254 The doors that lead to the bodhisattva’s wisdom are truly as manifold as
the doors to the impurities of all sentient beings. The basis of his persistence255 in wisdom is
truly as manifold as the knowledge of Sravaka, pratyekabuddhas and fully accomplished
buddhas.256A bodhisattva should study this by ail means. This is the wisdom of the bodhisattva.257

3.2 Perfection
Next, what is the meaning of ‘perfection’? What is wisdom is also the meaning of ‘perfection’.
Comprehensive knowledge of virtuous [and non-virtuous] dharma is the meaning of ‘perfec­
tion’. Corresponding to the former, one should examine also the wording of all perfections
accordingly.258
Furthermore, the meaning of excellently accomplishing the bodhisattva-training is the mean­
ing of ‘perfection’. Furthermore, the meaning of accomplishing pristine cognition of all­
knowing is the meaning of ‘perfection’. The meaning of withdrawing from conditioned and
unconditioned dharma is the meaning of ‘perfection’. (689) The meaning of realising the
faults of samsara is the meaning of ‘perfection’. The meaning of showing the inexhaustible
Dharma-depository of knowledge is the meaning of ‘perfection’. The meaning of accomplishing
unstained liberation is the meaning of ‘perfection’. The meaning of realising the uniformity
of giving, morality, patience, vigour, meditation and wisdom is the meaning of ‘perfection’.
The meaning of ascertaining is the meaning of ‘perfection’.259
254. Cf. Pelliot, 977, folio 7a.4 which has sems can thams cad kyi m ospa instead o f sems can thams cad kyi
bsam pa, thus clarifying the meaning o f bsam pa.
255. Cf. Pelliot, 977, folio 7b.6, which has ses rab gyi spyodpa instead o f ses rab la gnaspa.
256. Cf. Akn-tikd, pp. 218.5.7-222.5.7.
257. Pelliot, 977, folio 7a.3-7:
“O Sariputra, in this way I have instructed you briefly the characteristics o f wisdom. As
regards the wisdom o f bodhisattva, mahasattvas, it should furthermore be known to be infinite
and without limit. Why? The scope and application o f the wisdom and pristine cognition o f
bodhisattvas, mahasattvas are truly as manifold as the mental activity o f all sentient beings.
The activity o f the wisdom and pristine cognition of bodhisattvas, mahasattvas should be
known to be truly as manifold as the aspiration o f all sentient beings. The magnificent gates to
the wisdom o f the bodhisattvas, mahasattvas should be known to be truly as manifold as the
gates to the impurities o f all sentient beings. The basis of the activity o f wisdom should be
known to be truly as manifold as the knowledge of Sravaka, pratyekabuddhas and fully
accomplished buddhas. 0 &ariputra, concerning all bases o f wisdom; the bodhisattva, mahasattva
should study these attainments with vigour. This is the seizure o f wisdom o f bodhisattvas,
mahasattvas
258. This paragraph is missing in the Pelliot manuscript.
259. Pelliot, 977, folio 7a.7-7b.6:
“Furthermore, O Sariputra, that is the meaning of the perfection of bodhisattvas, mahasattvas? O Sariputra,
all knowledge that the joy o f all virtuous dharma turns into the perfection, this should be known as the
meaning o f ‘perfection’. Again, O Sariputra, corresponding to the former, the accumulation o f wisdom
should be known as the meaning o f ‘perfection’s. Furthermore, all meanings o f the excellent accomplishment
o f the conduct o f bodhisattvas should be known as the meaning of ‘perfection’. The meaning o f non­
attachment to any o f the dharma o f the past, present and future should be known as the meaning o f
‘perfection’. The meaning o f constantly realising the incalculable great non-reality o f samsara should be

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The meaning of penetrating the sphere of all sentient beings is the meaning of ‘perfection’.
The meaning of attaining the conviction of the non-arising of dharma is the meaning of
‘perfection’. The meaning of accomplishing the stage of irreversibility is the meaning of
‘perfection’. The meaning of acquiring the buddha-field is the meaning of ‘perfection’. The
meaning of developing sentient beings is the meaning of ‘perfection’. The meaning of [going
to] the seat of enlightenment is the meaning of ‘perfection’. The meaning of defeating all evil
ones is the meaning of ‘perfection’. The meaning of accomplishing all buddha-qualities is the
meaning of ‘perfection’. Furthermore, the meaning of being firmly planted in the Dharma-
enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka is the meaning of ‘perfection’.260 (690)

S e c t io n iv

O Sariputra, if one studies the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka one accomplishes

all perfections. O Sariputra, hence, a son or daughter of good family who persists in the
Mahay ana should retain the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka. He should take
hold of it and read it. He should explain it also to others and propound it at great length.
Why? O Sariputra, when he has listened to the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka,
when he has taken hold of it, retained it, read it, fully absorbed it and when he has explained
it also to others and propounded it at great length he obtains ten excellent blessings. What are
the ten?

(1) When he is reborn in another existence, he is skilled in all arts

(2) And crafts.
(3) He is of high lineage and well-respected.
(4) He is renown for his great powers.
(5) His words are valued.
(6) He possesses great wealth.

known as the meaning o f ‘perfection’. Knowledge o f the meaning o f non-absorbing or non-realising any
dharma whatsoever should be known as the meaning o f ‘perfection’. Understanding the meaning o f the
absolutely inexhaustible Dharma-depository should be known as the meaning of ‘perfection’. The meaning
o f accomplishing the unstained liberation should be known as the meaning o f ‘perfection’ The meaning
o f ‘skill ’ in supreme discernment should be known as the meaning of ‘perfection’.”
260. Pelliot, 977, folio 7b.6-8a.3:
“The meaning o f going to all spheres o f sentient beings is the meaning o f ‘perfection’. The
meaning o f attaining the conviction o f the non-arising of dharma is the meaning o f ‘perfection’.
Accomplishing the end o f irreversibility is the meaning o f ‘perfection’. The meaning o f
purifying the buddha-field is the meaning o f ‘perfection’. ... The meaning o f taking a seat on
the throne o f enlightenment after having come to the seat o f enlightenment is the meaning o f
‘perfection’. The meaning o f defeating the host o f Mara is the meaning o f ‘perfection’. ...
Furthermore, the meaning o f firmly abiding in the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka
is the meaning o f ‘perfection’.”

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 Translation o f Chapter Eleven

(7) He is exalted among gods and men.

(8) He becomes an universal monarch.
(9) He becomes Brahma.
(10) He is never separated from the thought of enlightenment.

He obtains these ten excellent blessings. Furthermore, he obtains ten other excellent blessings.
What are the ten?

(1) He is not drawn into the disputes of the ascetics. (691)

(2) He does not hold the belief of the existence of a self.
(3) He does not hold the belief of the existence of a sentient being.
(4) He does not hold the belief of the existence of a life-force.
(5) He does not hold the belief of the existence of a person.
(6) He does not hold the belief of nihilism.
(7) He does not hold the belief of permanence.
(8) He does not hold the view that all things exist.
(9) When he goes forth to mendicant life, he accomplishes joyfully the production
of the thought of enlightenment.
(10) He understands swiftly the words that he has heard.

He obtains these ten excellent blessings. Furthermore, he obtains ten other excellent blessings.
What are the ten?

( 1) He acquires recollection.
(2) He acquires intellect.
(3) He acquires spiritual realisation.
(4) He acquires aspiration.
(5) He acquires wisdom.
(6) He obtains the favourable condition of birth261.
(7) He recollects his former lives.
(8) His desire is small by nature and restrained; hence, he is not afflicted by the
torment of desire.
(9) His hatred is small by nature and restrained; hence, he is not afflicted by the
261. These are the opposites o f the conditions o f birth that are unfavourable to the religious life (asamaya
brahmacaryavasaya), viz., birth in the destiny o f the hellhound (narakd), animals ( tiryahca), hungry
ghosts (preta), gods o f long life (drghayuso deva); possession o f defect faculties (indriyavaikalya), false
views (mithyadarsana) and life in periods when Tathagata do not appear (tathagatdndm anutpada).
References in the nikaya are found in D III, pp. 263-64, 287; A IV, pp. 225, 227; for Sanskrit sources, see:
Mvu, ii, p. 363.3; Lai, p. 412.14; $ifa, p. 2.4; Gv, p. 116.16; Dhsgr, § 34 (ref. Lamotte).

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 Translation o f Chapter Eleven

torment of hatred.
(10) His delusion is small by nature and restrained; hence, he is not afflicted by the
torment of delusion.

He obtains these ten excellent blessings. Furthermore, he obtains ten other excellent blessings.
(692) What are the ten?

(1) He attains marvellous wisdom.

(2) He attains astute wisdom.
(3) He attains acute wisdom.
(4) He attains sharp wisdom.
(5) He attains awesome wisdom.
(6) He attains profound wisdom.
(7) He attains discerning wisdom.
(8) He attains unproduced wisdom.
(9) After he has met the Tathagata, he praises him with melodies of verse.
(10) On posing well-contemplated questions to the Tathagata, he receives answers.

He obtains these ten excellent blessings. Furthermore, he obtains ten other excellent blessings.
What are the ten?

(1) He gives pleasure to all virtuous friends.

(2) He loosens all fetters of evil.
(3) He defeats all evil ones.
(4) He rebukes all impure ones.
(5) He is aggravated about actions that appertain to any karmic formation.
(6) He shuns all paths that lead to the evil destinies.
(7) He sees the path that leads to nirvana.
(8) He bestows offerings that deliver from the whole round of rebirth.
(9) He complies with the methods of all bodhisattvas. (693)
(10) He complies with the pronouncements of all lord buddhas.

He obtains these ten excellent blessings.

O Sariputra, when he has listened to the Dharma-enunciation of the Bodhisattvapitaka,

when he has taken hold of it, retained it, read it, fully absorbed it and when he has explained
it also to others and propounded it at great length he obtains all of these excellent qualities.

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 Translation o f Chapter Eleven

Then, in order to elucidate in great detail this very meaning, the lord composed these
verses:

Those who retain this king of sutras,

These wise ones attain infinite wisdom.
They become not only skilled in practices and their meanings,
But excel also in parts of speech and accomplish the letter.

Every monk who retains this king of sutras,

Once joy and delight have arisen in him,
Explains the Doctrine in this way
And bestows unceasingly the gift of the Doctrine.

After sentient beings have heard much about the Doctrine,

They say: “Alas, when will he who explains the Great Attainment
Instruct us in such a Doctrine?
When will we take hold of such a sutral”

Chiefs who are endowed with such wisdom

Do not become dismayed about dharma.
By means of their recollection and wisdom
They teach sayings of noble and unsurpassed pristine cognition. (694)

Those who retain this king of sutras,

Noble, eminent and praised, confer it unceasingly
And prompt others to seek the well-taught sayings of the Doctrine.
Since they have learned it, they are exalted in perpetuity.

After they have learned it, they cause others to grasp its meaning.
He who is endowed with wisdom does not pursue the letter.
By investigating the meaning his understanding increases.
His pristine cognition is infinite in perpetuity.

Also the meaning of infinite pristine cognition is untold.

He who is of infinite reflection is skilled in absolute truth.
Apply yourself to his attainments,
For his are the attainments of learning.

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 Translation o f Chapter Eleven

His desire and hatred are small.

His delusion is very small.
Also his mind attains purity.
For his are the attainments of learning.

After he has obtained wealth he does not become self-conceited,

But reflects on its purpose, thinking: “Is there substantiality in this wealth?”
After he has realised that wealth is insubstantial,
He disregards it and goes forth to mendicant life.

He withdraws from worldly life and abides in solitude.

Being always free from indolence,
He is not satisfied by listening to teachings.
When he confers the Doctrine he is free from avarice.

Since he went and posed questions

To the protector of the world,
Because of that, his pristine cognition increases.
Now, there is no abating in his virtue.

O Sariputra, this is the Perfection of Wisdom of bodhisattvas. A bodhisattva who applies

himself diligently to it pursues the bodhisattva conduct; this is diligent application to the
Perfection of Wisdom.

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Appendix I: Forms o f Learning in the Bdp and the Akn Appendix i

no. AkgayamatinirdeSa Akn in Sikgasamuccaya B odhisattvapitaka

hdunpa chanda (1)* hdun pa
bsam pa aSaya (2) bsam pa
hlag pahi bsam pa adhyaSaya* sbyor ba
sbyorba rayoga (3 dge bahi bSes giien
dge bahi bSes gnen nirmana (5)_________ ■ ha rgyal med pa
ha rgyal med pa__________pramana (6 )1 rab tu hdud pa__________
bag yod pa kalyapamitra (4) ri mor byed pa
J8 I gus par byed pa gaurava (7) hthun pa
hthun pa hdzin pa pradaksina (8) bkah bio bde ba
10 bkah bio bde ba suvacana(9)___________ bsnen bkur byed pa
11 bsnen bkur byed pa______ paryupasana (10)________ ma ba blags te nan pa
12 ma ba blags te nan pa ayahitaSrotra (11) bkur sti byed pa
13 | yid la byed pa manasakara (13) yid la byed pa________
14 j mam par mi g.yen pa | aviksepa (14) mi g.yen pa_____
15 jnas^ vasthana* rin po eher hdu 6es pa
16 rin po cher hdu Ses pa ratnasamjna (15) sman du hdu Ses pa
17 sman du hdu Ses pa bhaisajyasamjna (16) nad thams cad rab tu ±i bar
byed pahi lidu Ses pa
18 non mons pahi nad thams sarvavyadhiSamana (17)2 dran pahi snod
cad zi bar byed pa
19 dran
ujl a i i |pahi
; f l i i i jsnod
n y u smrtil?hoJana (18) rtogs pa Ses pa
20 rtogs pa Ses pa__ iatipoanana ;ros nfloa pa
2JL bio gros hdod pa matirocana (20) bio la hjug pa
22 bio la hjug pa buddhipraveSa (21) sans rgyas kyi chos thos
pas mi sgomspa nan pa
23 sans rgyas kyi chos thos atiptabuddhadharma gton pa spel pa
! pas mi sgoms pa nan pa Sravana (22)
agavrhana (23) in nas mi smoa pa
dul zin can Ses pa dantajaneya (24) man du thos pa sten pa
26 man du thos pa brten pa bahuSrutasevana (25) gus par dgah ba myon bar
byed pa_______________
27 sti stan du by as te dgah ba satkrtyaprityanubhavana lus sim pa

28
myon par byed_________
lus bde pa
<m ___________________
| kayaudbiya (27)________ sems rans pa____________
29 sems rab tu dgah cittapraniat mi skyor bar nan pa______
30 mi skyor bar nan pa______lap aparikheda Sravana (29) don nan pa
31 don nan pa dharma Sravana (31) chos nan pa
32 chos nan pa (artha Sravana)3
33 nan tan nan pa pratipatti Sravana (32) theg pa g£an la hdod pa
med pa nan pa
34 gjan gis bstan pa nan pa paradeSana Sravapa* pha rol tu phyin pa nan pa
35 chos mthos pa nan pa Sruta Sravana* byan chub sems dpahi sde
snod nan pa
36 mhon par Ses pa nan pa abhijna Sravana (39) bsdu bahi dnos nan pa
37 theg pa g£an la hdod pa anyayanasprhana Sravana thabs mkhas pa nan pa
med pa nan pa _____ (33) __________

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Appendix I: Forms o f Learning in the Bdp and the Akn Appendix i

38 pha rol tu phyin pa nan pa prajnaparamita Sravana tshans pahi gnas pa nan pa
(34)
39 byan chub sems dpahi sde bodhisattvapitaka mhon par Ses pa nan pa
snod nan pa Sravana(35)
40 bsdu bahi dnos nan pa samgrahavastu Sravana dran pa ne bar gzags pa
(36) nan pa
41 thabs mkhas pa nan pa upayakauSalya Sravana yah dag par spon ba nan
(37) pa
42 tshans pahi gnas pa nan pa brahmavihara Sravana (38) rdzu hphrul gyi rkan pa
nan pa
43 dran pa dan Ses pa biin smrtisamprajanya Sravana rten cih hbrel par hbyun ba
nan pa (40)4 nan pa
44 skye ba la mkhas pahi nan utpadakauSalya Sravana* mi rtag pa nan pa
pa
45 mi skye ba la mkhas pa anutpadakauSalya sdud bsnal ba nan pa
nan pa Sravana*
46 mi sdug pa aSubha* bdag med pa nan pa
47 byams pa maitryah Sravana* ti ba nan pa
48 rten cih hbrel bar hbyun pa pratityasamutpada Sravana ston pa nid nan pa
(43)
49 mi rtag pa nan pa anitya Sravana (44) mtshan ma med pa nan pa
50 sdud bsnal ba nan pa duhkha Sravana (45) smon pa med pa nan pa
51 bdag med pa nan pa anatma Sravana (46) mhon par hdu mi byed pa
nan pa
52 ii ba nan pa Santa Sravana (47) dge bahi rtsa ba mhon par
hdu byed pa nan pa
53 ston pa hid nan pa Sunyata Sravana (48) rah dban du gyur pa
54 mtshan ma med pa nan pa animitta Sravana (50) chos ham par hdu Ses pa
55 smon pa med pa nan pa apranihita Sravana (49) kun tu hdre ba mi hthun
pahi phyags su hdu Ses pa
56 mhon par hdu mi byed pa anabhisamskara Sravana non mons pa thams cad
nan pa .is].)........;................... ;.......i tshar gcod pa
57 dge bahi mhon par hdu kuSalabhisamskara mkhas pa la mhon par
!byed pa Sravana (52) bgah ba
58 bden pas byin gyis briabs satyadhisthana (53) hphags pa sten pa
pa .......... ..................
59 chud mi gzon pa avipranaSa* hphags pa ma yin pa yons
su spon pa
60 rah gi kha na las pa svadhina* hphags pa nan pa
61 rah gi sems srun pa svacittaraksana* dban pa nan pa
62 brtson hgrus mi gtod pa viryasyasramsana ijes su dran pa sgom pa
nan pa
63 snon mons pahi gnen po dharmanidhyapti* byan chub kyi yan lag nan
Pa.................................... .... 1
64 chos la hes par sems pa kleSavipaksa (56) hphags pahi lam yan lag
brgyud pa nan pa
65 rah gi phyogs srun pa svapaksaparikarsana* de bzin gSegs pahi stobs
nan pa

394
 Appendix I: Forms o f Learning in the Bdp and the Akn Appendix i

66 pha rol gyi phyogs dan parapaksakleSanigraha* mi hjigs pa nan pa

non mons pa tsar gcod pa
67 nor bdun yah dag par hdu saptadhanasamavasa byams pa nan pa
.... Pa.............................................. Sravana*
68 dbul ba thams cad tsar sarvadaridryopaccheda* snih rje nan pa
gcod pa
69 hdzans pas bsnags pa sarvavidvatpraSasta* dgah ba nan pa
70 mkhas pa mhon par dgah panditabhinandana (57) gtan snoms chen po nan pa
M ..............................................
71 hphags pas kun Ses pa aryasammata (58) so so yah dag par rig pa
nan pa
72 hphags pa ma yin pa dad anaryaprasadana (59) sans rgyas kyi chos ma
par byed pa hdres pa bco brgyad mams
nan pa
73 bden mthon pa satyadarSana (60)
! 74 phun pohi skyon mam par skandhadosavivaij ana*
spons pa
75 hdus byas yons su hdzal samskrtadosaparitulana*
pa
! 76 don la rton pa arthapratisarana*
! 77 chos la rton pa dharmapratisarana*
! 78 ye Ses la rton pa (jnanapratisarana)5
| 79 hes pahi don gyi mdo sde (nitarthapratisarana)6
la rton pa
| 80 sdig pa thams cad mi bya sarvapapakarana*
ba
| 81 bdag dan gzan la phan pa atmaparahita*
legs par byas pahi las
! 82 mi hgyod pa sukrtakarmananutapyana*
| 83 khyad par du hgro ba viSesagamana*
i 84 sans rgyas kyi chos thams sarvabuddhadharma-
cad hthob pa pratilabha
i Numbers in brackets indicate Sanskrit equivalent to Bdp terms.
* Items not cited in Bdp

1 Siks: apramana 2 closer to Bodhisattvapitaka 3 omitted in Siks ' 4 gaurava is here repeated in &iks
5 omitted in Siks 6 omitted in Siks
Akn: TTPpp. 50.4.7-51.1.5; Bdp: TTP pp. 73.2.3-4.1; pp. 190.4-191.3

395
Appendix II: Samadhi Lists in the Bdp and the Akn Appendix ii

no. Aksayamatinirdega Aksayamatinirdega (Skt) x B odhisattvapitaka

1 glop pi sgron mas bgryan vidyutpradlpalamkara (Mvy 546) mam par snan (3) **
2 zla bahi hod *candraprabha mdzad ii ba
3 dge bkod mam snah de gubhavyuhapratibhasa (Mvy zla hod (2)
biin sems 556)
4 mi khyab *acintya mam pa bkod pa (3?)
5 hphags par snah udgataprabha (Mvy 511, 568) de nid glog gis rab tu
LULTIJUU^L«»U»»UUt ULPUWVrtrtJVVUWWWWV'u'lAi J\j utlfj uuuu1,J Vut UMTtXUlUH.1. 1.LWUUWUVUWLIWL
brgyan pa
6 dri ma med pa vimala (Dbh, p. 82.10) mhon par hphags (56)
7 chos mams kun la dban *sarvadharmavagavartin de biin sems dpah (3?)
byed
8 yon tan hod *gunaprabha dri ma med (6)
9 myan nan med *agoka snah ldan
10 brtul iugs grub pa *siddhavrata yon tan hod (8)
11 praps pa brten *drdhakirti grub hod
12 kun nas hphags pa samudgata (Mvy 512) mya nan med (9)
13 | chos kyi sgron ma *dharmapradipa chos mams thams cad la ni
dban sgyur (7)
14 chos dpal lhun po che *dharmagrimahamem chos sgron (13)
15 chos kyi dban phyug *dharmegvara de biin chos dpah
16 chos ges dban byed *dharmaj nanavagavartin chos kyi dban phyug (15)
17 chos kyi phun po *dharmaskandha ri rab dpah (14)
18 mam par hthor ba vikirana (Mvy 569) dam pahi chos kyi ye ges
dban byed (16)
19 chos mams hdzin pa dharmadharaviguddhi (Kv, pp. dam chos kun hdzin gin tu
mam par dag pa 51.14,83.12) mam dag (19)
20 pha rol sems kyi spyod *paracittacaritacarya gian gyi sems la mam
pa spyod pa dpyod (21)
21 rgyal mtsan rtse mohi dhvaj agrakeyura (Mvy 530) dam chos kyi mchog
dpuh rgyan
22 non mons sel *klegapaha hod zer
23 bdud bzihi stobs mams *caturmarabalapramardin rgyal mtsan rtse mo dpuh
rab tu hjoms pa rgyan (21)
24 stobs bcu hphags pa *dagabalodgatabalin non mons sel (22)
stobs dan ldan pa
25 chags med chags pa gin *asangasangaty antasamuccheda bdun kyi stobs mams
du good pa hjoms pa (23)
26 lag na sgron ma *hastadipa stobs bcu dan stobs las
mhon hphags (24)
27 gin du sgra bsgrags *atyantagabdita kun bead chags med
28 sa hdzin *nimimdhara lag na sgron ma (26)
29 brtan pa hdi dan rah biin *drdhasvabhava bdud sbyin bsgrags pa
30 lhun po sgron ma *mempradipa sa hdzin (28)
31 mi pham rgyal ba ♦ajitamjaya legs par gnas pa (71?)
32 ges rab bkyed *prajnotpada ri rab sgron (30)
33 ye ges tal la jnanolka (Mvy 744) rgyal ba mi hpham (31)
34 bsam gtan hbyun gnas *dhyanakara ye ges sgron (80?)
35 mthah yas dban byed *anantavagavartin de bzin mig gtsan

396
 Appendix II: Samadhi Lists in the Bdp and the Akn Appendix ii

36 sems mams las su run *cittakarmany atakara rgyal thams cad dran pa
par byed pa (45).............
37 byed dan byas dan tshor *akarakakrtakavedaka chos dran yon tan ye Ses
byan med hjug (46?)
38 chu yi zla ba *udakacandra ston par hjug (51)
39 ni mahi dbyans dag *suryaghosa de b£in mtsan me (52)
40 tin hdzin mi gton samadhyanutsarga smon med (53)
41 bdud mams hjoms pa *jarapramardaka de bzin ii bahi sa
42 mam pa sna tshogs hdu *avicitrasamjnin hdu Ses sna tsogs bral (42)
Ses med pa
43 stag Sin du dul ba *suvinitahastivy aghra rab dul klu dban stag (43)
44 glan po Sin du dul ba *sudantahastivyaghra hkhyil ba
45 rgyal ba kun gyi ijes su *sarvajinanusmrti mam par ldog pa
dran pa
46 chos dran dge hdun ye *dharmanusmrti- hjums pa med pa (49?)
Ses dban byed samghaj nanavaSavartin
47 mi ldog pa____________ avivarta (Mvy 553) stobs______
! 48 ldog pa med pa avinivartaniya (Mvy 740) mig dag (49?)
! 49 mig mi hdzums *animisa rdo tje hdra (55)
! 50 bdag med rab dge *nairatmyapraSuddhi rdo ije sa
! 51 rtag tu ston pahi mam *nityaSunyakarapraveSa mhon hphags (56)
par Mug pa
152 rtag tu mtsan med *nityanimitta mi hjum lhun po lha bu
! 53 rtag tu mi smon *nityapranihita kun nas glon hkhyil (58)
54 gnas par bsam gtan byed *samsthitasaktadhyayin mam pa dag sgra (59?)
pa mi chags
55 rdo ije lta buhi tin he vajropamasamadhi (Mvy 560) nes rtogs (60
hdzin
! 56 mnon par hphags *abhyudgata non mons bral ba (61)
57 nes par bcom pa *nirghata nam mkhah hdra (62)
58 kun nas hkhyil *samavarta nam mkhahi bar skabs
59 mam par dag pa *viSuddha yon tan thams cad gus par
len pa (64?)
60 nes par sems *nidhyapti bio gros dran rtogs bio
hphel (65?)
61 non mons bral ba *apagatakleSa stobs mi zad
62 yans pa nam mkhah lta akaSasamavipula (Dbh, p. 82.13) hes tsig bstan pa
bu
63 gzun ba hjug pa *avatarana mthah yas mi zad
64 yon tan hjug pa *gunavatara legs byas byas pa (71)
65 dran rtogs bla gros Ses *smrtigatimatiprajnasadhaka chud mi za ba (70)
rab bsgrub pa
66 spobs pa dag ni mi zad *pratibhanaksay akarin lha ba
byed pa
67 sgra ston pa *SabdaSasana hgro ba tsim byed (72)
68 bden pa mthon ba *satyadarSana byams pa mhon hphags
(76)
69 hdzin pa *dhatrana snin tje yans pahi rtsa (77)
70 chud mi za *avipranaSa dgah la hdug pa

397
Appendix II: Samadhi Lists in the Bdp and the Akn Appendix ii

71 legs byas sbyin *sukrtadana mchog tu dgah la hdug pa

(78)
72 hgro ba tsim par byed *jagatsamtarpana btah snoms gnis la chags
grol (7?) ..........................
73 bltar mi mthon *adrsya chos don chos kyi hod zer
(80)
74 rab tu rtogs *prativedha hgrugmed (21)
75 dgah mgu skyed pa *susthityutpada ye 6es sgron (82?)
76 byams pa hphags pa *maitryudgata ye Ses mtso
77 snin ije chen pohi rtsa ba *mahakarunamulaSuddhaSaya mam grol snin po hgro
bsam dag pa tsim byed (83)
78 dgah mam par dag la *muditakarapraveSa rdo ije rgyal mtsan (85)
hjug pa
79 btan snoms gnis la chags *dvay asangavimuktopeksa padma dam pa (87)
las grol ba
80 chos don chos byed ye *dharmarthadharma- chos kyis rgyal
Ses tal la karyajnanolka
81 mi hgrugs pa *avikopita mi g.yo (69)
82 ye Ses rgya mtso *jnanasagara Ses rab rtsibs
83 hgro ba tsim byed mam *vinitaj agatsamtarpana ii ba
par dul ba
84 mam par grol bahi ye Ses *vimuktijnanavaSavartin sans rgyas mtso
dban byed
85 rdo ij ehi rgyal mtsan *vajradhvaja hod zer mthah yas
86 snin pohi padma *hrdayakamala mam grol sbyin pa ye Ses !
(96
87 padma hdas *atikrantakamala de bzin gSegs kyi rgyan
(97)
88 hjig rten chos bral *lokadharmavirahita bkod pa chen po
89 mi g.yo ba aninjya {Mvy 554) iih bkod snah na
90 rdo ije lta bu vajropama {Mvy 516) sems can bsam ba yons
rah dgah (100)
91 dpah bar hgro Suramgama (Mvy 506) rdzogs pahi byan chub lam
la rtag mthun (103)
92 sans rgyas dgons *buddhabhipraya pha rol phyin pa rgyan
bkod mchog gtsug (104)
93 de bzin mi hgrugs *aprakampya byan chub yan lag me tog i
sbyin (105)
94 gzi bijid can tejovatl {Mvy 549) mam grol snin po bdun
rtsi sbyin (106?)
95 gzi bijid hod zer *tejora£mi rlun dan rlun bzin hgro ba
mi dmigs (108)
96 mam par grol bahi ye Ses *vimuktij nanavarada rgya mtso Sugs hdzin
mchog sbyin (110)
97 sans rgyas rgyan mams *buddhalamkaratyantavyuha rin chen mdzod ldan (109) j
Sin tu bkod pa
98 kun tu snah samantaloka {Mvy 562) brag dan ri hthab rgyal po
a m .............
99 sans rgyas ±ih dag *vi^uddhabuddhaksetra rdzu hphrul yans (112)

398
 Appendix II: Samadhi Lists in the Bdp and the Akn Appendix ii

100 sems can bsam pa rab tu *sattvaSayapraveSa Sin tu don hdzin (112)
hjug pa_______________
101.. mgu byed *aradhana sans rgyas yul ston (113)
102 Sin tu mgu *atyantaradhana
103 byan chub lam gyi ijes su *bodhipathanulomika
hthun pa
104 pha rol phyin bgryan *paramitalamkaracudamani
gtsug na rin po che
105 byan chub lam na lag me *bodhyangapuspadana
tog sbyin pa
106 mam par grol bahi hbras *vimuktiphaladana
bu sbyin pa
107 mi hchi dbyans *amrtasvara
108 dmigs med rlun bzin *yathavayvanalambanagamana
hgro
109 rin chen mthah ratnakoti (Mvy 564)
110 rgya mtsoh Sugs hdzin *amavavegadharin
111 ri dan brag mams rdob *giriSailasphalana
parbyed pa
112 rdzu hphrul don chen yah *maharddhyarthasamutpada
dag bkyed pa
113 sans rgyas dpag med pa *aprameyabuddhadarSana
mthon ba
! 114 thos pa thams cad hdzin *sarvaSrutadhara
I 115 mi g.yen *aviksipta
i 116 g.yel ba med pa *atandrita
: 117 skad cig gcig la ye Ses *ekaksanaj nanadatr
sbyin pa
I 118 yon tan mthah yas rgya *anantagunaviSuddhamava
mtso mam par dag
1 Reconstructed by Braavrig (1989; pp. 146-48)
** Numbers in brackets indicate location o f Bdp samadhi in the Akn samadhi list,
i * Conjectural reconstructions
! Akn : TTP pp. 50.2.2^1.2; Bdp : TTP: pp. 72.4.5-73.1.3

399
 Appendix iii

A p p e n d ix III

The Maharatnakuta Collection

A Bibliographical Guide1

Sanskrit Title:2 arya-Maharatnakuta-dharma-paryaya3

Chinese Title: Ta pao chi ching, forming the Pao chi pu (Ratnakuta Section) of
the ‘ching’ (sutra division of the Chinese Ta ts’ang ching).4
Tibetan Title: hphags pa dkon mchog brtsegs pa chen pohi chos kyi mam grans
ston phrag brgya pa5

1. Trisamvaranirdesaparivarta

Chinese Title: 1. San Lii’i hui [T. 310.1]6

2. Ta fang kuang san chieh ching [T. 311]7
Tibetan Title: sdom pa gsum bstan pahi lehu ± q s bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 760.1; TTD 45]

2. Anantamukhaparisodhananirdesa

Chinese Title: Wu pien chuang yen hui [T 310.2]8

Tibetan Title: hphags pa sgo mthah yas pa rman par spyon ba bstan pahi lehu zes
bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.2; TTD 46]

3. Tathagatacintyaguhyanirdesa

Chinese Title: 1. Mi chi chin kang li shih hui ching [T 310.3]9

1. The bibliographical data listed here have been taken from the following catalogues: Demieville, P. et al.
(1978); Lancaster, L. (1979); Nanjio, B. (1883); Skorupski, T (1985).
2. As reconstructed from the Tibetan versions.
3. Hereafter, the pre/suffixes (arya-... -nama-mahayana-sutra) will be omitted.
4. Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo, no. 310.1-49, vol. 11, pp. la l-659a 27 (120 chiian).
5. Tibetan Tripitaka Peking Edition (ed. by D.T. Suzuki, Tokyo; 1956), no. 760.1-49, vol. 22-24. Tibetan
Tripitaka sDe-dge Edition, Berkeley: East Asiatic Library, University o f California; no. 45-93, vol. 39-44.
6. Trsl. 'by Bodhimci (572-727AD) (3 chiian), [T 2154-570b: 15].
Bodhiruci, bom a Brahmin, was o f South Indian origin. He became a Buddhist in 631 AD and arrived in
China in 693 AD where he died in 727 AD. His original name was Dharmamci II. He also translated the
Sukhavativyuhasutra and a number o f works on tantric ritual [Bagchi, ii, pp. 540 ff].
7. Trsl. by Dharmaksema between 414 and 426 AD [T 2154-520c: 17].
8. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 4-7).
9. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I. He was bom o f an Indo-Scythian family in Tun-huang in 233 AD and worked at

400
 Appendix iii

2. Ju lai pu ssu i pi ta ch’eng ching [T 312]1

Tibetan Title: hphags pa de bzin g§egs pahi gsah ba bsam gyis mi khyab pa bstan
£es bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.3; TTD 47]
English (part, trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 8, 125, 157, 225,251, 283, 314 (quot.).
Obermiller (1931), i, pp. 15, 29, 84, 91, 94; ii, p. 101 (quot).
German (part, trsl.): Wintemitz (1930), pp. 37,45.

4. Svapnanirdesa

Chinese Title: Ching chu t’ien tzu hui [T 310.4]2

Tibetan Title: hphags pa rmi lam bstan pa £es bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 760.4; TTD. no. 48]

5. Amitabhavyuha

Chinese Title: no coresponding translation.3

Tibetan Title: hphags pa hod dpag med kyi bkod pa zes bya ba theg pa cben pohi
mdo [TTP 760.4; TTD 49]
English (trsl.): Beal (1882), pp. 378-383 (part.).
Chang (1983), pp. 339-363.
Muller (1883).
German (part, trsl.): Wintemitz (1930), pp. 21-30.
Edition: Muller; Takakusu (1932).

6. Aksobhyatathagatasyavyuha

Chinese Title: 1. Pu tung ju lai hui [T 310.6]4

2. A ch’u fo kuo ching [T 313]5
Tibetan Title: hphags pa de bzin gSegs pa mi hkhrugs pahi bkod pa zes bya ba
theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.6; TTD 50]
Ch’ang-an from 265 AD to 300/10/13 AD (chiian 8-14), [T 2154—493b: 16].
1. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa II between 1018 and 1058 AD (20 chiian), [Ono. vol. 12, p. 184a].
2. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I between 265 and 313 AD (chiianl5-16) [T 2154-496c:20].
3. No Sanskrit original appears to be extant. If the original version o f the Amitabhavyuha corresponds to the
Large Sukhdvativyuha [extant in Sanskrit and various Chinese translations], then the translation o f Bodhiruci
[T,: No.310.5] is the most relevant here. No corresponding Mongolian and Tibetan versions o f the Large
Sukhdvativyuha appear to have been preserved.Large Sukhdvativyuha:
a) Wu liang shouju lai hui [T.: 310.5]
b) Wu liang ch’ing ching p’ing teng chiao ching [T 61].
Trsl. by Lokaksema between 147 AD and 186 AD in Loyang [T 2153-389a; 18].
4. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 19-20).
5 Trsl. by Lokaksema between 147 and 186 AD in Loyang (2 chiian), [T 2151~384c: 8; T 2 1 4 6 -1 15c: 2].
K ’ai -yiian gives 147 AD for the date o f translation [T 2154-478c: 5].

401
 Appendix iii

English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 315-338.

French (trsl.): Dantinne (1983).

7. Varmavyuhanirdesa

Chinese Title: Pei chia chuang yen hui [T 310.7]1

Tibetan Title: hphags pa go chahi bkod pa bstan pa zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi
mdo [TTP 760.7; TTD 51]

8. Dharmadhatuprakrtyasambhedanirdesa

Chinese Title: Fa chiai t’i hsing wu fen pieh hui [T 310.8]2

Tibetan Title: hphags pa chos kyi dbyins kyi rah bzin dbyer med pa bstan pa zes
bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.8; TTD 52]

9. Dasadhatmaka

Chinese Title: 1. Ta ch’eng shih fa hui [T 3 10.9]3

2. Ta ch’eng shih fa ching [T 314]4
Tibetan Title: hphags pa chos bcu pa ±es bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP
760.9; TTD 53]
English (part, trsl.) Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 5, 8, 114 (quot.).

10. Samantamukhaparivarta

Chinese Title: 1. Wen shu shih li p ’u men hui [T 310.10]5

2. P ’u men p ’in ching [T 3 15]6
Tibetan Title: hphags pa kun nas sgohi lehu zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 760.10; TTD 54]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 134-148.

1. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 21-25).

2. Trsl. by Mandrasena in 503 AD (chiian 26-27). He arrived in Nan-ching/Nanking in the same year from
Fu-nan (Lower Cambodia) [T 2154—537b: 12].
3. Trsl. by BuddhaSanta in 539 AD (chiian 28). Native o f North India; in China from 508 to 539 AD (Loyang)
[T 2154-542a: 26].
4. Trsl. by Sanghabhadra between 506 and 520 AD [T 2151—364b: 24].
5. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 29).
6. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I in 287 AD [T2154-493b: 22].

402
 Appendix iii

11. Rasmisamantamuktanirdesa

Chinese Title: Ch’u hsien kuang ming hui [T 3 1 0 .ll]1

Tibetan Title: hphags pa hod zer kun du bkye ba bstan pa zer bya ba theg pa chen
pohi mdo [TTP 760.11; TTD 55]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 191-222.

12. Bodhisattvapitaka

Chinese Title: 1. T ap ’u sa ts’ang hui [T 310.12]2

2. Ta ch’eng p’u sa ts’ang cheng fa ching [T 316]3
Tibetan Title: hphags pa by ah chub sems dpahi sde snod ces bya ba theg pa chen
pohi mdo [TTP 760.12; TTD 56]
English (part, trsl.): Pedersen (1976).

13. (A)nandagarbhdvakrdntinirdesa

Chinese Title: 1. Fo wei a nan shuo ch’u t’ai hui [T 310.13]4

2. Pao t’ai ching [T 317]5
Tibetan Title: hphags pa dgah bo mnal na gnas pa bstan pa theg pa chen pohi
mdo [TTP 760.14; TTD 57]

14. Ayusmannandagarbhdvakrantinirdesa

Chinese Title: Fo shuo ju t’ai ts’ang hui [T 310.14]6

Tibetan Title: hphags pa tshe dan ldan pa dgah bo mnal du hjug pa bstan pa 2es
bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.13; TTD 58]
German (trsl.): Huebotter (1932)

1. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 30-34).

2. Trsl. by Hsuan-tsang in 645 AD (556/600/602-664 AD), who travelled to Central Asia and India from 629
to 644/645 AD [T 2154-555c: 5].
3. Alternative title: P’u sa tsang cheng fa ching; trsl. by Dharmaraksa II between 1018 and 1058 AD [Ono.
vol. 12, p. 184a].
4. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 55).
5. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I in 281 AD [T 2157-790c: 15] or 303 AD [T 2149-234b: 10].
6. Alternative title: Fo wei nan t’u shuo chu chia ju t’ai ching; trsl. by I-ching(I-tsing) in 710 AD, who
travelled abroad from 671 to 695/98 AD. He died in 713 AD (chiian 55).

403
 Appendix iii

15. Manjusribuddhaksetf'agunavyuha

Chinese Title: 1. Wen shu shih li shou chi hui [T 310.15]1

2. Wen shu shih li fo t’u yen ching [T 3 18]2
3. Ta sheng wen shu shih li p ’u sa fo ch’a kung te chuang yen
ching [T 319]3
Tibetan Title: hphags pa hjam dpal gyi sans rgyas kyi zin gi yon tan bkod pa zes
bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.15; TTD 59]
English (trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 4, 14, 15, 170 (quot.). Chang (1983),
pp. 164-190.
French (part, trsl.): Lamotte (1960), pp. 20-23.

16. Pitdputrasamagama

Chinese Titie: 1. P ’u sa ch’ien shih hui [T 310.16]4

2. Fu tzu ho chi ching [T 320]5
Tibetan Title: hphags pa yab dan sras mjal ba zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 760.16; TTD 60]
English (part, trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 177, 226 (quot).
Conze(1954), pp. 164-165.
Obermiller (1931), i, p. 134 (quot.).

