History-6 1

Chapter 1
Indus Valley Civilization
What is history?
History is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation
of information about past events. History can also mean the period of time after
writing was invented. Scholars who write about history are called historians. It is a
field of research which uses a narrative to examine and analyse the sequence of
events.
Amongst scholars, the 5th-century BC Greek historian Herodotus is
considered to be the "father of history", and, along with his
contemporary Thucydides, forms the foundations for the modern study of history.
Importance of History
Scholars say that teaching history has many important benefits. History
provides identity. Studying history improves our decision making and judgment.
History shows us models of good and responsible citizenship. History also teaches us
how to learn from the mistakes of others. History helps us understand change and
societal development. History provides us a context from which to understand
ourselves and others.
All good and valid reasons to teach history to our children. History should be
taught for all those things and more.

The importance of history is in its capacity to help one to draw conclusions

from the past events. It may be said that history is to the human race, what memory is
to each man. It sheds the light of the past upon the present, thus helping one to
understand oneself, by making one acquainted with other peoples. Also, as one
studies the rise and fall of empires and civilizations, the lessons of the past help one
to avoid the pitfalls of the present.
History makes one’s life richer by giving meaning to the books one reads, the
cities one visits or the music one hears. It also broadens one’s outlook by presenting
to one an admixture of races, a mingling of cultures and a spectacular drama of the
making of the modern world out of diverse forces.
Indus Valley Civilization
The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization that was located
in the northwestern region of the Indian subcontinent, consisting of what is now
mainly present-day Pakistan and northwest India. Flourishing around the Indus
River basin, the civilization extended east into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley and
the upper reaches Ganges-Yamuna Doab; it extended west to the Makran coast
of Balochistan, north to northeastern Afghanistan and south to Daimabad in
Maharashtra. The civilization was spread over some 1,260,000 km², making it the
largest ancient civilization.
The Indus Valley is one of the world's earliest urban civilizations, along with
its contemporaries,Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. At its peak, the Indus
Civilization may have had a population of well over five million. Inhabitants of the
 2 History -6
ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft and metallurgy .
The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and
multistoried houses.

Periods of Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus valley civilization is consisted on three periods;
Primary period 2500BC____________3800BC
Middle period 1700BC_______________2500BC
Last Period 1300BC_______________1700BC
Primary period of Indus valley
During this period urban life made a great progress. The art of handicraft was
flourished. Towns of some sophistication are built from the fifth millennium BC by
people practising agriculture on the banks of the Indus. They shelter within protective
walls; they have drainage systems, and an oven within each mud-brick house. By
3200 BC there are settlements of this kind along the length of the river.
In about 2500 BC the river becomes the lifeline of a much more highly
developed civilization, based on two places which are unmistakably cities -Harappa
and Mohenjo-daro.

Middle period of Indus valley

Life in the Indus valley cities seems to have been highly regulated. Streets are
laid out on a rectangular grid pattern, and there is a sewage system with household
drains leading into main sewers of baked brick. These even have inspection holes for
maintenance.
The larger houses, of two or occasionally three storeys, show blank walls to
the outer world but have an inner courtyard - possibly with wooden balconies giving
onto it.
Last period of Indus valley
In the end of the third period,the Indus valley civilization was inclined
towards downfall.
Important cities of the Indus Valley Civilization
Mohenjodarho:

Mohenjo-daro is an archeological site situated in the province

of Sindh, Pakistan. Built around 2600 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of
the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, and one of the world's earliest
major urban settlements, existing at the same time as the civilizations of ancient
Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Crete. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century
BCE, and was not rediscovered until 1922. Significant excavation has since been
conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage
Site in 1980.
 History-6 3

Mohenjo-daro, the modern name for the site, simply means Mound of the
Dead. The city's original name is unknown, but a Mohenjo-daro seal suggests a
possible ancient Dravidian name in the city of the cock . Cock-fighting may have had
ritual and religious significance for the city, with domesticated chickens bred there
for sacred purposes, rather than as a food-source.