17. Purnapariprccha

Chinese Title: Fu lou na hui [T 310.17]6

Tibetan Title: hphags pa gan pos zus pa zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP
760.18; TTD 61]

18. Rdstrapdlapariprccha

Chinese Title: 1. Hu kuo p ’u sa hui [T 310.18]7

1. Trsl. by Siksananda between 695 and 707 AD in Loyang. Native o f Khotan (chiian 58-60), [T 2154-566a:
22f.].
2. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I in 290 AD in Loyang (2 chiian), [T 2148-289a: 4; T 2151-790c: 18].
3. Trsl. by Amoghavajra between 720 and 774 AD in Loyang (3 chiian), [T 2157-88la: 17; T 2157-980a: 8],
4. Trsl. by NarendrayaSas in 568 AD. Arrival in China from Uddiyana (North India) in 556 AD [T 2154-543c:
10].
5. Trsl. by Jih-ch’eng and Dharmaraksa II between 1058 and 1072 AD [Ono. vol. 12, p. 184b].
6. Alternative titles: Fu lou na wen ching, P’u sa ts’ang ching; trsl. by Kumarajiva in 405 AD [T 2154—512:
15].
7. Trsl. by Jilanagupta towards the end o f the sixth century AD. Native o f Gandhara (523-600 AD), [T

404
 Appendix iii

2. Hu kuo tsun che so wen ta ch’eng ching [T 321]1

Tibetan Title: 1. hphags pa yul hkhor skyon gis zus pa zes bya ba theg pa chen
pohi mdo [TTP 760.17; TTD 62]
2. hphags pa yul hkhor skyon gis zus pa zes bya ba theg pa chen
pohi mdo [TTP 833; TTD 166]
English (trsl.): Ensink (1952).
Edition: Finot (1910)

19, Ugrapariprcchd

Chinese Title: 1. Yii chieh chang che hui [T 310.19]2

2. Fa ching ching [DharmadarSasutra, T 322]3
3. Yu chieh lo yiieh wen p’u sa-hsing ching [T 323]4
Tibetan Title: hphags pa khyim bdag drag Sul can gyis zus pa £es bya ba theg pa
chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.19; TTD 63]
English (trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 11,21,39, 83, 119, 130, 133, 141, 144,
149, 176, 187, 188, 190, 191, 19.4, 245, 248, 263, 282 (quot).
Schuster (1976).

20. Vidyutpraptapariprcchd

Chinese Title: Wu chin fu ts’ang hui [T 310.20]5

Tibetan Title: hphags pa glog thob kyis £us pa £es bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 760.20; TTD 64]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 149-163.

21. Bhadramaydkaravydkarana

Chinese Title: 1. Shou huan shih po t’o lo chi hui [T 310.21]6

2. Huan shih Jen hsien ching [T 324]7
Tibetan Title: hphags pa sgyu ma mkhan bzan po lun bstan pa £es bya ba theg pa

2154-550b: 19].
1. Trsl. by Danapala in 994 AD (4 chiian), [Ta-chung-lu, vol. 8 p.23 b: 26b].
2. Trsl. by Sanghavarman from Sogdia in 252 AD (chiian 82), [T 2l54-487a: 3]. According to Schuster
(citing Hirawaka, A.) by Dharmamitra I a KaSmirian who stayed in China from 424 to 442 AD.
3. Trsl. by An Hsiian (a Parthian layman) and Yen Fo-t’iao (the first known Chinese Buddhist monk from An
Hui) in 181 AD (1 chiian), [T 2151-350a: 14].
4. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I between 266 and 300/10/13 AD (1 chiian), [T 2151-353a: 26].
5. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 83-84).
6. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 85).
7. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I (1 chiian), [T 2151—353a: 26 f.].

405
 Appendix iii

chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.21; TTD 65]

English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 3-26.
Regamey (1938).
Edition: Regamey (1938).

22, Mahapratiharyopadesa

Chinese Title: Ta shen pien hui [T 3 10.22]1

Tibetan Title: hphags pa cho hphral chen po bstan pa zes bya ba theg pa chen
pohi mdo [TTP 760.22; TTD 66]2

23. Maitreyamahasimhanada

Chinese Title: Mo ho chia she hui [T 310.23]

Tibetan Title: hphags pa byams pahi sen gehi sgra chen po zes bya ba theg pa
chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.23; TTD 67]
English (part, trsl.): Obermiller (1931), i, p. 12 (quot.).

24. Vinayaviniscaya-Upalipariprccha

Chinese Title: 1. Yupo li hui [T 310.24]3

2. Chueh ting p ’i ni ching [T 325]4
3. San shih wu fo ming li ch’an wen [T 326]5
4. Yu po li wen fo ching [T 1466]6
Tibetan Title: hphags pa hdul ba mam par gtan la dbab he bar hkhor gyis zus pa
zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.24; TTD 68]
English (trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 161,165,173, 264 (quot.).
Chang (1983), pp. 262-279.
French (trsl.): Python (1973).
Edition: Python (1973).

1. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 86-89).

2 TTP, TTD: Mahapratiharyanirdesa.
3. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 90).
4. Translator unknown (Chin Dynasty 266 AD to 420 AD in Tun-huang). The text mentions Tun-huang
San-ts’ang as the translator, who is often identified with Dharmaraksa I (1 chiian), [T 2145-12a: 21].
5. Trsl. by Gunavarman during the Liu Sung Dynasty.
6. Trsl. by Amoghavajra between 720 and 774 AD in Loyang. Completely different version which in many
respects is remnisent to extracts o f the Theravada Vinaya. No corresponding Tibetan translation is known to
exist (ed. by H. Bechert, Gottingen 1984) (1 chiian), [T 2157-881a: 17].

406
 Appendix Hi

25. Adhyasayasamcodana

Chinese Title: 1. Fa sheng chih le hui [T 3 10.25]1

2. Fa chio ching hsin ching [T 327]2
Tibetan Title: hphags pa lhag pahi bsam pa bskul ba zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi
mdo [TTP 760.25; TTD 69]
English (part, trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 17, 100, 105-114, 310 (quot.).

26. Subahupariprccha

Chinese Title: 1. Shan pei p’u sa hui [T 310.26]3

2. Su p’o hu t’ung tzu ch’ing wen ching [T 895]4
3. Miao pei p’u sa so wen ching [T: no. 896]5
Tibetan Title: hphags pa lag bzans gis zus pa £es bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 760.26; TTD 70]

27. Suratapariprcchd

Chinese Title: 1. Shan shun p’u sa hui [T 310.27]6

2. Hsu lai ching [T 329]7
Tibetan Title: hphags pa hes pa zus pa zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP
760.27; TTD 71]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 243-255.

28. Viradatta(gf'hapati)pariprcchd

Chinese Title: 1. Ch’iian shou chang che hui [T 310.28]8

2. P ’u sa hsiu hsing ching [T 330]9
3. Wu wei shou so wen ta ch’eng ching [T 331]10
Tibetan Title: hphags pa khyim bdag dpas byin gyis zus pa zes bya ba theg pa
chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.28; TTD 72]
English (part, trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 37, 217 (quot.).

1. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 91-92).

2. Trsl. by Jfianagupta in 595 AD (2 chiian), [T 2151—366a: 3].
3. Trsl. by Kumarajiva between 402 AD and 412 AD (chiian 93-94),[T 2154-514c: 26].
4. Trsl. by Subhakarasimha in 726 AD (3 chiian), [T 2157-874c: 3].
5. Trsl. by Fa-t’ien between 973 and 988 AD (4 chiian), [T 2035—398b: 23; Ta-chung-lu vol. 6, p. 16b—17b].
6. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 95).
7. Trsl. by Chih-shih-lun in 373 AD [T 2157-815c: 26],
8. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 96).
9. Trsl. by Po Fa-tzu between 290 and 306 AD (1 chiian), [T 2153-399c: 25].
10. Trsl. by Danapala in 983 AD (3 chiian), [T 2035-398b: 25].

407
 Appendix iii

German (part, trsl.): Wintemitz (1930), pp. 45-46.

29. Udayanavatsarajapariprccha

Chinese Title: 1. Yu t’o yen wang hui [T 310.29]1

2. Yu t’ien wang ching [T 332]2
3. Ta ch’eng jih tzu wang so wen ching [T 333]3
Tibetan Title: hphags pa bad sahi rgyal po hchar byed kyis zus pa zes bya bahi
lehu [TTP 760.29;TTD 73]
English (part, trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), p. 85 (quot.).
Obermiller (1931), ii, p. 169 (quot.).

30. Sumatidarikapariprccha

Chinese Title: 1. Miao hui t ’ung nii hui [T 310.30]4

2. Hsii mo t’i p’u sa ching [T 334]5
3. Hsu mo t’i ching [T 336]6
Tibetan Title: hphags pa bu mo bio gros b£an mos zus pa zes bya ba theg pa chen
pohi mdo [TTP 760.30; TTD 74]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 256-261.

31. Gangottarapariprccha

Chinese Title: Heng ho shang yu p’o i hui [T 310.31]7

Tibetan Title: hphags pa gan gahi mchog gis zus pa zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi
mdo [TTP 760.31; TTD 75]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 37-40.

32. Asokadattavyakarana

Chinese Title: 1. Wu wei te p ’u sa hui [T 310.32]8

2. A sheh shih wang nii a sha ta p’u sa ching [T 337]
Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 97).
Trsl. by Fa-chii between 290 AD and 306 AD (1 chiian), [T 2151—355a: 15].
Trsl. by Fa-t’ien in 984 AD (1 chiian), [Ta-chung-lu, vol. 4, p. la: 3b].
Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 98a).
Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I between 265 and 313 AD (1 chiian), [T 2151—353a; 26].
Trsl. by Bodhiruci in 693 AD (1 chiian).
Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 98b).
Trsl. by BuddhaSanta in 539 AD (chiian 99), [T 2154-542a: 28].
Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I in 317 AD (1 chiian), [T 2154-493c: 9].

408
 Appendix iii

Tibetan Title: hphags pa mya nan med kyis byin pa lun bstan pa zes bya ba theg
pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.32; TTD 76]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 115-133.

33. Vimaladattapariprccha

Chinese Title: 1. Wu kou shih p ’u sa (fen pieh) ying pien hui [T 310.33]1
2. Li kou shih nii ching [T 338]2
3. Te wu kou nii ching [T 339]3
Tibetan Title: hphags pa dri ma med kyis byin pas zus pa zes bya ba theg pa chen
pohi mdo [TTP 760.33; TTD 77]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 73-99.

34. Gunaratnasamkusumitapariprccha

Chinese Title: Kung te pao hua fu p’u sa hui [T 310.34]4

Tibetan Title: 1. hphags pa yon tan rin chen med tog kun tu rgyas pas £us pa £es
bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760..34; TTD 78]
2. hphags pa sans rgyas bcu pa £es bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 938; TTD 272]

35. Acintyabuddhavisaydnirdesa

Chinese Title: 1. Shan te t’ien tzu hui [T 310.35]5

2. Wen shu shih li so shuo pu ssu i fo ching chieh ching [T 340]6
Tibetan Title: hphags pa sans rgyas kyi yul bsam gyis mi khab pa bstan pa £es
bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.35; TTD 79]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 27-37.

36. Susthitamati(devaputra)pariprcchd

Chinese Title: 1. Shan chu i t’ien tzu hui [T 310.36]7

1. Trsl. by Nieh Tao Chen and Dharmaraksa I between 280 and 312 AD at Ch’ang-an (chiian 100), [T
2154-501a: 2].
2. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I in 289 AD (1 chiian), [T 2154-493c: 11].
3. Trsl. by Gautama Prajfiaruci in 541 AD (1 chiian), [T 2157-840c:24; T 2157—841b: 5].
4. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 101a).
5. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 101b).
6. Trsl. by Bodhiruci in 693 AD (2 chiian), [T 2153-380a: 8].
7. Trsl. hy Dharmagupta between 605 and 617 AD. Arrival from South India (Lata) in Ch’ang-an in 590 AD

409
 Appendix iii

2. Shen shan chu i t’ien tzu so wen ching [T 341]1

3. Ju huan san mei ching [T 342]2
Tibetan Title: hphags pa lhahi bu bio gros rab gnas kyis zus pa zes bya ba theg pa
chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.37; TTD 80]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 41-72.

37. Simhapariprccha

Chinese Title: 1. A she shih wang tzu hui [T 310.37]3

2. T’ai tzu shua hu ching [T 343]4
3. T’ai tzu ho hsiu ching [T 344]5
Tibetan Title: hphags pa sen ges £us pa zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP
760.37; TTD 81]
English (part, trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 5, 53 (quot.).

38. Updyakausalyaparivarta

Chinese Title: 1. Ta ch’eng fang pien hui [T 310.38]6

2. Hui shang p ’u sa wen ta shan ch’iian ching [T 345]7
3. Ta fang kuang shan ch’iao fang pien ching [T 346 ]8
Tibetan Title: 1. hphags pa sans rgyas thams cad kyi gsan chen thabs la mkhas pa
byan chub sems dpah ye 6es dam pas zus pahi lehu zes bya ba theg
pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.38; TTD 82]9
2. hphags pa thabs mkhas pa zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 927; TTD 261]
English (trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 70, 161, 163, 164, 165 (quot).
Chang (1983), pp. 427-468.
Obermiller (1931), i, p. 134 (quot.).
Tatz, M. (1981).
German (part, trsl.): Wintemitz (1930), p. 40.

(chiian 102-105), [T 2154-552b: 22].

1. Trsl. by Prajfiaruci in 541 AD (3 chiian), [T 2149-269c: 24].
2. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I (3 chiian; var. 4), [T 2151—353a: 26].
3. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 106a).
4. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I (1 chiian), [T 2151—353a: 26f ].
5. Translator unknown. Listed in the Hsi-chin-lu as having been translated between 265 and 316 AD (1
chiian), [T 2154-587b: 23].
6. Trsl. by Nandi (from Western China) in 420 AD at Lo-yang (chiian 106b-108), [T 2154-509a: 6],
7. Trsl. hy Dharmaraksa I in 285 AD (2 chiian), [T 2145-8a: 12].
8. Trsl. by Danapala in 1005 AD (4 chiian), [Ta-chung-lu. vol. 13, p.la-4a].
9 Title as listed in Tibetan bKah-hgyur. Arya-sarvabuddham ahdrahasyopdyakausalyajM nottarabodhisattva-
pariprcchdparivarta-nam a-m dhdydna-sutra (D, P, R).

410
 Appendix iii

39. Bhadrapalasresthipariprcchd

Chinese Title: 1. Hsien hu chang che hui [T 310.39]1

2. Ta ch’eng hsien shih ching [T 347]2
Tibetan Title: hphags pa tshon dpon bzan skyon gis &us pa zes bya ba theg pa
chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.39; TTD.: 83]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 223-242.

40. Ddrikdvimalasraddhdpariprccha

Chinese Title: Ching hsin t’ung nii hui [T 310.40]3

Tibetan Title: Bu mo mam dag dad pas zus pa £es bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 760.40; TTD 84]

41. Maitreyapariprcchadharmasta

Chinese Title: 1. Mi le p’u sa wen pa fa hui [T 310.41]4

2. Ta ch’eng fang teng yao hui [T 348]5
Tibetan Title: 1. hphags pa byams pas zus pa brgyad pa zes bya ba theg pa chen
pohi mdo [TTP 760.41/2; TTD 85/6]
2. hphags pa byams pas zus pa zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 816; TTD 149]

42. Maitreyapariprccha

Chinese Title: 1. Mi le p’u sa wen hui [T 310.42]6

2. Mi le p’u sa so wen pen yuan ching [T 349]7
Tibetan Title: 1. hphags pa byams pas £us pahi lehu £es bya ba theg pa chen pohi
mdo [TTP 760.42/41; TTD 86/85] ’
2. hphags pa byams pas £us pahi lehu zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi
mdo [TTP 816; TTD 149]

1. Alternative title: I shih ching; trsl. by Jfianagupta (from Gandhara) in 591 AD (chiian 109-110), [T
2154—548b: 8].
2. Trsl. by Divakara in 680 AD (2 chiian),[T 2153-397a: 7; Ono.: 630 AD],
3. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 11 la).
4. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 11 lb).
5. Trsl. by An Shih-Kao between 148 and 170 AD (1chiian), [T 2151-349a: 12],
6. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 111c).
7. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I in 303 AD (1 chiian), [T 2157-79 la: 10].

411
 Appendix iii

43. Kdsyapaparivarta

Chinese Title: 1. P ’u m ingp’u sa hui [T 310.43]1

2 .1 jih me ni pao ching [T 350]2
3. Mo ho yen pao yen ching [T 351]3
4. Ta chia she wen ta pao chi cheng fa ching [T 352]4
Tibetan Title: hphags pa hod sruns kyi lehu £es bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 760.43; TTD 87]
English (trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), p. 52, n. 1; pp. 53, 54, 55, 144, 147, 190,
235 (quot.).
Chang (1983)p p .387-414.
German (trsl.): Weller (1965).
Wintemitz (1930), pp. 36-37.
Edition: Stael Holstein (1926).
Vorob’jev- Desjatovski (RO; 21).

44. Ratnarasi

Chinese Title: Pao liang chu hui [T 310.44]5

Tibetan Title: hphags pa rin po chehi phun po zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi mdo
[TTP 760.45; TTD. no. 88]
English (trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 56, 127, 129, 134, 135, 194, 278
(quot.).
Chang (1983), pp. 280-314.
Edition: Hoemle (1916), pp. 116-121.

45. Aksayamatipariprccha

Chinese Title: Wu chin hui p’u sa hui [T 310.45]6

Tibetan Title: bphags pa bio gros mi sad pas zus pa zes bya ba thegpa chen pohi
mdo [TTP 760.44; TTD 89]
English (trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 12, 24, 36, 37,115,118, 156,163,185,
204, 219, 221, 248, 254, 260, 261, 264, 283 (quot.).
Chang (1983), pp. 415-426.
German (part, trsl.): Wintemitz (1930), p. 48.

1. Alternative title: Ku ta pao shi ching; translator unknown (chiian 112).

2 Trsl. by Lokaksema in 179 AD (1 chiian), [T 2149-223c: 18].
3. Translator unknown; Ch’in Dynasty (265-420 AD); (1 chiian), [T 2153-382b: 17].
4. Trsl. by Danapala in 985 AD (5 chiian), [Ta-chung-lu. vol.4, p.23a: 25b].
5. Alternative title: Pao liang ching; trsl. by Tao-Kung between 401 and 412 AD at Ch’ang-an (chiian
113-114).
6. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 115a).

412
 Appendix iii

46. Saptasatikaprajnaparamita

Chinese Title: 1. Wen shu shuo pan jo hui [T 3 10.46]1

2. Ta pan jo po lo mi to ching (chapter 7) [T 220.7]2
3. Wen shu shih li so shuo mo ho pan jo polo mi ching [T 232]3
4. Wen shu shih li so shuo pan jo po lo mi ching [T 233]4
Tibetan Title: hphags pa §es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa bdun brgya pa zes bya ba
theg pa chen pohi mdo [TTP 760.46; TTD 90]
English (trsl.): Chang (1983), pp. 100-114.
Conze (1973), pp. 79-107.
Edition: Tucci (1923).

47. Ratnacudapariprccha

Chinese Title: Pao chi p’u sa hui [T 310.47]5

Tibetan Title: hphags pa gtsug na rin po ches zus pa zes bya ba theg pa chen pohi
mdo [TTP 760.47; TTD 91]
English (part, trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), pp. 115, 120, 217, 219, 222, 222, 249, 284
(quot.).
Obermiller (1931), ii, p. 115 (quot.).

48. SrlmaladevTsimhanada

Chinese Title: 1. Sheng man fu jen hui [T 310.48]6

2. Sheng man shih tzu hou i cheng ta fang pien fang kuang ching
[T 353]7
Tibetan Title: hphags pa lha mo dpal hphren gi sen gehi sgra zes bya ba theg pa
chen pohi mdo [TTP 76o.48; TTD 92]
English (trsl.): Bendall; Rouse (1981), p. 44 (quot.).
Chang (1983), pp. 363-386.
Wayman (1974).

1. Trsl. by Mandrasena in 503 AD (chiian 115b-l 16), [T 2154—537b: 12].

2. Trsl. by Hsiian-tsang between 659 and 663 AD (2 chiian), [T 2154—555b: 28;T 2149—282b: 10].
3. Trsl. by Mandrasena in 503 AD (1 chiian), [T 2154-537: 12].
4. Trsl. by Sanghabhara between 509 and 520 AD at Lo-yang (2 chiian), [T 2151—364b: 24],
5. Trsl. by Dharmaraksa I in 290 AD (chiian 117-118), [T 2154-493b: 21].
6. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 119).
7. Trsl. by Gunabhadra in 436 AD (1 chiian), [T 2154-528a: 15]. A translation made by Dharmaksema in 433
AD was no longer extant by the time o f the Yuan Dynasty. (See: Wayman, 1974, pp. 9-13).

413
 Appendix iii

49. (Rsi) vyasapariprcchd

Chinese Title: 1. Kuang po hsien jen hui [T 310.49]1

2. P’i yeh p’o wen ching [T 354]2
Tibetan Title: hphags pa dran sron rgyas pas zus pa 2es bya ba theg pa chen pohi
mdo [TTP 760.49; TTD 93]

1. Trsl. by Bodhiruci (chiian 120).

2. Trsl. by Gautama Prajfiaruci in 542 AD (2 chiian), [T 2157—841a: 1].

414
 Appendix iv

Appendix IV

Tibetan Text of Chapter Eleven of the Bodhisattvapitakasutra

S e c t io n i

1.1

(590) Sa rihi bu de la byan chub sems dpah chen po gan la brtson na I1 byan chub sems
dpahi spyad pa spyod par hgyur bahi byan chub sems dpah sems dpah chen pohi Ses rab kyi
pha rol tu phyin pa gan ze na | Sa rihi bu hdi la byan chub sems dpah byan chub sems dpahi
sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans rab tu nan par byed |2 hdzin par byed | hchari bar byed |
klog par byed | kun chub par byed | g£an dag3 la yah hchad cin rgya cher yah dag par rab tu
ston par byed de ||
Sa rihi bu de la byan chub sems dpas4 byan chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam
grans Sin tu mnan | blahs | bzun | bklags | g£an dag5 la yah bSad cin rgya cher yah dag par
rab tu bstan na | Ses rab kyi mam pa hdi dag hthob par hgyur ro || Ses rab de yah mam pa
gan6 1hjug pa gan ze na j de la Ses rab7 thos pa ni mam paho || tshul b±in yid la byed pa ni
hjug paho ||

1 . 1.1

thos pa yah8 mam pa gan ze na | hdi Ita ste9 1hdun10pahi mam pa dan | bsam pahi mam
1. In my edition o f chapter eleven, I have adopted the punctuation and Arabic page/folio numbering as it is
found in the modem reprint o f the sTog Palace Kanjur (Leh— 1979). Whenever it seemed appropriate to
point to the inclusion o f additional sad in other editions of the canon, I have indicated thus in the footnote
section. Round brackets serve to indicate conjectural insertions, while square brackets indicate deletions.
Whenever available, I reproduced in the footnote section the reading o f the Tun-huang manuscript (Pelliot
977) o f the Bdp. Since it is independent o f the various blockprint versions, I decided to treat the Tun-
huang manuscript as a variant in its own right. Thus I have not edited the text, but faithfully recorded its
readings. Like many Tun-huang works, it contains a fair amount o f non-standard spellings, such as ‘Sa ri
bu’ for ‘Sa ri bu’, ‘myed’ for ‘med’ or ‘yin ba’ for ‘yin pa’, etc. In order to keep the manuscript portions on
the same page as the text o f the sTog Palace reading, I have broken it up by paragraphs to match those to
the main body o f the text.
2. P add: len pa byed.
3. D N gzan dag.
4. N dpah.
5. N g£an dag.
6. D dan.
7. D N add: kyi; R add: kyis.
8. N gan.
9. I provide here the Sanskrit equivalents o f the 72 technical terms that are given in the Tibetan:
1. hdun pa: chanda; 2. bsam pa: aSaya; 3. sbyor pa: prayoga; 4. dge bahi bSes gfien: kalyanamitra; 5. na
rgyal med pa: nirmana; 6. rab hdud pa: pranama; 7. ri mor byed pa: manana; 8. hthun pa: anukula; 9. bkah

415
 Appendix iv

pa dan | sbyor bahi mam pa dan | dge bahi bSes gnen gyi mam pa dan | ha rgyal med pahi
mam pa dan | rab tu (591) hdud pahi mam pa dan | ri mor byed pahi mam pa dan | hthun1
pahi mam pa dan | bkah bio bde bahi mam pa dan | bsnen bkur byed pahi mam pa dan | ma
blags te2 nan pahi mam pa dan | bkur sti byed pahi mam pa dan | yid la byed pahi mam pa
dan | mi g.yen bahi mam pa dan | rin po cher3 hdu Ses pahi mam pa dan | sman du hdu Ses
pahi mam pa dan | nad thams cad rab tu zi bar byed pahi hdus Ses kyi mam pa dan | dran pahi
snod kyi mam pa dan | rtogs pa Ses pahi mam pa dan | bio gros hdod pahi mam pa dan | bio la
hjug pahi mam pa dan | sans rgyas kyi chos thos pas mi horns pahi mam pa dan | gton ba spel
bahi mam pa dan | byin nas mi smod pahi mam pa dan | man du thos pa sten4 pahi mam pa
dan | gus par dgah ba myon bar byed pahi mam pa dan | lus sim pahi mam pa dan | sems rans
pahi mam pa dan | mi skyor ba nan pahi mam pa dan | don nan pahi mam pa dan | chos nan
pahi mam pa dan | nan tan nan pahi mam pa dan | theg pa gzan (dag) la hdod pa med par

bio bde ba: suvacas; 10. bsflen bkur byed pa: paryupasana; 11. ma ba blags te ban pa: avahitaSruta; 12.
bkur sti byed pa: satkara; 13. yid la byed pa: manasakara; 14. mi g.yen pa: atandrita; 15. rin po cher hdu
Ses: ratnasamjfia; 16. sman du hdu Ses pa: bhaisajyasamjfia; 17. nad thams cad rab tu zir bar byed pahi hdu
Ses pa: sarvavyadhiSamana; 18. dran pahi snod: smrtibhojana; 19. rtogs pa Ses pa: gatibodhana; 20. bio
gros hdod pa: matirocana; 21. bio la hjug pa: buddhipraveSa; 22. sans rgyas kyi chos thos pas mi sgoms pa:
atrptabuddhadliarmaSravana; 23. gtoii pa spel pa: tyagavrhana; 24. sbyin nas mi smod pa: dantajaneya; 25.
man du thos pa sten pa: bahuSrutasevana; 26. gus par dgah ba myon bar byed pa: *gauravanandanubhavati;
27. lus sim pa: kayaudbilya; 28. sems rans pa: cittaprahladana; 29. mi skyor bar fian pa: aparikhedaSra-
vaha; 30. don fian pa: arthaSravana; 31. chos flan pa: dharmaSravana; 32. nan tan fian pa: pratipattiSravana;
33. theg pa g£an la hdod pa med pa fian pa: *parayananarthika; 34. pha rol tu phyin pa fian pa: pra-
jfiaparamitaSravana; 35. byan chub sems dpahi sde snod fian pa: bodhisattvapitakaSravana; 36. bsdu bahi
dnos fian pa: samgrahavastuSravana; 37. thabs mkhas pa fian pa: upayakauSalyaSravana; 38. tshans pahi
gnas pa fian pa: brahmaviharaSravana; 39. mnon par Ses pa fian pa: abhijftaSravana; 40. dran pa fie bar
gzags pa fian pa: smrtisamprajanyaSravana; 41. yan dag par spoil ba fian pa: samyakprahanaSravana; 42.
rdzu hphrul gyi rkan pa fian pa: rddhipadaSravana; 43. rten cin hbrel par hbyun ba fian pa: pratityasamut-
padaSravana; 44. mi rtag pa fian pa: anityaSravana; 45. sdud bsgnal ba fian pa: duhkhaSravana; 46. bdag
med pa fian pa: anatmaSravana; 47. zi ba fian pa: SantaSravana; 48. ston pa fiid fian pa: SunyataSravana; 49.
mtslian ma med pa fian pa: apranihitaSravana; 50. smon pa med pa fian pa: animittaSravana; 51. mAon par
hdu mi byed pa fian pa: anabhisamskaraSravana; 52. dge bahi rtsa ba miion par hdu byed pa nan pa:
kuSalabhisamskarasravana; 53. ran dban du gyur pa: *svadisthana; 54. chos flam par hdu Ses pa: *dhar-
manidhyapti; 55. kun tu hdre ba mi mthun pahi phyags su hdu Ses pa: *samsargapratipaksasamjfia; 56. fion
moils pa thams cad tshar gcod pa: *sarvakleSanigrahasthana; 57. mkhas pa la miion par bgah ba: panditab-
hinandana; 58. hphags pa sten pa: aryasammata; 59. hphags pa ma yin pa yoiis su spon pa: anaryapraSa-
dana; 60. hphags pa fian pa: satyadarSanaSravana; 61. dban pa fian pa: indriyaSravana; 62. rjes su dran pa
sgom pa fian pa: *anusmrtibhavanaSravana; 63. byan chub kyi yan lag fian pa: bodhyanganiSravana; 64.
hphags pahi lam yan lag brgyad pa fian pa: aryastangamargaSravana; 65. de bzin gSegs pahi stobs fian pa:
tathagatabalaniSravana; 66. mi hjigs pa fian pa: vaiSaradyaSravana; 67. byams pa fian pa: maitriSravana; 68.
sfiin pa fian pa: karunaSravana; 69. dgah ba fian pa: muditaSravana; 70. gtan sfioms chen po fian pa:
upeksaSravana; 71. so so yaii dag par rig pa fian pa: pratisamvicchravana; 72. sans rgyas kyi chos ma hdres
pa bco brgyad mams fian pa: avenikabuddhadharmaSravana (Siks: pp. 190-191; Akn: pp. 50.4.7-51.1.5;
see also Appendix i).
10. P mos.
1. R mthun (throughout the text).
2. R ma ba blags te te.
3. P dkon mchog.
4. N bstan.

416
 Appendix iv

nan1 pahi mam pa dan | pha rol tu phyin pa nan pahi mam pa dan | byan chub sems dpahi
sde snod nan pahi mam pa dan | bsdu bahi dnos po nan pahi mam pa dan | thabs mkhas pa
nan pahi mam pa dan | tshans pahi gnas pa nan pahi mam pa dan j mnon par Ses pa nan pahi
mam pa (592) dan |
dran pa ne bar bzag pa nan pahi mam pa dan | yah dag par spon ba nan pahi mam pa dan |
rdzu hphrul gyi rkan pa nan pahi mam pa dan | rten cin hbrel par hbyuh ba nan pahi mam pa
dan | mi rtag pa nan pahi mam pa dan | sdug bsnal ba2 nan pahi mam pa dan | bdag med pa
nan pahi mam pa dan | zi ba nan pahi mam pa dan | ston pa nid nan pahi mam pa dan j

mtshan ma med pa nan pahi mam pa dan | smon pa med pa nan pahi mam pa dan | mnon par
hdu mi byed pa nan pahi mam pa dan | dge bahi rtsa ba mnon par hdu byed pa nan pahi mam
pa dan | rah dban du gyur pahi mam pa3 dan j chos4 nan par hdu Ses pahi mam pa dan | kun
tu hdre ba mi hthun pahi phyogs su hdu Ses pahi mam pa dan | non mons pa thams cad tshar
gcod pahi mam pa dan | mkhas pa la mnon par dgah bahi mam pa dan | hphags pa sten5 pahi
mam pa dan | hphags pa ma yin pa yons su spon6 bahi mam pa dan | hphags pa nan pahi
mam pa dan | dban po nan pahi mam pa dan | qes su dran pa sgom pa nan pahi mam pa dan [
byan chub kyi yan lag nan pahi mam pa dan | hphags pahi lam yan lag brgyad pa nan pahi
mam pa dan [ de biin gSegs pahi stobs dan | mi hjigs pa dan | byams pa dan | snin rje dan |
dgah ba dan | btan snoms chen po dan | (593) so so yah dag par rig pa dan | sans rgyas kyi
chos ma hdres pa bcu brgyad mams nan pahi mam pa ste |

1 . 1.2

Sa rihi bu de ltar gan na thos pa de ni7 Ses paho || gan na Ses pa de ni nan tan no || de cihi
phyir ze na | gan byan chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans la mos pa de ni thos
par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do ||
gan byan chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans la bsam pa yod pa de ni thos
par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan byan chub sems dpahi
sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans la sbyor ba yod pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu
Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan dge bahi bSes gnen la rten8 par byed pa de ni thos par
1. P om: par flan.
2. P sdug bsnal.
3. P bdag la rag las pahi mam pa, for D N R rail dban du gyur pahi mam pa.
4. N kun tu chos.
5. D N R bsten; P bstan.
6. D R span.
7. D R na; N om: pa de ni.
8. D P sten; N brten.

417
 Appendix iv

hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan ha rgyal med pa de ni thos
par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan man du thos pa (de) la
rab tu hdud pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan
man du thos pa de1 la ri mor byed pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses
nas nan tan byed do || gan hthun par hdzin pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so ||
Ses nas nan (594) tan byed do || gan bkah bio bde ba de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu
Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do |j
gan man du thos pa (de) la bsiien bkur byed pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses
so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan ma ba blags te nan pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab
tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan man du thos pa (de) la bkur sti2 byed pa de ni thos
par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan hchad pa dan | gan man
du thos pa (de la)3 yid la byed pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas
nan tan byed do || gan man du thos pa (de) la4 rin po cher5 hdu Ses pa de ni thos par hgyur
ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan man du thos pa (de) la rtsir6 hdu
Ses pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan man du
thos pa thos nas hdod chags dan | ze sdan dan | gti mug rab tu ii bar hdu Ses pa de ni thos par
hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan man du thos pa thos nas7
hdzin par hdu Ses pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do
|| gan chos mams rtogs par khon du chud pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so ||
Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan man du thos par bio gros hdod pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos
nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan man du thos pa thos nas | bio mam par mi8
g.yo ba de ni thos par hgyur ro || (595) thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan
thos pas mi horns pa de ni thos par hgyur ro |j thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do
li
gan sbyin pahi gtam thos nas gton bar rtog pa9 de ni thos par hgyur ro || gah tshul khrims
kyi gtam thos nas tshul khrims srun10ba de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses

1. N om: de.
2. N bsti.
3. D P R thos par; N pa.
4. D N R om: la.
5. P dkon mchog du.
6. P sman du.
7. D R n a.
8. D P Rom: mi.
9. N sbyin pa gton bar byed pa.
10. N bsruii.

418
 Appendix iv

nas nan tan byed do || gan bzod pahi gtam thos nas bzod par byed pa de ni thos par hgyur ro ||
thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan brtson hgrus kyi gtam thos nas brtson
hgrus ma nams par byed pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan
byed do || gan bsam gtan gyi gtam thos nas sems mi g.yen bar byed pa de ni thos par hgyur ro
|| thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan Ses rab kyi gtam thos nas zag pa zad
pa la1 sems g£ol bar byed pa de ni thos par (596) hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so j| Ses nas
nan tan byed do ||
gan man du thos pa (de la)2 dgah ba skye ba de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses
so S| Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan chos thos nas lus sim par byed pa de ni thos par hgyur ro ||
thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan chos thos nas rans par byed pa de ni
thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so j| Ses nas nan tan byed do ||
gan theg pa chen po thos nas mos par hgyur ba de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses
so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan bsdu bahi dnos po thos nas gan bsdu bar sems skyed3 pa
de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan dran pa ne bar
b£ag pahi gtam thos nas | dran pa lus la £ugs pa4 dan | dran pa tshor ba la 2ugs pa dan | dran
pa sems la £ugs pa dan | dran pa chos la zugs pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses
so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan yah dag par spon bahi gtam thos nas mi dge ba skyes Sin
byun ba dag la5 khrel zin ho tsha bar hgyur ba de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses
so || Ses nas nan tan byed do ||
gan dge bahi chos skyes Sin byun ba la mi gton bar bio hjug pa (597) de ni thos par hgyur
ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do ||
gan rdzu hphrul gyi rkan pahi gtam thos nas lus yah ba dan | sems yah ba dan | hdun pa6
yah ba skye ba de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan
bsam gtan gyi gtam thos nas hes par7 rtog pa la sems gton8 ba de ni thos par hgyur ro ||
thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do || gan tshad med pahi gtam thos nas sems can
thams cad la byams pa dan | hphons9 par gyur pa mams la snin ije che ba101chos la dgah ba

1. N ias.
2. D N P R thos par.
3. N bskyes.
4. P son ba (also in the following three instances).
5. P gis.
6. P sred pa.
7. P om: hes par.
8. P gzol.
9. D N phons; P des.
10. D om: che; N chen po.

419
 Appendix iv

dan | mi dge ba la btan snoms pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan
tan byed do || gan dban pohi gtam thos nas dad pahi dban po dan | brtson hgrus kyi dban po
dan | dran pahi dban po dan | tin he hdzin gyi dban po dan | Ses rab kyi dban po la sems
hjug1par byed pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do |j
gan byan chub kyi yan lag gi gtam thos nas chos thams cad khon du chud par bya bahi phyir
sems hjug par byed pa de ni thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed
do || gan lam gyi gtam thos nas mya nan las (598) hdah bar hgro ba la sems hjug pa de ni thos
par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do ||
gan de bzin gSegs pahi stobs dan | mi hjigs pa dan | byams pa dan | snin ije dan | dgah ba
dan | btan snoms chen po dan | so so yah dag par rig pa dan j sans rgyas kyi chos ma hdres pa
bcu brgyad yan dag par bslab pa2 sans rgyas kyi chos tshad med pa thos nas bla na med pa
yah dag par rdzogs pahi byan chub tu sems hjug ste | de thos par hgyur ro || thos nas rab tu
Ses so || Ses nas nan tan byed do ||
Sa rihi bu hdi ni3 thos pahi mam pa la hjug pa mam pa bzi bcu rtsa gcig ces bya ste | Sa
rihi bu de ltar na byan chub sems dpah4Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la5 spyod do ||

1 .1 3

Sa rihi bu gzan yah byah chub sems dpah Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod pa | byan
chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans Sin tu miian | blahs | bzun j bklags | kun
chub par byas | gzan la yan6 bSad cin rgya cher yah dag par rab tu bstan na7 nan tan snin
por byed pa yin no || chos mams la nan tan byed pa gan ze na | gan ji ltar bstan pa bzin du
gnas pa ste | de ni chos la nan tan byed paho81|
gzan yah chos la nan tan byed pa de9 ni gan chos thams cad mi len paho || de cihi phyir ±c
na | chos mams len na10yah log pahi nan tan du hgyur te | gan zag (599) gan chos len par
gnas pa de11ni chos de dag las hbyun bar hgyur bahi gnas dan skabs med de | de ni gnas med

1. P gzol (also in the next three occurrences o f the tenn ‘hjug’).

1 P dag dan, for D N R yah dag par bslab pa.
3. P g2an, for D N R hdi ni.
4. N dpahi.
5. P om: ia (also in all further instances o f this regularly reoccuring stock phrase).
6. N om: yah.
7. N P nas.
8. N R do.
9. D N P om: de.
10. N om: na.
11. D P R om: de.

420
 Appendix iv

paho || gan zag mi len par spyod pa mams kyah bsal1bahi phyir | chos hdi dag la nan tan du
bzag2 pa the tshom du hgyur na | chos len par spyod pa mams lta smos kyah ci dgos te | de
bas na chos thams cad mi len pa ni3nan tan no ||
gzan yan gan chos mams la mi sgrib pa de ni nan tan zes byaho || gan chos mams la rlom
sems4 med pa dan | gan chos mam mi len pa dan | mi rlom pa dan | mi skye ba dan | mi hgog
pa de ni nan tan zes byaho ||
g£an yan5 chos mams la bsnan6pa med pa dan | bsal ba med pa de ni nan tan £es byaho ||
gzan yah gan du cun zad kyah ma Mad | ji ltar Mad pa biin du mi snan ba de lta bu ni chos
thams cad mi snan ba7 1mi blah ba | mtshan nid gcig paho || mtshan hid gan ie na | hdi lta
ste | mtshan nid med paho || mtshan nid ces bya ba8 ni mtshan nid med pa ste | de ni gni ga
las hgyur ro || de cihi phyir ze na | kun brtags pa ham | yah dag par brtags pa de nid mtshan
nid9 med par Mad pa yin no || hdi ni mtshan nid do | hdi ni mtshan nid ma yin paho zes | hdi
lta ste | chos thams cad la mtshan nid med pa | mi snan ba | blah ba med par rtogs pa de ni nan
tan zes byaho || nan tan la brtson par gyis £ig | chos thams cad mi sgrib par snan ba thob par
gyis Sig || (600)
de nas dehi tshe bcom ldan hdas kyis tshigs su bead pa hdi dag gsuns so ||

gan iig byan chub sems dpahi sde snod la ||

Sin tu hes par nan tan gnas byed pa ||
mkhas pa de ni chos la hdzin10mi byed ||
mi hdzin pas na nan tan de hdraho ||

mis ni chos med ston par mi byed do ||u

chos lahan de ni ston par rlom sems med121|
ston pahi chos la rlom sems13gan yah med ||
1. P bstsal (also in all subsequent occurrences of the word ‘sel ba’)-
2. N gzag.
3. N len pahi.
4. D N R rlom sems; P sfiems pa.
5. P add: kyah.
6. D P bstan.
7. N om: mi snan ba.
8 N om: ba.
9. P om: mtshan fiid.
10. P len (also in the next line).
11. P chos med ston pa fiid du mi byed min.
12. P ston pa sfiems mi byed.
13. P sfiems pa (also in the following three occurrences o f the word ‘rlom sems’).

421
 Appendix iv

rlom sems med phyir nan tan de hdraho ]j

chos la len pa med cin hdor ba med ||

chos ni chos la len par byed pa med ||
len pa med phyir hdi ni chos kyi mtshan ||
hdi1hdra ba ni nan tan zes byaho ||

gan phyir chos la nams kyah de mi chags ||

de la de yi ye Ses blahs mi hgyur ||
ye Ses ma blahs de lahan rlom sems med |j
hdi hdra ba ni2nan tan 2es byaho ||

mkhas pa3 sbyans pahi4yon tan gnas par gyis ||

chos hdi dag la Sin tu brtson par gyis ||
cho ga spyod pa dag la gnas gyur na ||
dehi tshe de yi sgo ni dag par hgyur ||

sgo dag na ni chos hdi hdra ba Ses ||

de na sems la bsam pahan Ses par hgyur ||
mkhas pas de tshe bsam pa Ses nas ni ||
hdi hdra ba yi chos kyah hchad par hgyur ||

zab mohi chos la don dam mkhas5gyur nas ||

rtag tu don la mam par gdon mi za61|
spyod pa mthah yas yon tan mams kyis hphags ||
mkhas pa man du thos pa rgya mtsho7hdra ||

1. D N de.
2. D P R la; N lahan.
3. D N pas.
4. P nan tan.
5. P bstsal.
6. N add: ba.
7. P add: mi mams.

422
 Appendix iv

de yi don dan tshig hbru1dag la yan jj (601)

mthah ma rtogs par run ba ma yin zin ||2
don kyah mthah yas tshig hbru mthah yas te ||
nan tan snin por byed pa mi hkhrugs hgyur ||

§a rihi bu de ltar na byan chub sems dpah Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod do31|

1.1.4
Sa rihi bu gzan yah byan chub sems dpah Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la4 spyod pa5 |
byan chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans Sin tu nan pa nas | gzan la rgya cher
bstan pahi bar du byas nas ma rig pahi mun pa mun nag mun pa rab rib stug po bsal6 bahi
phyir | chos thams cad la snan ba thob ste | Ses rab kyi snan baho )| de snan ba7 thob pas dge
ba dan mi dge bahi chos mams rab tu Ses te | de srog gi phyir yah mi dge bahi chos la mi gnas
te | de mi dge bahi chos mams span bahi phyir | ji ltar thos pahi chos mams rtogs pas na | dge
ba thub pa zi ba ies byaho ||
de nas bcom ldan hdas kyis dehi tshe tshigs su bead pa hdi dag gsuns so ||

ji ltar mun pas khyab bsgribs pa81|

khyim du zugs par gyur na ni ||
yod par gyur pahi gzugs9mams kyah ||
mig gis mthon bar mi hgyur ro ||

de biin du ni hdi la yah ||

la10lahi mi dag skyes gyur kyah ||
dge ba dan ni sdig pahi chos ||

1. P yi ge (also in all subsequent occurrences o f the term ‘tshig hbru’).

2. P mthah ma khon du chud par mi nus te.
3. P paho (also in all subsequent ocurrences o f this stock-phrase).
4. D P R om: la.
5. P add: na (also in all subsequent occurrences o f this stock phrase).
6. R gsal.
7. D N add: de.
8. P pahi; N pas.
9. N gzug.
10. D rtal.

423
 Appendix iv

ma thos par ni Ses mi hgyur11|

thos nas chos mams mam par Ses ||

thos nas sdig pa sten2mi byed ||
thos nas gnod pa spon bar (602) byed ||
thos nas my a nan hdas pa hthob ||

thos par hdod pas thos pa hphel ||

thos pas Ses rab hphel bar hgyur ||
Ses rab kyis3ni don mams sbyon ||
don thob nas ni bde hthob hgyur ||4

don thob de ni yid mo5 ste ||

tshe hdi la ni my a nan hdas ||
chos la sbyor £in gtsan la mkhas ||
Sin tu bde ba hthob par hgyur ||

byan chub sems dpahi sde snod ni ||

thos nas chos nid gnas par hgyur61|
hjig rten la7ni snan gyur nas ||
byan chub kyi ni8 spyad pa spyod ||
Sa rihi bu de ltar na byan chub sems dpah Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod do ||

1.2
Sa rihi bu g£an yah byan chub sems dpah Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod pa | byan
chub sems dpahi sde snod9hdzin pahi gan zag la dge bahi bSes gnen du hdu Ses bskyed nas |

1. R nus.
2 N bstan; R bsten.
3. P byan chub Ses rab kyis; N Ses rab kyi.
4. N om: entire last line o f verse.
5. P gzuns.
6. P thos nas chos hid la gnas te.
7. P gyi.
8. P byan chub sems dpahi.
9. P add: kyi mam grans.

424
 Appendix iv

byan chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans hdi nid la Sin tu byan bar byed |
mam par dag par byed do || byan chub sems dpahi sde snod hdihi don gyi phyir hdun pa
skyed | hbad par byed | brtson hgrus rtsom par byed | sems la rab tu hdzin par byed | yah dag
par rab tu hjog par1byed de | de yah dag par spon ba bzi la rab tu zugs pas | chos thams cad
la sgrib pa med pa hthob po ||
de nas dehi tshe bcom ldan hdas kyis tshigs su bead pa hdi dag gsuhs so ||

chos smra ba ni gan yin pa ||2

de la dge bahi (603) bSes su sems ||3
rtag par nan tan gnas gyur nas ||
chos la nan tan by as te nan ||

rtag par hdun pa hbri mi byed ||

rtag par brtson hgrus Sin tu hphags ||
rtag par4 Ses rab mam par sbyon ||
ye Ses la ni rtag tu gnas ||

de ni bdag nid5 chos Ses te ||

dad pahi phyir ni hgro mi byed ||
sans rgyas kyis ni gan bSad pa61|
mi g.yo ba yi chos Ses so ||

mkhas pa de dag tshig mams hbyed la7mkhas ||

bslabs pa don la khon du chud par byed ||
de dag dkar pohi phyogs ni rtag par sbyon ||
nag pohi phyogs ni rtag tu spyon bar byed ||

de yi sems la nams kyah nams pa med ||

1. P smon par, for D N R rab tu hjog par.

2. P gari dag chos ni smra ba la.
3. P dge bahi bSes gflen du hdi sems.
4. N mam rtag.
5. P dan.
6. P pahi.
7. P gi mam pa, for D N R mams hbyed la.

425
 Appendix iv

de ni chos mams gan lahan zum pa med11|

lus yan2de bzin sems dan brtson hgrus dan ||
hdun pa yan bahan3myur du hthob par hgyur ||

chos thos nas ni £es rab hphel bar hgyur |[

ye 6es mam par rtogs nas dran mi nams ||
dran dan ye £es la ni rtag gnas nas ||
dge dan mi dgehi chos ni rab tu 6es ||

bla na med pahi chos mams bslabs nas ni ||

rtogs dan dran pa £es rab stobs mchog thob ||
ji ltar bdag nid4yun rin bslabs pa bzin ||
des ni sems can mams kyi bsam pa 6es ||

chos bslabs nas ni khyad par hthob hgyur te ||

khyad par thob cih ye £es dag gyur nas ||
de ni sems can mams kyi bsam pa £es ||
de phyir bsam pa bzin du chos ston to ||

§a rihi bu de ltar na byan chub (604) sems dpah £es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod do
[[ bam po bcu bdun pa ||5

1.3

1.3.1
£a rihi bu gzan yan byan chub sems dpah Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin la spyod pa de ltar
bio sbyans pa dan | de ltar chos snan bahi sgo £in tu yons su dag pas hdi ltar slob ste |hphags
pahi yan dag par lta ba hbyun ba (de) ni rgyu gnis dan | rkyen gnis te | gnis gan £e na | gzan

1. P mi hgyur.
2. P yan ba; R kyaii.
3. P yod pa, for D N R yah bahan.
4. P gis.
5. D P om: bam po bcu bdun pa.

426
 Appendix iv

gyi sgra dan | bdag nid1tshul bzin yid la byed paho j|

de hdi sfiam du sems te | g£an gyi sgra de gan | bdag nid tshul b£in2 yid la byed pa de gan
ie na | de de ltar tshul biin yid la byed pa na | hdi snam du sems par hgyur te | mal hbyor
spyod pa gah dag byan chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans hdi ma thos |
hphags pahi chos hdul ba ma thos par | tin he hdzin tsam gyis dgah ba med3 nas j ha rgyal
gyi dban gyis che bahi ha rgyal du lhun ba de dag ni skye ba dan | rga ba dan | na ba dan |
hchi ba dan | mya nan dan | smre shags hdon pa dan | sdug bsnal ba dan | yid mi bde ba4 dan
| hkhrug pa las yons su mi thar | sdug bsnal gyi phun po las yons su mi thar te | de dag la de
bzin g§egs pas dgons nas hdi skad gsuns so || pha rol la ijes su hthun pa thos pa ni rga ba dan
hchi ba las mam par grol baho ||
yah bcom ldan hdas kyis gsuns so51|

chos mams thos nas mam par Ses |j

thos nas (605) sdig pa mi byed do ||
thos nas gnod pa spon bar hgyur ||
thos nas mya nan hdas pa hthob ||

thos hdod6thos pa hphel bar hgyur ||

thos pas 6es rab hphel bar hgyur ||
&es rab kyis ni don mams sbyon ||
don med nas ni bde hthob hgyur ||

don rfied de ni yid mo ste ||

tshe hdi la ni mya nan hdas ||
chos gtsan mkhas pa gtsan ba7 dan ||
mchog8tu bde ba hthob par hgyur ||

1. P la (also in the next phrase).

2. N add: du.
3. P tshor.
4. P yi mug pa, for D N R yid mi bde ba.
5. D N PR pa.
6. P pas.
7. D gtsari ma.
8. P Sin.

427
 Appendix iv

1.3.2
6a rihi bu de itar byan chub sems dpah1byan chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam
grans hphags pahi chos hdul ba 6in tu mnan par bya | blah bar bya | gzun bar bya | bklag par
by a | kun chub par bya | g£an la yah rgya cher yah dag par rab tu bstan par byaho ||
6a rihi bu gan byan chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans hdi mi nan pa dah |
tshul biin du sbyor bar mi byed pa de dag ni hphags pahi lam las yons su nams par2hgyur te
| de la dgons nas de bzin g6egs pa hdi skad du | bdag nid tshul bzin yid la byed pa (de) ni rga
ba dan3 hchi ba las grol baho || zes gsun ho ||
de hdi ltar slob ste | byan chub sems dpahi tshul bzin sbyor ba ni gan ji ltar na4byan chub
sems dpah tshul biin sbyor ba yin snam nas | de hdi ltar slob ste | byan chub sems dpah sems
dpah chen po ni chos gan lahan sbyor bar mi byed i rab tu sbyor bar mi byed do || tshul biin
du sbyor ba ies bya ba de ni mi sbyor bahi tshig bla dags so ||
gzan yah byan chub (606) sems dpah tshul bzin du sbyor ba ni sgra hbyin par mi byed | zlos
pa hbyin par mi byed | gan nas sgra hbyun ba de yah mi dmigs | sgra de hid gan nas byun5
gan du hgag ces snon gyi mthah dah phyi mahi mthah la rtog par byed do || gan smras ba dah
| gan smra ba dah | gan smra bar hgyur ba dah | gan gi6 smras ba dah | gan gi smra ba dah |
gan gi smra bar hgyur ba dah | gan7 spon bahi phyir smras ba dah | gan spon bahi phyir smra
ba dah | gan spon bahi phyir smra bar hgyur ba dah | gan khon du chud par bya bahi phyir
smras ba dah | gan khon du chud par bya bahi phyir smra ba dah j gan khon du chud par bya
bahi phyir smra bar hgyur ba de thams cad yohs su btsal na hdas pahi mam pa dah | ma hohs
pahi mam pa dah | da ltar byun bahi mam par mi dmigs pa de ni | dehi tshul bzin du8 sbyor
baho || 2es de de ltar slob bo ||
byan chub sems dpah de ltar tshul bzin du sbyor bas ji ltar na9 tshul bzin du mthon ze na |
de hdi ltar slob ste | gan gi tshe na byan chub sems dpah chos thams cad rah bzin gyis hgags
par mthon ba dehi tshe tshul bzin mthon ho || gan gi tshe chos thams cad rah bzin gyis ne bar

1. D R dpas.
2. P bri bar.
3. D add: na ba dan.
4. N om: na.
5. N hbyun.
6. D N gan gis (also in the following two clauses).
7. P gan gi (also in the following two clauses).
8. N add: du.
9. N om: na.

428
 Appendix iv

ii bar1mthon ba dehi tshe tshul bzin mthon ho || gan gi tshe chos thams cad mam par zi bar
mthon ba dehi tshe tshul bzin mthon ho || gan gi tshe chos thams cad rah bzin gyis snoms par
ma iugs par mthon ba dehi tshe tshul biin mthon ho || (607) gan gi tshe chos thams cad ma
skyes par mthon ba dehi tshe tshul bzin mthon ho || gan gi tshe chos thams cad ma byun bar
mthon ba dehi tshe tshul biin mthon ho j| gan gi tshe chos thams cad 6in tu yah dag par ma
byun bar mthon ba dehi tshe tshul bzin mthon ho || gan gi tshe chos thams cad mya nan las
hdas par mthon ba dehi tshe tshul biin mthon ho || de gan gis mthon ba de la yah rtog ste | ci
nas kyan mi mthon ba dah mi rtog pa de ltar mthon ste | de ltar mthon na tshul bzin mthon ba
ies byaho ||
yah hdi ltar slob ste | byan chub sems dpah tshul biin du sbyor ba ni | chos gan la yah the
tshom dah rmohs pa med do || tshul biin du sbyor ba ni chos gan la yah sgrib pa med do ||
tshul biin du sbyor ba ni chos gan la yan2thar pahi sgor mi hgyur ba med do |j tshul biin du
sbyor ba ni chos gan la3 yah span bar bya bahi phyir hbad ba med do |j tshul biin du sbyor
ba ni chos gan la yah rtogs par bya bahi phyir hbad ba med do || gan chos4 thams cad yah
dag par mthon ba dah | ji lta ba biin du mthon ba de ni yah dag par lta baho ||
chos thams cad ji lta ba biin du mthon ba gan ie na | hdi lta ste | ma mthon baho || ma
mthon ba ies bya ba de ni ma skyes pahi tshig bla dgas so || ma skyes5 pa ies bya ba de ni
yah dag par ma byun bahi tshig bla dgas so || yah dag par ma byun ba ies bya ba gan ie na |
de ni mi snan bahi tshig bla dgas te | (608) de biin g6egs pas de la dgons nas hdu byed thams
cad mi skye bar mthon na yah dag pa nid du nes pa6 la hjug ste | hdi lta ste | yah dag pa nid
du nes pa la hjug pa de ni yah dag par lta baho || ies de skad gsuii ho ||
de hdi snam du sems te i de cihi phyir ze7 na | yah dag pa nid du nes pa la hjug ies bya ies
do81| hdi ltar slob ste | chos thams cad gan dah mnam pa sans rgyas kyi chos de dah mnam
ste | de bas na yah dag pa nid du nes pa la hjug paho91|
de lta bas na yah dag pa nid du nes pa la hjug par hdod pa mams kyis | byan chub sems
dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans hdi nid £in tu mnan par bya | blah bar bya | gzun bar
bya | bklag par bya | kun chub par byaho || byan chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam
1. N om: zi bar; P om: fie bar.
2. D P R add: gan.
3. D R om: la.
4. N chos gan chos.
5. N skyed.
6. P skyon med pa, for D N R Aid du nes pa (also in all subsequent occurrences o f the term ‘Aid du nes pa’).
7. D N om: ie .
8. P add: de ltar rtog pa las; N add: la.
9. N om: de bas na yah dag pa Aid du nes pa la hjug paho.

429
 Appendix iv

grans hdi nid lahan tshul bzin du sbyor bar bya ste | 6a rihi bu de ltar na byan chub sems dpah
6es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod do ||

1.3.3
6a rihi bu gzan yah byan chub sems dpah 6es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod pa1 de
ltar bio 6in tu yons su sbyans pa dah | de ltar chos2 snan bahi sgo Sin tu yons su dag pas tshul
bzin du hjug pa la brtson na | tshul bzin gyi tshig mthon ho |{
de la tshul bzin du hjug pa gah tshul bzin gyi tshig gan ±q na | de ltar byan chub sems dpahi
tshul bzin du hjug pa ni | hdi lta ste | zi gnas kyi gnas3 la hjug pa dah | lhag mthon mam par
rtog pa la hjug pa4 ni (609) tshul bzin du hjug paho || lus dben par hjug pa dah | sems yid du
hoh bar hjug pa dah | chad pa ma yin par hjug pa dah | rtag pa ma yin par hjug pa dah | rgyu
dah rkyen la hjug pa dah | rten cih hbrel par hbyun ba la hjug pa dah | sems can med pa dah |
srog med pa dah j gah zag med pa la hjug pa dah J ma hons ma phyin mi gnas pa la hjug pa
dah | mi hpho ba dah | rgyu dah hbras bu chud mi za ba dah | rgyu ston pa nid du mam par
hbyed pa5 la hjug pa dah | mtshan ma med par hdris par bya ba la hjug pa dah | smon pa med
par rab tu Ses pa la hjug kyan ston pa nid dah | mtshan ma med pa dan6 smon pa med pa len
par hjug pa ma yin pa dah |
tin he hdzin dah snoms par hjug pa7 len pa la hjug kyan | tin he hdzin gyi dban gis skye ba
la mi hjug pa dah | mnon par Ses pahi ye Ses len pa la hjug kyan | zag pa zad pa la mi hjug pa
dah | mi skye bar rtog pa la hjug kyan | nes par gyur bar hgro ba8 la mi hjug pa dah | sems
can thams cad9 bdag med par rtog par hjug kyan | snin ije chen po gton ba la mi hjug pa dah
j skye ba thams cad hjig par mthon ba la hjug kyan101srid pa bsam gyis mi khyab pa len pa
la (mi) hjug pa dah | mya nan hdas bar hdod pa la hjug kyan | chos mnon du bya ba la mi hjug
pa dah | hdod pahi yon tan gyi dgah ba btan snoms pa11 la hjug kyan | chos kyi dgah ba hdor

1. P add: na.
2. N om: chos.
3. P by in gyi rlabs (also in the next occurrence o f the term ‘gnas pa’ (adhisthana)).
4. N om: hjug pa.
5. P rab tu rtogs pa
In P, ‘ rab tu rtogs pa’ regularly substitutes the D N R compound ‘mam par hbyed pa’ (pravicaya).
6. N P R om: mtshan ma med pa dan.
7. P bzag pa; N hjug pa la.
8. P skyon med pa las hdah pa, for D N R nes par gyur bar hgro ba.
9. P add: kyi.
10. N R dan.
11. N dgah bar btan snoms; P dgah bar nes sfioms pa.

430
 Appendix iv

ba la mi hjug pa dah | (610) rtog pa spros pa thams cad gtoh ba la hjug kyan | thabs mkhas pa
gtoh ba la mi hjug pa ste | £a rihi bu de ni tshul biin du hjug pa ies byaho ||
£a rihi bu de la1tshul bzin gyi tshig ces bya ba gah ie na | rigs pahi tshig de ni tshul biin
gyi tshig go j £a rihi bu gian yah tshul biin gyi tshig de ni tshul gyi2 tshig go | de ni sgohi
tshig go | de ni khahi tshig go | de ni rgyuhi tshig go | de ni rab tu mam par hbyed pahi tshig
go j de ni mi hgal bahi tshig go | de ni mi rtsod pahi tshig go | de ni btan snoms kyi tshig go |
j
mi len pahi tshig dah | mi hdor bahi tshig dah mi spros pahi tshig dah | mi bsnan pahi tshig
dah | ma bri bahi tshig dah | mi skye bahi tshig dah | rtsod bahi gzi med pahi tshig3 dah | mi
ldog pahi tshig dah | gnen po med pahi tshig dah |
de kho nahi tshig dah | de biin kho nahi tshig dah | ma log pa de biin nid kyi tshig dah J
gzan ma yin pa de bzin nid kyi tshig dah | de biin nid kyi tshig dah | ji lta ba bzin gyi tshig
dah | dus gsum mnam pahi tshig4 dah | yons su chad pahi tshig dah | gzugs mam par Ses pahi
gnas med pahi tshig dah | tshor ba dah | hdu Ses dah | hdu byed dah | mam par Ses pa gnas
med pahi tshig go |
de ni mig dah | gzugs dah | mig gi mam par Ses pahi khams gnas med pahi tshig go | de ni
ma ba dah | sgra dah | ma bahi mam par £es pahi khams gnas med pahi tshig go | de ni sna
dah | dri dah | snahi mam par Ses pahi khams gnas med palii tshig go | de ni ltse dah | (611) ro
dah | ltsehi mam par 6es pahi khams gnas med pahi tshig go | de ni lus dah | reg dan5 1lus
kyi mam par Ses pahi khams gnas med pahi tshig go | de ni yid dah | chos dah | yid kyi mam
par Ses pahi khams gnas med pahi tshig go | de ni don la rton pahi tshig go | de ni chos la rton
pahi tshig go | de ni ye Ses la rton pahi tshig go | de ni nes pahi don gyi mdo sde la rton pahi
tshig ste j £a rihi bu de ni tshul bzin gyi tshig go j|
de ltar byan chub sems dpah tshul bzin du hjug pa la brtson pa | tshul bzin gyi tshig mthon
ba (de) ni gah gis mthon ba de nid mi mthon ste | ji ltar6mi mthon | mam par mi mthon ba7
de ltar mthon ho || de ltar mthon na tshul biin mthon ba zes byaho ||
£a rihi bu gzan8yah byan chub sems dpah tshul bzin du sbyor ba ni chos gah la yah rmons
par mi hgyur ro j | byan chub sems dpah tshul biin du sbyor ba ni chos gah yan9 thar pahi
1. D P om: de la.
2. P rigs pahi, for D N R tshul gyi.
3. D N R rtsod bahi gzi med pahi tshig; P mi hthab pahi tshig.
4. P R dus gsum mfiam pahi tshig, for D dus gsum mfiam pa fiid kyi tshig.
5. P om: reg dah.
6. P add: mi rtog.
7. P om: mam par mi mthon ba.
8. D N R om: gzan.
9. D P add: gah.

431
 Appendix iv

sgor mi hgyur ba med do || tshul b±in du sbyor ba ni chos gan yan spon bahi phyir hbad pa
med do || tshul bzin du sbyor ba ni chos gah yah rtogs par bya bahi phyir hbad pa med do ||
gah chos thams cad yah dag par1 mthon ba dah | ji lta ba bzin du2 mthon ba de ni yah dag
par lta baho J|
chos thams cad ji lta ba bzin du mthon ba gah ze na | hdi lta ste | mi mthon baho || mi
mthoh ba gah ze na | de ni ma skyes bahi tshig bla dags so || ma skyes pa zes bya ba gah ze na
| de ni (612) mi snan bahi bar gyi tshig bla dags te | rgya cher ji ltar snar bzlas3 pa de ltar de
b£in du bzlas par bya ste | de ltar na byan chub sems dpah 6es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la
spyod do ||

6a rihi bu gzan yah byan chub sems dpah 6es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod pa hdi
ltar slob ste | chos thams cad ni bdag bzin du tshul bzin te4 1| ji ltar bdag la bdag med pa de
bzin du chos thams cad bdag med par mthoh ho || ji ltar sems can bdag med pa5 de bzin du |
chos thams cad bdag med par mthoh ste | de ltar mthoh na tshul bzin du mthoh ho ||
gah tshul b£in hkhor bahi khams mthoh ba [de tshul bzin]61mya nan las hdas pahi khams
dah ldan par mthoh ba ste | de ni tshul bzin du sbyor ba zes byaho || de ni chos thams cad kyi
rah bzin la non mons pahi rah bzin du bye brag med pa dah ldan par mthoh no7 1| mal hbyor
dah mal hbyor ma yin par yan8 mi snems so |j tshul bzin du9 sbyor bas tshul bzin mthoh ste
| tshul bzin gyi sbyor ba ji sned pa sems can gyi gnas thams cad kyan de sned do || sems can
gyi gnas10 kyan mi mthon11 | chos kyi gnas kyan hkhrug par mi byed pa de ni byan chub
sems dpahi tshul bzin sbyor ba ste |
6a rihi bu de ltar na mam pa hdi dah | thos pa hdi dah | tshul bzin du hjug pa hdi dah | tshul
bzin mthoh ba hdi dah | ji lta ba bzin du mthoh bahi rgyu hthun pa hdi dah hdi dag ni 6es rab
ces bya byaho1216a rihi bu de ltar na byan (613) chub sems dpah 6es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin
pa la spyod do ||

I. Ppahi.
2 D N R o m : du.
3. R hdas.
4. P bdag tshul bzin du byed paho
5. N P add: de.
6. P gah tshul bzin byed pa las hkhor bahi khams mthoh ba de tshul bzin byed pa ni.
7. P dah ldan par khyad par med par mthon ho, for D N R du bye brag med pa dah ldan pa(r) mthoh ho.
8. N om: yah.
9. N P R om: du.
10. P byin gi rlabs (also in the next phrase).
II. P gtoh.
12 D N R ste.

432
 Appendix iv

1.4
£a rihi bu gzan yan byan chub sems dpah £es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod pa | hdus
byas la spyod pahi chos thams cad la 6es rab kyis mi gnas pa yin te1 | hdi lta ste | ma rig pa
dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | hdu byed mams dah lhan cig tu mi gnas pa nas rgyas par byas te21
rga £ihi bar dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | bdag tu lta ba dah lhan cig tu mi gnas pa nas3 1bdag tu
lta bahi rtsa ba las byun bahi lta ba mam pa4 drug bcu rtsa gnis dah lhan cig tu mi gnas |
mtho bar sems pa dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | dmah bar sems pa dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | hjig
rten gyi chos brgyad mams dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | ha rgyal5 dah | che bahi ha rgyal dah |
log pahi ha rgyal nas | ne bahi non mons pa ni £uhi bar dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | chen po dah |
hbrin po dah | phra mo nas | non mons pa thams cad kyi bar dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | gti mug
gi mun pa rab rib kyi lin thog sgrib pa dah chod par byed pa kun tu dkris te hdug pa nas6 1
dmah bahi chos thams cad kyi bar dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | rtsod pahi rnog pa7 dah | non
mons pa dah | phun po dah j lhahi bu dah | hchi bdag gi bdud nas | bdud thams cad kyi las kyi
bar dah lhan cig tu mi gnas |
bdag dah | sems can dah | srog dah | gso dah | gah zag dah | £ed bu dah | Sed las skyes pa
(614) nas | bdag du lha ba thams cad kyi bar dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | las kyi sgrib pa dah |
non mons pahi sgrib pa dah | chos kyi sgrib pa dan8 1lta bahi sgrib pa dah | mam par smin
pahi sgrib pa dah | mi Ses pahi sgrib pa nas | bag chags kyi mtshams sbyor ba thams cad kyi
bar dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | kun tu rtog pa dah | mam par rtog pa dah | mtshan ma dah |
dmigs pa dah | mthoh ba dah | thos pa dah | dran pa dah | mam par rig pa9 dah j mdud pahi
sgro hdogs pa thams cad dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | ser sna dah j gtoh ba dah | tshul khrims dah
| hchal pahi tshul khrims10dah | bzod pa dah | gnod sems dah | brtson hgrus dah | le lo dah j
bsam gtan dah | g.yen ba dah | £es rab dah | hchal pahi 6es rab nas | pha rol tu phyin pahi

1. P hdus byas kyi spyod pa thams cad la £es rab dah gnas pa yin te, for D N R hdus byas la spyod pahi chos
thams cad la Ses rab kyis mi gnas pa yin te.
2. P rgya cher, for D N R rgyas par byas te.
3. P om: nas.
4. D N R lta bar gyur pa.
5. D N R ha rgyal; P ha (also in all subsequent occurrences o f the temi ‘ha rgyal’).
6. N tog gis bsgrib pa; P gti mug gi mun pa rab rib stug po sgrib pasgrib par byed pa, for D R gti mug gi
mun pa rab rib kyi lin t(h)og (b)sgrib pa dah chod par byed pa kun tu dkris te hdug pa nas.
7. P nus nan pahi rfiog pa; R rtson pahi rflog pa.
8. P om: chos kyi sgrib pa dah.
9. P mam par 6es pa.
10. P tshul khrims nan pa, for D N R hchal pahi tshul khrims.

433
 Appendix iv

phyogs1dan ) mi hthun pahi phyogs dan j Ses pa dah | mi £es pahi bar thams cad dah lhan cig
tu mi gnas |
hes pa dah | ma nes pa dah | log par nes pa dah | dge ba dah j mi dge ba dah | kha na ma tho
ba dah | kha na ma tho ba med pa dah | hkhor ba dah mya nan las hdas pa nas | chos thams
cad kyi gnen pohi bar dah lhan cig tu mi gnas | zin sna tshogs dah | sans rgyas sna tshogs dah
I sems can sna tshogs dah | chos sna tshogs nas | sna tshogs thams cad2 kyi bar dah lhan cig
tu mi gnas | mi §es pa dah | Ses pa dah | mam par £es pa dah | kun rdzob dah | (615) don dam
pa nas ( sems can thams cad kyi mtshan ma yid la byed dag dah lhan cig tu mi gnas j £es rab
mi rgyu ba dah | lus med pa dah | mtshan nid med pa dah | mtshan ma med pa dah | hdus ma
byas pa3 nas | yid la byed pa thams cad dah | sems dah mam par Ses pahi gnas dag gi bar4
dah lhan cig tu mi gnas te | de dag dah gzan yah hdus byas la spyod pahi chos dpag du med
pa dag dah lhan cig tu mi gnas so ||
de ltar na byan chub sems dpah £es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod pahi5 £es rab de ni
hdus byas kyi spyod pa thams cad dah lhan cig tu mi gnas te | £a rihi bu de ltar na byan chub
sems dpah Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod do ||

S e c t i o n ii

2.
£a rihi bu gzan yah byan chub sems dpah byan chub sems dpahi sde snod la gnas pa | Ses
rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod pa na61Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa mam par hbyed
mkhas pa yin te | chos thams cad la mkhas pa ijes su hthob po ||
de la Ses rab mam par hbyed pa gah ze na | hdi lta ste | phun po la mkhas pa dah | khams la
mkhas pa dah | skye mched la mkhas pa dah | bden pa la mkhas pa dah | so so yah dag par rig
pa la mkhas pa dah | rton pa7 la mkhas pa dah j mam par £es pa dah ye £es la mkhas pa dah |
byah chub kyi yan lag la mkhas pa dah | lam la mkhas pa dah | rten cih hbrel par (616) hbyun
ba la mkhas pa dah bcu ste | mkhas pa mam pa bcu po hdi dag gi8 mam par hbyed pa gah
1. P gnen po.
2. P om: thams cad.
3. N om: pa.
4. P om: gi bar.
5. D P R add: gah.
6. D N R om: na.
7. P rten pa (in P, ‘rton pa’ is frequently substituted by ‘rten pa’).
8. D R gyi; P gah.

434
 Appendix iv

yin pa de ni 6es rab mam par hbyed pa ies byaho jj

2.1

de la phun po la mkhas pa gan ze na ) gan hdi phuri po mams kyi dper bya ba bstan pa1
hdi lta ste | dbu2 ba rdos ba lta bur bstan pa dah | smig rgyu lta bur bstan pa dah | chu bur lta
bur bstan pa dah | chu Sin3 lta bur bstan pa dah | sgyu ma lta bur bstan pa dah | rmi lam lta
bur bstan pa dah | brag cha lta bur bstan pa dah | mig yor lta bur bstan pa dah | gzugs brnan
lta bur bstan paho ||
gzugs ni chuhi dbu ba lta bu ste | dbu ba la yah bdag med | sems can med | srog med | gah
zag med | skyes bu med | 6ed bu4 med | 6ed las skyes5 med do || dbu bahi rah bzin gah yin
pa gzugs kyan dehi rah bzin6te | gah de la mkhas pa de ni phun po la mkhas pa zes byaho ||
tshor ba ni chuhi chu bur lta bu ste | chu bur la yah bdag med | sems can med | srog med |
gah zag med | Sed bu med | Sed las skyes med | skye ba po med7 1 skyes bu med de8 || chu
bur gyi rah bzin gah yin pa tshor ba yah dehi rah bzin yin te | gah de la mkhas pa de9 ni
phun po la mkhas pa ies byaho ||
hdu £es ni smig rgyu lta bu ste | smig rgyu la yah bdag med | sems can med pa nas | skyes
buhi bar du med do || smig rgyuhi rah bzin gah yin pa hdu Ses kyan dehi rah bzin yin te | gah
de la mkhas pa de ni (617) phun po la mkhas pa ies byaho ||
hdu byed mams ni chu Sin lta bu ste | chu Sin la yah bdag med | sems can med | srog med
pa nas | skyes buhi bar du med do101| chu Sin gi rah biin gah yin pa hdu byed dag kyan dehi
rah biin yin te | gah de la mkhas pa de ni phun po la mkhas pa ies byaho ||
mam par Ses pa ni sgyu ma lta bu ste | sgyu ma la yah bdag med | sems can med | srog med
| gah zag med | Sed bu med | Sed las skyes med | skyes bu med | byed pa po med | tshor ba po
med do111| sgyu mahi rah biin gah yin pa mam par Ses pahan dehi rah bzin yin te | gah de la
mkhas pa de ni phun po la mkhas pa ies byaho ||

1. P dpe hjog cin hchad pa.

2. N lbu.
3. P add: skyes (also in all further occurrences o f the term ‘chu Sin’).
4. P Sed can (also in all further occurrences o f the term ‘Sed bu’).
5. N skyes pa (also in all subsequent occurrences o f the term ‘ Sed las skyes’)
6. D add: yin.
7. P onv skye ba po med.
8. N om: skyes bu med de.
9. N hdi.
10. D N P R med pa ste.
11. D N P R med pa ste.

435
 Appendix iv

gian yah phun po rnams zes1 bya ba (de) ni hjig rten yin te | hjig rten yah hjig pahi
mtshan nid do || hjig rten mams kyi rah bzin gah yin pa phun po mams kyan dehi rah bzin yin
no || yah hjig rten gyi rah bzin gah yin ze na | hdi lta ste | mi rtag pahi rah bzin dah | sdug
bsnal gyi rah biin te | phun pohan dehi rah biin no || gah de la mkhas pa de ni phun po la
mkhas pa ies byaho j|
de ltar na byan chub sems dpah phun po la mkhas pa Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la
spyod do ||

2.2
de la khams la mkhas pa gah ie na j hdi lta ste | chos kyi khams de2 ni sahi khams mod
kyi | chos kyi khams sra bahi mtshan nid ma yin no || chos kyi khams (618) (de) ni chuhi
khams mod kyi | chos kyi khams rlan pahi mtshan nid ma yin no || chos kyi khams (de) ni
mehi khams mod kyi | chos kyi khams tsha bahi mtshan nid ma yin no || chos kyi khams (de)
ni rlun gi khams mod kyi | chos kyi khams g.yo bahi mtshan nid ma yin no ||
chos kyi khams (de) ni mig gi mam par Ses pahi khams mod kyi | chos kyi khams mthoh
bahi mtshan nid ma yin no || chos kyi khams (de) ni ma bahi mam par Ses pahi khams mod
kyi | chos kyi khams sgra rtogs pahi mtshan nid ma yin no || chos kyi khams (de) ni snahi
mam par Ses pahi khams mod kyi | chos kyi khams dri snom pahi mtshan nid ma yin no ||
chos kyi khams (de) ni ltsehi mam par Ses pahi khams mod kyi | chos kyi khams ro myon
bahi mtshan nid ma yin no || chos kyi khams (de) ni lus kyi mam par Ses pahi khams mod kyi
| chos kyi khams reg pahi mtshan nid ma yin no || chos kyi khams (de) ni yid kyi mam par Ses
pahi khams mod kyi | chos kyi khams mam par sgom pahi mtshan nid ma yin no ||
chos kyi khams dah bdag gi khams de ni mtshuns so || hdod pahi khams dah | gzugs kyi
khams dah | gzugs med pahi khams de (ni) mtshuns so || hkhor bahi khams dah mya nan las
hdas pahi khams de (ni) mtshuns so || de ltar chos thams cad kyi khams dah nam mkhahi
khams de (ni) mtshuns te | ston pa nid dah mtshuns pas mthuns3 1mi hgyur ba dah mtshuns
pas mtshuns te | hdus byas kyi khams su hjug pa dah | hdus ma byas kyi khams su hjug pahi
(619) phyir | de la b£ad pa dpag du med do || gah khams la hjug pa des rab tu mam par hbyed
pa4 de ni mkhas pa zes byaho ||
de lta na khams la mkhas pahi byan chub sems dpah sems dpah chen po §es rab kyi pha rol
1. N Ses (in N, all initial ‘z ’ turn into ‘S’ when preceded by a final ‘s ’).
2. D P R om: de.
3. D P R mthuns par.
4. P stsogs par byed pa; R rab tu hbyed pa.

436
 Appendix iv

tu phyin pa la spyod do ||

2.3
de la byan chub sems dpahi skye mched la mkhas pa gah ie na j hdi la mig bdag dah bdag
gis ston pa te | byan chub sems dpah mig gi rah biin ni1hdi lta buho || ies yah dag pa ji lta
ba biin du rab tu Ses te | de ni byan chub sems dpahi skye mched la mkhas paho ||
gon ma biin du sbyar te | de biin du ma ba dah | sna dah | Use dah | lus dah j yid bdag dah
bdag gis ston pa de | byan chub sems dpah yid kyi rah biin ni hdi lta buho || ies yah dag pa ji
lta ba biin du rab tu £es te | dge ba2 sogs pahi phyir gah skyed mched la kun sogs pa dah |
sna tshogs sogs pa de dag sogs par mi byed cih | dge ba dah mi dge bahi chos mams la hdu
£es gnis su mi hjug ste31de ni byan chub sems dpahi skye mched la mkhas paho ||
hdi ni mig gi skye mched do || hdi ni gzugs kyi skye. mched do || ie s4 de ltar mig dah
gzugs mams la hdod chags med par mthoh yah | hdod chags med pa mnon du mi byed pa de
ni byan chub sems dpahi skye mched la mkhas paho j| ma ba dah sgra | sna dah dri | ltse dah
ro | lus dah reg | yid dah chos | gon ma biin du sbyar te | de ltar byan chub sems dpah yid dah
chos (620) kyi bar du hdod chags med par mthoh mod kyi | hdod chags med pa mnon du mi
byed pa | de ni byan chub sems dpahi5skye mched la mkhas paho ||
skye mched ces bya ba de (ni) yah hphags pahi skye mched dah | hphags pa ma yin pahi
skye mched do || de la hphags pahi skye mched ni gah lam sdud par byed paho || hphags pa
ma yin pahi skye mched ni gah lam gtoh bar byed pa6 1hdi lta ste | byan chub sems dpah
lam la gnas pa ni sems can lam la brtson pa bor iin gnas pa7 la snin rje chen po hthob cih |
lam gyi8 skye mched kyan mi gtoh ba ste | de ni byan chub sems dpahi skye mched la
mkhas paho ||9
de ltar na byan chub sems dpahi10skye mched la mkhas pa £es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa
la spyod do |[

1. D P R om: ni.
2 P add: las.
3. P om: hdu Ses gftis su mi hjug ste.
4. P add: hdu £es gftis su mi hjug ste.
5. P dpah.
6. P add: ste.
7. P om: la brtson pa bor ^in gnas pa.
8. R mi.
9. D add: de ltar na byan chub sems dpahi skye mched kyan mi gton ba ste | de ni byan chub sems dpahi skye
mched la mkhas paho.
10. P R dpah.

437
 Appendix iv

2.4

j
de la byan chub sems dpahi bden pa la mkhas pa gah ze na byan chub sems dpahi bden pa
la hjug pa mkhas pa ni mam par b±i ste | hdi lta ste | sdug bsnal £es pa dah | kun hbyun ba £es
pa dah | hgog pa £es pa dah | lam £es paho ||
de la sdug bsnal 6es pa gah £e na | gan1phun po mams la mi skye bar £es pa de ni sdug
bsnal Ses pa ±es byaho || de la kun hbyun ba Ses pa gah ze na | gah sred pa hjoms pa2 (£es
pa) de ni kun hbyun ba £es pa zes byaho ]| de la hgog pa 6es pa gah ze na | gah mi hbyun (ba)
mi hjig par Ses pa de ni hgog pa Ses pa zes byaho || de la lam £es pa gah ze na | (621) gah
mnam pa nid3thob pahi chos mams la sgro mi hdogs pa de ni lam §es pa zes byaho || gah gi
tshe byan chub sems dpas bden pa hdi b±\ de ltar Ses rab kyis 6es kyan sems can yons su smin
par bya bahi phyir mnon du mi byed pa de ni bden pa la mkhas pa zes byaho ||
gzan yah bden pa la mkhas pa (ni) mam pa gsum ste | hdi lta ste | kun rdzob kyi bden pa
dah | don dam pahi bden pa dah | mtshan nid kyi bden paho ||
de la kun rdzob kyi bden pa (gah ±e na)41hjig rten gyi tha snad ji sned pa dah | yi ge dah |
sgra dah | brdar bstan pa5 ste | de ni kun rdzob kyi bden pa zes byaho || de la don dam pahi
bden pa gah ze na | gah la sems kyi rgyu ba yah med na6 yi ge7 lta ci smos te | de ni don
dam pahi bden pa zes byaho j| de la mtshan nid kyi bden pa gah ze na | hdi lta ste | mtshan nid
thams cad mtshan nid gcig la | mtshan nid gcig pa ni8 mtshan nid med paho || de la byan
chub sems dpah kun rdzob kyi bden pa hchad pas mi skyo || don dam pahi bden pa mnon du
byed par mi lturi | mtshan nid kyi bden pa mtshan nid med pas rtogs par byed pa9 de ni byan
chub sems dpahi bden pa la mkhas pa £es byaho ||
gzan yah bden pa ni gcig bu | gnis ma yin pa10ste | hdi lta ste | hgog pahi dben paho || de la
dben pa gcig bu la gah sgro mi hdogs pa dah | sems can sgro hdogs par lhun ba mams la bden
pa sbyor bar byed pa de ni byan chub sems dpahi bden pa la mkhas pa 2es byaho [|
gzan yah phun po lna (622) mams ni sdug bsnal ba ste | gah phun po lna mams kyi sdug
bsnal gyi mtshan nid de ni sdug bsnal (gyi hphags pahi bden pa) zes byaho || gah sdug bshal

1. N om: gan.
2. R add: zes bya ba.
3. P gflis.
4. D N P R n i.
5. P kun rtog pa hchad pa, for D N R brdar bstan pa.
6. P gan sems de hid kyan rab tu mi rgyun, for D N R gah la sems kyi rgyu ba yah med na.
7. P add: dag.
8. P hail.
9. P rtog pa, for D N R rtogs par byed pa.
10. P ghis po med pa, for D N R gnis ma yin pa.