Mohenjo-daro is located in the Larkana District of Sindh, Pakistan,[4] on

a Pleistocene ridge in the middle of the flood plain of the Indus River Valley, around
28 kilometres from the town of Larkana. The ridge was prominent during the time of
the Indus Valley Civilization, allowing the city to stand above the surrounding plain,
but the flooding of the river has since buried most of the ridge in deposited silt. The
site occupies a central position between the Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra
River. The Indus still flows to the east of the site, but the riverbed of the Ghaggar-
Hakra on the western side is now dry.
Harrapa:
Harappa is a large city of the Indus Civilization, and one of the best known
sites in Pakistan, located on the bank of the Ravi River in Punjab Province.
This early urban archaeological site was occupied between about 3300 and
1500 BC. Harappa includes an area of about 250 acres, and may be about twice that,
given that much of the site has been covered by the flooding of the Ravi. Intact
structural remains include those of a citadel, a granary, and two cemeteries. The mud
adobe bricks of significant architectural remains were robbed in antiquity.
Harappa Industries
The earliest Indus phase occupation at Harappa is called the Ravi phase (ca
3300-2800 BC, and at that time the site included a small occupation, with the first
agate bead-making activities on the site. In a part of the site dated to the Kot Diji
phase (2800-2500 BC) was found a piece of pottery with a possible early Indus script
marking, and a cubical limestone weight that conforms to the Harappan weight
system.
During the Harappa phase (2600-1900 BC), a faience and steatite bead
production workshop was identified, by several layers of 'faience slag', chert blades,
lumps of sawn steatite, bone tools, terracotta cakes and large masses of vitrified
faience slag. Also discovered were abundant broken and complete tablets and beads,
many with incised scripts.
Harappa was discovered in 1826 and first excavated in 1920 .
Relation with other Civilizations
The indus valley civilization had a direct contact with many of the
contemporary world civilizations: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Turkmenia, Oman and
Bahrain. Harappan shells and carnelian beads have been found iin Mesopotamian
royal burials, Mesopotamian clay tahlets refer to wood, gold and lapis lazuli coming
from Meluha, the ancient Akkadian name for the Indus region. Harrapan Seals and
other objects have been excavated in several Mesopotamian cities, such as Sura,
 4 History -6
Kish, Nippur and Ur. Evidence of a direct relationship between Harappan culture and
Egypt in fragmentary and inconclusive. There are evidences of Harappan artfacts,
such as etched carnelian beads and ivory, in Bahrain.
Religious beliefs of Indus valley people
Some Indus valley seals show swastikas, which are found in other religions
worldwide, especially in Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism are alleged to have been present
before and during the early Harappanperiod. Phallic symbols interpreted as the much
later Hindu Shiva lingam have been found in the Harappan remains.
Many Indus valley seals show animals. One motif shows a horned figure
seated in a posture reminiscent of the Lotus position and surrounded by animals was
named by early excavatorsPashupati (lord of cattle), an epithet of the
later Hindu gods Shiva and Rudra.
In view of the large number of figurines found in the Indus valley, some
scholars believe that the Harappan people worshipped a Mother goddess symbolizing
fertility, a common practice among rural Hindus even today. However, this view has
been disputed by S. Clark who sees it as an inadequate explanation of the function
and construction of many of the figurines.
There are no religious buildings or evidence of elaborate burials. If there were
temples, they have not been identified.
In the earlier phases of their culture, the Harappans buried their dead;
however, later, especially in the Cemetery H culture of the late Harrapan period, they
also cremated their dead and buried the ashes in burial urns.
It is possible that a temple exists to the East of the great bath, but the site has
not been excavated. There is a Buddhist reliquary mound on the site and permission
has not been granted to move it. Until there is sufficient evidence, speculation about
the religion of the IVC is largely based on a retrospective view from a much later
Hindu perspective.
Ram Prasad Chanda, who supervised Indus Valley Civilisation excavations,
states that, “Not only the seated deities on some of the Indus seals are in Yoga
posture and bear witness to the prevalence of Yoga in the Indus Valley Civilisation in
that remote age, the standing deities on the seals also show Kayotsarga position. The
Kayotsarga posture is peculiarly Jain. It is a posture not of sitting but of standing. In
the Adi Purana Book XV III, the Kayotsarga posture is described in connection with
the penance of Rsabha, also known as Vrsabha
Social system and its prominent features:
Society in the Indus valley civilization is said to have comprised of three
distinct social groups. One group ruled and administered the city, the other group
included the merchants who were associated with trade and other business activities
in the city. The third group were the labourers who worked in the city. They also
included the farmers who cultivated wheat and barley as their main crops. Animals
like the buffaloes, sheeps and pigs and the humped bull were bred. Fish, mutton, beef,
poultry and pork consisted the food they ate. Animals like the elephant, camels and
 History-6 5
dogs were also domesticated. The discovery of a large number of clay spindles
suggest the use of cotton besides woolen and linen fabrics.
Men also seemed to have worn ornaments like fillets, necklaces, finger rings
and armlets. Women were fond of ornaments like earrings, bangles, bracelets,
necklaces, girdles and anklets made of shell, beads, gold and silver and copper.
Razors, bronze mirrors and combs made of ivory speaks of the people interest in
personal upkeep. Toys like the whistle and carts besides puppets, rattles and dolls
made of terracotta speaks greatly about the attitude of the people in child care. People
enjoyed playing in dice and marble. Gambling was a favourite past time of the elder
members in the society.
Occupation
The discovery of various equipments such as axes, knives, spears and daggers
made of bronze and copper suggest metal work as a major profession commonly
pursued in the towns. Copper was used for making weapons and utensils besides
ornaments. Spinning, weaving and pottery also formed important occupation. Pottery
in red with designs painted in black resembling shapes such as interesting circles,
pipal, leaves, peacocks were on it. The discovery of numerous seals made of clay
with figures of animals like the tiger, rhinoceros, elephant and crocodile gives us
more information of the significance of these animals in the Harappan society. These
seals also have inscriptions in pictographic script.
Agriculture with domesticating animals was a major occupation. The location
of granaries near river, where the civilization itself flourished was an important
feature. The ornaments of these period worn by both men and women reflects the
skilled craftsmanship of the people in the Harappan culture.
(d) Trade
The Indus valley people maintained commercial contacts with Egypt and
Crete, Mesopotamia and the towns in the Persian Gulf. Excavations at Lothal reveals
the existence of a dock supporting the activities of trade in that period. Trade also
existed with Northern Afghanistan from where the Harappans bought the famous blue
gemstones,' Lapiz Lazuli'.