438
 Appendix iv

gyi mtshan nid kyi ston pa nid kyi mtshan nid rtogs pa de ni sdug bsnal hphags pahi bden pa
ies byaho || gah phun po lna mams kyi bag la iial rgyu sred pa las byun bahi lta ba de ni kun
hbyun bahi bden pa ies byaho1 || gah sred pahi rgyu lta ba de la yah sgro mi hdogs (pa) mi
len (pa) mi snems pa de ni kun hbyun ba hphags pahi bden pa zes byaho || gah phun po lna2
mams Sin tu zad pahi phyir hgog pa snon gyi mthar ma byun ba | phyi mahi mthar mi hpho
ba | da lta byun bar mi gnas pa de ni hgog pa hphags pahi bden pa ies byaho || gah lam la
brten nas3 sdug bsnal Ses pa dah | kun hbyun ba Ses pa dah | hgog pa Ses pa la yah reg par
byed la | ijes las rtogs pahi Ses pa yah thob par byed pa de ni sdug bsnal hgog par hgyur bahi
lam hphags pahi bden pa ies byaho || gah bden pa Ses pa de la mam par rtog pa dah | sems
can yons su brtag pa la rtog par byed pa de ni byah chub sems dpahi bden pa la mkhas pa ies
byaho ||
gian yah tshor ba thams cad (ni) sdug bsnal ba ste | de la tshor bar4 mam par hbyed5 pa
dah | bios rig pa nid de ni | sdug bsnal hphags pahi bden pa ies byaho | j rgyu gah gis kun
hbyun bar 6es pahi rgyu de ji lta ba yah dag par rab tu Ses pa de ni kun hbyun ba hphags pahi
bden pa ies byaho || gah tshor ba gtoh iin ma tshor ba tshor bar byed pa dah | hgog pa la yah
so sor rtog (623) la | tshor ba hgog pa yah mnon du mi byed pa de ni byah chub sems dpahi
sdug bsnal hgog pa hphags pahi bden pa ies byaho || tshor ba gah gis gzins dah hdra bahi lam
de sdud par byed la | tshor bar dgos pa yah ma yin | lam gyi dgos pa yah ma yin pa de ni byah
chub sems dpahi sdug bsnal hgog par hgro bahi lam hphags pahi bden pa ies byaho || de ltar
rtogs nas bden pa de6 bii la mnam par mthoh iin | mthoh ba 6in tu dag pa yah ma yin pa de
ni byah chub sems dpahi bden pa la mkhas pa ies byaho ||
gian yah skye ba (ni) sdug bsnal ba ste | gah mi skye ba la so sor rtog pa 6es pa de ni sdug
bsnal §es pa ies byaho |[ srid pahi rkyen gyis skye ba ste | gah srid pa hjig par Ses pa de ni
kun hbyun ba £es pa ies byaho || skye ba thams cad gah gis mi skye bar Ses la7 1de la hgog
pa gah yah med cih | gah mi hgog par §es pa de ni zad pa hgog pahi8 Ses pa ies byaho || gah
de ltar tshor ba9 dah | hjal ba dah | yons su tshol ba dah | mam par rtog pa dah | hjug pahi £es
pa de ni lam £es pa ies bya ste | gah bden pahi £es pa de la.giog par byed kyan | bden pahi £es
1. P R bden paho.
2. D P R om: lna.
3. P gan lam rtogs nas.
4. D N R add: bya ba; Akn (p. 54.1.8) om: bya ba,
5. P rdzogs.
6. P add: dag.
7. N pa.
8. P par.
9. D R bar.

439
 Appendix iv

pa de la mi gnas pa1de ni byan chub sems dpahi bden pa la mkhas pa ste j

de ltar na byah chub sems dpah bden pa la mkhas pa Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la
spyod do ||

de la byah chub sems dpahi2 so so yah dag par rig pa la mkhas pa gah ze na | (624) byah
chub sems dpahi so so yah dag par rig pa ni bzi po hdi dag (yin te) | bzi gah ze na | hdi lta ste
| don so so yah dag par rig pa dah | chos so so yah dag par rig pa dah | nes pahi tshig so so
yah dag par rig pa dah | spobs pa so so yah dag par rig paho |[

2.5.1
de la don so so yah dag par rig pa gah ze na | gah chos mams la don dam pahi tshig tu £es
pa dah | gnis su med pahi rgyu £es pa dah | rkyen Ses pa dah | hdus pa Ses pa dah | mthah3
med pahi ijes su hgro ba 6es pa dah | rten pa4 la hjug pa §es pa dah | chos kyi dbyins dbyer
med pa Ses pa dah | de bzin hid kyi5ijes su hjug pa 6es pa dah j yah dag pahi mthah mi gnas
pa §es pa dah | ston pa hid rjes su rtogs pa 6es pa dah | mtshan ma med pa rtogs pa §es pa dah
| smon pa med pa la smon pa med par 6es pa dah | mnon par hdu mi byed pa la mnon par hdu
mi byed par 6es pa dah | tshul gcig tu hjug pa §es pa dah | sems can med pa hjug pa 6es pa dah
| bdag med par hjug pa £es pa dah | srog med par byed pa gcig pa6 Ses pa dah | gah zag med
par7 don dam par £es pa dah | hdas pahi dus la ma chags par £es pa dah | ma hons bahi dus la
mthah med par £es pa dah | da ltar byun bahi dus la thams cad du 6es pa dah | phun po mams
la sgyu mar 6es pa dah | khams mams la sbrul gdug pa lta bur8 Ses pa dah | skye mched
mams la ston pa nid du (625) nes par rtog par £es pa dah | nan (du) zi bar9 Ses pa dah | phyi
rol tu mi rgyu bar10 6es pa dah | yul la yul med par §es pa dah | dran pa la gnas su £es pa dah|
rtogs pa la khon du chud par £es pa dah | bio gros la11mnon sum du £es pa dah | bden pa la
rab tu rtogs par Ses pa dah | sdug bsnal la mi hbyun bar §es pa dah | kun hbyun ba la mnon par

1. P gnas par byed pa, for D N R gnas pa.

2. N dpah.
3. P hgog pa.
4. P rten cih hbrel pa; N brten (also in the next occurence o f the term ‘rten pa’).
5. D kyis.
6. Rom: gcig pa.
7. N P pa.
8. D N dah mtshuns par.
9. D N PR ba.
10. D N PR ba.
11. P om: la.

440
 Appendix iv

hdu mi byed par Ses pa dan | hgog pa la mtshan nid med par £es pa dah | lam la sgrol bar Ses
pa dah |
chos la tshig rab tu tha dad par Ses pa dah | dban po mams la hjug par 6es pa dah | stobs
mams la mi rdzi1bar Ses pa dah | zi gnas la gnas su 6es pa dah | lhag mthoh la snan bar 6es
pa dah | sgyu ma la bsgrub par Ses pa dah | smig rgyu la hkhrul2 bar 6es pa dah | rmi lam la
mi bden pa mthoh bar 6es pa dah | brag cha la rkyen la hjug par §es pa3 dah | mig yor la
hpho bar 6es pa dah | mtshan nid sna tshogs la mtshan nid gcig tu Ses pa dah | hdu ba la hbral
bar 6es pa dah | rab tu sbyans pa la phyir4 mtshams sbyor ba med par Ses pa dah | nan thos
kyi theg pa la sgrahi ijes su hgro bar hjug par5£es pa dah | rah sans rgyas kyi theg pa la rten
pa la hjug pa Ses Sin dben pa la6mchog tu £es pa dah | theg pa chen po la dge bahi rtsa bahi
tshogs bsags pa thams cad &es pa ste | de ni byah chub sems dpahi don so so (626) yah dag par
rig pa ± q s byaho ||
gzan yah don7 so so yah dag par rig pa ni gah don la rton pa ste | chos thams cad kyi chos
nid kun gyi don la rton pa nid kyi rjes su hbran baho8 j| de cihi phyir £e na | chos thams cad
ma lus par9 ston pa ste | ston pahi don gah yin pa de ni don no || chos thams cad ma lus par
mtshan ma med pa ste | mtshan ma med pahi don gah yin pa de ni don no || chos thams cad
ma lus par smon pa med pa ste | smon pa med pahi don gah yin pa de ni don no || chos thams
cad ma lus par mam par phye ba ste | mam par phye bahi don gah yin pa de ni don no || chos
thams cad ma lus par sems can med | srog med | gah zag med pa ste j gah zag med pahi don
gah yin pa de ni don no || gah de lta buhi chos mams rtogs pa de ni don10 so so yah dag par
rig pa zes bya ste | gah don ston pa de ni gnas med pa ston paho || de ni mi11zad pa ston paho
|| so so yah dag par rig pa ni rtogs pahi don ston pa yin te | sans rgyas bcom ldan hdas mams
kyis gnan ba | ijes su yi12rah ba | yah dag pa j de kho na | gzan ma yin pa | Ses rab kyis Sin tu
rtogs pa | thams cad tu kha na ma tho ba med pa de ni byah chub sems dpahi don so so yah
dag par rig pa zes byaho ||

1. P mi thorns pa; R mi brdzi pa.

2. D hkhrug.
3. P rten cin hbrel pa Ses pa, for D N R rkyen la hjug par Ses pa.
4. P sbyans pa la slar, for D N R rab tu sbyans pa la phyir.
5. P ijes us rtogs pa hjug pa, for D N R ijes su hgro bar hjug pa(r).
6. D P om: la.
7. D P R om: don.
8. N hbran ho; P chos thams cad kyi chos so | chog gi don la rten pa hid la rten paho.
9. P kun (also in the following five instances o f the phrase ‘ma lus par’).
10. P R om: don.
11. P om: mi.
12. N yid.

441
 Appendix iv

2.5.2
de la chos so so yan dag par rig pa gah ze na | gah dge ba dah | mi dge ba dah | kha na ma
tho ba dah bcas pa dah | kha na ma tho ba med pa dah | zag pa dah bcas pa dah | (627) zag pa
med pa dah | hjig rten pa dah | hjig rten las hdas pa dah | hdus byas dah | hdus ma byas dah |
kun nas1 non mons pa dah | mam par byah bahi cha dah hthun pa dah | hkhor ba dah mya
nan las hdas par ne bar hgro bahi chos mams la hjug pa &es pa dah | chos kyi dbyins mnam pa
nid Ses pa dah | byah chub2 mnam pa nid £es pa dah | khams mnam pa nid 6es pa ste | de ni
chos so so yah dag par rig pa £es byaho j|
g£an yah chos so so yah dag par rig pa ni | gah hdod chags spyod pa mams la sems3 hjug
pa4 dah | bcos pahi5 hdod chags spyod pa mams dah | hdod chags brtan par spyod pa mams
dah | hdod chags chuii du spyod pa mams dah | mam par mi ldah bahi hdod chags spyod pa
mams dah | mthah mar6 rtag tu med pahi hdod chags spyod pa mams dah | da ltar byun ba la
rkyen gyis hdod chags spyod pa mams la hjug pa ste |
sems can gah dag nan du hdod chags la7 1phyi rol tu hdod chags med pa dah | phyi rol tu
hdod chags la | nan du hdod chags med pa dah | nan duhan hdod chags med | phyi rol tuhan
hdod chags med pa dah | nan dah phyi rol tu8hdod chags pa dan9 1gzugs la hdod chags la |
sgra la hdod chags med pa dah | sgra la hdod chags la | gzugs la hdod chags med pa dah |
gzugs dah sgra la hdod chags pa dah | (628) gzugs dah sgra la hdod chags med pa dan10 |
gzugs la hdod chags la111dri la hdod chags med pa dah | dri la hdod chags la | reg la hdod
chags med pa dah | reg la hdod chags la | ro la hdod chags med pa dah | ro la hdod chags la |
gzugs la hdod chags med pa dah | dri la hdod chags med pa de ni hdod chags spyod pa mams
kyi hjug pa ste |
hjug pa dehi sgos hdod chags spyod pa mams la ni khri chig ston | ze sdan spyod pa mams
la ni khri chig ston | gti mug spyod pa mams la ni khri chig ston | cha mnam par spyod pa
mams la ni khri chig ston ste | gah de dag gi spyod pa brgyad khri bzi ston gi sems hjug pa

1. P om: kun nas.

2. N add: kyi.
3. P spyod pahi sems, for D N R spyod pa mams la sems.
4. D P R add: £es pa.
5. P sgyu mahi.
6. D P R ma.
7. P kyi (also in the seven following occurrences o f the term ‘la ’ o f the present context).
8. P add: yan.
9. N om: nan dah phyi rol tu hdod chags pa dah; R add: nan dah phyi rol tu hdod chags med pa dah.
10. R om: gzugs dah sgra la hdod chags med pa dan.
11. D gzugs la hdod chags la; N dah.

442
 Appendix iv

£es pa dan | ji ltar rigs par bstan1 pa Ses pa dan | mi man mi nun bar bstan pa 6es pa dan |
hdod pa. las yan dag par hdah bar 6es pa dan | snod kyi khyad par 6es pa dah | hbras bu yod
par bstan pa £es pa | de ni chos so so yah dag par rig pa zes byaho ||

2.5.3
de la nes pahi tshig so so yah dag par rig pa gah ±q na | gah skad thams cad la skad med par
hjug pa 6es pa dah | lhahi skad dah | kluhi skad dah | gnod sbyin gyi skad dah | dri zahi skad
dah | mi ham cihi skad dah | lto hphye chen pohi skad dah | mi dah mi ma yin pahi skad dah |
hgro ba snar skyes pahi sems can mams kyi skad dah | sgra dah dbyans2 mams las skad des
de dag la chos hchad pa ste | de ni nes pahi tshig so so yah dag par rig pa zes byaho || (629)
de ltar chos de dag brtag par byaho || de ltar chos de dag bsdu bar byaho || de ltar chos de
dag ijes su rgyun chags par byaho || de ltar chos de dag yi ge mams kyis sbrel bar byaho [| de
tshig gcig gi bla dags £es | tshig gnis pahi bla dags Ses | tshig man pohi bla dags Ses | bud med
kyi tshig Ses | skyes pahi tshig £es | ma nin gi tshig Ses | bsdus bahi tshig £es | rgyas pahi tshig
Ses | smad pahi tshig Ses {stod pahi tshig Ses3 1hdas pahi tshig £es | ma hons bahi tshig £es |
da ltar byun bahi tshig Ses | yi ge gcig gis sgro btags pa Ses | yi ge man pos sgro btags pa $es |
de ni hes pahi tshig so so yah dag par rig pa zes byaho ||
yah dehi hes pahi tshig so so yah dag par rig pa ni hkhrul ba ma yin | zlos pa ma yin |
brtags pa ma yin | don gsal bahi yi ge4 yons su byah ba ste | ci nas kyan hkhor yah dag par
dgah ba sna tshogs pa zab pa | zab par snan ba | kun rdzob dah don dam pas brgyan pa5 |
bdag gis6 sems mthoh bahi £es pa la rag lus pa | sans rgyas kyis gnan ba | sems can thams
cad dgah bar byed pa ste | de ni byah chub sems dpahi hes pahi tshig so so yah dag par rig pa
zes byaho ||

2.5.4
de la byah chub sems dpahi spobs pa so so yah dag par rig pa gah ze na | gah tshig bzan
ba7 1mi gnas par lun bstan pa ston (630) pa | rgyun mi hchad pa | spobs pa myur ba | spobs
pa mgyogs Sin myur ba | spobs pa ma8 rmons pa i spobs pa ji ltar dris pa bzin pa | spobs pa
1. P hchad (also in the next two occurrences o f the term ‘bstan’).
2. N dbyihs.
3. D Rbstod pahi tshig Ses; P om: bstod pahi tshig £es.
4. N R y e Ses.
5. P dam pahi rgyan.
6. N P R gi.
7. P gah mdzes pahi tshig.
8. N om: ma.

443
 Appendix iv

yons su ma nams pa | spobs pa mi hgal ba | spobs pa rtsod pa med pa | spobs pa chos la rab tu
dgah ba1 | spobs pa bzod pa la gnas pa j spobs pa zab pa | spobs pa sna tshogs | kun rdzob
dah don dam pa la spobs pa j sbyin pa dah | tshul khrims dah | bzod pa dah | brtson hgrus dah
| bsam gtan dah | 6es rab thams cad la gnas pahi spobs pa | dran pa ne bar bzag pa dah | yah
dag par spon ba dah | rdzu hphrul gyi rkan pa dah | dban po dah | stobs dah | byah chub kyi
yan lag dah | lam dah | ±i gnas dah | lhag mthoh la spobs pa j bsam gtan dah | mam par thar pa
dah | tin he hdzin dah | snoms par hjug pa dah j bden pa la hjug pa thams cad Ses pahi spobs
pa | theg pa thams cad la spobs pa | sems can thams cad kyi sems kyi2 spyod pa la spobs pa |
tshig mi lkug pahi spobs pa3 1tshig mi rtsub pahi spobs pa | tshig mi hchal bahi spobs pa |
tshig rtsub mo ma yin pahi spobs pa | tshig mnen4pahi spobs pa | tshig dag pa | tshig grol ba
| tshig ma chags pa j tshig btsun pa j tshig hbrel ba | tshig ldan pa | tshig ma nams pa | tshig
snan ba j tshig hjam pa | tshig ma smad pa | tshig hphags pa thams cad kyis bstod pa ste | zin
mthah yas pahi rnam par Ses pahi rjes su (631) son bahi sgra | tshans pahi sgra skad kyi
dbyans dah hdra ba j rtogs par byed pahi sgra gcig pa | sans rgyas kyis gnah bahi spobs pas
sems can g£an dah gah zag g£an dag la chos ston5 to || dehi chos bstan pa de yah hbyun bar
byed pa | de byed pahi sdug bsnal yah dag par zad par6 hgyur ba ste | de ni byah chub sems
dpahi spobs pa so so yah dag par rig pa ies byaho || de ni byah chub sems dpahi spobs pa la
mkhas pa ste |
de ltar na byah chub sems dpah7 spobs pa la mkhas pa £es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la
spyod do |f

2. <5
de la byah chub sems dpahi rton pa la mkhas pa gan9 ze na | byah chub sems dpah mams
kyi rton pa hdi bzi dag10 ste j bzi gah ze na | hdi lta ste | don la rton11 gyi | tshig hbru la ma
yin pa dah | ye 6es la rton gyi j mam par Ses pa la ma yin pa dah | hes pahi don gyi12mdo sde

1, P spobs pa chos dah hgrogs na bde ba.

2. D N R dan.
3. P tshig lug bzin du mi lkug pahi spobs pa.
4. N gfien.
5. P hchad (also in the next phrase for ‘bstan’).
6. N om: zad par.
7. D N dpahi.
8. D add: bam po bcu brgyad pa; P add: hphags pa byah chub sems dpahi snod sde ces bya ba theg pa chen
pohi bam po bcu brgyad pa.
9. D P R om: gah.
10, D N R om: dag.
11. N ston.
12. N gyis.

444
 Appendix iv

mams la rton gyi | dran bahi don mams la ma yin pa dan | chos nid la rton gyi | gah zag la ma
yin paho |f

2 . 6.1
de la don gah | tshig hbru gah te na | tshig hbru zes bya ba ni gah hjig rten gyi chos kyi bya
ba la hjug paho || don zes bya ba ni gah hjig rten las hdas pahi chos rtogs paho || tshig (632)
hbru zes bya ba ni sbyin pa dah | dul ba dah | sdom pa dah | des pa bstan2paho || don zes bya
ba ni dul ba dah | zi gnas dah | gsar3pa ma yin pa dah | snin ma yin par Ses paho || tshig hbru
tes bya ba ni hkhor ba yons su b£ad pa sgrogs paho4 1| don zes bya ba ni mi dmigs pa la
rton5 paho || tshig hbru tes bya ba ni mya nan las hdas pahi yon tan yons su sgrogs paho ||
don tes bya ba ni chos rah bzin gyis yons su mya nan las hdas pa mams la mam par mi rtog
paho || tshig hbru tes bya ba ni theg pa ji ltar mam par btag6 pa btin du hchad paho || don
tes bya ba ni chos tshul gcig pa rtogs par £es paho |j tshig hbru zes bya ba ni sems can thams
cad mi gtoh bar bstan paho || don zes bya ba ni hkhor gsum yons su dag paho ||7
tshig hbru zes bya ba ni lus dah | hag dah | yid sdom tin bslab pa dah | sbyans bahi yon tan
thams cad yah dag par len par bstan paho || don tes bya ba ni lus dah | hag dah | yid mi dmigs
Sin mnon par hdu mi byed pa yons su dag paho || tshig hbru zes bya ba ni gnod sems kyi8
tha ba dah | khro ba dah | ha rgyal dah | rgyags pa dah | dregs pa hjom tin bzod pa dah des pa
bstan paho || don tes bya ba ni mi skye bahi chos la bzod pa thob paho || tshig hbru zes bya
ba ni dge bahi rtsa ba la brtson hgrus rtsom pa thams cad bstan paho || don tes bya ba ni mi

1. Pelliot, 977, folio la. 1-2

de la byah chub sems dpahi so sor rton pa la mkhas pa gah ze na | de ni mam pa bzi ste | don la rton gyi
tshig hbru la ma yin ba dah | ye §es la rton gyi mam par £es pa la ma yin ba dah | hes pahi don gyi mdo sde
la rton gyi dran bahi don gyi mdo sde la ma yin ba dah | chos la rton gyi gah zag la ma yin ba dah bziho ||.
2. N brtan (also in the next occurence o f the phrase ‘des pa bstan paho’); P hchad (also in the following
thirteen occurrences o f the word ‘bstan pa’).
3. D N sar.
4. P tshig hbru zes bya ba ni hkhor bahi dam hchah ba yons su sgrogs paho, for D N R tshig hbru tes bya ba
ni hkhor ba yons su bSad/bcad pa sgrogs paho.
5. P rtog.
6. D P R gtag.
7. Pelliot, 977, folio la.2-5
de la don ni gah | tshig hbru ni gah ze na | de la don ces bya ba ni hjig rten las hdas pahi don so sor chud
paho || tshig hbru zes bya ba ni gah hjig rten gyi chos gyi bya ba la gtug paho | don ces bya ba ni dul ba
dah zi gnas dah | gsar rflin myed par Ses paho || tshig hbru ies bya ba ni sbyin ba dah dhul ba dah myi gyel
ba dah j Sin tu dgah ba bSad paho [| gtan yah tshig hbru tes bya ba ni hkhor bahi rgyus rab tu bgrags paho |
don ces bya ba ni myi dmyigs pa la ltas paho || tshig hbru tes bya ba ni mya nan las hdas pahi yon tan
bsnags pa yons su bsgrags paho || don ces bya ba ni rah btin gyis mya nan las hdas pahi chos la mams la
rtog pa myed paho || gtan yah tshig hbru tes bya ba ni ci ltar theg pa mam par gtag pa bSad paho || don ces
bya ba ni tshul gcig gyi chos so sor chud bar Ses paho || gtan yah tshig hbru tes bya ba ni sems can thams
cad yons su myi gtan bar b£ad paho | don ces bya ba ni khor sum yons su dag paho ||.
8. P dah.

445
 Appendix iv

len (pa) mi gtoh ba la! gnas pahi brtson hgrus so jj tshig hbru zes bya ba ni bsam gtan dah |
mam par thar pa dah | tin he hdzin dah | snoms par hjug pa2 bstan paho || don zes bya ba ni
hgog pahi snoms par hjug pa3 (633) £es paho | j 4
tshig hbru tes bya ba ni thos pa thams cad hdzin pa 6es rab kyi rtsa baho51| don tes bya ba
ni bijod du med pahi don to || tshig hbru tes bya ba ni gah byah chub kyi phyogs kyi chos6
sum cu rtsa bdun gyi chos mams rab tu bstan paho || don tes bya ba ni gah byah chub kyi
phyogs kyi chos gsum bcu rtsa bdun gyi chos mams nan tan du byed pahi hbras bu mnon
sum du byed paho || tshig hbru tes bya ba ni sdug bsnal7 dah | kun hbyun ba dah | lam rab tu
bstan paho || don tes bya ba ni hgog pa mnon sum du byed paho || tshig hbru tes bya ba ni
ma rig pa la sogs8 te | rga £ihi bar du bstan paho || don tes bya ba ni ma rig pa hgog pa nas |
rga Sihi bar du hgog paho |j tshig hbru tes bya ba ni ti gnas dah lhag mthoh gi tshogs bstan
paho j) don tes bya ba ni rig pa dah mam par grol ba £es paho ||9
tshig hbru tes bya ba ni gah hdod chags dah | te sdan dah | gti mug dah | cha mnam par
spyod pa mams la chos bstan paho || don tes bya ba ni sems kyi mam par grol ba mi hkhrugs
paho || tshig hbru tes bya ba ni sgrib par byed pahi chos thams cad rab tu bstan paho || don
tes bya ba ni sgrib pa med pahi ye §es mam par thar paho || tshig hbru tes bya ba ni dkon
mchog gsum gyi yon tan bsriags pa mthah med pa yah dag par rab tu bstanpaho || don tes
bya ba ni gah chos hdod chags (634) med pa dah | hdus ma byas pahi dgehdun gyi yon tan
bsgrub paho10||n

1. N om: la.
2. P biag pa.
3. P biag pa.
4. Pelliot, 977, folio la .5 -lb .l
tshig hbru ni lus dah hag yid kyi sdom ba ste | bslab pa dah sbyans pahi yon tan thams cad gzun ba b£ad
paho || don ces bya ba ni lus dah hag yid mthoh bar hdu byed pa yin bar yons su dag paho || gzan yah tshig
hbru ie s bya ba ni gnod sems kyi dri ma (...) khon khro ba dah rgyags pa dah | dregs pa kun bcos Sin bzod
pa la Sin tu dgah ba Mad paho || don ces bya ba ni myi skye bahi chos la bzod pa so sor rfied paho || gzan
yah tshig hbru zes bya ba ni dge bahi rtsa ba thams cad la brtson hgrus Mad paho || don ces bya ba ni mam
par myi rtog cih rtog pa myed de | myi gnas pahi brtson hgrus so ||.
5. P rtsa ba Ses rab tu hgyur baho, for D N R Ses rab kyi rtsa baho.
6. P om: kyi chos (also in the next occurence o f the phrase ‘phyogs kyi chos’).
7. N sdug bsnal pa.
8. P las stsogs.
9. P e llio t,9 7 7 ,folio lb .l-lb .3
gian yah tshig hbru ie s bya ba ni thos pa thams cad hdzin pa Ses rab kyi rtsa baho |j don ces bya ba ni
brjod du myed pahi don to || gzan yah tshig hbru zes bya ba ni byah cub kyi phyogs sum cu rtsa btun gyi
chos rab tu skye baho || don ces bya ba ni gah byah chub kyi phyogs kyi chos mams kyi nan tan gyi hbras
bu mnon du byed paho || gian yah tshig hbru zes bya ba ni sdug bsnal dah kun hbyun dah lam rab tu dbye
baho || don ces bya ba ni hgog pa mnon tu byed paho |j gzan yah tshig hbru zes bya ba ni ma rig pa thog
mar hgro bas na Si bahi bar duho kun bye paho || don ces bya ba ni ma rig pa hgags pas rga &hi bar du
hgag paho j| gzan yah tshig hbru ie s bya ba ni ii gnas dah lhag mthoh gyi tshogs Mad paho || don ces bya
ba ni rig pa mam par grol ba Ses paho j|.
10. D yon tan sgrub paho; N R yon tan bsgmb paho; P yon tan no.

446
 Appendix iv

tshig hbru ies bya ba ni gah byah chub sems dpahi thog ma sems bskyed nas | byah chub
kyi snin pohi bar du1bslab2 pa dah yon tan rtsom pa bstan paho || don zes bya ba ni sems
kyi skad cig gcig dah ldan pas3 | thams cad mkhyen pahi ye £es mnon par rdzogs par byah
chub paho || mdor na chos kyi phun po brgyad khri bzi ston gi bar du bstan pa de ni tshig
hbru ies byaho || sgra dah | yi ge dah [ gah sgra dah yi ge thams cad kyis bijod du myed pa de
ni don ces byaho41|5
de la dran bahi don gyi mdo sde gah dag yin6ie na | gah tshig hbru b£ad pa ji ltar bstan pa
bzin du rgya cher khon du chud par bya ste | hdi dag ni dran bahi don gyi mdo sde dag go ||
hes pahi don gyi mdo sde gah dag yin7 ze na | don gah b£ad pa ji ltar bstan pa biin du
rgya cher khon du chud par bya ste | hdi dag ni hes pahi don gyi mdo sde dag go ||8
de ji ltar na chos la rton gyi | gah zag la ma yin ie na | gan dran bahi don de ni gah zag gi
don yin pas de la mi rton gyi | gah hes pahi don de ni chos nid ji lta ba bzin pas de la rton pa
ste | hdi dag ni byah chub sems dpahi rton pa bzi paho || de ltar na byah chub sems dpah sems
dpah chen po rton9 pa la mkhas pa §es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod do ||10 bam po
bcu brgyad pa111|
de la byah chub sems dpah mams kyi tshig hbru (635) la mkhas pa gah ie na | hdi la byah

11. Pelliot, 977, folio lb .3-lb.5

gzan yan tshig hbru zes bya ba ni hdod chags ze sdan gti mug cha mnam ba spyod pa la chos hchad paho j|
don ces bya ba ni hkhrug pa myed pahi mam par grol baho || g£an yan tshig hbru zes bya ba ni bsgribs pa
thams cad la chos hchad paho || don ces bya ba ni bsgribs pa myed pahi ye £es mam par thar paho |[ gzan
yah tshig hbru zes bya ba ni dkon mchog gsum gyi yon tan kha dog rab tu phye baho || don ces bya ba ni
hdod chags myed pahi chos hid de || dge hdun gyi yon tan hdus ma byas sgrub paho |j.
1. P kyi.
2. N bslabs.
3. P sems skad cig tu sbyor bas.
4. I follow here Pelliot, lb.7; P sgra dah yi ge thams cad kyi hbru ... |[, for D N R sgra dah | yi ge dah | tshig
hbru thams cad ... ||.
5. Pelliot, 977, folio lb.5-7
gian yah tshig hbru zes bya ba ni gah byah chub sems dpah thog ma sems bskyed pa nas snih po byah cub
kyi bar du bslab pahi yon tan brtsam ba Mad paho || don ces bya ba ni sems skad cig ma gcig gyis sbyor ba
thams cad mkhyen pahi ye £es mnon bar byah chub paho || mdor na ci tsam tu chos kyi phuh po brgyad
khri bzi ston Mad pa ni tshig hbru zes byaho | gah sgra dah yi ge thams cad kyis bijod du myed pa de ni
don ces byaho ||.
6. D N R om: dag yin.
7. D N R om: dag yin.
8. Pelliot, 977, folio lb.7-2a.l
de la dran bahi don gyi mdo gah ze na gah gsuns pa hbyed pa ji ltar Mad pa bzin rgyas par chud par bya ba
ste | de ni dran bahi don gyi mdoho zes byaho || de la hes pahi don gyi mdo gah ze na | gah gsuns pa gah ji
ltar don Mad pa Min du rgyas par ges par byaho || de ni hes pahi don gyi mdo ie s byaho ||.
9. D ston.
10. P elliot, 977, folio 2a.l-2a.2
de la ji ltar na chos la rton gyi gah zag la ma yin (...) ie na | gah drah bahi don pa de gah zag gyi don te |
de las hbyuh ba ma yin no | gah hes pahi don de chos hid ji lta ba bzin te des hbyun ho ||.
11. D P om: ‘bam po bcu brgyad pa’.

447
 Appendix iv

chub sems dpah1 chos gnis la mkhas pa 6es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod do || chos
gnis gah ±q na | hdi lta ste | mam par £es pa la mkhas pa dah | ye £es la mkhas pa yin no ||2

2 . 6.2
de la mam par ies pa gah | ye ies gah ±q na | mam par £es pa zes bya ba ni | hdi lta ste |
mam par 6es pahi gnas pa b£iho3 1| b±i gah ze na | gzugs la zugs4 pahi mam par Ses pa yons
su gnas £in gnas pa dah | tshor ba la zugs pa dah | hdu £es la zugs pa dah | hdu byed la zugs
pahi mam par 6es pa yons su gnas §in gnas pa ste | de ni mam par £es pa zes byaho ||5
de la ye £es gah ze na | gah len pahi phun po lna6 mams la gnas pa | mam par §es pahi
phun po yons su £es pa de ni ye Ses £es byaho || gah sahi khams mam par £es pa dah | chuhi
khams dah | mehi khams dah | rlun gi khams mam par its pa de ni mam par 6es pa zes byaho
|j gah yah ye £es khams bzi la mi gnas pa | chos kyi dbyins tha mi dad pa 6es pa de ni ye 6es
£es byaho ||7
g£an yah mam par Ses pa zes bya ba ni gah mig gi mam par 6es pas ies par bya bahi gzugs
mams8 £es pa dah | ma bahi mam par £es pas £es par bya bahi sgra mams dah | snahi mam
par £es pas 6es par bya bahi dri mams dah | ltsehi mam par (636) 6es pas £es par bya bahi ro
rnams | lus kyi mam par £es pas Ses par bya bahi reg mams dah | yid kyi mam par £es pas Ses
par bya bahi chos mams §es pa de ni mam par ies pa zes byaho || gah yah nan gi skye mched
mams la ne bar ±i zin | phyi rol gyi skye mched mams la rgyu ba med pa ye £es la rton pas9 1
gah yah chos gzog par mi byed pa de ni ye 6es zes byaho ||10

1. D dpahi.
2. This paragraph is missing in the Pelliot manuscript.
3. P b£i dag ste.
4. P su son, for D N R la zugs (also in the following three occurrences o f the phrase ‘la zugs’).
5. Pelliot, 977, folio 2a.l-2a.3
de la ji ltar na ye Ses la rton gyi mam par Ses pa la ma yin ze na | de la mam par Ses pa ie s bya ba ni mam
par £es pa gnas pa bzi ste | bzi gah ze na | gzugs la fie bar son bahi mam par £es pa kun tu gnas pas gnas so
|| de bzin du tshor ba dah | hdu £es dah | hdu byed la son bahi mam par Ses pa kun tu gnas pas gnas te j de
ni mam par £es pa zes byaho ||.
6. Akn bzi.
7. Pelliot, 977, folio 2a.3-2a.5
de la ye £es gah ze na | gah len pahi lna phuh la myi gnas Sin ye £es kyi phun po yons su Ses pa de ni ye ies
Ses byaho || gah sahi khams mam par rig pa dah | de bzin du chu dah mye dah rlun gi khams mam par rig
pa de ni mam par Ses pa £es byaho || gah khams bzi la myi gnas pahi ye Ses chos kyi dbyins ma bye bar ies
pa de ni ye £es zes byaho ||.
8. D P add: la.
9. P mi rgyul ye Ses la hjug pahi phyir, for D N R rgyu ba med pa ye Ses la rton pas.
10. Pelliot, 977, folio 2a.5-2a.6
gzan yah mam par Ses pa zes bya ba ni myig gis (...) mam par ges pahi gzugs mam par chud pa nas yid
kyi mam par rig pahi chos mams chud pahi bar de ni mam par £es pa zes byaho j| gah nan gyi hdu mched
zi zin phyihi hdu mched la rab tu myi spyod de | ye Ses la so sor hbyun bahi phyir chos gah la yah myi
hjog pa de ni ye Ses ie s byaho ||.

448
 Appendix iv

gzan yan mam par 6es pa zes bya ba ni dmigs pa las mam par £es pa skye ba dan | yons su
rtog1pa las mam par Ses pa skye ba ste | de ni mam par 6es pa Ies byaho || gah yah mi hdzin
pa | mi snems pa | mi dmigs pa | mam par mi rig pa | mi hkhrugs pa de ni ye £es £es byaho ||
gzan yah hdus byas la spyod pahi chos mams la mam par 6es pa2 gnas kyi | hdus ma byas
la mam par £es pa rgyu ba med de | gah yah hdus ma byas 6es pa de ni ye £es so ||
gzan yah skye ba dah hjig pa la gnas pa ni mam par £es paho || gah yan3 mi skye (ba)4 mi
hgag (ba) mi gnas pa de ni ye £es zes byaho ||5

2.6.3
de la hes pahi don gyi mdo sde gah | dran bahi don gyi mdo sde gah ze na | mdo sde gah
dag lam la hjug par byed pa de dag ni dran bahi don zes byaho || mdo sde gah dag hbras bu la
hjug par byed pa de dag ni hes pahi don zes byaho || mdo sde gah dag kun rdzob sgrub par
byed pa de dag ni dran bahi don zes byaho || mdo sde gah dag don dam par bstan6pa de dag
ni hes pahi don zes byaho ||7
gzan yah mdo sde gah dag las kyi8 bya ba (637) la hjug pa de dag ni dran bahi don zes
byaho jj mdo sde gah dag las dah non mons pa zad par bstan pa de dag ni hes pahi don zes
byaho ||9
gzan yah mdo sde gah dag kun nas non mons pa yohs su bSad pahi phyir bstan pa de dag ni
dran bahi don to || mdo sde gah dag mam par byah ba mam par dag pahi phyir bstan pa de
dag ni hes pahi don to || mdo sde gah dag hkhor bas skyo bar byed pa de dag ni dran bahi don
to || mdo sde gah dag hkhor ba dah mya nan las hdas pa gnis su mi hjug pa de dag ni hes pahi
1. N rtogs.
2. N add: la.
3. R N om: yah.
4. cf, Pelliot, 977, folio 2b. 1 and Akn (p. 64.3.5).
5. Pelliot, 977, folio 2a.6-2b.l
gzan yah mam par Ses pa zes bya ba ni dmyigs pa las mam par Ses pa skyes pa dah | yohs su rtog pa las
mam par §es pa skyes pa de ni mam par Ses pa zes byaho || gah myi hdzin | myi bsfiems | myi dmyigs |
mam par chud pa myed cih myi skur de ni ye Ses zes byaho || gzan yah hdus byas kyi spyod pahi chos la
mam par £es pa hjug go || hdus ma byas la mam pa £es pa spyod pa myed do j| gah hdus ma byas Ses pa de
ni ye £es so || gzan yah skye ba dah | hgyur ba la so sor gnas pa mam par £es paho j| gah ma skyes myi
hgog pa | so sor myi gnas pa de ye Ses £es byaho ||.
6. P ston (also in the following six occurrences o f the term ‘bstan’).
7. Pelliot, 977, folio 2b. 1-3
de la hes pahi don gyi mdo sde ni gah j dran bahi don gyi mdo sde gah ze na | mdo sde gah gis lam la gjud
pa de ni bkri bahi don ces byaho || mdo gah gis dag hbras bu gjud pa de ni hes pahi don ces byaho || gzan
yah mdo sde gah gis kun rdzob b£ad pa de ni dran bahi don ces byaho || mdo sde gah las (...) don dam pa
b£ad pa de ni hes pahi don ces byaho |j.
8. Akn (p. 64.3.7) dah.
9. Pelliot, 977, folio 2b.3-3
gzan yah mdo sde gah gis bya ba la gjud pa de ni dran bahi don ces byaho || gah gis las dah fion mons pa
zad pahi phyir b£ad pa de ni hes pahi don ces byaho ||.

449
 Appendix iv

don to || mdo sde gah dag yi ge dah tshig sna tshogs su bstan pa de dag ni dran bahi don to ||
mdo sde gah dag zab pa | blta dkah ba | rtogs par dkah ba de dag ni hes pahi don to || mdo sde
gah dag tshig hbru man ba1 sems can mams kyi sems rans2 par byed pa de dag ni dran bahi
don to || mdo sde gah dag tshig dah tshig hbru nun la hes par rtogs par3 byed pa de dag ni
hes pahi don to ||4
g£an yah mdo sde gah dag bdag dah | sems can dah | srog dah | skyes bu dah | gah zag dah |
Sed bu dah | Sed las skyes dah | byed pa po dah | tshor ba pohi sgra sna tshogs bdag po med pa
bdag po yod pa b£in du bstan pa de dag ni dran bahi don to || mdo sde gah dag ston pa nid
dah | mtshan ma med pa dah | smon pa med pa dah | mi hbyun ba dah | ma skyes ba dah | yah
dag par mi hbyun ba dah | sems can med pa dah | gah zag med pa dah | dus gsum (638) las
mam par thar pahi sgo bstan pa de dag ni hes pahi don to5 \f

2.6,4
de la chos gah | gah zag gah ze na | gan7 gah zag tu lta ba la gnas te | chos8 la rtsom pa de
ni gah zag ces byaho || gah gah zag tu lta ba rtsom pa dehi chos gnas pa chos kyi dbyins de ni
chos £es byaho91|10
gzan yah gah zag ni so sohi skye bohi gah zag dah | so sohi skye bo dge bahi gah zag dah |
dad pahi rjes su hbran bahi11 gah zag dah | chos kyi ijes su hbran bahi gah zag dah | brgyad

1. Akn (p. 64.4.3) add: 2in.

2. P rii'is.
3. P sems rtog par; R nes par rtog par.
4. Pelliot, 977, folio 2b.3-6
gzan yan mdo sde gan gis fton mons pa yons su bsal bahi phyir Mad pa de ni dran bahi don ces byaho ||
gaii gis las byah ba mam par dag pa bSad pa de ni hes pahi don ces byaho || mdo sde gah gis hkhor ba la
skyo bar byed pa de ni dran bahi don ces byaho jj gah gis hkhor ba dah mya nan las hdas pa gnis su myed
par gjud pa de ni hes pahi don ces byaho || gzan yah mdo sde gah las mam par bkra bahi tshigs dah hbyed
ba Mad pa de ni dran bahi don ces byaho || gah las zab mo blta dkah ba chud dkah ba Mad pa de ni hes
pahi don ces byaho || gzan yah mdo sde gah las hbyed pa man po sems can mams kyi sems tshim bar byed
pa de ni dran bahi don ces byaho || gah las tshig (...) dah hbyed pa nun ba la sems la rtog pa myed pa de ni
hes pahi don ces byaho ||.
5. N £es byaho.
6. Pelliot, 977, folio 2b.6-3a.l
gzan yah gah las bdag dah sems can dah | htsho ba dah | gah zag las btsogs (conjectural reading) pa Mad
pa de ni dran bahi don ces byaho || gah las ston pa dah mtshan ma myed pa dan | smon pa myed pa dah |
ma skyes pa dah | sgra myed pa dah | ma byuh ba dah | sems can myed pa dah | gah zag myed pa dah | dus
gsum las mam par thar pahi sgo de nihes pahi don ces byaho ||.
7. N om: gah.
8. D N R add: kha cig.
9. N gnas pahi dbyins de ni chos £es paho, for D P R gnas pa chos kyi dbyins de ni chos zes byaho.
10. Pelliot, 977, folio 3a. 1-1
de la chos ni gah | gah zag ni gah ze na | gah gah zag tu lta ba la gnas te | gah chos la brtsom ba de ni gah
zag ces byaho || gah zag tu lta ba rtsom ba dehi chos (la) gnas pa dah | chos kyi dbyins de ni chos 6es
byaho ||.
11. P hjug pahi (also in the next clause).

450
 Appendix iv

pahi gan zag dan | rgyun du zugs pahi gan zag dan | lan cig phyir hon bahi gan zag dan | phyir
mi hon bahi gan zag dan | dgra bcom pahi gan zag dan | rah sans rgyas kyi gan zag dan | byan
chub sems dpahi gan zag dan | skye bo man po la phan pa dan | skye bo man po la bde ba dan
| hjig rten la thugs1brtse ba dan [ lha dan mihi skye bo phal po chehi don dan J phan pa dan j
bde bahi phyir gan zag gcig hjig rten du skye zin hbyun bar2 hgyur ba J hdi lta ste | de bzin
gSegs pa dgra bcom pa yah dag par rdzogs pahi sans rgyas te | gan zag gi sgra de thams cad
de b£in g§egs pas kun rdzob kyi gnas kyis sems can mams gzud3 pahi phyir bstan paho || de
la gan mnon par chags pa de dag ni rton pa ma yin pa4 £es byaho || de dag rtog5 pa la dgod
pahi phyir chos nid la rton par byahi gan zag la ma yin no || zes | (639) bcom ldan hdas kyis
gsuns te f
de la chos nid gan ±q na | hdi lta ste | mi hgyur ba | sgro ma btags pa | mi byed pa | mam par
mi byed pa | mi gnas pa | gnas med pa71rtsa ba med pa | thams cad du mnam pa | mnam pa
la mnam pa | mi mnam pa la mnam pa | mnam pa dan mi mnam pa la mnam pa | mam par mi
rtog pa | mi rtsom pa | nes par hgyur ba8 1thob pa | chos thams cad la Sin tu ho bo nid med
pahi mtshan nid de ni chos nid ces bya ste j gan dag chos nid9 la rton par byed pa de dag10
ni khams gan lahan rton par mi byed do || de bas na chos kyi tshul gyi sgo la hjug pa hdis
chos thams cad la rton pahi phyir chos thams cad de lta buhi chos nid yin no111|12

1. P om: thugs.
2. D N skye ba(r) hbyun bar.
3. P g£ag.
4. N om: pa.
5. N rton.
6. Pelliot, 977, folio 3a.l-3a.4
gzan yah gan zag ni ma rabs so || gan zag ni ma rabs dge baho || dad pas ijes su hbran baho || chos kyi ijes
su hbran baho || gan zag ni brgyad paho |J rgyun tu £ugs paho || lan cig phyir hon baho || phyir myi hon
baho j| sgra bcom baho || rah sans rgyas so || byan chub sems dpaho |j hgro ba man po la phan bahi phyir
bde bahi phyir | hjig rten las brtse bahi phyir | lha dan myi dan hgro bahi hdus pa chen po la phan ba dan
bde bahi phyir gan zag gcig hjig rten du skye bas skyeho | de ni de b£in gSegs pa dgra bcom ba yah dag par
rdzogs pahi sans rgyas so | gan zag gi sgra de thams cad ni de bzin gSegs pas kun rdzob kyi rims kyis sems
can gzun bahi don tu Mad paho || de la mnon bar chags pa de ni so sor myi hbyun ba zes byaho || so sor
rton pa de dag la gzag pahi phyir bcom ldan hdas kyis gsuns pa | chos hid la so sor rton par kyahi (conjec­
tural reading) gan zag la ma yin no ||.
7. P mi hdug pa.
8. D P R nes par gyur pa.
9. N add: de.
10. N om: dag.
11. P de lta ba dan hdra bar hgyur te, for D N R de lta buhi chos hid yin no.
12. P elliot, 977, folio 3a.4-7
de la chos hid gan ze na | de ni hgyur ba myed pa bskyed pa dan | mam par myi bya ba dan | myi gnas pa
dan j so sor myi gnas pahi rtsa baho || thams cad tu mham ba dan | myi mham ba dan mham ba | mam par
rtog pa myed pa | rtsom ba myed pa | myi hgyur ba thob pa j chos thams cad 3in tu ho bo hid myed pahi
mtshan hid ste | de ni chos hid ces byaho || gan chos de la so sor rton pa ni chos gan gi phyir yah myi
hbyun ho || de bas na deliichos kyi sgor hjug pas chos thams cad la rton pa nas bzun ste | chos thams cad
de ltar buhi ho bo hid yin no || zes gsuhs so ||.

451
 Appendix iv

de dag ni byan chub sems dpah mams kyi rton pa b£i (dag) zes bya ste | de ni byan chub
sems dpahi rton pa la mkhas pa zes byaho || de Itar na byan chub sems dpah rton pa la mkhas
pa £es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod do H1

2.7
de la byan chub sems dpahi tshogs la mkhas pa gan za na | byan chub sems dpah mams kyi
tshogs ni hdi gnis te | gnis gan ze na | hdi lta ste | bsod nams kyi tshogs dan [ ye £es kyi tshogs
so | p

2.7.1
de la bsod nams kyi tshogs gan ze na | sbyin pa las byuh bahi bsod nams3 bya bahi dhos
po dan | tshul khrims las byuh bahi bsod nams bya bahi dhos po dan | sgom pa las byun bahi
bsod (640) nams bya bahi dhos po dan | byams pahi sems la siioms par hjug pa dan j snih ijehi
sbyor ba dan | dge bahi rtsa ba thams cad la brtson4 pa dan | bdag dan pha rol gyi sdig pa
hchags pa dan | dus gsum du gtogs pahi sems can thams cad dan | slob pa thams cad5 dan |
mi slob pa thams cad dan | rah sans rgyas thams cad dan | sems dan po6 bskyed pa mams
dah | spyod pa la zugs pa thams cad dan | phyir mi ldog pa mams dan | skye ba7 gcig gis
thogs pahi byan chub sems dpah mams kyi sems bskyed pa la rjes su yi rah ba dah | hdas pa
dah | ma byon pa dah | da ltar byuh bahi sans rgyas bcom ldan hdas mams kyi dge bahi rtsa
ba8 thams cad kyi ijes su yi rah ba dah ldan pahi bsod nams bya bahi dhos po dah | sans
rgyas thams cad dah | hphags pa thams cad la chos9 gsol ba hdebs pa10 dah ldan pahi bsod
nams bya bahi dhos po dah | dge ba thams cad byan chub tu bsno ba dah ldan pahi bsod nams
bya bahi dhos po dah |u

I. The last paragraph is missing in the Pelliot manuscript.

Z Pelliot, folio 3a.7-7
de la byan chub sems dpahi tshogs la mkhas pa gan ze na | byan chub sems dpahi tshogs ni mam pa gnis te
| de ni bsod nams dah [ ye Ses kyi tshogs so ||.
3. P sbyin pahi bsod nams (also in all following instances o f the same context).
4. N rtsom.
5. N thin.
6. P thog mar.
7. P tshe.
8. D N P ‘dge ba’ only.
9. N add: ston par.
10. Pom: hdebs pa.
II. Pelliot, folio 3b. 1-4
de la bsod nam gyi tshogs gah ze na | sbyin ba las bsod nams byahi dhos po dah | de bzin du tshul khrims
dah | bsgom na las bsod nams bya bahi dhos po dah | byams pahi sems sfioms par sgrub pa | snin ijehi
sbyor ba dah | dge bahi thams cad kyi rtsa ba rtsom ba | bdag dah pha rol gyi sdig hchags pa | dus gsum
gyis bsdus pa | sems can thams cad dah | bslob pa dah | myi slob pa thams cad dah | rah sahs rgyas thams

452
 Appendix iv

sems can byan chub tu sems ma bskyed pa mams byan chub tu sems skyed pa dan | byan
chub tu sems bskyed pa1 mams la pha rol tu phyin pahi lam ston pa dah | dbul po mams la
Ions spyod kyis sdud pa dah | nad pa mams la sman2 sbyin pa dah | gus par bsnen bkur byed
pa dah | mthu chun ba mams la bzod cin dah du len pa dah | lhun ba mams mi hchab3pa dah
| sdig pa hchags pa dah | sans (641) rgyas bcom ldan hdas mams4 b£ugs pa dah yons su mya
nan las hdas pa mams la bsnen bkur dah ri mo5 thams cad byed pa dah | slob dpon dah
mkhan po mams la ston pa bzin du ri mo byed pa dah | chos la rin po che rin than med pa
bzin du yons su tshol bahi brtson hgrus dah | chos smra ba la dgah zin dpag tshad brgyar yah
son ste | chos nan pas chog mi Ses pa dah | zan zin med par chos hchad pa dah | pha dah ma la
rim gro6 byed pa dah | byas pa gzo ba dah | byas pa £es pa dah | hgyod pa med pa dah | bsod
nams (bya bahi dhos po) bsags pas chog mi Ses pa dah |7
lus bsdams pahi lus la8tshul hchos pa med pa dah | hag bsdams pahi hag la tshul hchos pa
med pa dah | yid bsdams pahi yid la tshul hchos pa med pa dah | de biin gSegs pahi mchod
rten btsugs pahi phyir tshans pahi bsod nams yons su hdzin pa dah | mchod sbyin gtan pa
med pa bsags9 pas mtshan hid10yons su rdzogs pa dah | dge bahi rtsa bahi tshogs sna tshogs
bsags pas dpe byad bzan po yons su rdzogs pa dah | ha rgyal med pas lus brgyan pa dah | hag
gi nes pa thams cad spans pas hag brgyan pa dah [ bio thogs pa med pas sems brgyan pa dah

cad dan | thog ma sems bskyed pa mams dan | spyad pa rdzogs pa mams dan | phyir myi ldog pa mams
dan | skye ba gcig gis thogs pahi byan chub sems dpah mams kyi sems bskyed pahi ijes su yi rah no || hdas
pa dah | ma hoiis pa dah | da ltar gyi sahs rgyas bcom ldan hdas mams kyi dge ba thams cad kyi ijes su yi
rah ba dan | ltan gcig son bahi bsod nams byahi dhos poho j| sahs rgyas thams cad dah j hphags pahi thams
cad la chos gsol ba dah ltan gcig son bahi bsod nams byahi dhos poho || dge ba thams cad byan chub tu
bijod pa dah ltan cig son bahi bsod nams bya bahi dhos poho ||.
1. N om: dah j byah chub tu sems bskyed pa.
2. N add: gyi.
3. P hchags.
4. P R om: mams.
5. P gus pa (also in the following two instances o f the term ‘ ri mo’).
6. P bsflen bkur.
7. P elliot, 977, folio 3b.5-4a. 1
byah chub tu sems bskyed pa mams byah cub sems dpah mams kyis sems bskyed paho || byah chub tu
sems bskyed pahi mams la pha rol tu phyin pahi lam ston paho || dbul po mams Ions spyod kyis bsus paho
|| na ba mams la sman rab tu byin te rim hgro dan bkur sti byed paho || mthu chun ba mams la bzod chin zi
baho | ltun ba so sor g.yogs baho || sdig bSegs paho | sahs rgyas bcom ldan hdas bzugs pa dah | mya nan las
hdas pa thams cad la ri mo bkur sti byed paho || slob dpon dah mkhan po la ston par ri mo byed paho | chos
la rin than myed pahi rin po che tshol bahi brtson hgrus so || chos hchad pa la dgah ste dpag tshad brgyar
kyah mflan pas myi horns pa | ma hdres pahi chos hchad pa j pha ma la rim hgro byed pa j byas pa Ses pa |
byas pa dran ba | byas pa tshor ba | hgyod pa myed pa | bsod nams bstsags pas myi horns pa |.
8. D N R lus bsdams Sin.
9. N bstsags (also in the next occurence o f the term ‘bsags’).
10. D N R mtshan.
11. Pelliot, 977, folio 4 a .l-3
lus bsdams pas sgyu myed pa | hag bsdams pas hag la sgyu myed pa | yid bsdams pas yid la sgyu myed pa |

453
 Appendix iv

mnon par §es pa sprul pas sans rgyas kyi zin gi rgyan1 dah | ye Ses yons su dag pas chos
kyi mtshan nid kyi2 rgyan dah | phra ma dah | ze gcod pa dah | dbye bahi tshig yons su spans
pas (642) hkhor man pohi rgyan dah | chos hdzin pas hdod chags med pahi chos kyi3 rgyan
dah | rab tu dgah nas legs so £es4 bya ba by in pas chos kyi gtam mi hjigs par byed pa dah |
sgrib pa dah sgrib par byed pa5 mam par spans Sin gus par chos nan pas hbras bu yod par
chos hchad pa dah | sahs rgyas mams la dkah thub kyi nags tshal phul bas byah chub kyi Sin
gi rgyan dah | dge bahi rtsa ba thams cad shon du hgro zin byah chub kyi sems mi gton bas
byah chub kyi sniri pohi rgyan dah |6
las dah hon mons pa mi dmigs pas tshe dah ii hpho yons su dag pa dah | rin po che phans
pahi dhos po thams cad yons su gton bas rin po chehi lag pa7 dah | mi zad pahi smon lam
thob pas Ions spyod mi zad pa dah j khro gner med pas mthon ma thag tu sems can mams dad
cih biin hdzum pas gson por smra ba dah | sems can thams cad la hod zer snoms pas8mnam
pa hid kyi rgyan thob pa dah | ma lobs pa la mi brhas pas9 hod man po gton ba10 dah | tshul
khrims kyi bsod nams bsags pas skye ba yons su dag pa dah | lturi ba la mi rtsod pas mnal
yons su dag pa dah |n
dge ba bcuhi las yons su dag pas lha dah mir skye ba dah | ijes su bstan pa12thams cad la
de biin gSegs pahi mchod rten so sor gzag pahi phyir tshans pahi bsod nams yons (...) | mtshan yons su
rdzogs pa | phans pa myed pas sdud pa bskyed pa | dpe byad bzan po yons su rdzogs pa | mam par bkra
bahi dge bahi rtsi ba tshogs ba bstags pas sprul pas lus brgyan pa | nag gyi fles pa thams cad mam par
spans pas hag brgyan pa | thogs pa myed pahi bios sems brgyan pa |.
1. Akn (p. 65.2.8-3.3) gives ‘rgyan du hgyur ba dan’ in this and in the following five instances o f the phrase
‘rgyan dah’.
2. N kyis.
3. N kyis.
4. P R om: tes.
5. D N R chod pa.
6. Pelliot, 977, folio 4a.3-5
mnon bar £es pas mam par sprul pahi phyir sahs rgyas kyi zin brgyan pa Jye Ses yons su dag pas chos kyi
mtshan brgyan pa | phra ma dah gla ma zid (conjectural reading) dbye bahi tshig yons su spans pas hkhor
gyi lus brgyan pa | chos hdzin pas hdod chags myed pahi chos kyis rab tu brgyan to j rab tu dge ba dge bar
sbyin nas chos kyi gtam myi hjigs pa | sgrib pa dah bsgribs pa mam par spans pahi phyir bkur sti byas te |
chos flan pas hbras bu yod pahi chos hchad paho || sahs rgyas mams la dkah thub kyi nags tshal phul bas
byah chub kyi &ri gis brgyan to || dge ba thams cad thogs par hgro bas byah chub kyi sems myi gton bahi
phyir byah chub kyi shin po brgyan to ||.
7. D N R lag na rin po che.
8. N pa.
9. P zii gyis mi gnon pas, for D N R mi brnas pas.
10. Dmthoriba,
11. Pelliot, 977, folio 4a.5-7
las dah fton mons par myi dmyigs pas tshe dah & hphos yons su dag paho | rin po che bzan pohi dhos po
thams cad yons su btan bas rin po chehi lag paho | myi zad pahi smon lam thob pahi phyir loris spyod myi
zad paho || bzin ba hdzum zin gson por smra ste khro gfier myed pahi phyir mthon ma thag tu sems can
mams dad paho | sems can thams cad la hod sfloms pahi phyir sfioms pa hid so sor thob paho || ma lobs pa
la phyis brtsan bas hod kyis rgyan gton baho || tshul khrims kyi bsod nams bstsags pas skye ba yons su dag
paho || luri bstan pahi phyir mriah yons su dag paho |.
1Z P bstan par bya ba, fo rD N R rjessu b sta n p a .

454
 Appendix iv

rab tu rtog pas gdon mi za bar gnon pa dan | chos la slob dpon gyi dpe mkhyud med pas chos
kyi dban phyug dan1 | lhag pahi bsam pa yons su dag pas hjig rten thams cad la mnon sum
pa dah | ni tshe bahi spyod pa mi (643) hdod pas rgya chen pohi chos la dad pa dah | thams
cad mkhyen pahi sems mi hdor bas bsod nams thams cad yons su hdzin pa dah | dad pa snon
du hgro bas nor bdun yons su rdzogs pa dah | snon dam bcas pa nams su len par byed pas2
hjig rten thams cad mi slu ba dah | dge bahi chos yons su rdzogs pas sahs rgyas kyi chos
thams cad yons su rdzogs pa ste | de ni byah chub sems dpahi bsod nams kyi tshogs la mkhas
pa £es byaho ||3

2.7.2
de la byah chub sems dpahi ye £es kyi tshogs la mkhas pa gan ze na | rgyu gan gis ye 6es
skye ba ste | de ltar rgyu dah rkyen4gan gis ye £es rtogs paho ||
de la rgyu gan | rkyen gan ie na | chos tshol ba la rab tu hdun pa dah | ye £es kyi ijes su son
bahi b£es gnen bsten pa dah | sahs rgyas kyi ye £es la rton gyi | nan thos dah rah sahs rgyas
kyi ye £es la mi rton pa dah | de dag la ha rgyal mi byed pa | bla ma la dgah ba dah | ston pa la
dgah ba dah | dehi dge bahi b£es gnen de dag gis hdi ni bsam pa dah ldan bar 6es nas j ye £es
kyi gtam gan yah mi ston pa med pa dah | snod du £es nas bar chad med par sems rtse gcig tu
chos ston pa dah | des chos de thos nas chos kyi tshogs la brtson par5 byed de | gan chos kyi
tshogs la brtson par byed pa de nid dehi ye £es kyi tshogs la brtson pa yin no |j6
de la chos kyi tshogs la brtson (644) pa gan ze na | hdi lta ste | don huh ba dah | bya ba huh

1. P chos la slob dpon gyis mi hchab pas chos la dbaii phyug dan, for D N R chos la slob dpon gyi dpe
mkhyud med pas chos kyi dban phyug dan.
2. D N flams su Ion par byed pas; P sgrol bas.
3. Pelliot, 977, folio 4a.7-4b.3
dge ba bcuhi las yons su dag pas lha dan myir skyeho || bstan pa thams cad la yid ches pas bsgrims pa gdon
myi za baho || chos la mkhan po myi hchab pas chos la dban paho | lhag pahi bsam pa yofls su dag pas hjig
rten thams cad kyi bla yin no j fii tse pahi spyod lam mos pas rgya chen pahi chos la dad paho || thams cad
mkhyen pahi sems myi hdor bas bsod nams thams cad yons su hdzin paho j| dad pa thog mar hgro bas nor
btun yons su rdzogs paho | snon dam bcas pa las bsgal pahi phyir hjig rten thams cad myi bslu baho || dge
bahi chos yons su rdzogs pas sans rgyas kyi chos thams cad yons su rdzogs paho || de ni byan chub sems
dpahi bsod nams kyi tshogs la mkhas pa zes byaho ||.
4. D P R add: gan dan.
5. P mal hbyor (also in the following three occurrences o f ‘brtson par’: 1. D R P mal hbyor, 2. P mal hbyor,
3. P mal hbyor pa).
6. P elliot, 977, folio 4b.3-6
de la byan chub sems dpahi ye Ses kyi tshogs la mkhas pa gan £e na | rgyu gan gis ye Ses bskyed pa ste | de
ltar rgyu dan rkyen gan gis ye Ses chud paho || de la rgyu dan rkyen gan ze na || chos tshol ba la rab tu mos
pa | ye Ses kyi ijes su son bahi b£es flen bsten pa j sans rgyas kyi ye £es la rton te | flan thos dan ran sans
rgyas kyi ye Ses la myi rton paho | de dag la na myed pa | bla ma la raAs pa | mkhan po la rans pa | de dag
dge bahi b£es flen gyis bsam ba phun sum tshogs par rig nas ye £es kyi gtam gan yan myi ston pa myed do
II snod tu rig nas htshams myed par hbad de | de la chos hchad do || des dehi chos thos nas chos kyi tshogs
la brtson par byed do | gaA chos kyi tshogs la rtson ba de Aid ye £es kyi tshogs la brtson baho j|.

455
 Appendix iv

ba dah | sgra nun ba dah | srod dah tho rans la mi nal zin mal hbyor la brtson pa dah | hbrel
pahi don la yons su rtog pa dah | phyir zin yons su tshol ba dah | sems la rnog pa med pa dah |
sgrib pa gnon pa dah | ltun ba las hbyun bar Ses pa dah | hgyod pa med pa dah | kun nas ldan
ba med pa dah | nan tan snin por byed pa dah | chos la g£ol ba dah | chos la hbab pa dah | chos
la bab pa dah11chos la brtul ba dah | rtag par mgo dah lus2 la me hbar ba lta bu dah (3
ye Ses tshol ba de nid la gnas pa dah | mi lhod pa dah | brtson hgrus mi gton ba dah | khyad
par du hgro ba dah | hdu hdzi las dben pa dah | gcig pur4 dgah ba dah | dgon pahi bde ba yid
la byed pa dah | hphags pahi rigs la dgah ba dah | sbyans pa las mi hgyur ba dah | chos kyi
kun dgah (ba) la dgah zin mos pa5 dah | hjig rten rgyan phan pahi gsaii tshig la ri mo6 mi
byed pa dah | hjig rten las hdas pahi chos tshol ba la dran pa mi nams pa dah | rtogs pa la don
rtogs pahi ijes su hgro ba dah | bio gros la lam gyi ijes su hthun par byed pa dah | mos pa la
sdom pa dah |7
rkyen la ye Ses kyi ijes su rig pa8 dah | khrel yod pa dan9 1ho tsha £es pahi rgyan10 dah |
sahs rgyas kyi hgros kyi ijes su hgro ba dah | mi 6es pa sel ba dah | ma rig pa dah gti mug gi
liri tog (645) sel ba dah | £es rab kyi mig mam par dag pa dah | rab tu mam par dag pa dah |
bio rgya che ba dah | bla ma £um pa dah j bio rab tu tha dad pa dah | mnon sum du £es pa dah
| g±an (dag) la rag ma lus pahi yon tan dah [ rah gi yon tan gyis mi snems pa dah | pha rol gyi
yon tan la rtog pa11 dah | legs par bya bahi las12byed pa dah | las kyi mam par smin pa la
mi13 hgal bar byed pa14 dah | las yons su dag par 6es pa15 ste j de ni byah chub sems dpah

1. R om: chos la bab pa dah.

2. D P R gos.
3. Pelliot ,9 7 7 , folio 4b.6-5a.l
de la chos kyi tshogs la brtson ba gan ze na | de ni don fiun ba | bya ba fiun ba | sgra huh ba | nam gyi cha
stod dah cha smad la myi flal bar brtson ba dan ldan ba | brtson bahi don la yons su rtog pa phyi phyir yons
su hjig pa sems ma sfioms pahi (conjectural reading) bsgrib pa mam par sel ba | lhun ba las hbyun bar Ses
pa | hgyod ba myed pa | yons su bskor pa myed pa | nan tan gyi shin po can chos la gzol ba | chos la hbab
pa j chos la bab pa | chos la sgrim ba | rtag par mgo dah gos la mye hbar ba bzin du ye £es tshol bahi de Aid
la gnas pa |.
4. P R bu; N pu.
5. P chos la kun dgah zin dgah bas dgah ba, for D N R chos (kyi) kun dgah (ba) la dgah zin mos pa.
6. N ri mor.
7. Pelliot, 977, folio 5a. 1-3
myi lhod pa bkur ba myi hdod pa | khyad bar du myi hgro ba | hdu hdzi dah tha dad pa | gcig pur dgah ba |
dgon pahi sgor yid la byed pa | hphags pahi rigs la dgah ba | sbyans pa las myi hgyur ba | chos la kun dgah
zin dgah bas dgah ba | hjig rten pa (phyal bahi) shags la bkur sti myi byed pa | hjig rten las hdas pahi chos
tshol bahi dran ba myi flams ba | rig pahi don gyi hgros su hgro ba | bio hgros lam tu mthun ba | sdom ba
brtan pa |.
8. P ye £es su rtogs pa.
9. P om: khrel yod pa dah.
10. P ho tsha ba dad mdzes pahi rgyan.
11. P mi rtog pa.
12. D R legs par bya bahi las bya bahi las; P bthad por byed pahi.
13. N om :m i.

456
 Appendix iv

sems dpah chen pohi ye Ses kyi tshogs zes byaho H1

gzan yan ye Ses kyi tshogs ni sbyin ba mam par2bzi ste |

(1) chos smra ba la gro ga dan | smyu gu dah | snag tsha dah | glegs bam sbyin pa dah |
(2) chos smra ba la chos kyi stan sna tshogs sbyin pa dah |
(3) chos smra ba la med pa dah | bkur sti dah | tshigs su bead pa thams cad sbyin pa dah |
(4) chos smra ba la chos kun bsdu bahi phyir g.yo med par legs so || zes bya ba sbyin pa ste

sbyin pa bzi po de dag [ni] ye Ses kyi tshogs sogs3 par hgyur ro || kun srun ba b£i4 mams
ye £es kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur te | bzi gan ±q na |

(1) chos smra ba mams kyi lus [kun]5srun ba6 dah |

(2) dge ba srun ba dah |
(3) yul dah Ijons su hjug pa la srun ba dah |
(4) phan pahi dhos po [kun]7 srun ba ste |

[kun]8 srun ba bzi po de dag (ye Ses kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur ro)9 1| ne bar rton pa10bzi
ye 6es kyi tshogs (sogs par)11hgyur te | bzi gan ze na |

(1) chos smra ba mams kyi chos ne bar (646) rton pa dah |
(2) ye £es ne bar rton pa dah |
(3) zan zin ne bar rton pa dah |
(4) byah chub ne bar rton paho 1112
14. P byed pa mi gtofi ba, for D N R mi hgal bar byed pa.
15. R byed pa.
1. Pelliot, 977, folio 5a. 3-5
rkyen gyis ye Ses chud pa | no tsha dah khrel yod pahi rgyan | sahs rgyas kyi hgro bahi ijes su hgro ba | myi
Ses pa hdor bab ma rig pa dah gti mug kyi bris (conjectural reading) ma sel ba | £es rab kyi myig mam par
dag pa | rab tu mam par dag pahi blohi rgya che ba | bio ma hkhums pa | bio rab tu tha dad pa | mnon sum
du Ses pa | pha rol gyi kha na ma las pahi yon tan mnon bar myi bsflems | pharol gyi yon tan la myi rtog pa
j bzan por byas pahi las byed pa |las kyi mam par smin pa la myi htshab pa | las yons su dag par Ses pa de
ni | byah chub sems dpahi ye Ses kyi tshogs £es byaho ||.
2. D N P om: mam par.
3. N stsogs (but for one, also in all further occurrences o f the word *sogs’ in this tretrad section); this applies
also to the parallel passage in the Akn (p. 66.1.3-3.6).
4. N add: po.
5. Akn (p. 66.1.3) om: kun.
6. R yons su srun ba (also in the next three clauses).
7. Akn (p. 66.1.4) om.
8. Akn (p. 66.1.4) om: kun.
9. Given in Akn (p. 66.1.4).
10. N he bar brtan pa; P rton pa (also throughout this stanza).
11. Given in Akn (p. 66.1.4) as ‘stsogs par’.
12. Pelliot, 977, folio 5a.6-5b.l

457
 Appendix iv

(ne bar rton pa b ii po de dag ye 6es kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur ro H)1 stobs lha ye Ses kyi
tshogs (sogs par)2hgyur te | lha gan £es na | hdi lta ste |

(1) mos pahi phyir dad pahi stobs dah |

(2) thos pa tshol bahi phyir brtson hgrus kyi stobs dah |
(3) byah chub kyi sems3mi bijed pahi phyir dran pahi stobsdah |
(4) mnam pa nid kyi chos la nes par rtogs pahi phyir tinhe hdzin gyi stobs dah
(5) thos pahi stobs kyi phyir £es rab kyi stobs ste |

stobs lha po de dag ye 6es kyi tshogs su (sogs par)4 hgyur ro ]| tshul khrims bzi ye 6es kyi
tshogs sogs5par hgyur te | bzi gan ±e na | hdi lta ste |

(1) chos la nes pahi6tshul khrims dah |

(2) chos htshol bahi tshul khrims dah |
(3) chos la nes par rtogs pahi tshul khrims dah |
(4) byah chub tu bsno bahi tshul khrims te |

tshul khrims bzi po de dag ye Ses kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur ro || bzod pa bzi ye £es kyi
tshogs sogs par hgyur te | bzi gan ze na | hdi lta ste |

(1) chos tshol ba la mnon par brtson pas nan du smra ba dah | nan du bijod pahi tshig
(mams)7bzod pa dah |
(2) chos tshol ba la mnon par brtson pas rluh dah | tsha ba dah | gran ba dah | dro ba dah |
skom pa dah | bkres pa bzod pa dah |
(3) chos tshol ba la mnon par brtson pas | slob dpon dah mkhan pohi ijes su hjug pa dah |

gzan yah ye Ses kyi tshogs mam pa bzi ste | chos hchad pa la hgro ba dah | ga la ma dah snag tsa dah |
glegs bam byin ba dah | chos hchad pa la mam par bkra bahi stan sbyin ba dah | chos hchad pa la brten pa
dah | bku sti dah | tshigs su bead pa thams cad sbyin ba dah | chos hchad pa la chos kun bsdu bahi phyir
dgeho zes bya ba sbyin ba dah bzi ni ye £es kyi tshogs bstsogs par hgyur ro || gzan yah kun tu bsruh ba bzi
ye Ses kyi tshogs su hgyur te | bzi gan ze na | chos hchad pahi lus kun bsran ba dah j yul dah ljons su zugs
la kun tu bsruh ba dah | phan bahi dhos po lam tu bsruh ba dah bziho jj gzan yah brtan ba bzi ye 3es kyi
tshogs su hgyur te | bzi gan ie na | chos hchad pa la chos brtan ba dah | ye Ses brtan ba dah | zan zin kun
brtan ba dah | bio brtan paho |j (R folio 645.3-646.1).
1. Given in Akn (p. 66.1.6).
2. Given in Akn (p. 66.1.6) as ‘stsogs par’.
3. P add: kun.
4. Given in Akn (p. 66.1.8) as ‘stsogs par’.
5. N bsags.
6. P bde bar gnas pahi, for D N R hes pahi.
7. P nan par hohs paid tshig mams, for D N R nan du bqod pahi tshig.

458
 Appendix iv

(4) chos tshol ba la mnon par brtson pas | ston pa nid [pa] dan | mtshan ma med pa dah |
smon pa med pahi chos bzod pa ste |

bzod pa bzi po de dag (647) ye £es kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur ro || brtson hgrus bti ye £es
kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur te | bzi gan ze na | hdi lta ste |

(1) thos pahi brtson hgrus dah |

(2) hdzin pahi1brtson hgrus dah |
(3) bstan pahi2brtson hgrus dah |
(4) nan tan gyi brtson hgrus te j

brtson hgrus bzi po de dag ye Ses kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur ro ||3 bsam gtan gyi yan lag
bzi4ye £es kyi tshogs [kyi] sogs par hgyur te j b£i gan ze na | hdi lta ste |

(1) dbenpadan|
(2) gcig bur dgah ba dah |
(3) ye Ses dah | mnon par Ses pa tshol ba dah |
(4) sahs rgyas kyi ye Ses la hjug pa ste |

bsam gtan gyi yan lag bzi po de dag ye 6es kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur ro || 6es rab snan bahi
chos hdi bzi ye £es kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur te | bzi gah ze na | hdi lta ste |

(1) chad pa la mi gnas pa dah |

(2) rtag pa la mi hjug pa dah |
(3) rten cin hbrel par hbyun ba dah mi hgal ba dah |

1. D N R gzuns kyi (Akn hdzin pahi).

2. D R brtan pahi; P hchad pahi (Akn bstan pahi).
3. • Pelliot, 977, folio 5b .l-5
gzan yah stobs lha ye £es kyi tshogs su hgyur te lha gah ze na | lhag par grol bas dad pahi stobs dah | thos
pa tshol bas brtson hgrus kyi stobs dah | byah cub kyi sems kun tu ma stor bas dran bahi bstobs dah | mham
ba hid kyi chos la rtog pas ti he hdzin gyi stobs dah j thos pahi stobs kyi phyir Ses rab kyi stobs so || gzan
yah tshul khrims bzi ye Ses kyi tshogs su hgyur te | chos la dgah bahi tshul khrims dah | chos tshol bahi
tshul khrims dah | chos rtog pahi tshul khrims dah | byah chub tu bsnos pahi tshul khrims dah || gzan yah
bzod pa bzihi ye £es kyi tshogs su hgyur te [ chos tshol ba la mhon bar brtson bas nan tu smra ba dah skya
skyohi tshig (conjectural reading) bzod pa dan | chos tshol ba la mhon bar brtson bas gran ba dah dro ba
dah skom ba dah | bkris ba bzod pa dah | chos tshol ba la mhon bar brtson bas slob dpon dah mkhan pohi
ijes su hgyur ba dah | chos tshol ba la mhon bar brtson bas ston pa hid dah mtshan ma myed pa dah smon
pa myed pahi chos bzod paho || gzan yan brtson hgrus bzi ye Ses kyi tshogs su hgyur te | thos pahi brtson
hgrus dah | gzun bahi brtson hgrus dah | b£ad pahi brtson hgrus dah | nan tan gyi brtson hgrus so |j (R folio
646.1-647.2).
4. Akn add: byah chub sems dpahi.

459
 Appendix iv

(4) bdag med pa la mos pa$ste |

Ses rab snan bahi chos bzi po de dag ye £es kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur ro || chos hdi bzi
thabs kyi ye Ses kyi2tshogs (sogs par)3hgyur te j bzi gah ze na | hdi lta ste |

(1) hjig rten pahi ijes su hjug pa dah |

(2) mdo sdehi4rjes su hjug pa dah |
(3) chos kyi ijes su hjug pa dah |
(4) ye £es kyi ijes su hjug pa ste |

chos b£i po de dag thabs kyi ye 6es kyi tshogs (sogs par)5 hgyur ro6 || chos hdi bzi lam
gyi ye £es kyi tshogs7 (648) la hjug par hgyur te | bzi gah £e na | hdi lta ste |

(1) pha rol tu phyin pahi lam dah |

(2) byah chub kyi phyogs kyi lam dah |
(3) yan lag brgyad pahi lam dah |8
(4) thams cad mkhyen pahi ye £es su hgro bahi lam ste |

chos b±\ po de dag lam gyi ye Ses kyi tshogs9 la hjug par hgyur ro101| mi horns pa hdi bzi
ye £es kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur te | bzi gah ze na | hdi lta ste |

(1) thos pas mi noms pa dan |

(2) bstan pas mi noms pa dah |
(3) dpyod pas mi horns pa dah |
(4) ye Ses kyis mi noms pa ste |

mi noms pa bzi po de dag ye Ses kyi tshogs sogs par hgyur ro ||n
1. Given in Akn (p. 66.3.1) as ‘bzod pa’.
2. N thabs kyi; Akn (p. 66.3.1-2) has: thabs bzi po de dag byan chub sems dpah mams kyi ye Ses kyi tshogs
stsogs par hgyur ro.
3. Given in Akn (p. 66.3.2) as ‘stsogs par’.
4. Akn (p. 66.3.2) replaces ‘mdo sde’ with ‘sems can’.
5. Given in Akn (p. 66.3.5) as ‘stsogs par’.
6. Akn (p. 66.3.3) has ‘thabs bzi po de dag byah chub sems dpah mams kyi ye Ses kyi tshogs stsogs par
hgyur ro’.
7. D N P R lam gyi tshogs kyi ye Ses.
8. Akn (p. 66.3.4) has ‘sahi lam dan’ for ‘yan lag brgyad pahi lam dan* (D N P R).
9. D N P R lam gyi tshogs kyi ye Ses.
10. Akn (p. 66.3.4-5) has ‘tshogs stsogs par hgyur ro’, for ‘tshogs la hjug par hgyur ro’ ( D N P R).
11. Pelliot, 977, folio 5b.5-6a.2
gzan yah bsam gtan bzi ye Ses kyi tshogs su hgyur te | dben ba dah | dag pa (conjectural reading) | gcig pur

460
 Appendix iv

g£an yan ye 6es kyi tshogs ni gah sems can thams cad kyi ijes su hgro ba dah | zin thams
cad kyi rjes su hgro ba ste | sbyin pa las kyan ye 6es kyi tshogs su bltaho || tshul khrims dah |
bzod pa dah | brtson hgrus dah | bsam gtan dah | 6es rab dah | byams pa dah | sniri ije dah |
dgah ba dah j btan1snoms las kyan ye 6es kyi tshogs su bltaho ||
de cihi phyir ±e na | ji tsam du byah chub sems dpahi rtsom pa de thams cad ye 6es las rag
las pa2 1ye Ses snon du hgro ba | ye Ses la rton pa ste | de ye £es la gnas pas3 ye Ses can
thams cad kyi rton par hgyur te4 1bdud thams cad kyis kyan de la glags mi med do || sahs
rgyas kyi byin gyi rlabs kyan hthob | thams cad (649) mkhyen pahi ye Ses la yah hjog5 par
byed do ||6
de gnis ni byah chub sems dpahi bsod nams kyi tshogs dah ye Ses kyi tshogs te [ byah chub
sems dpah sems dpah chen po tshogs mam par gnis de7 la mkhas pa §es rab kyi pha rol tu
phyin pa la spyod do ||8

2.8
de la byah chub sems dpah mams kyi dran pa ne bar bzag pa la mkhas pa gah ze na | hdi
bzi ni byah chub sems dpah mams kyi dran pa fie bar bzag pa sgom pa ste | bzi gah ze na | hdi
lta ste | lus la lus kyi ijes su lta ba dran pa ne bar bzag pa sgom pa dah | tshor ba la tshor bahi
rjes su lta ba dran pa ne bar b£ag pa sgom pa dah | sems la sems kyi ijes su lta ba dran pa ne
dgah ba dah | ye Ses kyi mhon bar Ses pa tshol ba dah | sahs rgyas kyi ye £es la hjug paho || £es rab kyi snan
bahi chos bzi ye £es kyi tshogs su hgyur te | chad pa la so sor myi gnas pa dah | rtag pa la myi hjugs pa dah
| rkyen dah hdu ba tshogs te hbyun ba ma bgags pa dah | bdag myed pa la dad paho || chos hdi bzi thabs
dah ye Ses kyi tshogs su hgyur te | hjig rten gyi ijes su hjug pa dah | mdo sdehi ijes su hjug pa dah | chos
kyi ijes su hjug pa dah | ye Ses kyi ijes us hjug paho |[ chos hdi lam gyi tshogs kyi ye 6es la hjug par hgyur
te | pha rol tu phyin pahi lam dah | byah chub kyi phyogs kyi lam dah | yan lag brgyad kyi lam dah | thams
cad mkhyen pahi ye Ses kyi ijes su hgro bahi lam mo || myi no(m)s pa bzis ye £es kyi tshogs su hgyur te (
thos pas myi horns pa dah | b£ad pas myi noms pa dah | dpyod pas myi noms pa dah | ye Ses kyis myi noms
paho || (R folio 647.2-648.4).
1. P R gtan.
2. D N R ye £es kyi khar las pa.
3. N gnas pa.
4. P ye Ses thams cad mkhyen pahi ye Ses la rten par hgyur zin.
5. D N R gzog.
6. Pelliot, 977, folio 6a.2~4
gzan yah ye £es kyi tshogs ni sems can thams cad kyi ijes su hgro ba dah | zin tham cad kyi ijes su hgro ba
ste | sbyin ba yah ye Ses kyi tshogs su bltaho || tshul khrims dah | bzod pa dah | brtson hgrus dan [ bsam
gtan dah | Ses rab dah | byams pa dah | sftin ije dah | dgah ba dah | btan siioms kyan ye Ses kyi tshogs su
bltaho J| de jihi phyir ze na | ji tsam tu byah chub sems dpahi brtson ba de thams cad ye Ses kyi khar las so
|| ye Ses thog mar hgioho || ye Ses la so sor rton to | de ye Ses la gnas nas sems can thams cad so sor hkhor
bar hgyur ro || bdud thams cad kyis de la glags myi rfiyed de | thams cad mkhyen pahi ye Ses su hjog go |j
zes gsuhs so jj.
7. D N P R mam pa de gnis.
8. As in the previous instances, this connecting phrase is here missing in the Pelliot manuscript. Moreover,
the next sentences do not correspond to those in the following section o f the blockprint editions but are
found in a much later part defining wisdom (cf. R folio 685.7), thus effectively jumping almost a third o f
the entire chapter.