Script
 The script of this age has not yet been deciphered.
 The style of script is boustrophedon i.e. written from right to left in first line
and from left to right in second line
 The script is pictographic
 The number of signs of the Harappan script is known to be 400-600 out of
them about 50 are basic
 The inscriptions discovered are short
 The largest signboard discovered from Dholavira has only 10 signs
 The script remained unchanged for the centuries in Indus Valley this suggests
that the users of script were very few
 The origin of the Swastika symbol can be traced to the Indus Civilization.
 6 History -6
Agriculture:
The Indus plains were made fertile by the annual inundation of the river
Indus. This river carried far more alluvial soil than many other contemporary rivers
like the Nile in Egypt. The farmers sowed their seeds in November when the flood
waters receded and reaped their harvests in April before the next floods. They must
have produced enough to provide for the people in villages and cities.
The Harappans cultivated wheat and barley the two main food crops. Peas and
dates were also grown. In addition sesame and mustard were grown and used for oil.
However the people cultivated rice as early as 1800 BC in Lothal. The Harappans
were the earliest people to grow cotton. Irrigation depended on the irregular flooding
of the rivers of Punjab and Sind.
Domestication of animals
Stock breeding was important in Indus culture. Besides sheep and goats, dogs,
humped cattle buffalo and elephant was certainly domesticated. The camel was rare
and horse was not known.
Crafts
The various occupations in which people were engaged spanned a wide range.
Spinning and weaving of cotton and wool, pottery making chiefly red clay with
geometric designs painted in black, bead making from clay, stone, paste, shell and
ivory, seal making, terracotta manufacture and brick laying.
Goldsmiths made jewellery of silver, gold and precious stones and metal
workers made tools and implements in copper and bronze.
Harappan Pottery
The Harappan pottery is bright or dark red and uniformly sturdy and well
baked. It consists chiefly of wheel made wares both plain and painted. The plain
pottery is more common than the painted ware. The plain ware is usually of red clay
with or without a fine red slip. The painted pottery is of red and black colours.
Several methods were used by people for the decoration of pottery. Geometrical
patterns, circles, squares and triangles and figures of animals, birds, snakes or fish are
frequent motifs found in Harappan pottery. Another favourite motive was tree
pattern. Plants, trees and pipal leaves are found on pottery. A hunting scene showing
two antelopes with the hunter is noticed on a pot shreds from the cemetery H.A jar
found at Lothal depicts a scene in which two birds are seen perched on a tree each
holding a fish in its beak. Below it is an animal with a short thick tail which can be a
fox according to S R Rao. He also refers to the presence of few fish on the ground.
Harappan people used different types of pottery such as glazed, polychrome, incised,
perforated and knobbed.
The glazed Harappan pottery is the earliest example of its kind in the ancient
world. Polychrome pottery is rare and mainly comprised small vases decorated with
geometric patterns mostly in red, black and green and less frequently in white and
yellow. Incised ware is rare and the incised decoration was confined to the bases of
the pans. Perforated pottery has a large hole at the bottom and small holes all over the
wall and was probably used for straining liquor. Knobbed pottery was ornamented on
 History-6 7
the outside with knobs. The Harappan pottery includes goblets, dishes, basins, flasks,
narrow necked vases, cylindrical bottles, tumblers, corn measures, spouted vases and
a special type of dish on a stand which was a offering stand or incense burner.
Weights and Measures
Harappans used weights and measures for commercial as well as building
purposes. Numerous articles used as weights have been discovered. The weights
proceeded in a series, first doubling from 1, 2, 4, 8 to 64 and then in decimal
multiples of 16. Several sticks inscribed with measure marks have been discovered.
Harappans were inventors of linear system of measurement with a unit equal to one