461
 Appendix iv

bar b£ag pa sgom pa dah | chos la chos kyi ijes su lta ba dran pa ne bar b:zag pa sgom paho ||

2 , 8.1
de la lus la lus kyi ijes su lta ba dran pa ne bar bzag pa sgom pa gah ze na | £a rxhi bu hdi la
byah chub sems dpah lus la lus kyi ijes su lta £in gnas pa de lus kyi snon gyi mthah la yah so
j
sor rtog lus kyi phyi mahi mthah la yah so sor rtog j lus kyi da ltar byuh ba la yah so sor rtog
ste | kye maho lus hdi ni phyin ci log las byuh ba ste | rgyu dah rkyen las skyes ba | g.yo ba
med pa | byed pa med pa | bdag po med pa | yons su hdzin pa med pa | hdi lta ste | dper na
phyi rol gyi rtswa dah | Sin gel ba dah | sman dah | nags tshal dag rgyu dah rkyen las byuh zin
j
(650) bdag po med pa11yons su hdzin pa med pa | de bzin du lus hdihan rtswa rtsig pa dah |
j
§in dah | boh ba2 dah mig yor lta bu dan3 1phun po dah | khams dah | skye mched yons su
hdzin pa dah | bdag dah bdag gi ham | rtag pa ham J brtan pa ham | ther zug gam | mi hgyur
bahi chos kyis ston ste | lus de la ha yir mi byahi | lus snin po med pa des snin po blah bar
byaho41|
de la snin po gah ±e na | hdi lta ste | de bzin gSegs pahi skuho || de bzin gSegs pahi sku ni
chos kyi sku | rdo ijehi sku | mi phyed pahi sku | sra bahi5 sku | hjig rten gsum po6 thams
cad dah khyad zugs pahi sku bdag gis bsgrub par byaho jj bdag gi lus hdi nes pa du mahi
skyon chags mod kyi | hon kyan nes pa thams cad dah bral bahi de bzin gSegs pahi sku thob
par byaho || zes de so sor rtog pahi mthus legs par mthon nas | hbyun ba chen pohi gnas kyi
lus yons su srun bar byed do || iiahi lus ni sems can thams cad kyi ci7 dgos par zad paho ||
hdi lta ste | dper na phyi rol gyi hbyun ba chen po bzi po sahi khams dah | chuhi khams dah |
mehi khams dah | rlun gyi khams sgo sna tshogs dah | dmigs pa sna tshogs dah j mam grans
sna tshogs dah | yo byad sna tshogs dah | Ions spyod8 sna tshogs kyis sems can mams ne bar
htsho ba de bzin du | bdag gi hbyun ba chen po bzi las gyur pahi (651) lus hdi sgo sna tshogs
dah | dmigs pa sna tshogs dah | rnam grans sna tshogs dah | Ions spyod sna tshogs mams
kyis9 sems can mams kyi ne bar htsho bar gyur cig | snam mo ||

1. N om: pa.
2. P gseg ma.
3. N om: dan.
4. P de la sriih po med paho, for D N R des sfiin po blah bar byaho.
5. P brtan pahi.
6. P R om: po.
7. N cir.
8. D N R yons su spyod pa (also in the next occurrences for the term ‘Ions spyod’).
9. D P R mams kyis; N kyi.

462
 Appendix iv

de lus mi rtag pa nid duhan so sor rtog mod kyi | skye ba1 dan Si hphos kyan mi skyoho2
|| lus sdug bsnal nid duhan3 so sor rtog mod kyi | lus kyi sdug bsnal bas kyan yons su mi
gdun ho || lus bdag med pa nid du yah so sor rtog mod kyi | sems can yons su smin par bya
bahi phyir4 yah mi skyoho || lus zi ba nid duhan so sor rtog mod kyi | lus ±i bas5 btah
snoms su yah mi ltun ho || lus ston pa nid dah lus dben pa nid duhan6 so sor rtog mod kyi |
dben pahi mur yah mi ltun ho ||
de lus la lus kyi ijes su lta £in gnas pa na lus la rdzas dah snin por ijes su mi mthon ho ||
(de) nan gi lus la yah lus kyi ijes su lta ±in gnas pa na nan gi ijes su son bahi non mons pa
mams kyi go skabs mi hbyed do || de phyi rol gyi lus la lus kyi rjes su lta zin gnas pa na phyi
rol gyi ijes su son bahi non mons pa mams dah lhan cig mi gnas so ||
de lus non mons pa med pas lus kyi las yons su dag pa ldan pa yin no || de lus yons su dag
nas mtshan (hid) gyis yah dag par brgyan pahi sku hthob po || de lus mtshan hid kyis7
brgyan par gyur nas lha dah mi mams mhon du hdul8 bar hgyur te | de ni byah chub sems
dpahi lus la lus kyi ijes su lta ba9 (652) dran pa he bar b£ag pa sgom paho ||

2 . 8.2
yah ji ltar na byah chub sems dpah tshor ba la tshor bahi10 rjes su lta ba dran pa he bar
bzag pa sgom pa yin ze na | hdi la byah chub sems dpah gah ci tshor11 yah run12 de thams
cad sdug bsnal lo || £es de sham du sems te | de ye Ses kyis rtogs pa dah | Ses rab kyis rtogs pa
dah | thabs kyis rtogs pahi tshor ba Sin tu rtogs pas bde bar tshor ba tshor bar13byed mod kyi
| hdod chags kyi bag la hal ba yah bag la hal bar mi byed do141| sdug bsnal bahi tshor bas reg
nas kyan nan son du skyes pa thams cad la snin ije chen po skyed cih khon khro bahi15bag la
hal yah bag16la hal bar mi byed do || bde ba yah ma yin | s.dug bsnal ba yah ma yin pahi tshor
1. P tshe.
2. D N P R skyeho; Akn (p. 66.5.8) skyoho; see also next occurrence o f term ‘skyeho’.
3. N om: han (also in the next clause).
4. D N R bya ba la.
5. N ba.
6. N om: han.
7. N P R om: mtshan nid kyis.
8. N R hdu.
9. D N P R bahi (also in all subsequent occurrences o f this stockphrase).
10. P 2in.
11. P cun zad, for D N R ci tshor.
12. N add: ste.
13. N add: bag la hal yan.
14. P mi flal lo, for D N R hal bar mi byed do (also in the following two occurrences o f the phrase ‘hal bar mi
byeddo’).
15. N add: tshor bar.
16. N om: fial yah bag.

463
 Appendix iv

bas reg1 kyan f ma rig pahi bag la nal yah bag la nal bar mi byed do |f de tshor bahi ijes
su son bahi dran pas bde ba ham | sdug bsnal ba ham | bde ba yah ma yin | sdug bsnal ba yah
ma yin pahi tshor ba gah tshor ba yah tshor ba de dag las hbyun bar lta ba yin no jj sems can
thams cad kyi tshor ba yons su £es Sin ±\ bahi phyir yah hjug ste |
sems can hdi dag ni tshor ba las hbyun bar mi 6es pas de dag bde bahi tshor ba la dgah bar
byed | sdug bsnal bahi tshor ba la £e sdan bar byed | bde ba yah ma yin | sdug bsnal ba yah
ma yin pahi tshor ba4 la rmons par byed kyir5 1bdag ni (653) £es rab dah ye £es kyis rjes su
rtogs pahi tshor ba | tshor ba thams cad so sor sbyans pa dah | thabs mkhas pa dah snin ije
chen pos yons su bzun bahi rtsom pas [ sems can de dag gi tshor ba thams cad rgyun gcod
pahi phyir6chos bstan paho ||
cihi phyir tshor ba 2es bya (ba) ze na | rtogs pahi tshor ba7 ni bde bar hgyur ro || ma rtogs
pahi tshor ba ni sdug bsnal bar hgyur ro if
de la rtogs pahi tshor ba gah ze na | hdi la bdag gam | sems can nam | srog gam j gah zag
gah du8 yah tshor bar byed pa med do9 1| chags pa ni tshor baho || yons su hdzin pa ni tshor
baho |j len pa ni tshor baho || phyin ci log ni tshor baho || mam par rtog pa ni tshor baho || lta
bahi bag la nal ba ni tshor baho || mig tu hdu £es pa tshor ba yin pa nas | yid kyi hdu Ses pahi
bar du ni tshor baho || gzugs su hdu £es pa tshor ba yin pa nas | chos su hdu Ses pahi bar du ni
tshor baho || gah mig gi hdus te reg pahi rkyen las byuh bahi tshor ba bde ba ham | sdug bsnal
ba ham | bde ba yah ma yin | sdug bsnal ba yah ma yin pahi bar du de ni tshor ba zes byaho ||
goh ma biin du nan dah phyihi chos mams la sbyar te j yid kyi bar du hdus te reg pahi
rkyen las byuh bahi tshor ba bde ba ham | sdug bsnal ba ham | bde ba yah ma yin | sdug bsnal
ba yah ma yin pahi bar du ni tshor zes byaho || (654)
gzan yah mam grans kyis tshor ba gcig ste101 de ni sems gcig pus11 mam par rig paho ||

1. P add: nas.
2. P bde ba yan med | sdug bsnal yan med pahi tshor ba med kyi mdo | de.
3. duskhaya vedanaya sprstah sarvapapaksanopapannesu sattvesu mahakarunam utpadayati || pe || api tu
khalu punar abhiniveSo vedana parigraho vedanopadanam vedanopalambho vedana viparyaso vedana
vikalpo vedanetyadi || (Akn as cited in Siks, p. 233.6-8).
4 N ma yin pa, for D P R ma yin pahi tshor ba.
5. N P kyis.
6. N om: phyir; P so sor sbyan bahi phyir; R rgyun bead pahi phyir.
7. P tshor bas ma rtogs pa ni, for D N R rtogs pahi tshor ba (also in the two following occurrences o f the
phrase ‘rtogs pahi tshor ba’).
8. D N R om: du.
9. P rtogs par byed pa med paho, for D N R tshor bar byed pa med do.
10. P ni hdi lta ste (also in the next six phrases o f this paragraph in which the numerical structureo f feeling
(tshor ba) is introduced).
11. Ppuhi.

464
 Appendix iv

tshor ba gnis te | (de ni)1phyi dah nan giho || tshor ba gsum ste | (de ni)2 hdas pa mam par
rig pa dah | ma hons ba mam par rig pa dah | da ltar byuh ba mam par rig paho || tshor ba bzi
ste | de ni khams bzi mam par rig paho j | tshor ba lha ste3 | de ni phun po lha yid la byed
paho || tshor ba drug ste | de ni skye mched drug yons su rtog paho || tshor ba bdun te j de ni
mam par Ses pa gnas pa bdun no || tshor ba brgyad de | de ni log par nes pahi sbyor ba brgyad
do || tshor ba dgu ste | de ni sems can gyi gnas dguho || tshor ba bcu ste | de ni4 dge ba bcuhi
las kyi lam5mo ||
gon ma bzin du sbyar te | thams cad ni tshor ba ste | dmigs pa ji sned pa dah | yid la byed
pa ji sned pa de thams cad tshor bar byaho6 |j de bas na sems can tshad med pahi7 tshor ba
tshad med pa £es byaho81|
de la byah chub sems dpah tshor ba la tshor bahi rjes su lta zin gnas pas | sems can thams
cad kyi tshor ba skye ba dah | hjig pa dah | gnas pa la ye §es bskyed par bya ste | gah sems
can thams cad kyi dge ba dah mi dge bahi tshor ba la tshor ba £es pa de ni byah chub sems
dpahi tshor ba la tshor bahi ijes su lta ba dran pa ne bar bzag paho ||

2.8.3
de la byah chub sems dpahi sems la sems kyi (655) ijes su lta ba dran pa ne bar bzag pa gah
ze na | ^yan chub sems dpah dehi10 mi bijed pa dah | sba ba dah | kun bsruh ba dah | mi
g.yen baho || de hdi ltar so sor rtog pa ste | sems ni skyes nas hjig cih zu ste mi gnas pas111
nan na yah mi gnas | phyi rol tu yah mi hpho ste | gah bdag gis thog mar sems bskyed pa de
yah zad | med121mam par gyur te | yul na mi gnas | phyogs na mi gnas pas de med par mi
nus te | sems gah gis dge bahi rtsa ba bsgrubs pa de dag kyan zad | med | mam par gyur te131
yul na mi gnas | phyogs na mi gnas so ||
gah yah byah chub tu bsnos pahi sems de yah ho bo nid kyis mtshan nid med pa ste | sems

1. Akn (p. 67.3.7-4.3) upholds parallel phrasing throughout this passage, using the term ‘gan hdi’ instead of
‘de ni’.
2. See previous note.
3. R tshor ba lha gah ze na.
4. Akn (p. 67.4.1) add: mi.
5. P add: mams.
6. P yin par rig par bya ste, for D tshor bar bya baho.
7. N pas.
8. P de bas na sems can dpag tu med pa mams kyi tshor ba dpag tu med pa zes byaho.
9. D N R a d d : gah.
10. Akn (p. 67.4.5) add: byah chub kyi sems.
11. N nas.
12. N om: med.
13. P med par gyur te, for D N R med | mam par hgyur.

465
 Appendix iv

kyis sems rab tu mi 3es te1 | sems kyis sems mi mthon j sems kyis sems mi tshor na | gah gis
bdag bla na med pa yah dag par rdzogs pahi byah chub mhon par rdzogs par htshan rgya2
pahi sems de gah yin | gah byah chub kyi sems de ni dge bahi rtsa bahi sems dah mi hgrogs3
| gah dge bahi rtsa bahi sems de yah bsno bahi sems dah mi hgrogs | gah bsno bahi sems de
yah byah chub kyi sems dah | dge bahi rtsa bahi sems dah mi hgrogs so || £es de j de ltar so
sor rtog pa na41mi skrag mi dnan dhah bar mi hgyur gyi51de yah hdi sham du sems te |
rten cin hbrel par (656) hbyun ba zab mo rgyu dah hbras bu chud mi za baho || gal te sems
kyi chos hid de lta bu sems kyi rah b£in hid yin yah chos thams cad rgyu dah rkyen la rag las
pa | g.yo ba med pa Jbyed pa med pa | bdag po med pa | ji ltar hdod pa de bzin du hgrub kyis |
bdag gis sgrub6pa la brtson par7byaho || sems kyi chos hid de mi hbri bar byaho ||
de la sems kyi chos hid gah | sgrub pa gah ze na | sems ni sgyu ma dah hdra ba ste | de ia
sbyin8 par byed pa yah su yan9 med de j de ni sems kyi chos hid de | gah yah bdog pa
thams cad yons su btan nas sahs rgyas kyi zin mam par sgrub pahi rgyan du10 sho bar byed
pa de ni sgrub par byed paho || sems rmi lam dah hdra ba rab tu zi bahi mtshan nid de ni sems
kyi chos hid de | gah yah tshul khrims sdom pahi tshogs sogs so || chog31de thams cad myur
bahi mhon par 3es par sno ba de ni sgrub paho || sems smig rgyu lta bu Sin tu zad pas zad par
gyur pa12 de ni sems kyi chos hid de | gah yah bzod pahi stobs dah | des pa13byah chub kyi
rgyan bsgrub pahi phyir sho ba de ni dehi sgrub paho || sems chu zla lta bu Sin tu dben pas
dben pa de ni sems kyi chos hid de | gah yah brtson hgrus rtsom pa thams cad sahs rgyas kyi
chos thams cad yons su rdzogs par bya bahi phyir sho ba (657) de ni dehi sgrub paho || sems
gzun du med pa mi mthon ba de ni sems kyi chos hid de | gah yah bsam gtan dah j mam par
thar pa dah | tin he hdzin dah | mham par g£ag pa thams cad sahs rgyas kyi tin he hdzin du
sho ba de ni dehi sgrub paho ||
sems gzugs med pa | mi mthon ba | mi thogs pa14115 mam par mi rig pa de ni sems kyi
1. D P R om: te.
z P sans rgyas.
3. P ldan (also in the following two occurrences of the word ‘hgrogs’).
4. N dan.
5. P mi hjigs mi skrag | skrag par mi hgyur gyi, for D N R mi skrag mi diiari dnan bar mi hgyur gyi.
6. D N R bsgrub.
7. P sbyor bar.
8. N D sgrib.
9. N om: yah.
10, P gyis.
11. R chos.
1Z P £in tu zad cin med pa.
13. P hgrogs na bde ba.
14. D mi thos pa.
15. R add: mam par mi thogs pa.

466
 Appendix iv

chos nid de | gah yah dris pahi tshig tha dad pa bstan pa thams cad 6es pa | sahs rgyas kyi ye
6es yons su rdzogs par sho ba de ni dehi sgrub paho || dmigs pa sna tshogs la sems skye ba de
ni sems kyi chos nid de | gah yah dge bahi rtsa ba la dmigs pahi sems ne bar sbyor ba1de ni
dehi sgrub paho || rgyu med pa las sems mi skye ba de ni sems kyi chos nid de | gah yah byah
chub kyi phyogs kyi chos kyi rgyuhi sems skyed pa de ni dehi sgrub paho [| gah yul med par
sems mi skye ba de ni sems kyi chos hid de | gah yah sahs rgyas kyi yul gyi rgyuhi sems he
bar sbyor ba de ni dehi sgrub paho ||
6a rihi bu de ltar na byah chub sems dpah sems la sems kyi ijes su lta ba2 dran pa he bar
bzag pa sgom paho || de sems la sems kyi ijes su lta zin gnas pa na | mhon par 6es pa thob
pahi phyir sems 6in tu hbrel par byed de | de (658) mhon par 6es pa thob nas sems gcig gis
sems can thams cad kyi sems rab tu 6es te | 6es nas kyan dehi rah b£in gyi3 chos hchad do ||
gzan yah byah chub sems dpah (sems la)4 sems kyi ijes su lta zin gnas pa na | snin rje
chen po thob pahi phyir sems he bar hbrel par byed de | snin ije chen po thob pas sems can
thams cad yons su smin par bya bahi phyir5 yons su mi skyoho6 1| sems la sems kyi ijes su
lta £in gnas pa na | sems zad pa dah sems hgog par bya bahi phyir sems gnas par mi byed kyi
| hkhor bahi rgyun gyi kun tu7 sbyor ba mams kyis sems mhon par sgrub ste j sems kyi dran
pa 6es pa de ma skyes pa dah mi skye ba nes par gyur pa la £ugs pahi chos mams kyis gnas te
| han thos dah rah sahs rgyas kyi sar yah mi ltun no || sahs rgyas kyi chos thams cad yons su
rdzogs par ma gyur kyi bar du | sems kyi rgyud de rgyun chags par byed de | sems kyi skad
cig gcig dan ldan pahi 6es rab kyis bla na med pa yah dag par rdzogs pahi byah chub mhon
par rdzogs par htshan rgya ste | 6a rihi bu de ltar na byah chub sems dpah sems la sems kyi
ijes su lta ba8dran pa he bar bzag pa sgom mo ||

2.8.4
6a rihi bu ji ltar na byah chub sems dpah chos la chos kyi ijes su lta ba dran pa he bar bzag
pa sgom pa yin ze na | 6a rihi bu hdi la byah chub sems dpas hphags pahi 6es rab kyi mig gis
chos gah (659) mthon ba de dag byah chub kyi snin pohi bar du bar ma dor9 rmohs par mi

1. P bsfien par byed pa (also in the next occurence of the phrase ‘fie bar sbyor ba’).
2. D N P R ±m.
3. P no bo fiid du, for D N R ran bzin gyi.
4. Given in Akn (p. 68.2.1).
5. D N R bya ba la.
6. N skyeho.
7. P hkhor ba dan hbrel cin; R hkhor bahi rgyun gyi kun nas.
8. D N P R zin.
9. P sftin po tshun chad kyi bar du, for D N R sfiin pohi bar du bar ma dor.

467
 Appendix iv

hgyur te | de chos la chos kyi ijes su lta zin gnas pa na | gah ston pa hid du ma gtogs pa dah |
mtshan ma med par ma gtogs pa dah | smon pa med par ma gtogs pa dah | mi skye bar ma
gtogs pa dah | ma skyes par ma gtogs pa dah | mhon par hdu mi byed par ma gtogs pa dah |
dhos po med par ma gtogs pahi chos rdul tsam1yah mi mthon ho j|
gah rten cin hbrel par hbyun bar ma gtogs pahi chos rdul tsam yah yah dag par ijes su mi
mthon ho || byah chub sems dpah de chos la chos kyi ijes su lta £ih gnas pa na | chos nid yah
dag par rjes su mthon gi | chos ma yin pa mi mthon ho |j
de la chos gah ze na | hdi lta ste | bdag med pahi don dah | sems can med pahi don dah |
srog med pahi don dah | gah zag med pahi don te | de ni chos zes byaho jj
de la chos ma yin pa gah £e na J hdi lta ste | bdag du lta ba dah | sems can du lta ba dah j
srog tu lta ba dah | gah zag tu lta ba dah | chad par lta ba dah | rtag par lta ba dah | hbyun bar
lta ba dah | hjig par lta ba dah | de ni chos ma yin pa zes byaho ||
yah 6a rihi bu chos thams cad chos so jj chos thams cad2 chos ma yin paho || de cihi phyir
(660) ie na | ston pa nid dah | mtshan ma med pa dah | smon pa med pa 6es pahi phyir chos
thams cad chos so || bdag dah bdag gir lta bahi bag la nal bahi phyir chos thams cad chos ma
yin paho ||
de la byah chub sems dpah3 chos la chos ijes su lta zin gnas pa na | chos de dag la gah yah
sahs rgyas kyi chos ma yin pa gah las byah chub tu mi hgyur ba dan4 1gah las sahs rgyas su
mi hgyur ba dah | gah las lam du mi hgyur ba dah | gah las thar par mi hgyur ba dah | gah las
hbyun bar mi hgyur bahi chos rdul tsam yah mi mthon ste | de chos thams cad hbyun bar 6es
nas sgrib pa med pa zes bya bahi snin rje chen po hthob ste | sems can thams cad kyi kun nas
non mohs pa5 yah de dag non mons pa dah bcas pa ma yin gyi | de dag non mons pa med
paho zes bcos mar hdu 6es skyed do ||6
de cihi phyir ie na | de ltar de dag ni nes pahi don la yah dag par hjug pa ste | non mohs pa
mams la bsags pa ham | phuh pohi dhos po7 med de | de dag nid rjes su rtogs pahi phyir
1. P phra rab tsam (also in all subsequent occurrences o f the phrase ‘rdul tsam’).
2. N add: ni.
3. N dpahi.
4. P om: ba dan (also in the next three occurrences o f the phrase ‘mi hgyur ba dah ’).
5. D P add: la.
6. yatha tavad atraha | dharme dharmanudar6I viharan bodhisattvo na kaficid dharmam samanupaSyati | yato
na buddhadharma yato na bodliih | yato na margo | yato na nihsaranam | sa sarvadharmanihsaranam iti |
viditva ‘navaranam nama mahakarunasamadhim samapadyate | sa sarvadharmesu sarvakle6esu ca krtrim
asamjfiam pratilabhate | nihkleSa ete dharma | na ete sakleSah | tat kasya hetoh | tatha hy ete nltarthe
samavasaranti nasti kleSanam samcayo j na raSibhavah | na ragabhavo na dvesabhavo na mohabhava | esam
eva kle£anam avabodhad bodhih | yat svabhavaS ca kle6as tat svabhava bodhir ity evam smrtim
upasthapayati iti || (Akn as cited in &iks, p. 236.6-13).
7 N om: hi dhos po.

468
 Appendix iv

byan chub po |[ non mons pahi ran biin gah yin pa byah chub kyi rah biin yah de yin no jj
byah chub kyi rah biin gah yin pa non mohs pahi rah biin yah de yin te | de ltar dran pa ne
bar biag1 kyan | cun zad kyan ne bar hjog pa med | rab tu hjog pa med | (661) mi hjog pa
med de | chos nid de gnas pa nid du rab tu 6es so || de bas na chos kyi dbyins de ni gnas pa
nid ces byaho || chos kyi dbyins gnas2 gah la gnas pa | sems can gyi khams kyan gnas de la
gnas so || sems can gyi khams gnas gah la gnas pa | nam mkhahi khams kyan gnas de la gnas
te | de bas na chos thams cad nam mkhah dah mtshuns ies byaho j|
byah chub sems dpah de chos la chos kyi rjes su lta iin gnas pa na sahs rgyas kyi chos la
rton pa yin | chos thams cad sahs rgyas kyi chos su mos par byed de | de zad pa 6es pa yah
bskyed mod kyi | hdus ma byas pahi zad pa yah mhon du mi byed | mi skye ba 6es pa yah
mhon par bsgrub [pa] mod kyi | sems can la lta bahi phyir yah skye la | mi skye bahi mthah
de yah mi gton ho || dran pa ne bar bzag paho zes bya ba ni chos thams cad dran pa de la bzag
par byed cin | nan thos sam | rah sahs rgyas sam | sahs rgyas kyi chos ji sned chos su btags3
pa de dag thams cad ma lus par dran pa de la bzag ste [ dran pa de yah bijed4 par mi byed |
phyi mahi mthahi bar du rmons par mi byed do ||
chos la chos kyi ijes su lta ba dran pa ne bar bzag paho zes bya ba de ni bstan pa dpag tu
med pa ste | kun tu spyod yul ma yin pa | sahs rgyas kyi chos thams cad la (662) yah dag par
hdu ba5 | sems can thams cad kyi sems tshim par byed pa | bdud thams cad hdul ba | rah
byuh ba rtogs pahi phyir te |
£a rihi bu de ltar na byah chub sems dpah chos la chos kyi ijes su lta ba dran pa ne bar biag
pa sgom mo || de dag ni dran pa ne bar biag pa bii ies byaho ||
6a rihi bu de ltar na byah chub sems dpah dran pa ne bar biag pa b ii po de dag la mkhas pa
6es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod do ||

2.9
de la byah chub sems dpah mams kyi byah chub kyi yan lag la mkhas pa gah ie na | byah
chub sems dpah mams kyi byah chub kyi yan lag hdi bdun te | bdun gah ie na | hdi lta ste |
dran pa yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag dah | chos mam par hbyed pa yah dag byah chub kyi
yan lag dah | brtson hgrus yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag dah | dgah ba yah dag byah chub

1. D P R gzog; N gzag.
2. N add: pa.
3. D bdags; N P gdags.
4. P bq'od.
5. D R yah dag par hdu ba; N yah dag par hdul ba; P yah dag par ijes su hjug pa.

469
 Appendix iv

kyi yan lag dan | Sin tu sbyans pa yan dag byan chub kyi yan lag dah | tin he hdzin yah dag
byah chub kyi yan lag dah j btan snoms yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag ste | Sa rihi bu de dag
ni byah chub sems dpah mams kyi byah chub kyi yan lag bdun no ||
de la dran pa yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag gah ie na | dran pa gan gis chos rtog par byed |
chos la so sor rtog par byed | chos la dpyod par byed j chos (663) yons su tshol bar byed cin |
chos mam par hbyed par byed pa dah | chos la mam par rtog par byed de | de dran pa des gah
chos mams kyi ho bo nid kyi mtshan nid de yah ijes su rtogs so || yah chos mams kyi ho bo
nid kyi mtshan nid £es pa gah ie na | chos thams cad rah gi mtshan nid kyi1 ston pa ste | gah
de ltar dran zin khon du chud pa de ni dran pa yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag ces byaho ||
de la chos mam par hbyed pa yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag gah ze na | gah chos kyi phun
po brgyad khri bii ston rab tu mam par hbyed pa Ses pa ste | nes pahi don kyan nes pahi don
du | dran bahi don kyan dran bahi don du | kun rdzob kyi don kyan kun rdzob kyi don du |
don dam pahi don kyan don dam pahi don du2 1brdahi kyan brdahi | mam par gtan la bab
pahi kyan mam par gtan la bab pahi3 chos de dag ji ltar rab tu dbye bar bya ba de bzin du |
de dag mam par hbyed par byed de | de ni chos mam par hbyed pa yah dag byah chub kyi
yan lag ces byaho ||
de la brtson hgrus yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag gah ze na | gan chos mam par hbyed pa
de nid kyi dgah ba dah | £in tu sbyans pa dah | tin he hdzin dah j btan snoms dah | ye 6es kyi
bar du hdzin pa dah | spro ba dah | stobs dah | rtul ba dah | mi zlogs pahi mos pa dah | mthu
dah | brtson pa mi hdor ba dan4 | (664) lam mhon par rtogs pahi phyir5 brtson hgrus rtsom6
pa ste | de ni brtson hgrus yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag ces byaho ||
de la dgah ba yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag gah ie na | dgah ba gah dah | chos la dgah ba
gah dah | chos la mchog tu7 dgah ba gah gis sems mi zum iin dah ba ste | ma £um pahi dgah
ba des gah lus sam | sems kyan §in tu byah bar8byed la | kun nas hon mohs pa yah sel ba de
ni dgah ba yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag ces byaho ||
de la 6in tu sbyans pa yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag gah ze na | gah lus £in tu sbyans pa

1. D N P kyis.
2. Akn D don dam pa yan don dam par; P R don dam pahi don kyan don dam pahi don du.
3. P mtshan ma yah mtshan mar mam par gdon mi za ba dah | mam par gdon mi za bar, for D N R brdahan
brdar | mam par gtan la bab pa yah mam par gtan la bab par.
4. P brtson hgrus mi gton ba dah.
5. D N R rtogs par bya ba la.
6. P om: rtsom.
7. P rab tu.
8. P spyod par, for D N R Sin tu byah bar.

470
 Appendix iv

dan | sems Sin tu sbyans pa dan | non mons pa Sin tu sbyans pa dan | sgrib1pa med pa dan |
tin ne hdzin du dmigs pa la sems ne bar gzag pa ste | de ni Sin tu sbyans pa yan dag byah
chub kyi yan lag ces byaho ||
de la tin he hdzin yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag gah ze na | gah sems mnam par gzag
pas2 chos Ses pa rtogs par hgyur gyi3 1sems mnam par ma gzag pas ni ma yin pa dah | sems
mnam par gzag pas4 chos de dag mhon par rdzogs par htshan rgyahi | sems mnam par ma
biag pas ma yin te | chos mnam pa nid dah | chos la giol ba ma gtogs par ijes su chags pahi
kun nas dkris pas rtogs par mi byed de5 1de ni tin he (665) hdzin yah dag byah chub kyi yan
lag ces byaho ||
de la btan snoms yah dag byah chub kyi yan lag gah ze na | gah yid bde ba dah | gan6 yid
mi bde bahi cha dah hthun pahi chos mams7 la sems mi hdzin pa dah | hjig rten gyi chos
kyis mi hphrogs pa dah | mtho8 dman du mi gnas pahi phyir rab tu mi g.yo (ro) || mi hkhrug |
rab tu mi hkhrug | yah dag par mi hkhrug | chags par mi byed | ±q sdan bar mi byed kyi |
hphags pahi lam de nid dah hthun par byed pa ste | de ni btan snoms yah dag byah chub kyi
yan lag ces byaho ||
£a rihi bu de ltar na byah chub sems dpah mams kyi9 byah chub kyi yan lag de bdun la
mkhas pa Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod do ||10

2.10

2 . 10.1

de la byah chub sems dpah mams kyi lam la mkhas pa gah ze na | byah chub sems dpah
mams kyi lam ni hdi brgyad do || brgyad gah ze na | hdi lta ste | yah dag pahi lta ba dah | yah
dag pahi rtog pa dah | yah dag pahi hag dah | yah dag pahi las kyi mthah dah | yah dag pahi

1. N sgribs; P R bsgribs.
2. R ma bzag pas, for D N P bzag pas.
3. D R N te.
4. R ma biag pa.
5. P lta ba bag la nal dan kun nas bskor ba de dag spans kyan mhon par rdzogs par htshan mi rgya ba, for D
N R rjes su chags pahi kun nas dkris pas rtogs par mi byed de.
6. D P R om: gah.
7. P yid mi bde ba stan pa la phan pahi chos.
8. N mthon.
9. D P R om: mams kyi.
10. P add: hphag pa byah chub sems dpahi sde snod ces bya theg pa chen pohi mdo || bam po cu dgu pa; D has
‘bam po bcu dgu pa’ only.

471
 Appendix iv

htsho ba dah | yah dag pahi rtsol ba1 dah | yah dag pahi dran pa dah | yah dag pahi tin he
hdzin te | de dag ni byah chub sems dpah mams kyi lam yan lag brgyad paho ||
de la yah (666) dag pahi lta ba gah ie na | lta ba gah hphags pa hjig rten las hdas pa ste |
bdag tu lta ba las lahs pa ma yin | sems can du lta ba las Ians pa ma yin | srog tu lta ba las Ians
pa ma yin | gah zag tu lta ba las lahs pa ma yin | chad pa dah | rtag pa dah | hbyun ba dah |
hjig par lta ba las lahs pa ma yin | dge ba dah mi dge bar lta ba las lahs pa ma yin pa nas |
mya han las hdas par lta bahi bar las2 lahs pa ma yin pa ste | de ni yah dag pahi lta ba zes
byaho ||
de la yah dag pahi rtog pa gah ze na | rtog pa3gah gis hdod chags dah | ze sdan | gti mug
la sogs pahi non mohs pa gnas par hgyur bahi rtog pa de ldan bar mi byed4 kyi | rtog pa gah
gis tshul khrims dah | tin he hdzin dah | Ses rab dah | mam par grol ba dah | mam par grol bahi
ye Ses mthon ba hbyun bar hgyur ba de la rtog pa ste | de ni yah dag pahi rtog pa zes byaho |j
de la yah dag pahi hag gah ze na | yah dag pahi nag5 gah gis bdag dah gzan la mi gdun zin
| de phan pahi ijes su sbyor bahi hag dah ldan pa yin te | hag des lam mnam pa la hjug pa
(ste) | de ni yah dag pahi hag ces byaho ||
de la yah dag pahi las kyi mthah gah ze na | gah las (667) gnag la6 mam par smin pa gnag
pa de lta bu mhon par hdu mi byed pa dah | gah las dkar la7 mam par smin pa dkar ba de lta
buhi las mhon par hdu byed pa dah | gah las dkar gnag la mam par smin pa dkar gnag tu
hgyur ba8 de lta buhi las mhon par hdu mi byed pa dah | gah las dkar gnag ma yin (pa) la
mam par smin par mi hgyur ba las zad par hgyur ba de lta buhi las mhon par hdu byed pa ste
| de las bdag gir bya ba la9 rton pa yah dag pahi las la brtson (pa ste | de ni)10yah dag pahi
las kyi mthah zes byaho ||
de la yah dag pahi htsho ba gah ze na | gah hphags pahi rigs dah | sbyans pahi yon tan mi
gton ba dah | kha gsag11med pa dah | tshul hchos pa med pa | thob kyis hjal ba12med pa dah
| dgah sla ba dah | gso sla ba dah | cho ga mi lhod pa dah | gzan gyi med pa la phrag dog med

I. P hbad pa.
Z Alai (p. 70.4.8) hdas par lta bahi bar las; D N R hdas par lta ba las; P hdas pahi bar lta ba las.
3. N om: pa.
4. P hgyur.
5. D R om: nag.
6. P po.
7. P po.
8. P om: tu hgyur ba.
9. P de rah gi las (...) byuh ba las, for D N R de las bdag gir bya ba la.
10. D N P R pas.
II. N bsag.
12. P gzog slons, for D N R thob kyis hjal ba.

472
 Appendix iv

pa dan | bdag gi med pas chog Ses pa dan | kha na ma tho ba med pa dan | hphags pas gnan
bahi htsho ba ste | de ni yah dag pahi htsho ba zes byaho ||
de la yah dag pahi rtsol ba gah ze na | rtsol ba gan1log par spyod par b£ad pa hdod chags
dah | ze sdan dah | gti mug gi2non mohs pa bag la nal bahi rtsol ba de mi hdod kyi | rtsol ba
gah hphags pahi lam dah bden pa la hjug pa mya han las hdas par hgro bahi lam du hjug
par3byed pahi rtsol ba dehi ijes su hgro ba ste | de ni yah (668) dag pahi rtsol ba ies byaho ||
de la yah dag pahi dran pa gah ie na | dran pa gah Sin tu he bar gzag4 pa dah j tha mal pa
ma yin pa dah | dran ba dah | gya gyu med pa dah | hkhor bahi nes pa dah skyon la lta ba dah |
mya han las hdas pahi lam du hdren pahi dran pa dah | dran par byed pa dah | hphags pahi
lam mi bijed pa ste | de ni yah dag pahi dran pa ies byaho ||
de la yah dag pahi tin he hdzin gah ie na | yah dag pa nid du5 mnam pa | chos thams cad
la mnam pa ste | tin he hdzin de la rab tu gnas na yah dag pa nid du hjug ste61gah yah byah
chub sems dpahi tin he hdzin de la gnas na7 sems can thams cad rab tu thar par bya bahi
phyir | yah dag pa nid du hjug pa de ni yah dag pahi tin he hdzin ies byaho || hdas pa dah | ma
byon pa dah | da ltar byuh bahi sahs rgyas bcom ldan hdas mams kyi lam8 mi zad pa hdi
byah chub sems dpas mhon par rtogs nas hchad pa dah | ston pa dah | yah dag par rab tu ston
pa | de ni yah dag pahi tin he hdzin ies byaho |]9
1. N om: gan.
2. R gan; D dan.
3. D R lam du hjug par, N lam du hjog par; P nan tan gton bar.
4. D N P R gzog.
5. P yan dag par (also in the next occurrence of the term ‘yah dag da hid du’).
6. P yah dag pahi mi hgyur ba la hjug par byed de, for D N R yah dag pa hid du hjug ste.
7. N nas.
8 Akn (p. 71.1.6) ‘tin he hdzin’ for Bdp ‘lam’.
9. tad yatha samyagdrstih samyaksamkalpah samyagvak samyakkarmantah samyagajlvah samyaksmrtih
samyaksamadhiSca |j tatra katama samyagdrstih | ya lokottara
natmadrstisamutthitanasattvanajivanaposanapurusanapudgalanamanujanamanavadrstisamutthita
noccheda^a^vatadrstisamutthita na bhavavibhavadrstisamutthita na kuSalakuSalavyakrtadrstisamutthita ya
ca na samsaranirvanadrstisamutthita j iyamucyate samyagdrstih || tatra katamah samyaksamkalpah j yaih
samkalpai ragadvesamohakleSah samuttisthanti | tan samkalpan na samkalpayati | yaih samkalpaih
SilasamadhiprajMvimuktijfianadarSanaskandha samuttisthanti | tan samkalpan samkalpayati | ayamucyate
samyaksamkalpah || tatra katama samyagvak | yaya vaca natmanam na paramSca tapayati natmanam na
paramSca kleSayati natmanam na paramSca upakaroti taya aryayuktanukulya vaca
samadhipritivacanairyukto bhavati | iyamucyate samayagvak |j tatra katamah samyakkarmantah | yatkarma
krsnam krsnavipakam tatkarma nabhisamskaroti | yatkarma Suklam Suklavipakam tatkarmabhisamskaroti |
yatkarma Sulkakrsnam vartate Sulkakrsnavipakam vartate tatkarma nabhisamskaroti | yatkarma
krsnaSulkavipakam krsnaksayaya samvartate tatkarmabhisamskaroti | satkarmabhisamkaroti
satkarmapratisaranakarmantah | iyamucyate samayakkarmantah || tatra katamah samyagajlvah j yada
aryavamSena gunasamlekhanutsaijanata na kuhanata na lapanata na naispesikata ^uratacara^ilata
paralabhesu na irsya atmalabhasantustih anavadyata aryanumatanavadyajivika | ayamucyate
samayagajivah || tatra katamah samyagvyayamah | yo vyayamo mithya yasmadragadvesamoha anu^erate
tam vyayamam necchati | yo vyayamah samyagaryamargasatyavataro nirvanagami pratipadarpayati tarn
vyayamam samanugacchati | ayamucyate samayagvyayamah || tatra katama samyaksmrtih | ya supasthita
aprakampya rjuka akutila samsaradvesadinavadarSika nirvanapatliapranetri smrtih

473
 Appendix iv

de dag ni byan chub sems dpah mams kyi lam yan lag brgyad pa ies bya ste j de ni byah
chub sems dpahi lam la mkhas paho || bam po bcu dgu pa H1

2 . 10.2
gian yah lam la mkhas pa ni byah chub sems dpah mams kyi lam yan lag gnis pa ste | yan
lag gnis gah ze na j hdi lta ste | ii (669) gnas dah | lhag mthon ste | de ni lam yan lag gnis pa
ies byaho ||
de la ii gnas gah ie na | gah sems kyi ii ba dah | rab tu ii ba dan | ne bar ii ba dah | mi
g.yen ba dah | dban po mams bsdams pa dah | mi rgod pa dah | ma khens pa dah | mi hphyar
ba dah | mu cor mi smra ba dah | des2 pa dah | sbas pa dah | g.yo (ba) med pa dah | yid du
hon ba dah | gcig pur dgah ba dah | hdu hdzi sel ba dah j dben par dgah ba dah | lus dben pa
dah | sems ma hkhrul ba3 dah | dgon pahi sgo yid la byed pa dah | chog £es pa dah j hdod pa
nun ba dah | htsho ba yons su dag pa dah | cho ga phun sum tshogs pa dah | spyod lam sbas
j
pa dah | dus £es pa dah | tshod Ses pa dah drod4 Ses pa dah | dgah sla ba dah | gso sla ba dah
| so sor rtog pa dah | mi mtho mi dmah ba dah | tshig han pa smras pa bzod pa dah j mal
hbyor gyi sgor sems skyed pa dah | nan du yah dag hjog la mhon par dgah ba dah | bsam gtan
gyi yan lag yid la byed pa dah | byams pa skyed pa dah | snin ije mhon par sgrub pa dah |
dgah ba la gnas pa dah | btan snoms sgom pa dah | bsam gtan dah po nas | brgyad kyi bar du
mthar gyis snoms par hjug pa ste | de ni ii gnas ies byaho |1 yan5 ii gnas kyi tshogs tshad
med pa ste | tshogs de la6gah rjes su rtogs pa de ni ii gnas ies byaho || (670)
de la lhag mthon gah ie na | gah £es rab kyi cha dah hthun pahi7 sgom pahi lam ste | chos
mams la g.yo ba med pa dah | sems can med pa dah | srog med pa dah | gah zag med pa dah |
phuh po mams la sgyu mahi phun por mthon bahi £es pa dah j khams mams la chos kyi
khams su mthon bahi £es pa dah | skye mched mams la gron ston par mthon bahi Ses pa dah |
mig la rab tu mam par phye bar mthon bahi Ses pa dah | rten cin hbrel par hbyun ba la mi
hgal bar mthon bahi £es pa dah | sems can du lta ba dah bral bar mthon bahi Ses pa dah | rgyu

spharanamaryamargasammosah | iyamucyate samayaksmrtih || tatra katamah samyaksamadhih j yah

samyaktvena samadhih | yasmin samadhau sthitah sarvasattvapramoksaya samyak sthiratvam
niyamamavakramati | ayamucyate samayaksamadhih j| ayamucyate aryastango margah || (Arthav (S),
appendix, pp. 320-322)
1. D P om: ‘bam po bcu dgu pa’ at this place.
2. P mften.
3. P hkhrug pa.
4. P Aid tshod.
5. N gah.
6. P las.
7. P cha la phan pahi, for D N R cha dah hthun pahi.