angula of the Arthasastra.
Script and Language
Harappan script is regarded as pictographic since its signs represent birds,
fish, varieties of the human form etc. The number of signs of the Harappan script is
known to be between 400 and 600 of which 40 or 60 are basic and the rest are their
variants. The variants are formed by adding different accents, inflexions or other
letters to the former. The language of the Harappans is still unknown and must
remain so until the script is read. There are two main arguments as to the nature of the
language that it belongs to the Indo-European or even Indo-Aryan family or that it
belongs to the Dravidian family.
The approach followed by Kinnier-Wilson is to find analogies between
Harappan and Sumerian signs.S R Rao has produced a different attempt to read the
script as containing a pre-Indo-Aryan language of the Indo-European family. An
attempt has been made by Natwar Jha a palaeographist and Vedic scholar who says
that script is syllabic that is no vowels are written. Semitic languages like Phoenician
and Arabic use the syllabic system. Since no word in these languages begins with a
vowel the writing does not create any problems in comprehension. Jha claims to have
deciphered about 3500 inscriptions on seals.
According to historians the script is both pictorial and alphabetic; alphabets
are favoured to the pictures in the later stages. He also finds close connection
between the Brahmi and the Indus script. Most of the writing is from left to right and
not the other way. Many ancient scripts like Phoenician, various Aramaics and
Hemiaretic are connected to or even derived from Harappan. This is contrary to the
currently held view that all alphabetic writing descended from Phoenician in the late
second millennium BC.
Art of Writing
The Indus Valley people had some knowledge of the art of writing, though in
a rudimentary way. No regular documents on stone or baked clay tablets have been
found but the numerous seals, representing unicorns and bulls and other objects give
us the idea that the people had a language of their own. Some historians are of the
view that the script found on the seals are similar to the ones used in Egypt, Sumeria
and other countries of Western Asia. The script is pictographic, but still remains un-
deciphered though there are nearly four hundred signs.
 8 History -6
The writing was generally from left to right, but in some cases it was in the
opposite direction i.e., right to left in the first line and left to right in the second. The
Indus Valley script resembles the script of the ancient Mesopotamian people. Dr. S.R.
Rao in his research work Decipherment of the Indus Script holds that the Indus
Valley people used the phonetic script and in the late Harappan period the script
evolved itself towards and alphabetic pattern. He says that numerals were shown by
corresponding numbers of independent vertical lines. However, the Indus script
remains to be a puzzle to the historians and thus the riches of this civilization remain
unrevealed until this script is interpreted.
Food:
Specimens of wheat and barley show that they were cultivated in that region.
Rice was also probably grown. There is evidence to show that date palms were grown
in the area. Besides these, the diet of the people consisted of fruits, vegetables, fish,
milk and meat of animals i.e. beef, mutton and poultry.
Dress:
From the sculptured figures it can be seen that the dress of men and women
consisted of two pieces of cloth-one resembling a dhoti, covering the lower part, and
the other worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm. Men had long hair
designed differently. Women wore a fan shaped head dress covering there hair. The
discovery of a large number of spindles showed that they knew weaving and
spinning. Similarly it was concluded, by the discovery of needles and buttons, that the
people of this age knew the art of stitching.
Ornaments:
Both men and women wore ornaments made of gold, silver, copper and other
metals. Men wore necklaces, finger rings and armlets of various designs and shapes.
The women wore a head dress, ear rings, bangles, girdles, bracelets and anklets. Rich
people wore expensive ornaments made of gold while the poor had ornaments made
of shell, bone or copper.