474
 Appendix iv

dan hbras bu mam par smin pa mthon bahi £es pa dah | hbras bu thob pa mhon sum du bya ba
mthon bahi 6es pa dah | yah dag pa nid du hjug pa la hjug par byed pa1mthon bahi £es paho
ii
yah lhag mthon zes bya ba ni | hdi lta ste | chos mams ji lta ba bzin tu mthon ba dah | chos
mams kyi2 de kho na nid mthon ba dah | chos mams kyi gzan ma yin pa nid mthon ba dah |
chos mams kyi ston pa nid mthon ba dah | mtshan ma med pa mthon ba dah | smon pa med
pa mthon baho || yah lhag mthon £es bya ba ni rgyus mthon ba med pa dah | rgyu med par
mthon ba med pa dah | skye ba dah j hjig pa dah | gnas pahi rgyus mthon ba med pa dah j
dmigs pahi rgyus mthon ba med cin lhag par mthon (671) yah j cun zad kyan3 lhag par mi
mthon baho ||
gzan yah lhag mthon ni mthon bas kyan mthon la | mthon4 ba yah mi mthon ba ste | gah gi
tshe de ltar mthon ba dehi tshe yah dag par mthon baho || yah dag par mthon na lhag mthon la
mkhas pa yah ijes su hthob ste | de la byah chub sems dpahi lhag mthon5 la | mhon par hdu
byed par yah mi ltun zin | dge bahi rtsa ba mhon par hdu byed pa la yah mi gnas te | de ni
byah chub sems dpahi lhag mthon ho ||
de ltar na byah chub sems dpah zi gnas dah | lhag mthon la mkhas pa £es rab kyi pha rol tu
phyin pa la spyod do ||

2.10.3
gzan yah lam la mkhas pa ni byah chub sems dpah mams kyi lam mam pa b±i ste | mam pa
bzi gah ze na | hdi lta ste | sdig pa mi dge bahi chos ma skyes pa mams mi skyed pahi phyir
hdun pa skyed61hbad bar byed | brtson hgrus rtsom | sems rab tu hdzin | yah dag par rab tu
hjog go ||7 sdig pa mi dge bahi chos8 skyes pa mams span bahi phyir hdun pa skyed | hbad
bar byed | brtson hgrus rtsom | sems rab tu hdzin | yah dag par rab tu hjog go || dge bahi chos
ma skyes pa mams bskyed pahi phyir hdun pa skyed | hbad bar byed | brtson hgrus rtsom j
sems rab tu hdzin | yah dag par rab tu (672) hjog go || dge bahi chos skyes pa mams gnas pa

1. P yan dag pahi mi hgyur ba la hjug pa.

2. N om: kyi.
3. N om: kyan.
4. D N R blta.
5. N add: de ltar mthon.
6. P skye bar dad pa skyed, for D N R skyed pahi phyir hdun pa skye (also in all subsequent occurrences of
this phrase, with ‘pahi/bahi phyir hdun pa skyed’ being invaribaly replaced by the phrase ‘par/bar dad pa
skyed’).
7. P smon lam yan dag par rab tu hdebs pa dan, for D N R yah dag par rab tu hjog pa dah (also in the three
subsequent occurrences o f this phrase in this section).
8. D R om: chos.

475
 Appendix iv

dan | phyir ±ih hbyun. ba dan | flams par mi hgyur ba dan | chud mi za bar bya bahi phyir hdun
pa skyed1 | hbad bar byed | brtson hgrus rtsom | sems rab tu hdzin | yan dag par rab tu hjog
paho ||
gan sdig pa mi dge bahi chos ma skyes pa mams mi skyed pahi phyir hdun pa skyed ces
bya ba ni tshul b£in yid la byed pahi tshig bla dags so || hbad par byed | brtson hgrus rtsom
£es bya ba ni tshul bzin yid la byed pa de mi gton ba(hi tshig bla dags so)2 1| sems rab tu
hdzin | yah dag par rab tu hjog ces bya ba ni tshul3 bzin la so sor rtog pahi tshig bla dags so
|| de cihi phyir ze na | tshul b£in la rab tu sbyor ba ni mi dge bahi chos mams mi hbyun bahi4
phyir ro ||
de la mi dge bahi chos mams gan ±e na | hdi lta ste | tshul khrims kyi mi hthun pahi
phyogs5 dan | tin he hdzin gyi mi hthun pahi phyogs dan | £es rab kyi mi hthun pahi phyogs
so ||
de la tshul khrims kyi mi hthun pahi phyogs gan ze na | hdi lta ste | tshul khrims nams pa
dan | gan gzan la la6 tshul khrims nams par hgyur bahi chos mams (tshul khrims kyi phun
pohi mi hthun pahi phyogs)7te | de ni tshul khrims kyi mi hthun pahi phyogs zes byaho ||
de la tin he hdzin gyi mi hthun pahi phyogs gan ze na | gan cho ga flams pa dan | gan gzan
la la sems g.yeh bar byed pahi chos tin he hdzin gyi phun pohi mi hthun pahi phyogs te | de
ni tin (673) he hdzin gyi mi hthun pahi phyogs zes byaho |8 j
de la £es rab kyi mi hthun pahi phyogs gan ze na | hdi lta ste | lta ba flams pa dan | gan gzan
la la lta ba kun nas ldan bahi9 sgrib par byed pahi chos [gan] | £es rab kyi phuh pohi mi
hthun pahi phyogs de ni £es rab kyi mi hthun pahi phyogs zes bya ste | de ni sdig pa mi dge
bahi chos mams £es byaho ||
tshul b£in yid la byed pa gan gis sdig pa mi dge bahi chos de lta bu de dag span bahi phyir
hdun pa skyed | hbad par byed j brtson hgrus rtsom ( sems rab tu hdzin | yan dag par rab tu

1. P sgom pa mi bijed pa dan | ma stor bar dad pa skyed, for D N R phyir zin hbyun ba dan | flams par mi
hgyur ba dan | chud mi za bar bya bahi phyir hdun pa skyed (also in partially corresponding passages
below).
2. Akn (p. 68.5.6) reads ‘yid la byed pahi tshig bla dags so’. Bdp reads ‘yid la byed pa de mi gton baho’.
3. N add: yid.
4. P rgyu bar mi hgyur bahi, for D N R mi hbyun bahi.
5. P log pahi gflen po, for D N R mi hthun pahi phyogs (also in all subsequent occurrences o f this phrase in
this section).
6. P gaii gzan yan la la (also in the following two occurrences o f this phrase).
7. Given in Akn (p. 69.1.1); see also the following parallel phrases in the Bdp.
8. [papakanam aku&alanam dharmanam prahanaya chandam janayatotyatra prastave yani canyani punah]
kanicid anyany api cittaviksepakarani yani samadhiskandhasya vipaksaya samvartante | ayam ucyante
samadhivipaksah | yavad ime ucyante papaka | akuSala | dharma iti || (Akn.as cited in Siks, p. 117.13-16).
9 N R ba.

476
 Appendix iv

hjog pa ste j de bas na mi dge bahi chos de dag sems la phun por gyur pa ma yin | yul na mi
gnas | phyogs na mi gnas so ||
gan yah mi dge bahi chos de mams sems la rgyu ba sdug pahi1mam pas hdod chags sam |
khon khro bahi mam pas ze sdan ham | ma rig pahi mam pas gti mug gam | rgyu dan sgrib pa
gan dag las byun ba Ses &in | de la tshul bzin yid la byed pahi mam pa mi gtsan bas hdod
chags zi bar byed | byams pas ze sdan zi bar byed | rten cih hbrel par hbyun bas gti mug zi bar
byed de | gan kun nas non mons pa de dag zi ba de ni tha snad du btags pahi phyir spoh ba
£es byaho j| gan spon ba (674) ni gan yah rned par mi hgyur ro |J mnam pa nid kyis2 chos
thams cad mhon sum pas [na] dehi phyir3yah dag par spon ba zes bya ste | de ni yah dag par
spon ba gnis paho ||
gan yah dge bahi chos ma skyes pa mams skyed pahi phyir hdun pa skyed | hbad par byed j
brtson hgrus rtsom | sems rab tu hdzin | yah dag par rab tu hjog pa £es bya ba de ni gnas4
tshad med pa ste j de cihi phyir ze na | gan byan chub sems dpah sems dpah chen pos yah dag
par bsgrub par5bya bahi dge bahi chos tshad med pahi phyir ro |[
de la hdun pa ni dge bahi rtsa ba thams cad kyi rtsa baho || brtson hgrus yah dag par bsgrub
pa ni dge bahi rtsa ba thams cad kyi rtsa baho || sems rab tu hdzin pa nams su len par byed
pa6de ni dge bahi rtsa ba thams cad kyi rtsa ba ste | de ni yah dag par spoh ba gsum paho ||
gan yah dge bahi chos skyes pa mams gnas pa dan | nams par mi hgyur ba dan | chud mi za
bar bya bahi phyir hdun pa skyed | hbad par byed | brtson hgrus rtsom | sems rab tu hdzin |
yah dag par rab tu hjog ces bya ba de ni dge bahi rtsa ba byan chub tu bsnos pahi tshig bla
dags so j| de cihi phyir ze na | dge bahi rtsa ba byan chub tu bsnos pa ni mthah byan chub kyi
shin pohi rab tu slar chud za bar mi hgyur ro || de cihi phyir ze na | de ltar khams gsum la mi
gnas par sems skyed pahi phyir ro || (675) gan khams gsum la gnas pahi dge bahi rtsa ba de ni
zad par hgyur ro || de cihi phyir ze na | de ltar sems bskyed pa de ni khams gsum la7 gnas
pahi phyir ro || gan yah dge bahi rtsa ba khams gsum la mi gnas pa thams cad mkhyen par
bsnos pa de ni zad par mi hgyur te81de ni yah dag par spoh ba bzi paho ||
1. P rgyu ba gtsan pahi, for D rgyu bahi sdug pahi.
2. N kyi.
3. D P add: phyir.
4. P tshig.
5. P bsdu bar, for D N R yan dag par bsgrub par (also in the next occurrence o f the term ‘yah dag par sgrub
pa’).
6. P sgrol ba, for D N flams su Ion par byed pa (also in all subsequent occurrences o f the term ‘flams su len
par byed pa’).
7. N om: gnas par sems skyed pahi phyir ro || gan khams gsum la gnas pahi dge bahi rtsa ba de ni zad par
hgyur ro || de cihi phyir ze na | de ltar sems bskyed pa de ni khams gsum la.
8. D N R de la zad pa gan yan med de.

477
 Appendix iv

de ltar na byan chub sems dpah lam yan lag bzi pa la mkhas pa Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin
pa la spyod do jj

2.10.4
g£an yah lam la mkhas pa ni byan chub sems dpahi lam yan lag lna pa ste | lna gan ze na |
hdi lta ste | dad pahi dbah po dan | brtson hgrus kyi dbah po dan | dran pahi dbah po dan | tin
he hdzin gyi dbah po dan | Ses rab kyi dbah po ste |
de la dad pahi dbah po gan te na | dad pa gan gis chos bzi la dad par byed pa ste | bzi gan
te na j
(1) hkhor ba na spyod pahi hjig rten pahi1 yah dag par lta ba la mnon par dad de | de las
kyi mam par smin pa la rton pa yin te | srog gi phyir yah sdig pahi las mi byed pa dan |
(2) byan chub sems dpahi spyod pa la yah dad de | spyod pa la zugs pa de theg pa gzan la
hdod par mi byed pa dan j
(3) don dam pa nes pahi don dan | rten cih hbrel par hbyun ba zab mo dan | sems can la
mam par dpyod pa2 dan | ston pa nid dan | mtshan (676) ma med pahi mtshan nid kyi
chos thams cad la dad de j lta bar byas pa3thams cad bag la nal bar mi byed pa dan |
(4) sans rgyas kyi chos thams cad dan | stobs dan | mi hjigs pa mams la dad cih thos nas the
tsom med de4 1nem nur med par chos de mams sdud par byed pa de ni dad pahi dbah
po tes byaho ||
de la brtson hgrus kyi dbah po gan ze na | chos gan la dad pa de brtson hgrus kyi dbah pos
skyed par byed pa ste | de ni brtson hgrus kyi dbah po zes byaho || chos gan dag brtson hgrus
kyis bsdus pa de dag dran pahi dbah pos chud mi za bar byed pa de ni dran pahi dbah po zes
byaho || chos gan dag5 dran pahi dbah pos chud mi za bar byed pahi chos de dag tin he hdzin
gyi dbah pos rtse gcig tu byed pa de ni tin he hdzin gyi dbah po zes byaho || chos gan dag tin
he hdzin gyi dbah pos rtse gcig tu6byed pa de dag £es rab kyi dbah pos so sor rtog par byed
de | gan chos de dag £es pa de ni £es rab kyi dbah po zes byaho ||
de ltar na dbah po lna po de dag lhan gcig tu hbrel pa ste | sans rgyas kyi chos thams cad
yons su rdzogs par byed do || lun bstan pahi sa yah thob par byed de | hdi lta ste | dper na phyi
rol kyi mnon par Ses pa lna dan ldan pa dag mnal na hdug pa | bud med dan skyes pahi dbah
por ma gyur kyi bar du mhal na hdug pa la lun mi ston pa de (677) bzin du | sans rgyas bcom

1. P kyi (Akn, p. 86.3.4, gyi)

2 N mam par spyod pa; P rtog.
3. D bya ba.
4. D P R med pa; N med.
5. N om: dag.
6. D N P R pa.

478
 Appendix iv

Idan hdas mams1 kyan byan chub sems dpah dban po lna po de dag dan2 mi ldan gyi bar
du lun mi ston te | de ni lam yan lag lna paho ||3
de ltar na byan chub sems dpah lam yan lag lna pa la mkhas pa Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin
pa la spyod do ||

2.10.5
gzan yan Sa rihi bu byan chub sems dpah lam yan lag lna la mkhas pa gan ±e na | yan lag
lna ni | hdi lta ste | dad pahi stobs dan | brtson hgrus kyi stobs dan | dran pahi stobs dan | tin
he hdzin gyi stobs dan | Ses rab kyi stobs so j|
de la dad pahi stobs gan ze na | gan mos pa dad pa mgo gcig pa mi brdzi ba ste4 1gal te
dehi drun du bdud sdig can sans rgyas kyi gzugs su bsgyur te hons nas | chos kyi ye Ses la
dad pa gan yah run ba la la £ig gis chos hdi dag ni sans rgyas kyi chos ma yin no || zes hbral
bar byed | hdun5 pa zlog par byed kyan | yons su brtag pa bzun na hbyun ba chen po bzi
mams ni gzan du hgyur gyi | dad pahi stobs la mos pahi6byan chub sems dpah ni de lta bu7
ma yin no || de ltar byan chub sems dpahi stobs las hbral bar mi nus pa de ni dad pahi stobs
so ||
de la byan chub sems dpahi brtson hgrus kyi stobs gan ze na | gan brtson hgrus rtsom £ih
dge bahi chos (678) gan dan gan la mnon par sbyor ba de dan de dag la brtan8pahi stobs kyi
mthu thob kyan | gnas der ma bsgral gyi bar du stobs kyi mthu de la lha dan bcas pahi hjig
1. P om: mams.
2. N om: dan.
3. katamani pafica | Sraddhendriyam viryendriyam smrtindriyam samadhendriyam prajfiendriyamiti | tatra
katama Sraddha j yatha Sraddhaya caturo dharman abhisraddadhati | katamamS caturah | samsaravacarim
laukikim samyagdrstim Sraddadhati \ sa karmavipakapratiSarano bhavati | yad yat karma karisyami tasya
tasya karmanah phalavipakam pratyanubhavisyamiti | sa jivitahetor api papam karma na karoti |
bodhisattvacarikam abhisraddadhati | tat caryapratipannaS canyatra yane sprham notpadayati |
paramarthanitarthamgambhirapratityasamutpada
nairatmyanihsattvaniijivanihpudgalavyavaharasunyatanimittapranihitalaksanan sarvadharman Srutva
Sraddadhati | sarvadrstikrtani ca nonuSete sarvabuddhadharman balavaiSaradyaprabhrtimS ca Sraddadhati |
Sraddhaya ca vigatakathamkathastan buddhadharman samudanayati | idamucyate Sraddhendriyam j| tatra
katamad vlryendriyam | yan dliarman Sraddhendriyena Sraddadhati tan dharman vlryendriyena
samudanayatidam ucyate vlryendriyam || tatra katamat smrtmdriyam | yan dharman vlryendriyena
samudanayati tan dharman smrtindriyena na vipranaSayati | idam ucyate smrtindriyam | tatra katamat
samadhindriyam | yan dharman smrtindriyena na vipranaSayati tan samadhindriyenaikagrikarotldam
ucyate samadhindriyam | tatra katamat prajnendriyam | yan dharman samadhindriyenaikagrikaroti tan
prajhendriyena pratyaveksate pratividhyati | yad etesu dliamiesu pratyatmajfianam aparapratyayajftanam
idam ucyate prajnendriyam || evam imani pancendriyani sahitany anuprabadhani sarvabuddhadharman
paripurayanti vyakaranabhumim capyayanti || (Akn as cited in &iks, pp. 316.13-317.13)
4. P phyogs gcig pa mi tshoms pa ste, for D N R mgo gcig pa mi brdzi ba ste (with ‘ mgo gcig pa’ being
below invaribaly rendered ‘phyogs gcig pa’).
5. P dad.
6. P mos pahi stobs la gnas pahi, for D N R dad pahi stobs la mos pahi.
7. D N P om: bu.
8. R bstan.

479
 Appendix iv

rten mams kyis1 mam par zlog pa ham j bstan pa ham2 1mam par bslah bar mi nus te | de
ni byan chub sems dpahi brtson hgrus kyi stobs zes byaho ||
de la byan chub sems dpahi dran pahi stobs gan £e na | chos gan dan gan la dran pa ne bar
bzag pas sems ne bar b£ag3 pa ste | de ni non mons pa gan yan run ba dag gis gtor ba ham4
| g.yen bar mi nus te | dran pahi stobs kyi mthu5 des non mons pa thams cad hjom ±m dran
pa de yah mi choms pa ste | de ni byan chub sems dpahi dran pahi stobs zes byaho ||
de la byan chub sems dpahi tin he hdzin gyi stobs gan £e na j gan hdu hdzi thams cad du6
dben par spyod pa ste | gan dag gi lam gyi sgra thams cad la yah rtog la | dehi bsam gtan dan
pohi sgrahi tsher ma la sgrib par mi byed pa dan | dge bar rtog pa la yah mam par rtog [pa]
mod kyi j (dehi) bsam gtan gnis pa la yah sgrib par mi hgyur ba dan | de dgah ba dan bde ba
skyes te gnas mod kyi | dehi bsam gtan gsum pa la sgrib par mi hgyur ba dan | de sems can
yons su smin par bya ba dan | dam pahi chos yons su gzuri bar bya bahi phyir btan snoms pa
yah ma yin mod kyi7 1(dehi) bsam gtan (679) bzi pa la sgrib par8 mi hgyur ba ste | de bsam
gtan de bzi la gnas na bsam gtan dan mam par thar pas gzom9par mi nus te | de tin he hdzin
gyi gnas kyan mi gton la | tin he hdzin gyi dbah gis kyan mi skye ba ste | de ni byan chub
sems dpahi tin he hdzin gyi stobs so ||
de la byan chub sems dpahi 6es rab kyi stobs gan ze na | gan hjig rten10 dan hjig rten las
hdas pahi chos mams kyis mi choms pahi ye §es te | byan chub sems dpah skyes ma thag tu
bzohi gnas hjig rten na ji shed spyod pa dam pa dan | dkah11bar byed pa dan | med dkah ba
de dag thams cad slob dpon med par mnon du hgyur te | gan hjig rten las hdas pa de12 dag
kyan gan gis hjig rten dag sgrol bar byed de | de dag byan chub sems dpahi Ses rab dan ye Ses
kyi stobs kyis13 byun ba | lha dan mi mams kyis14mi choms pa ste | de ni byan chub sems
dpahi Ses rab kyi stobs so || hdi ni yan lag lha pahi lam gzan no || '
de ltar na byan chub sems dpah (lam)15 yan lag lha la mkhas pa 6es rab kyi pha rol tu
1. N om: kyis.
2. R om: bstan pa ham.
3. N P R gzog.
4. D R gtor ba ham; N bton ba ham; P bsre bahi ma.
5. Akn, D N R bskyed pa.
6. D N om: du.
7. P yal bor gton pa yah ma yin., for D N R btan sfloms pa yah ma yin mod kyi.
8. D N R add: yah.
9. N gzog.
10. N add: pa.
11. N dgah.
11 D P R om: de.
13. N kyi.
14. N kyi.
15. Cf. concluding parallel phrases in the preceding passages on ‘ skill in the path’,

480
 Appendix iv

phyin pa la spyod do ||

2 . 10.6
gzan yan mdor bsdu na byan chub sems dpah mams kyi lam ni mgo gcig pa ste | hdi lta
ste1 | lam bgrod pa gcig paho || hdi lta ste | byan chub sems dpah gcig pu (680) gnis su med
pa | bla na med pa yan dag par rdzogs pahi byan chub tu grogs med par Sin tu brtson pahi
stobs kyi mthu yons su gzun bahi bsam pas go cha bgos pa ste | gzan gyis ma bstan2 pa |
gzan gyi3 drin mi hjog pa | bdag nid4byed pa | bdag gi stobs kyis yah dag par hphags pa ste
| de ltar go cha sra bar5 bgos nas | gan sems can thams cad kyis ma thob6 pa de bdag gis
thob par byaho || gan hphags pa thams cad dan j gan theg.pa la gsar du zugs pahi byan chub
sems dpah thams cad kyis ma thob pa de bdag gis thob par byaho ||
sbyin pa ni nahi grogs ma yin gyi [ ha ni sbyin pahi grogs poho7 1|tshul khrims dan | bzod
pa dan | brtson hgrus dan | bsam gtan dan | Ses rab ni nahi grogsma yin gyi81ha ni de dag gi
grogs poho9 1| ha ni pha rol tu phyin pa mams kyis bslan10bar bya ba ma yin gyi | pha rol tu
phyin pa mams has bslan bar byaho || gon ma bzin du sbyar te111dge bahi rtsa ba thams cad
la rgyas par 6es par byaho || ha ni dge bahi rtsa ba thams cad kyis bslan bar bya ba ma yin gyi
| dge bahi rtsa ba thams cad has bslan bar byaho || £es de ltar buhi chos mams la grogs med
cih ha gcig pu gnis su med par12rdo ijehi gdan la hdug nas | bdud stobs dan bcas pa btul te |
(681) skad cig13gcig dan ldan pahi §es rab kyis bla na med pa yah dag par rdzogs pahi byan
chub mnon par rdzogs par htshan rgya bar byaho ||14zes j de la nes par rtog pahi15bsam pahi
1. D de nas; R de ni.
2. P b6ad.
3. D gyis.
4. P om: hid.
5. D R sra bar; N sra ba; P dam du.
6. P rfied (also in the following three occurrences o f the term ‘thob’).
7. D N P R so.
8. N gyis.
9. D N P R so.
10. N bslab.
11. P de bzin du bsdus te, for D N R gon ma bzin du sbyar te (also in similarly phrased sentences o f that sense
below).
12. P R pas.
13. P cigm a.
14. eko bodhisattvo 'dvitiyo 'sahayo 'nuttarayam samyaksambodhau samnaham samnahyati | sa
viryabalaparigrhltenadhyaSayena aparavakaSasvayamkari | svabalabalodgatah | sa evam drdhasamnahah
samnaddho | yat kificit sarvasattvanam pariprapayitavyam bhavisyati tad aham pariprapayisyami | yat
sarvaryah sarvanavayanasamprasthita bodhisattva na pariprapayisyanti tad aham pariprapayisyami | na
mama danam sahayakam | aham punar danasya sahayah j na mama Maksantivlryadhyanaprajftah
sahayikah | aham punali ftlaksantivlryadhyanaprajfianam sahayo | naham paramitabhir upasthatavyo may a
punah paramita upasthatavyah | evam samgrahavastusu sarvakuSalamulesu caleyam | yavad ekakina maya
dvitiyenasahayena vajramaye mahimandale sthitena sabalam savahnam maram dharsayittva
ekacittaksanasamayuktaya prajflaya 'nuttara samyaksambodhir abhisambodhavya || (Akn as cited in &iks,

481
 Appendix iv

sbyor ba1 de ni byan chub sems dpahi lam2 bgrod pa gcig pu3 zes bya ste | de ltar na byan
chub sems dpahi lam bgrod pa gcig pu la mkhas pa £es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod
do ||
de ni byan chub sems dpah rnams kyi lam4 la mkhas pa ste | de ltar na byan chub sems
dpah5 lam la mkhas pa Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod do ||

2.11
de la byan chub sems dpah mams kyi rten cih hbrel par hbyun ba la mkhas pa gan ±q na |
hdi ltar byan chub sems dpah gcig pu dben par son ste | nan du yah dag par6 b±ag nas hdi
ltar sems la rtog pa ste71
sdug bsnal gyi phun po chen po hdi gan las hbyun bar hgyur snam pa dan | de hdi ltar sems
te | tshul bzin ma yin pa byuh bahi phyir ma rig pa hbyun8 1ma rig pa byuh bahi phyir9 hdu
byed hbyun | hdu byed byuh bahi phyir mam par Ses pa hbyun | mam par §es pa byun bahi
phyir min dan gzugs hbyun | min dan gzugs byuh bahi phyir skye mched drug hbyun | skye
mched drag byuh bahi phyir reg pa hbyun j reg pa byuh bahi phyir tshor ba hbyun | tshor ba
byuh bahi phyir sred pa hbyun | sred pa byuh bahi phyir len pa hbyun | (682) len pa byuh bahi
phyir srid pa hbyun | srid pa byuh bahi phyir skye ba hbyun | skye ba byuh bahi phyir rga Si
hbyun | rga Si byuh bahi phyir my a nan dan | smre shags hdon pa10dan | sdug bsnal ba dan |
yid mi bde ba dan | hkhrag pa mams hbyun bar hgyur ro || zes de snam du sems so111|
de yah hdi snam du sems par hgyur te121ji ltar mi g.yo ba dan | mi byed pa dan j bdag po
med pa dan | dge bahi rgyu las byuh ba dan | mi dge bahi rgyu las byuh ba dan | mi g.yo bahi
rgyu las byuh dan | mya nan las hdas pahi rgyu las byuh bahi chos de dag thams cad rkyen las
byuh ba ste | gan yah las kyi rgyu gan dag gis sems can gan dag gi dbah pohi rgyu tshad ma

p. 278.4-14)
15. D P R pa.
I. P de ltar brtsam pahi sbyor ba rtog pa, for D N R de la nes par rtog pahi bsam pahi sbyor ba.
2 D R om : lam.
3. P lam phyogs gcig pu.
4 N add: bgrod.
5. D add: mams kyi.
6. D P R om: par.
7. N skyes te.
8. P naft du yan dag zugs pa sdug bsnal gyi phuii po chen pohdi gan las hdu bar hgyur te zes de ltar sems kyi
rtog pa skye ba las tshul bzin ma yin pa hbyun ba las hgyur te, for D N R from nan du yah dag (pa) to rig
pa hbyun.
9. P byuh ba las (also in the following occurrences o f the phrase ‘byun bahi phyir’ in this section).
10. P mya nan slos pa, for D N R smre shags hdon pa.
II. D N R sham mo.
12 D N R de yah ltar sems te.

482
 Appendix iv

dan | lhag pahi cho gahi rgyu tshad mahi hbras buhi rgyu hgrub pa dan | de ltar zin pa dan mi
zin pa la gan rgyu hdus pa byun ba de thams cad rab tu Ses pa ste | de ni byan chub sems
dpahi rten cih hbrel par hbyun ba la mkhas pa £es byaho ||
de yah hgag gan £e na | tshul b£in ma yin pa1yid la byed pa hgags pahi phyir ma rig2 pa
hgag go j| ma rig pa hgag3 pahi phyir hdu byed hgag pa nas j sdug bsnal gyi phun po chen
po hbah zig gi bar du hgag par hgyur ro || zes de snam du sems te | de ltar gan de la 6es pa de
ni rten cih hbrel par hbyun ba la mkhas pa zes byaho ||
de yah chos thams cad ni rgyu la rag las | rkyen la4 rag las | hdus pa la rag las pa ste | (683)
gan rgyu dan | rkyen dan5 1hdus pa la rag las pa de ni bdag gi byin gyi rlabs ma yin | srog
dan gan zag gi byin gyi rlabs ma yin te | de la bgrari ba gan yah med do | j £es de ltar (snam
du) sems te | gan de ltar sems pa de ni rten cih hbrel par hbyun ba la mkhas paho ||
de ltar na byan chub sems dpah sans rgyas kyi chos thams cad byan chub kyi mam pahi
rkyen du slori bar byed la | rkyen de dag la yah zad pa dan hgag par so sor rtog la | sems can
la lta bahi phyir zad pa dan hgag pa ma yin pa yan6thob par byed pa de ni | byan chub sems
dpahi rten cih hbrel par hbyun ba la mkhas paho ||

2.12
de la byan chub sems dpahi chos thams cad la mkhas pa gan ze na | chos thams cad ces bya
ba ni | hdi lta ste | hdus byas dan hdus ma byas so || de la byan chub sems dpas hdus byas dan
hdus ma byas la mkhas par bya ste |
de la hdus byas la mkhas pa gan ze na | gan lus kyi hdu byed dan | hag gi hdu byed dan |
yid kyi hdu byed dag pa ste7 [| gan yan8 lus dan | hag dan | yid kyi dge ba de dag hdus ma
byas pahi byan chub la so sor rtog pahi phyir9 1thams cad mkhyen pa nid du srio ba de ni
hdus ma byas la mkhas paho ||
gzan yah hdus byas la mkhas pa ni | hdi lta ste | (684) gan sbyin pahi pha rol tu phyin pa
dan | tshul khrims dan | bzod pa dan | brtson hgrus dan | bsam gtan dan | 6es rab kyi pha rol tu

1. D pahi; P la.
2. N rigs.
3. N P hgags.
4. N las (also in the next clause).
5. N om: dan.
6. P mi zad pa yah hgag pa de yan, for D N R zad pa dan hgag pa ma yin pa yah.
7. D N R hdu byed do; Akn (p. 55.5.3) add: mnon par hdus byas ba de dag thams cad byah chub la rtog pas
thams cad mkhyen pa hid du yons su bsno ba hdi ni dehi hdus ma byas la mkhas pa zes byaho ||
8. D N gan la.
9. D N R yid kyi dge bahi hdu byed kyis hdus ma byas pahi byah chub la hdus ma byas par rtog pas, for P
yid kyi dge ba de dag hdus ma byas pahi byah chub la so sor rtog pahi phyir.

483
 Appendix iv

phyin pahi1dan | pha rol tu phyin pa lna mams sdud paho || gan yan hdus ma byas pahi 6es
pas | 3es rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la pha rol tu phyin pa lha mams kyis smod par mi byed
cih | pha rol tu phyin pahi tshogs thams cad la mkhas pa dan | zag pa med pahi byah chub de
la mos pas gan thams cad mkhyen pa nid du bsno ba de ni dehi2 hdus ma3 byas la mkhas
paho ||
gzan yah hdus byas la mkhas pa ni (gan) sems can thams cad la hod zer thogs pa med pa
dan | bsdu ba b£is sems can4 sdud paho5 || gan yah snems pa med pahi phyir sems can la
bdag med par hdzin pa dan6 bsdu ba la mkhas £in | hdus ma byas pahi byah chub la mos nas
| thams cad mkhyen pa nid du bsno ba de ni dehi hdus ma byas la mkhas paho ||
gzan yah hdus byas la mkhas pa ni gan hkhor bahi rgyun gyi kun nas7 sbyor ba mams yah
dag par mi gcod la | hkhor bahi rgyun gyi non mons pa mams yah dag par gcod pa dan | byah
chub tu dmigs pahi sbyor ba mams rgyun chags par byed pa8 dan | sbyor ba phyogs gcig pa
mams mi sdud par spyod pa9 de ni hdus byas la mkhas pa zes byaho || gan yah ston pa nid
dan | mtshan ma med pa dan | smon pa med pahi chos mams la hdris par (685) bya ba10 £es
Sin mnon sum du mkhas pa dan | byah chub tu gzan gyi drin la mi hjog mod kyi111hdus ma
byas kyah mnon sum du mi byed pa de ni hdus ma byas la mkhas paho ||
gzan yah khams gsum na spyod kyah khams gsum na spyod pahi non mons pa mams kyis
mi gos12pa de ni dehi hdus byas la mkhas paho || gan yah khams gsum las byuh bahi ye £es
rab tu Ses kyah | hbyun bahi khams su mi ltun ba de ni hdus ma byas la mkhas paho131|
gan chos thams cad la mkhas pa zes bya ba de ni thams cad mkhyen pa nid kyi14tshig bla
dags so j| gan thams cad mkhyen pa nid kyi ye 6es rtogs pa yons su rdzogs pa de ni Ses rab
dan mkhas pa med na hbyun bar mi hgyur bas | dehi phyir chos thams cad la mkhas pa zes
bya ste | de ltar na byah chub sems dpah chos thams cad la mkhas pa Ses rab kyi pha rol tu
phyin pa la spyod do ||

1. D N R pa dan, for P pahi.

2. N om: dehi.
3. Akn (p. 55.5.5) om: ma.
4. N add: mams.
5. P bsdu pa Aid dan.
6. D N R dag.
7. P hkhor bar hjug pahi sbyor ba, for D N R hkhor bahi rgyun gyi kun nas sbyor ba.
8. P kyi rjes su sbyor ba, for D N R rgyun chags par byed pa.
9. P sbyor ba.
10. P om: bya ba.
11. D N R cifl.
12. P chags.
13. D P R mkhas pa £es byaho.
14. N mkhyen pahi.

484
 Appendix iv

Sa rihi bu de ltar na byan chub sems dpah sems dpah chen po byah chub sems dpahi sde
snod la gnas pa | Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod pa | Ses rab mam par hbyed pa la
mkhas Sin mkhas pa bcu po de dag la yah mkhas pas Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la spyod
do II

S e c t i o n iii

3.1
de la1 Ses rab ni gan | pha rol tu phyin pa mams kyi don ni gan ze na | Ses rab ces bya ba
ni dge ba dan mi dge bahi chos (686) mams rab tu Ses paho || Ses rab ni nes par hbyed pahi
cha dan hthun pahi2 chos mams kyi mnon sum mo || hphags pahi chos mnon sum du gyur
pahi phyir tshad mar gyur pa ni Ses rab bo || chos yah dag pa ji lta ba bzin du rtogs pa ni3
tshad mar gyur paho || Ses rab ni lta bar gyur pa thams cad dan | kun nas ldah ba dan | sgrib pa
dan | sgrib par byed pahi chos mams rab tu rtogs paho || Ses rab ni hdod pa dan | tshol4 ba
dan | smon lam thams cad kyi smon lam dan bral baho || Ses rab ni Sin tu sbyaris pahi phyir

1. In P (pp. 87.5.5-88.2.2), large parts of the section on the nature o f wisdom (R folio 685.5-688.1) are cast
in a slightly different order from that o f D N and R. In meaning, however, they correspond closely to that
o f the other editions. In P, they run as follows:
de la Ses rab ni gan j pha rol tu phyin pa mams gyi don ni gan ze na | Ses rab ces bya ba ni dge ba dan mi
dge bahi chos mam par rab tu Ses paho || Ses rab ni nes par rtogs pahi phyogs kyi chos mams kyi mnon
sum mo || hphags pahi chos mnon sum du gyur pahi phyir tshad mar gyur pa ni Ses rab po |[ chos yah dag
pa ji lta ba bzin du rtogs pa ni Ses rab po || lta bar gyur pa thams cad dan kun nas ldah ba dan |j sgrib pa dan
sgrib par byed pahi chos mams la smon pa dah bral ba ni Ses rab po || hdod pa tshol ba thams chad la smon
par byed pa | sim par byed pa ni gdun ba thams cad gtoh pahi phyir Ses rab po || chos kyi dgah ba la dmigs
Sin mam par gcod pahi phyir dgah bar byed pa ni Ses rab po j| ye Ses thams cad mnon sum du gyur pahi
phyir rten pa ni Ses rab po || byah chub kyi phyogs kyi chos thams cad kyi gnas ni Ses rab po [| riled pahi
mtshan hid ni Ses rab po || theg pa ji lta ba b£in du hbras bu rtogs pahi phyir rab tu Ses pahi mtshan hid ni
Ses rab po || klun thams cad las sgrol bahi phyir | rah bzin Ses pahi snan ba hjug pa ni Ses rab po || yah dag
par skyon med pahi bar du hdren pa ni Ses rab po || dge bahi chos thams cad hdzin pa ni Ses rab po || fion
mons pa bag la fial ba thams cad dan bar byed pa ni Ses rab po |j chos thams cad kyi sbyi bo thob pahi rab
mchog ni Ses rab po |j rah byuh bahi ye Ses rtogs pahi phyir bzah ba ni Ses rab po || khams sum la ma chags
pas rgyu ba dah bral ba ni Ses rab po || hphags pa thams cad kyis Sintu bzun ba ni Ses rab po || mtshan ma
med par yons su rtog pa thams cad spans pas smon lam mam par chad pa ni Ses rab po || mun pa mun gnag
thams cad dah bral bas bag med pahi gften po ni Ses rab po || mal hbyor spyod kyis la gnas pa thams cad
kyi sbyor ba ni Ses rab po || thams cad mkhyen pahi ye Ses kyi lam la gnas pa mams kyi rab tu hdren pa ni
Ses rab po || ma rig pahi klun gi mun pa rab rib kyi sprin hjom par byed pas snan bar byed pa ni Ses rab po
|| mig la ji ltar mos pas mams kyi mig thams cad sbyin par byed pa ni Ses rab po || mig dah gzugs kyi lam
las hdas pahi phyir zag pa med pa ni Ses rab po || bden pa las hbyun bas don dam pahi ni Ses rab po || Sin tu
dul bahi phyir mi hkhrugs pa ni Ses rab po || ye Ses kyi sgohi snan ba ni Ses rab po || thams cad du rgyu bas
mi zad pa ni Ses rab po || rten cih hbrel ba la hjug par mthon bahi phyir | hgal ba med pa ni Ses rab po || len
pahi hcin ba thams cad gcod par byed pas thar pahi lam ni Ses rab po || sgrib par byed pahi chos thams cad
dah lhan du mi gnas pas ma hdres pa ni Ses rab po || (continuation: Sa rihi bu ...).
2. P nes par rtogs pahi phyogs kyi.
3. D pahi phyir; P R pahi.
4. N tshor.