Cosmetics:
The ladies of Mohen-jo-daro were not lagging behind in styles as used by the
ladies of the present day, when it came to the use of cosmetics and the attainment of
beauty. Materials made of ivory and metal for holding and applying cosmetics prove
that they knew the use of face paint and collyrium. Bronze oval mirrors, ivory combs
of various shapes, even small dressing tables, have been found at Mohen-jo-daro and
other sites. Women tied the hair into a bun and used hair pins made of ivory. Toilet
jars, found at Mohen-jo-daro, show that women took interest in cosmetics.
Furniture and Utensils:
The furniture and utensils found at Mohen-jo-daro show a high degree of
civilization because of their variety in kind and design. The beautifully painted
pottery, numerous vessels for the kitchen, chairs and beds made of wood, lamps of
different material, toys for children, marbles, balls and dice, indicate what people
manufactured in those days.
 History-6 9
Conveyance
A copper specimen found at Harappa resembles the modern Ekka (cart) with a
top-cover. Bullock carts with or without the roof was the chief means of conveyance.
Amusements and Recreation:
The Indus Valley people liked more of indoor games than outdoor
amusements. They were fond of gambling and playing dice. Dancing and singing
were considered great arts. Boys played with toys made of terracotta, while girls
played with dolls.

Harappan Trade
The Harappan people traded with the people of Sumer and with the towns
lying along the Persian Gulf. Harappan seals and other small objects used by the
merchants and traders for stamping their goods have been found in Mesopotamia.
The merchandise was shipped from Lothal and incoming goods were received here.
Weights and measures which were very accurately graded point to a very high degree
of exchange
Town Planning In Indus Valley Civilization
The most characteristic feature of the Harappan Civilization was its
urbanization. The cities show evidence of an advanced sense of planning and
organization. Each city was divided into the citadel area where the essential
institutions of civic and religious life were located and the residential area where the
urban population lived. In the citadel the most impressive buildings were the
granaries which were store -houses. Near the granaries were the furnaces where the
metal workers produced a variety of objects in metals such as copper, bronze, lead
and tin. The potters also worked in this part. The workers lived together in small
quarters near the factory. Another well-known building was the Great Bath. It might
have served the purpose of ritual bathing vital to any religious ceremony in India. In
Mohenjo daro there is also a large building which appears to have been the house of
the governor. Another building nearby was either a meeting hall or a market place.
Below the citadel in each city lay a town proper.
The town was extremely well planned. The street ran straight and at right
angles to each other following the grid system. The rectangular town planning was
unique to the Harappans and was not known in Mesopotamia or Egypt. The streets
were very wide and the houses built of burnt bricks lined both sides of the street. In
Egypt and Mesopotamia dried or baked bricks were used. The houses were of
varying sizes which suggest class differences in Harappan society. A well laid
drainage system kept the cities clean.

Drainage system
The Drainage System of the Indus Valley Civilization was far advanced. The
drains were covered with slabs. Water flowed from houses into the street drains. The
street drains had manholes at regular intervals. Housewives were expected to use pits
in which heavier part of the rubbish will settle down while only sewerage water was
 10 History -6
allowed to drain off. All soak pits and drains were occasionally cleaned by workmen.
In every house there was a well-constructed sink, and water flowed from the sink into
the underground sewers in the streets. This elaborate drainage system shows that the
Indus Valley people were fully conversant with the principles of health and
sanitation.
Houses:
The houses were of different sizes varying from a palatial building to one with
two small rooms. The houses had a well, a bathroom, and a covered drain connected
to the drain in the street. The buildings were made of burnt bricks, which have been
preserved even to this day. Sun-dried bricks were used for the foundation of the
buildings and the roofs were flat and made of wood. The special feature of the houses
was that rooms were built around an open courtyard. Some houses were double
storied. Some buildings had pillared halls; some of them measured 24 square meters.
It is assumed that there also must have been palaces, temples or municipal halls.

Great Bath:
One of the largest buildings was the Great Bath measuring 180 feet by 108
feet. The bathing pool, 39 feet long, 28 feet wide and 8 feet deep was in the center of
the quadrangle, surrounded with verandahs, rooms and galleries. A flight of steps led
to the pool. The pool could be filled and emptied by means of a vaulted culvert, 6 feet
and 6 inches high. The walls of the pool were made of burnt bricks laid on edge,
which made the pool watertight. The pool was filled with water from a large well,
situated in the same complex. Periodic cleaning of the pool was done by draining off
the used water into a big drain. The Great Bath building had six entrances. The Great
Bath reflected the engineering genius of those ancient days.

Great Granary:
Another large building in the city was the Great Granary which was made
about 45 meters long and 15 meters wide. It was meant to store food grains. It had
lines of circular brick platforms for pounding grain. There were barrack like quarters
for workmen. The granary also had smaller halls and corridors.
The Assembly Hall:
An important feature of Mohen-jo-daro was its 24 square meters pillared hall.
It had five rows of pillars, with four pillars in each row. Kiln baked bricks were used
to construct these pillars. Probably, it was the Assembly Hall or the ruler's court. It is
said that it also housed the municipal office which had the charge of town planning
and sanitation.
Polity and Society
The similarity in the pattern of town planning, standardization of weights etc
suggests the presence of some centralized authority. There is no clear-cut evidence
about the nature of polity, but it seems that the ruling authority of Indus Civilization
be a class of merchants.
 History-6 11
The society of Indus Valley was highly stratified. The presence of castle in
various sites and Kulli-line like structures found at Harappa suggests the inequality
prevailing in the society. The society was patriarchal in nature.

Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus valley culture though existed in its modern form else where it had
to submit to the ultimate ravages of time which is the universal law. The physical
existence of the civilization ended due to various factors.
(a) Changes in the climate leading to the decline of land and agriculture,
thereby enforcing the need to evacuate to other area might have been the reason for
the dissertation of the Indus valley.
(b) Increase in population, excessive deforestation decline in agriculture etc
might have created economic problems leading to the gradual decay of the culture.
(c) Frequent floods may have led to the devastation of the city
(d) The invasion of the Aryans is the other view that is said to be another
reason which might have also led to the extinction of the life in the Indus valley.
The Indus valley civilization has put India at par with the other civilization of
the world, which is said to be the foundation on which the present cultures of
nations are built.

Chapter 2
The Aryan Era
Arrivals of Aryans in India
The Aryans came to India in several waves. The earliest wave is represented
by the Rig Vedic people who appeared in the subcontinent in about 1500 BC. They
came into conflict with the indigenous inhabitants called the Dravidians mentioned as
dasa or dasyus in Rig Veda. The Rig Veda mentions the defeat of Sambara by
Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan. Possibly the dasyus in the Rig Veda
represent the original inhabitants of the country, and an Aryan chief who
overpowered them was called Trasadvasyu. The Aryan chief was soft towards the
 12 History -6
dasas, but strongly hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyuhatya, slaughter of the
dasyus, is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.
Some of the chief tribes of the period were Yadu, Turvasu, Druhyu, Anu
Puru, Kuru, Panchala, Bharata and Tritsu. Among the inter-tribal conflicts the most
important was the 'Battle of the Ten Kings.'

Aryan is in fact a linguistic term indicating a speech group of Indo-European

origin, and is not an ethnic term. However this inaccuracy has become so current in
historical studies of early India that it would sound unduly obscure to refer to the
Aryans as 'the Aryan speaking peoples'. In Sanskrit, however, the word 'Aryan' means
'a noble man'. Aryans were the most illustrious race in history. They were tall, fair
complexioned, good-looking and cultured people. Groups of Aryans are said to have
settled in different countries and developed some of the most remarkable civilizations
of the world. People belonging to the various parts of the world claim themselves to
the proud descendents of the Aryans. In fact Adolf Hitler used the German pride of
being the descendant of the Aryans as his tool to spread racial hatred against the so-
called non-Aryans, during the World War II.