485
 Appendix iv

sim par byed paho || Ses rab ni chos kyi dgah ba la dmigs pa mam par mi gcod pahi phyir rab
tu dgah bar byed paho || Ses rab ni ye Ses thams cad mrvon sum du gyur pahi phyir rten1paho
|| Ses rab ni byah chub kyi phyogs kyi chos thams cad kyi gnas soj| Ses rab ni theg pa ji lta ba
b£in du2 hbras bu rtogs pahi phyir thob pahi mtshan nid do || Ses rab ni rah bzin gyis ye Ses
snan ba rab tu Ses pahi mtshan nid do || Ses rab ni chu bo thams cad las grol bahi phyir rab tu
sgrol baho || Ses rab ni yah dag par gyur pa la hdren paho | Ses rab ni dge bahi chos thams cad
rab tu hdzin paho |f
Ses rab ni non mons pahi bag la nal thams cad dah bar byed paho || Ses rab ni (687) chos
thams cad kyi spyi bo thob pahi mchog go || Ses rab ni rah hbyun bahi ye Ses rtogs par bya ba
la4 dam paho || Ses rab ni khams gsum dah ma hdres pas rgyu5 dah bral baho || Ses rab ni
hphags pa thams cad kyis6 Sin tu bzun baho || Ses rab ni mtshan mar yons su rtog pa thams
cad spans pas smon lam mam par chad paho || Ses rab ni mun pa mun gnag dah bral bas bag
med pahi gnen poho ||7
Ses rab ni mal hbyor spyod pahi sa la gnas pa thams cad kyi sbyor baho || Ses rab ni thams
cad mkhyen pahi ye Ses kyi lam la8 gnas pa mams kyi rab tu hdren paho || Ses rab ni ma rig
pahi rlun gi mun par rab rib kyi sprin hjom par byed9 pas snan bar byed paho || Ses rab ni
1. N brten.
2. P tu, for D N R gyi.
3. Pelliot, 977, folio 6a.4-6b.2
Sa ri bu de la Ses rab zes bya ba ni | hdi lta ste | dge bahi chos thams cad rab tu rtogs pa gan yin ba de ni
mrion sum mthon bahi Ses rab yin te | chos thams cad ijes su rtog pahi phyir ro || yah dag pahi tshad mi Ses
rab yin te | yah dag pa ci lta ba bzin du chos thams cad rab tu rtogs pahi phyir ro || rab tu rtogs pahi Ses rab
yin te | lta bar son bahi kun nas dkris pahi chos thams cad gyis bsgrib par myi hgyur bahi phyir ro || smon
pa dah bral bahi Ses rab yin te | hdod pa dah tshol ba dah \ smon pa thams cad gtan du bspans pahi phyir ro
J| tshim bar byed pahi Ses rab yin te | yons su gdun ba thams cad gtan du zi bar byed pahi phyir ro || rab tu
dgah bar byed pahi Ses rab yin te j chos kyi dgah ba la dmyigs ba rgyun chad pa myed pahi phyir ro |j rton
pahi Ses rab yin te | don Ses pa mams mnon sum du gyur pahi phyir ro || mam par hjog pa Ses rab yin te ||
byah chub kyi phyogs kyi chos thams cad mam par hjog pahi phyir ro || thob pahi mtshan hid gyi Ses rab
yin te || theg pa ci lta ba bzin du hbras bu thob par byed pahi phyir ro j| rab tu Ses pahi Ses rab kyi mtshan
hid kyi Ses rab yin te | ye Ses kyi rah bzin Sin tu gsal bar rtogs pahi phyir ro || sftin ijes sgrol bar byed pahi
Ses rab yin te | chu bo thams cad lam sgrol bar byed pahi phyir ro || gzol bar byed pahi Ses rab yin te | yah
dag pahi chos skye ba myed pa la gzol bar byed pahi phyir ro || sgul bar byed pahi Ses rab yin te | dge bahi
chos thams cad rab tu bskyod par byed pahi phyir ro ||.
4 D P R om: la.
5. D rgyu ba.
6. N kyi.
7. Pelliot, 977, folio 6b.2-5
dah bar byed pahi Ses rab yin te | shun gyi bag la nal gyi fton mons pahi rtog pa dah bral bahi phyir ro ||
mchog tu gyur pahi Ses rab yin te | chos thams cad kyi spyi bor phyin pahi phyir ro || Sin tu gya nom bahi
Ses rab yin te j rah byuh bahi ye Ses kyis chos ijes su rtogs pahi phyir ro || rgyu dah bral bahi Ses rab yin te |
khams gsum gyi chos dah hdres pa myed pahi phyir ro || yons su bzun bahi Ses rab yin te | hphags pa thams
cad kyis yons su bzun bahi phyir ro || smon pa mam par gcod pahi Ses rab yin te | mtshan mahi mam par
rtog pa thams cad yons su bsal bahi phyir ro || bdag myed pahi Ses rab yin te | gti mug gyi mun nag thams
cad spans pahi phyir ro |.
8. N om: la.
9. D byas.

486
 Appendix iv

mig la ji ltar mos pa mams kyi mig thams cad sbyin par byed paho || Ses rab ni mig dah gzugs
kyi lam las hdas pahi phyir zag pa med paho || Ses rab ni bden pa las byuh bas1 don dam
paho || Ses rab ni Sin tu dul bahi phyir mi hkhrugs paho || Ses rab ni ye Ses kyi sgohi snan baho
|| Ses rab ni thams cad du rgyu ba2mi zad paho ||
Ses rab ni rten cih hbrel par (hbyun ba) la hjug par mthon bahi phyir hgal ba med paho |j
Ses rab ni len pahi hchin ba thams cad gcod par byed pas thar pahi lam mo || Ses rab ni sgrib
par byed pahi3 chos thams cad dah lhan cig tu (688) mi gnas pas ma hdres paho ||4
Sa rihi bu de lta bas na sems can thams cad kyi sems kyi5 spyod pa ji shed pa byah chub
sems dpah mams kyi Ses rab kyi6 las dah | ye Ses kyi spyod pa yah de shed do || sems can
thams cad kyi bsam pa ji shed pa byah chub sems dpah Ses rab kyi dpyod7 pa dah | ye Ses
kyah de shed do || sems can thams cad kyi non mons pahi sgo ji shed pa byah chub sems
dpah Ses rab la hjug pahi sgo yah de shed do || nan thos dah | rah sans rgyas dah | yah dag par
rdzogs pahi sans rgyas mams kyi yons su Ses pa ji shed pa Ses rab la gnas pahi gnas kyah de
shed do || byah chub sems dpas thams cad la8bslab par bya ste | de ni byah chub sems dpahi
Ses rab ces byaho ||9
1. D ba.
2. N bahi.
3. D add: phyir.
4. Pelliot, 977, folio 6b.5-7a.3
sbyor bahi Ses rab yin te | mal hbyor spyod pahi sa la gnas pa thams cad las mnon bar grub bahi phyir ro ||
bsgrod par byed pahi Ses rab yin te | hphags pahi ye Ses kyi lam thams cad la rab tu gnas pahi phyir ro ||
snan bar byed pahi Ses rab yin te | ma rig pahi rlun kyis rab rib gyi mun pa thams cad yons su bsal bahi
phyir ro || myig sbyin bar byed pahi Ses rab yin te | myig bzin du thams cad rab tu hdren par byed pahi
phyir ro || zag pa myed pahi Ses rab yin te | Ses rab kyi myig gis gya gyuhi lam las yan dag par hdas pahi
phyir ro || don dam pahi Ses rab yin te j hphags pa chen pohi bden ba rab tu rtogs pahi pbyir ro | tha dad pa
myed pahi Ses rab yin te | Sin tu dul bar gyur pahi phyir ro || snan bahi Ses rab yin te | ye Ses mams kyi sgor
gyur pahi pbyir ro | zad myi Ses pahi Ses rab yin te | ijes su rgyu ba thams cad kun tu snan bar byed pahi
pbyir ro | hgag pa myed pahi Ses rab yin te j rtag par rgya cher mthon bahi phyir ro j| mam par grol bahi
lam gyi Ses rab yin te | hdzin pahi hchih ba thams cad gtan du spoh bahi phyir ro || gnas dah bral bahi Ses
rab yin te | non mons pahi sgrib pahi chos thams cad dah ltan cig myi gnas pahi phyir ro ||.
5. D N R dah,
6. P dah (also in the next occurrence o f the term ‘Ses rab kyi’).
7. D R spyod.
8. N om: la.
9. Pelliot, 977, folio 7a.3-7
Sa ri bu de ltar ye Ses kyi mtshan hid has mdor bsdus nas bstan pa yin te | byah chub sems dpah sems dpah
chen po mams kyi Ses rab ni gzan yah tshad myed dpag tu myed pa shed yod par rig par byaho || de cihi
phyir ze na sa ri bu hdi ltar sems can thams cad kyi sems kyi spyod pa ci shed pa | byah chub sems dpah
sems dpah chen po mams kyi Ses rab kyi lam dah | ye Ses kyi spyod pa de sfled yod pas so | de bzin du
sems can thams cad kyi mos pa ci shed pa byah chub sems dpah sems dpah chen po mams kyi Ses rab kyi
spyod pa dah | ye Ses kyah de shed yod par rig par byaho || de bzin du sems cad kyi flon mons pahi sgra ci
shed pa byah chub sems dpah sems dpah chen po | mams kyi Ses rab rgya chen pohi sgra yah de shed yod
par rig par byaho || de bzin du flan thos dan | rah sahs rgyas dah | yah dag par rdzogs pahi sans rgyas thams
cad gyi yons su mkhyen pa ci sfled pa | byah chub sems dpah sems dpah chen po mams kyi Ses rab kyi
spyod pahi gnas kyah de shed yod par rig par byaho || Sa ri bu de ltar Ses rab kyi gnas thams cad la byah
chub sems dpah sems dpah chen po mams kyis nan tan brtson hgrus kyis bslab par bya ste | hdi ni byah
chub sems dpah sems dpah chen po mams kyi Ses rab kyi nom ba zes byaho |j.

487
 Appendix iv

3 .2

de la pha rol tu phyin pahi don gan ze na | Ses rab gan yin pa pha rol tu phyin pahi don
kyan de yin te | dge bahi chos mams rab tu Ses pa de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don zes byaho ||
gon ma b£in du sbyar te | pha rol tu phyin pa thams cad kyi tshig1kyah de bzin du dpyad par
byaho21|3
g£an yah byah chub sems dpahi spyod pahi khyad par yons su rdzogs pahi don ni pha rol tu
phyin pahi don to || g£an yah thams cad mkhyen pahi ye Ses yons su rdzogs pahi don ni pha
rol tu phyin pahi don to || hdus byas dah hdus ma byas (689) pahi chos la mnon par ma chags
pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don to jj hkhor bahi nes pa khon du chud pahi don ni pha rol
tu phyin pahi don to4 1| zad mi Ses pahi chos kyi mdzod ston pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin
pahi don to || sgrib pa med pahi mam par thar pa yons su rdzogs pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin
pahi don to || sbyin pa mnam pa nid dah | tshul khrims dah | bzod pa dah | brtson hgrus dah |
bsam gtan dah | Ses rab mnam pa nid rtogs pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don to j| mam
par nes pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don to ||5
sems can thams cad kyi khams la6hjug pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don to || mi skye
bahi chos la bzod pa yons su rdzogs pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don to || phyir mi ldog
pahi sa yons su rdzogs pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don to || sans rgyas kyi zin yons su
rdzogs pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don to || sems can yons su smin pahi7 don ni pha rol
tu phyin pahi don to |j byah chub kyi snin po yah dag par thob pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin

1. N om: kyi tshig.

2. P sbyar ro, for D N R dpyad par byaho.
3. This paragraph is missing in the Pelliot manuscript.
4. N om: hkhor bahi fles pa khon du chud pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don to.
5. Pelliot, 977, folio 7a.7-7b.6
gzan yan 3a ri bu byah chub sems dpah sems dpah chen po mams kyi pha rol tu phyin pahi don gab ze na |
3a ri bu hdi ltar ci tsam du dge bahi chos gya nom ba pha rol tu phyin par hgyur ba rab tu 3es pa thams cad
ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don ces bya bar rig par byaho || yah 3a ri bu gon ma bzin du rgyas par sbyar te | 3es
rab kyi tshogs thams cad ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don yin bar rig par byaho | gzan yah byah chub sems
dpah mams kyi spyod pahi khyad bar yons su rdzogs pahi don gari yin ba thams cad ni pha rol tu phyin
pahi don yin bar rig par byaho | hdus byas dah | hdus ma byas kyi chos thams cad la mnon bar zen pa myed
palii don gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don yin bar rig par byaho | hkhor bahi nes dmyigs chen po
tshad myed pa rtag tu rtog pahi don gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don yin bar rig par byaho | chos
thams cad khon tu ma chud cih ma rtogs pahi don rab tu 3es pa gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don
yin bar rig par byaho j gah gyis mthar thug cih zad pa myed pahi chos kyi mdzod kyi don rab tu rtogs pa
gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don yin bar rig par byaho || bsgrib pa myed pahi mam par thar pa
yoiis su rdzogs pahi don gah yin ba de ni | pha rol tu phyin pahi don yin bar rig par byaho | sbyin ba dah
tshul khrims dah | bzod pa dah | brtson hgrus dah | bsam gtan dan j 3es rab mfiam ba hid du rtogs pahi don
gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don yin bar rig par byaho | mchog tu rab tu mam par hbyed pa la
mkhas pahi don gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don yin bar rig par byaho |.
6. P om: la.
7. D R smin par bya bahi.

488
 Appendix iv

pahi don to || bdud thams cad rab tu hdul bahi don ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don to || sans rgyas
kyi chos thams cad yons su rdzogs pahi don ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don to || gzan yah byah
chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans bzag1 par byed pahi don ni pha rol tu
phyin (690) pahi don to ||
Sa rihi bu byah chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans bslabs na j pha rol tu
phyin pa thams cad kyi pha rol tu son bar hgyur ro ||2

S e c t io n iv

Sa rihi bu de bas na theg pa chen po la gnas pahi rigs kyi buham | rigs kyi bu mos byah
chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans hdi blah bar bya | gzun bar bya j bklag par
bya | g£an la yah bSad par bya | rgya cher rab tu bstan par byaho ||
de cihi phyir ze na | Sa rihi bu byah chub sems dpahi sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans Sin
tu mnan | blahs | bzun | bklags | kun chub par byas | gzan la yah bSad | rgya cher yah dag par
rab tu bstan na | yon tan bcu po hdi dag hthob par hgyur ro31| bcu gah ze na | hdi lta ste j

(1) tshe rabs gzan du hphos nas4bzohi gnas dah |

(2) las kyi gnas thams cad5rtogs par khon du chud par hgyur
(3) rigs mtho zin btsun6par hgyur |
(4) dbah che bar grags par hgyur71
(5) tshig btsun par hgyur |
(6) Ions spyod che bar hgyur |
(7) lha dah mi mams la hphans par hgyur |

1. D N P R gzog.
2. Pelliot, 977, folio 7b.6-8a.3
sems can gyi khams thams cad kun tu hgro bahi don gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don ces byaho |
myi skye bahi chos kyi bzod pa yons su rdzogs pahi don gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don ces
byaho | phyir myi ldog pahi ma mthar yons su rdzogs pa gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don ces
byaho j sans rgyas kyi zin yons su sbyon bahi don gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don ces byaho |
sems can thams cad yons su smyin bar byed pahi don gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don ces byaho
j byah chub kyi shin por son nas byah chub kyi gdan la hdug pahi don gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin
pahi don ces byaho | bdud kyi dpun mams rab tu btul bahi don gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don
ces byaho | sans rgyas kyi chos thams cad yons su rdzogs pahi don gah yin ba de ni pha rol tu phyin pahi
don ces byaho | byah chub sems dpahi sde snod chos kyi mam grans la yah dag par gnas pahi don gah yin
ba ni pha rol tu phyin pahi don ces byaho ||.
3. N thob par hgyur ro (also in all subsequent occurrences of the phrase ‘hthob par hgyur ro’).
4. D add: kyah.
5. D N add: la.
6. N brtson.
7. P mthu che bar hgyu, for D N R dbah che bar grags par hgyur.

489
 Appendix iv

(8) hkhor los sgyur bahi rgyal po hthob par hgyur |

(9) tshans par hthob par hgyur |
(10) thams cad du byah chub kyi sems dah mi hbral bar hgyur te |

yon tan gyi phan yon1 hdi hthob par hgyur ro || de gzan yan'yon tan gyi phan yon bcu
hthob par hgyur te | bcu gah ze na | hdi lta ste |

(1) gcer bu pahi2rtsod pa dah | (691) hdres3pa ma yin par hgyur ba dah
(2) bdag du mi lta ba dan41
(3) sems can du mi lta ba dah |
(4) srog du mi lta ba dah |
(5) gah zag tu mi lta ba dah |
(6) chad par mi lta ba dah |
(7) rtag par mi lta bar hgyur ba dah |
(8) dnos po thams cad la mi lta ba dah |
(9) rab tu hbyun ba la dgah bar sems skyed pa hthob pa dah |
(10) thos pahi tshig hbru myur du khon du chud par hgyur ba ste |

yon tan gyi phan yon bcu po de dag hthob par hgyur ro jj de gzan yah yon tan gyi phan yon
bcu hthob par hgyur te | bcu gah ze na | (hdi lta ste |)

(1) dran pa dah ldan par hgyur ba dah |

(2) bio gros dah ldan par hgyur ba dah |
(3) rtogs pa dah ldan par hgyur ba dah |
(4) mos pa5 dah ldan par hgyur ba dah |
(5) Ses rab dah ldan par hgyur ba dah |
(6) dal ba phun sum tshogs pa6med par hgyur ba dah |
(7) tshe rabs dran par hgyur ba dah |
(8) rah biin gyis hdod chags chun ste | hdod chags bdo ba ma yin7 la | de Sin tu hdod chags
kyi gdun bas yons su mi gdun ba dah |
(9) rah biin gyis ie sdan chun ste | ze sdan bdo ba ma yin la | de Sin tu ie sdan gi gdun bas

1. P legs pa (also in all subseqent occurrenceso f the term‘phan yon’).

2. P gcer bu can gyi.
3. N hdren.
4. P om: ba dan (also in the following four occurrences of the phrase ‘lta ba dan’).
5. P dgah ba.
6. P om: phun sum tshogs pa.
7. P mi drag, for D N R bdo ba ma yin(also in thenext two occurrences o f this term).

490
 Appendix iv

yons su mi gdun ba dan |

(10) ran biin gyis gti mug chun ste | gti mug gi bdo ba ma yin la | de Sin tu gti mug gdun bas
yons su mi gdun bar mi hgyur ba ste |

yon tan gyi phan yon bcu po de dag hthobpar hgyur ro || de gzan yah yon tan gyi phan yon
bcu hthob (692) par hgyur te | bcu gah ie na |hdi lta ste |

(1) Ses rab ho mtshar du hgyur |

(2) Ses rab myur bar hgyur |
(3) Ses rab mo bar hgyur |
(4) Ses rab mgyogs par hgyur |
(5) Ses rab rgya che bar1hgyur j
(6) Ses rab zab par hgyur |
(7) Ses rab nes par hbyed par hgyur |
(8) Ses rab ma chags par hgyur |
(9) de biin gSegs pa mhon du mthon iin mthon nas tshigs su bead pahi dbyans kyis bstod pa
dah j
(10) de biin gSegs pa la tshul biin du2 iu ba yons su iu iin tshul biin du3 iu ba4 ius nas
lan ldon par hgyur ba ste |

yon tan gyi phan yon bcu po de dag hthob par hgyur ro || de gian yah yon tan gyiphan yon
bcu hthob par hgyur te | bcu gah ie na | hdi lta ste |

(1) dge bahi bSes ghen thams cad ma nes bar byas par hgyur ba dah |
(2) bdud kyi bcin5ba thams cad lhod par byas par6hgyur .ba dah |
(3) des bdud thams cad tshar gcod par hgyur ba dah |
(4) non mons pa thams cad smad par hgyur ba dah |
(5) hdu byed thams cad du gtogs pa las yid bskyod7par hgyur ba dah |
(6) hgro ba nan par hgro bahi lam thams cad la rgyab kyisphyogs par8hgyur ba dah |
(7) mya nan las hdas9par hgro bahi10lam mhon du hgyur ba dah |
1. P om: rgya che bar.
2. D N P R gyi.
3. D P R gyi.
4. N add: la.
5. N bcins.
6. N om: byas par.
7. D P R bskyed.
8. P las skyo ba, for D N R la rgyab kyis phyogs par.
9. D N P hdah.
10. D hgyur bahi.

491
 Appendix iv

(8) hkhor ba thams cad las sgrol bahi sbyin pa byin par hgyur ba dah |
(9) byah chub sems dpah thams cad kyi cho gahi ijes su zugs par hgyur ba dah | (693)
(10) sans rgyas bcom ldan hdas thams cad kyi bkahi ijes su zugs par hgyur ba ste |

yon tan gyi phan yon bcu po de dag hthob par hgyur ro || Sa rihi bu byah chub sems dpahi
sde snod kyi chos kyi mam grans Sin tu mnan1 | blahs | bzun | bklags | kun chub par byas J
g£an la yah bSad cih rgya cher yah dag par rab tu bstan na | yon tan gyi phan yon hdi sned
hthob par hgyur ro ||
de nas bcom ldan hdas kyis don de nid rgyas par2 bstan pahi phyir | dehi tshe tshigs su
bead pa hdi dag gsuns so ||

gah dag mdo sdehi rgyal po hdi hdzin pa ||

mkhas pa de dag Ses rab mthah yas hgyur ||3
chos dah don mams la yah mkhas par hgyur ||4
tshig kyah khyad par hphags Sin yi ge rdzogs ||5

gah zig mdo sdehi rgyal po hdi hdzin pa ||

de ni rab dgah Sin tu mgu skyes nas ||
dge sloh de ni hdir yah chos hchad de ||6
rtag tu chos kyi sbyin pa byed par hgyur ||

sems can mams ni man du chos thos nas ||

kye maho yon tan chen po hchad byed pa jj
nam ±ig bdag cag hdi hdrahi chos ston cih ||
mdo sde hdi hdra hdzin par hgyur zes zer ||7

gah dag de hdra Ses rab ldan mchog mams |j

chos mams gah la yah £um par mi hgyur te ||8
1. N gftan.
2. P Sin tu.
3. P mkhas pa Ses rab mthah yas bar yan hgyur.
4. P chos mams dah ni don mams la hdi gsal.
5. P tshig la mkhas Sin yi ge yons su rdzogs par hgyur.
6. P dge sloh chos hdi hchad pa byed pa dah.
7. P mdo sde hdi ni hdzin par hgyur zes hdod.
8 P chos gah lahah Ses rab zum par mi hgyur te.

492
 Appendix iv

dran dan ye Ses kyis ni hphags pa dah ||

bla na med pahi ye Ses tshig ston1hgyur || (694)

gah dag mdo sdehi rgyal po hdi hdzin pa jl

de ni hphags pas rtag bsnags rgyal bas gnan ||
chos tshig legs par bSad pa tshol bar byed ||
de ni thos pas rtag tu hphags par hgyur ||2

thos nas don ni ne bar3hdzin par byed [|

Ses rab ldan pa hbru la mi snegs te41|
don la lta bas rtogs pa hphel bar hgyur ||
de yi ye Ses rtag tu tshad med do ||

ye Ses mthah yas don kyah mthah yas te ||

sems dpah5 mthah yas dam pahi don la mkhas6
de yi yon tan phyogs dah phyogs su hgro71|
de yi thos pahi yon tan hdi dag go ||

de yi hdod chags chun la ze sdan chun ||

de yi gti mug Sin tu rab tu chun ||
sems kyan8 Sin tu dag pa9med par hgyur ||
de yi thos pahi yon tan hdi dag go ||

Ions spyod med nas rgyags par mi hgyur te |[

hdi la snin po ci zes don la rtog ||
lohs spyod snin po med par rab Ses nas ||
de ni lohs spyod mi lta rab tu hbyun ||
1. P hchad.
2. P thos nas rtag tu mnon par dgah bar hgyur.
3. P mhon par.
4. D sfiems te; P rgyug ste.
5. N P R sems pa.
6. P gstsal.
7. N dgro.
8. P kyi.
9. D dgah ba.

493
 Appendix iv

khyim nas1byun ste dgon par gnas ||

rtag tu g.yel ba2med pa dan ||
chos rnams thos pas mi horns te ||3
chos sbyin pa la ser sna med ||

hjig rten mgon pohi drun nid du ||

son ste iu ba iu byed pas ||4
de phyir de yi ye Ses5hphel ||
de la dkar po hbri ba med ||

Sa rihi bu de ni byan chub sems dpah mams kyi Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa ste | byan
chub sems dpah de la brtson pa byan chub sems dpahi spy ad pa spyod do6 1| de ni Ses rab
kyi pha rol tu phyin pa la brtson pa ies byaho ||

1. D N R mhon par.
2. P shorn pa.
3. P chos mams thos nas chog mi Ses.
4. P son ste zu ba zus byas pas.
5. N Ses rab.
6. P Sa rihi bu de ni byah chub sems dpah mams kyi gah la brtson na |byah chub sems dpah byah chub sems
dpahi spyad pa spyod par hgyur bahi Ses rab kyi pha rol tu phyinpa ste, for D N R Sa rihi bu de n i ... zes
byaho.

494
 Abbreviations

List of Abbreviations

A: Anguttaranikaya (Hardy, E)
AAWG: Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften, Gottingen
Abhidh-d: Abhidharmadipa (Jaini, P)
Abhidh-h (A): Le Coeur de la Loi Supreme: Abhidharmahrdaya (Armelin, I)
Abhidh-h (W): The Essence of Metaphysics: Abhidharmahrdaya (Wiltemen, C)
Abhidh-sam (R): Le Compendium de la Super-Doctrine d’Asanga:
Abhidharmasamuccaya (Rahula, W)
Abhidh-sam: Abhidharmasamuccaya (Pradhan, P)
Abhisaml: Abhisamayalamkara (Conze, E)
Adsp (C): Astada§asahasrika Prajnaparamita (Conze, E)
Akn: AksayamatinirdeSa (TTP 842)
Akn-tika: Aksayamatinirde6a-tika (TTP 5495)
Akv: AbhidharmakoSa-vibhasa (Haribhadra)
ALB: Adyar Library Bulletin, Madras
AM: Asia Major
Amrtar (B): La Saveur de lTmmortel: La version chinoise de l’Amrtarasa de
Ghosaka (T 1553) (Broek, J)
AOH: Acta Orientalia, Hungarian Academy of Science
Arthav (S): ArthaviniScaya Sutra (Samtani, NH)
As: AtthasalinI (Buddhaghosa: Muller, M)
Asta: Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita (Vaidya, PL)
Aloka: Abhisamayalamkaraloka (Wogihara, U)
Bbh: Bodhisattvabhumi (Wogihara, U)
BEFEO: Bulletin de l’Ecole Frangaise d’Extreme Orient
Bdp: Bodhisattvapitaka (R 11.11)
Bhadra-vy: Bhadramayakaravyakarana (TTP 760.21)
Bhadra-vy (R): Bhadramayakaravyakarana (Regamey., C)
Bpm: Bodhisattvapratimoksasutra (TTP 915)
Brhad: Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
BRS: Bihar Research Society
BSHS: Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalaya Saddhatissa
BSHWR: Buddhist Studies in Honour of Walpola Rahula
BSR: Buddhist Studies Review
BTI: Buddhist Text Information
Bv: Buddhavamsa (Jayawickrama, NA)
Chand: Chandogya Upanisad
CPD: A Critical Pali Dictionary (Copenhagen, 1924)
CSTCC: Ch’u San tsang Chi Chi of Seng-yu (T 2145)
D: Dighanikaya (Rhys Davids, TW; Carpenter, J E)
DaSa-bh: DaSabhumika-Sutram (Rahder, J: Dasabhumika Sutra et
Bodhisattvabhumi)

495
 Abbreviations

Dbh-v: DaSabhumikavibhasaSastra (
Dbh: Da^abhumikasutra (TTP 572)
Dhs: Dhammasanganl (Muller, M)
Dhsg: Dharmasangltisutra (TTP 904)
Dhsgr: Dharmasamgraha (Muller, M; Wenzel, H)
Divya: Divyavadana (Cowell, EB; Neil, RA)
DPP: The Doctrine of Prajnaparamita as exposed in the Abhisamayalamkara
of Maitreya (Obermiller, E)
Gv: Gandavyuha Sutra (Suzuki, TD; Idzumi, H)
HIB: History of Indian Buddhism (Lamotte, E)
HJAS: Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
EBK: Indogaku Bukkyugaku Kenkyu (Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies)
IBS: Indological and Buddhist Studies: Volume in Honour of Professor J.W.
de Jong on his Sixtieth Birthday, ed. Hercus et al. Canberra: Faculty of
Asian Studies, Canberra, 1982
IHQ: Indian Historical Quarterly
IIJ: Indo-Iranian Journal
IT: Indologica Taurinensia, Turin
Itv: Itivuttaka (Windisch, E)
JA: Journal Asiatique
JAOS: Journal of the American Oriental Society
Jataka: Jataka with Commentary (Fausboll, V)
JIABS: Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies
JIH: Journal of Indian History
JIP: Journal of Indian Philosophy
JRAS: Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
Karunap (Y): Karunapundarika (Yamada, I)
Kv: Karandavyuha (Samasrami, SV)
Ko£a: AbhidharmakoSa (La Vallee Poussin, L)
KoSabhasya: AbhidharmakoSabhasya (Pradhan, P)
KoSavyakhya: Sphutartha AbhidharmakoSavyakhya (Wogihara, U)
Kp: KaSyapaparivarta (Stael-Holstein, A)
Lai: Lalitavistara (Lefmann, S)
Lankav: Lankavatara Sutra (Nanjio, B)
Lkdh: Lokadharapariprccha (TTP 841)
M: Majjhimanikaya (Trenckner, V; Chalmers, R)
Madh. vrtti: Prasannapada Madhyamakavrtti (La Vallee Poussin, L)
MBT: Minor Buddhist Texts (Tucci, G)
Mavbh: Madhyamakavatara (La Vallee Poussin, L)
MCB: Melanges Chinois et Bouddhiques
Mil: Milindapanha (Treckner, V)
Mmg: Mahameghasutra (TTP 898)
MN: Monumenta Nipponica
Mpp£: Le Traite de la Grande Vertu de Sagesse: Mahaprajnaparamita 6astra
(Lamotte, E)
Msg: La Somme du Grand Vehicule d’Asanga: Mahayanasamgraha (Lamotte,

496
 Abbreviations

E)
Msl: Mahayanasutralamkara (Levi, S)
Mv£: Madhyantavibhaga-bhasya
Mv£ (N): Madhyantavibhaga-bhasya (Nagao, G)
Mvu: Mahavastu (Senart, E)
N: A Catalogue of the Chinese Translation of the Buddhist Tripitaka
(Nanjio, B)
NAWG: Nachrichten der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Gottingen
Nett: Nettippakarana (Hardy, E)
Nidd: Mahaniddesa (La Vallee Poussin, L; Thomes, EJ)
Ono: Ono Gemmyo, ed. Bussho kaisetsu daijiten
Otani: A Comparative Analytical Catalogue of the Kanjur Division of the
Tibetan Tripitaka at Otani University .
Panca: PancavimSatisahasrika Prajnaparamita (Dutt, N)
Patis: Patisambhidamagga (Taylor, AC)
PED: Pali English Dictionary (Rhys Davids, TW; Stede, W)
PEFEO: Publication de l’Ecole Fran9aise d’Extreme Orient
PIT: Publicazioni di Indologica Taurinensia
Pps Pitaputrasamagamasutra (TTP 760,16)
PraS: Pratyutpanna-Buddha-Sammukhavasthita-Samadhi-Sutra
Prbh: Pratyekabuddhabhumi (Wayman, A)
Pm: Purnapariprccha (TTP 760.18)
Ps: PapancasudanI (Buddhaghosa: Woods, JH; Kosambhi, D; Homer, IB)
PTS: The Pali Text Society
pw: Kleines Petersburg Worterbuch (Bohtlingk; Roth)
R: sTog Palace Kanjur (Leh— 1979)
Red: Ratnacudapariprccha (TTP 760.47)
Rgv: Ratnagotravibhaga (Takasaki, J)
RO: Rocznik Orientalistyczny
Rp: Rastrapalapariprccha (Finot, L)
Rtm: Ratnameghasutra
S: Samyuttanikaya (Feer, L)
Saddhp: Saddharmapundarika (Kem, H.; Nanjio, B )
Samadh: Samadhirajasutra (Dutt, N)
Satya (S): SatyasiddhiSastra (Sastri, A)
Samdhis (ELa): L ’Explication des Mysteres: Samdhinirmocana Sutra (Lamotte, E)
SBE: Sacred Books of the East (Muller, M)
Sgm: Sagaramatipariprccha (TTP 819)
Siddhi: Vijnaptimatratasiddhi (La Vallee Poussin, L)
SH: Studien zur Indologie und Iranistik
Sn: Suttanipata (Andersen, D; Smith, H)
Sp: Samantapasadika (Buddhaghosa: Takakusu, J.; Nagai, G)
Sv: Sumangalavilasim (Buddhaghosa: Rhys Davids, TW)
Sbh: Sravakabhumi
§bh (S): ^ravakabhumi (Shukla, K)
6gs: La Concentration de la Marche Heroique: ^uramgamasamadhisutra

497
 Abbreviations

(Lamotte, E)
&iks: &iksasamuccaya (Bendail, C)
&ms: Srimaladevisimhanada (TTP 760.48)
Ssp: Satasahasrika Prajnaparamita (Ghosa, P)
T: Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo Edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon
(Takakusu, J; Watanable, K)
Th: Theragatha (Oldenberg, H)
To: A Complete Catalogue of the Tibetan Buddhist Canon (Ui, H)
TP: T’oung Pao
TSWS: Tibetan Sanskrit Works Series
TTD: Tibetan Tripitaka sDe-dge Edition
TTP: Tibetan Tripitaka Peking Edition (Suzuki, DT)
Ug: Ugrapariprccha (TTP 760.19)
Vibh-a: Vibhanga Commentary (Buddhadatta, AP)
Vibh: Vihbanga (Rhys Davids, CAF)
Vism: Visuddhimagga (Buddhaghosa: Warren, HC; Kosambhi, D)
Vin: Vinayapitaka (Oldenberg, H)
Vkn: The Teaching of Vimalakirti: Vimalakirtinirde^a Sutra (Lamotte, E)
Vup: Vinayavini^caya-Upalipariprccha (Python, P)
WZKSO: Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde Slid- und Ostasiens
ZDMG: Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft
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517
 Errata Corrige
p. 19.17 for: Sukhavativyuha, read: Sukhavativyuha(ibid., p. 50, n. I l l )
p. 21.15 for: Bodhisattvapitakasutra, read: Bodhisattvapitaka
p. 23.21 for: forth, read: fourth
p. 26, n. 45 for: additional, read: variant
p. 33.7 for: chapters, read: discussions
p. 40.10 for: Asariga while A&vabhasa, read: Asvabhava while Asanga
p. 49.13 for: bodhisattva, read: bodhisattvas
p. 54, n. 129 for: Rsivyasapariprccha, read: Rsivyasapariprccha
p. 54, n. 129 for: &ubhakarasimha’s, read: Subhakarasimha’s
p. 56, n.139 for: T 1526, read: T 1521
p. 56, n. 139 for: In the Chinese translation of the Suvikrantavikramapariprccha
Prajnaparamitasutra, read: In Seng-yu’s catalogue
p. 56, n. 139 for: include it under, read: include its abstract-under
p. 63.23 for: nineteen, read: twenty
p. 66.17 for: Vimaladattapariprccha, read: Vimaladattapariprccha
p. 71, n. 2 for: Hsuan-tsang, read: Hsiian-tsang
p. 90, n. 10 for: Trisamvsranirdesaparivarta, read: Trisamvaranirdesaparivarta
p. 90, n. 13 for: Bdp, read: Ug
p. 94, n. 25 delete: and, of course, the Bdp
p. 99.15 for: selected the paramita, read: selected paramita
p. 99, n. 36 for: twenty-one, read: twenty-three
p. 103, n. 57 for: Viradattagrhapatipariprccha, read: Viradattagrhapatipariprccha (ibid., p.
107, n. 70)
p. 108.17 for: out the, read: out of the
p. 110, n. 80 for: pp. ix-x, read: pp. 5-15
p. 117, n. 5 for: Msi, read: cf. Msl
p. 118.6 for: signals, read: signal
p. 118.13 for: stage nine and ten, read: stage eight and nine
p. 121.11 for: pararthalambana, read: pararthalambana
p. 121.4 for: calm nirvana, read: that nirvana is calm
p. 125, n. 47 for: Teviggasutta, read: Tevijjasutta
p. 126, n. 52 for: arupyadhatu, read: arupyadhatu (ibid., p. .129, n. 63; p. 136.11; p. 162, n
213; p. 243.8; p. 315, n. 3)
p. 128.15 for: giving?, read: giving.
p. 129.14 for: friendliness, read: benevolence
p. 130, n. 68 for: are presented, read: is presented
p. 138, n. 104 for: are linked with, read: being linked with
p. 141.6 for: to follow in, read: to follow
p. 148, n. 158 for: pp. 42.2 read: pp. 42.3.2
p. 149.1 for: manifest, read: manifesting
p. 149.20 delete: (sarvadharmata)
p. 151, n. 168 for: by absence of duality, gift, read: by absence of duality, his gift
p. 157.22 for: £ravakayana, read: Sravakayana
p. 161, n. 212 for: sadharanasadharanaSiksavisesa, read: sadharanasadharana£iksavi£esa
p. 166.15 for: da£aku£ala, read: aku£alakarmapatha
p. 169, n. 252 for: holders of little worth, read: holders are of little worth
p. 175, n. 283 delete: (trsl. Conze)
p. 176, n. 287 for: cognitive abandonment, read: trusting abandonment
p. 177, n. 295 for: maintaining of mind, read: maintaining a mind
p. 177, n. 297 for: bhavisanti, read: bhavisyanti f
£01mk
p. 180, n. 309 for: higher patience (satyantaksanti), read: absolute patience(atyantaksanti)
p. 189.25 for: apakaramarsanaksanti, read: parapakaramarsanaksanti
p. 195.14 delete: the bodhisattva’s
p. 197.13 for: between ksanti and virya, read: between ksanti and §ruta, and ksanti and
virya
p. 197.14 for: it, read: the joint presence of ksanti and Sruta
p. 214.9 for: rddhividhya, read: rddhividhyabhijna
p. 219, n. 518 for: willing to comply and, read: willing to
p. 221, n. 522 for: cetana, read: cetana
p. 224, n. 540 for: concentration agrees is, read: concentration is
p. 226.13 for: in first, read: in the first
p. 231, n. 570 for: Srotabhumi, read: Srutamaylbhumi (ibid., p. 245.14; p. 247, n. 655, 688,
p. 266, n. 750; p. 267, n. 757; p. 291, n. 884; p. 292, n. 889; p. 314, n. 3; p.
329, n. 35)
p. 233, n. 584 for: This very thought is also, read: The opposite thought is
p. 234, n. 588 for: vidhya, read: vidya
p. 237.7 for: murdhan, read: usmagata
p. 243.5 for: repeated meditation, read: repeated confrontation in meditation
p. 253.17 for: ‘skilT prior, read: ‘skill’ in them prior
p. 256.6 for: Up, read: Ug
p. 262, n. 734 for: pity, read: compassion
p. 263.2 for: caturvidha, read: caturvidya
p. 273.14 for: vyakaranabhumi, read: vyakaranabhumi
p. 279.7 for: many these, read: many of these
p. 281.19 for: images, read: reflection (ibid., p. 281.20)
p. 288, n. 872 for: p. 287, read: pp. 159-78
p. 294.17 for: other, read: bodhyanga and aryastangamarga
p. 296.23 for: that unified, read: that is unified
p. 296, n. 909 for: ekayana, read: ekayana
p. 302.26 for: with Mahayana text, read: with a Mahayana text
p. 311.11 for: hKah-hgyur, read: bKah-hgyur
p. 315, n. 4 for: itself becomes, read: themselves become
for: insight, read: wisdom; for: resolve, read: intent
p. 315, n. 5 for: adhyaSaya, read: adhyaSaya
p. 316, n. 8 for: Braarvig, read: Braavrig
p. 317, n. 13 for: acquisition of correct reflection, read: acquisition by correct reflection
p. 318, n. 15 for: brahmacariya, read: brahmacariya
p. 324.21 for: any teaching, read: any teachings
p. 328, n. 33 for: the heaven of Amitabha ... of the first category, read: the Pure Land of
Amitabha ... of the second category
p. 330, n. 40 for: ma log pa de bzin nid: tathata, read: ma log pa de bzin hid:
aviparyasatathata; for tathata, read: tathata
p. 351, n. 128 for: atthamaka, read: atthamaka
p. 353.17 for: passed into nirvana, read: passed into parinirvana
p. 355, n. 146 for: £raddha, read: Sraddha
p. 365, n. 181 for: thought as thought, read: thought
p. 383, n. 245 for: is not the object, read: not the object
p. 387, n. 257 for: briefly the characteristics, read: briefly in the characteristics
p. 387, n. 259 for: that is the meaning ...., read: what is the meaning .,, ?
p. 387, n. 259 for: great non-reality of samsara, read: great punishment of samsara
p. 389.14 for: that all things exist, read: that all things are inherently existent
p. 501.29 for: May, Jacques M, read: Lounsberry, G.C.