Original Home of the Aryans

It is generally believed that they were not the original inhabitants of India.
Many theories have been put forward in favor and against the argument. Some
historians say that the original home of Aryans was Central Asia. Others are of the
opinion that their original home was in southern Russia (near the Caspian sea) or in
the south-east Europe (in Austria and Hungary). German scholar Max-Muller thought
that the original home of the Aryans was somewhere near the Caspian Sea. From
there they had migrated to the European countries. Two groups of Aryans are said to
have come to Persia and India. The Aryans who had migrated to India are known as
the 'Indo-Aryans'. They were the first people who entered India through the north-
western passes. The common descent of the Aryans is also indicated by the fact that
Sanskrit, the language of the Indo-Aryans, is closely related to many languages of
Europe and some languages of Western Asia. From this it can be concluded that in
olden times the ancestors of these people who spoke similar languages must have
once lived as neighbors. Bhagwan S. Gidwani in his book 'The Return of the Aryans'
contends that Aryans were the original inhabitants of India and from here they
migrated to other places in the world. He argues that if Aryans did migrate from other
places to India then why is there no reference to those places in their books, such as
Vedas, Puranas, Upanishads, etc. According to Bal Gangadhar Tilak Aryans
originally inhabited Siberia but due to the falling temperature had to leave Siberia for
greener pastures.
Central Asian theory
There are various schools of thought regarding the original home of the
Aryans. The most important theory which held the field for a long time was that the
Aryans originally lived in Central Asia. This theory was propounded by Prof Max
 History-6 13
Muller a German scholar of comparative languages. He stated that the ancestors of
the Indians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Germans and the Celts must have lived
together originally. The 'Pitri' and 'Matri' in Sanskrit are essentially the same as the
Persian 'Pidar' and 'Madar', the Latin 'Pater' and 'Mater' and the English 'Father' and
'Mother'.
These are not trade terms but words of everyday use in families which could
not have been adopted unless at some distant time, the ancestors of these people had
lived at one common place. Max Muller concluded that the Aryans who today occupy
European countries migrated by a route south of the Caspian through Asia minor to
Greece and Italy and one of their groups came to India through the northwest
passages.
Arctic Theory
Central Asian theory has been seriously challenged by Sri Bal Gangadhar
Tilak in his book 'Arctic Home in the Vedas'. He opined that the original home of the
Aryans was a place of extreme cold. The Vedas refer to days and nights lasting for 6
months which are found in Arctic region.
Sapt-Sindhu Theory
According to the eminent historians A C Das, K M Munshi the Aryans
originally belonged to the Sapt-Sindhu or Punjab. This point of view was put forward
by A C Das in his book Rig Vedic India. He says that all the plants, rivers, crops and
animals mentioned in Rig-Veda and other ancient books were found in ancient
Punjab. The geographical conditions in Rig-Veda points out to this region. But this
theory is not convincing. If the Aryans had been indigenous inhabitants of the Sapt
Sindhu area there would have been no need for them to desert such a fertile area and
go to other parts. Aryans were unaware of animals such as elephant and lion which
were found mainly in India. This proves that Aryans were foreigners
Tibetan Theory
According to Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Pargiter the original home of
the Aryans was Tibet. This view has been expounded by them in the Satyarth Prakash
and Ancient Indian Historical Traditions respectively. According to them Aryans
worshipped the sun and fire as it was extremely cold in Tibet. All the trees and
animals mentioned in the Rig Veda were found in Tibet.
South-East European Theory
The theory generally accepted these days is that the original home of the
Aryan was in south-east Europe. According to Macdonell the common trees like the
oak, the birch and the willow and the common animals like the horse and the cow
with which the ancestors of the Aryans were familiar could in those days be found
only in southern Europe. This theory is also disputed by some western scholars

Vedic Society
 14 History -6
The Harappan civilization was followed by Vedic or Rig-Vedic culture which
was completely opposed to it. The Vedic culture was founded by the Aryans. They
were immigrants and arrived in India between 2000 and 1500 BC. The origin of the
Aryans is still an unsettled affair. The coming of the Aryans to India was a great
event in Indian history. The Aryans were considered to be one of the world's most
civilized communities. They were far ahead of other races of their time. The original
homeland of Aryans has remained a subject of long and protracted controversy.
Regarding the original home of the Aryans the historians have held divergent views.

Social Structure
The unit of society was the family, which was patriarchal. A number of
families constituted a sept, grama, which word was later used for village, suggesting
that the families in the early settlements were related. The family unit was a large
one, generally extending over three generations and with the male offspring living
together. Very early marriages were not customary, and there was a fair amount of
choice in the selection of a mate. Both dowry and bride-price were recognized. The
birth of a son was especially welcome in an Aryan family for the son's presence was
essential at important ceremonies. The position of women was on the whole free, but
it is curious that, unlike the Greeks, the Indo-Aryans did not attribute much power to
their goddesses, who remained gentle figures in the background.
A widow had to perform a symbolic self-immolation at the death of her
husband. Although it is not clear whether the rite was restricted to the aristocracy
alone. It may have been the origin of the practice of Sati when in later centuries a
widow actually burnt herself on her husband's funeral pyre. The Sati was merely
symbolic during the Vedic period seems evident from the fact that later Vedic
literature refers to the remarriage of widows, generally to the husband's brother.
Monogamy appears to have been the accepted pattern, although polygamy was
known and polyandry is mentioned in later writings. Marriage within related groups
was strictly regulated. The Aryans had a terror of incestuous relationships.
The house was a large all-inclusive structure with family and animals living
under the same roof. The family hearth was particularly venerated and the fire was
kept burning continuously. Houses were built round a wooden framework. The room
was held by a pillar at each of the four corners and by cross beams around which
were constructed walls of reed stuffed with straw. The roof was made of bamboo ribs
supporting thatch. This continued to be the method of construction of villages until
the change to mud walls in later centuries, when the climate became dry.
The staple diet was milk and ghi (clarified butter), vegetables, fruit, and
barley in various forms. On ceremonial occasions - as a religious fest or the arrival of
a guest - a more elaborate meal was customary, including the flesh of ox, goat, and
sheep, washed down with sura or madhu, both highly intoxicating, the latter being a
type of mead. Clothes were simple, most people wearing only a lower garment or a
cloak, but ornaments were more elaborate and clearly a source of pleasure to their
 History-6 15
owners. Leisure hours were spent mainly in playing music, singing, dancing and
gambling and chariot racing for the more energetic ones.
Social Condition of the Aryans during the Vedic Age
In every sense of the term, Vedic culture was regarded as the cradle of Indian
civilization that boasts her so proudly before the world- Way back in ancient times,
the whole of Aryavarta resounded with static rhythms of Vedic culture.
The contents of the Vedas have attracted the admiration of the historians and
researchers of India and foreign countries. The Vedic culture was enriched by the
original tastes and achievements of Aryans and every facet of this culture drew the
attention of the world to it. Really, the sun of Indian civilization rose towards
meridian from the horizon with the beginning of the Vedic culture.
The social life of the Aryans in the Rig Vedic age was as simple as it was
sacred. It reflected the basic realities of a village life style. The members of the
family were bound by strong family bond of love and affection and led an ideal life.
The society was a true moral order. Their simple life-style is reflected in their food,
dress, dwelling houses, and recreational activities.
Family:
Family was the nucleus of the social life of Vedic Aryans. The Aryans
wandering in search of habitat and green pastures finally settled down to the houses
they built. The family was patriarchal, the father or the eldest male member being the
head of the family. He was known as Kulapa', 'Kulapati' or 'Grihapati'. He looked
after all such affairs of the family as sustenance, education of children, peace and
discipline, marriage of girls of the family, sale and purchase of wealth and solution of
different problems. He was the emblem of kindness, compassion and magnanimity.
Yet, at times he was becoming cruel, as well. The Rigveda give the instance
of a loser at the dice-stakes being abandoned by the head of his family to the winner.
Another speaks of a father making his extravagent son blind as a mark of punishment.
Joint family setup was the conspicuous feature of the Vedic culture. The head of the
family and his wife jointly discharged all suspicious duties of the family-
House:
The Aryans built houses made of clay, bamboo and wood- .Each house was
covered with a thatched roof. Each house had a kitchen, meant for rituals, worship
and cooking. A drawing room, dressing room for ladies and room for the head of the
family were built into every house. Each family had its own house. Each village
housed ninny families. The Vedic culture was the epitome, of ancient rural culture.
Food and Drink:
The Aryans had simple food-habits. They lived on cakes made of wheat and
maize. Various fruits, milk and milk products like curd, cheese and ghee were their
main food. They also ate the meat those calf, goat and lamb which were sacrificed at
the Hanja was strictly exempted from slaughter. They drank water from river, stream
and well. They drank 'Samaras', the intoxicant juice of soma tree. This drink was
sacred. This drink was taken after it was offered in the rituals of Yajna. They also
prepared a wine called 'Sure' from various corns. This wine could be taken anywhere
 16 History -6
at any time. The non-Aryans who were defeated and taken in as Dasa or servants by
the Aryans usually drank the 'Sura'. The over-all food and drink habits of the Aryans
were too simple.
Dress:
Equally simple was their dress. They wore dresses made from cotton, wool
and deer-skin. Normally their dress was divided into three categories. Dress dangling
down from the waist area was called 'Nimbi' or 'Nimnabasa' (lower garment). The
dress portion from waist upwards was 'Basal' or 'Paridhana' (dress). These two apart,
a third one was used as scarf, known as 'Adlibs' or 'Alma' or 'drape'. The dresses were
variously colored. The Veda speaks of the rich wearing dresses decorated with linings
of gold.
Ornaments:
Both male and female wore ornaments in the Rig Vedic Age. The ladies used
ear-ring's (Karnasobhana) extensively. They also wore neck-lace, bangles, anklets
and other ornaments. Many valuable stones were studded in the ornaments. The
ladies massaged oil into their hair before doing it up and decorating it with flowers.
The males wore moustache and beard, though use of razor was also there. The razor
with a handle (khura) was the most-popular equipment for shaving. They also wore
shoes made of leather.
Recreation:
Various sources of entertainment like playing dice, hunting, wrestling,
chariot-racing and war-dances helped them to enjoy their leisure. The ladies were
learned and spent their time in song, dance and merrymaking. The men also enjoyed
life by singing and playing on flute and the Veena. The men and women alike were
happy and enjoyed leisure by socialising.
Education:
The Aryans of the Rig-Vedic age attached a lot of importance to education.
The disciple would get education in the Gurtikula after his sacred thread ceremony.
Education was the teacher's oral teaching. The teacher (Zachary) would recite the
Vedic hymns. The pupils would remember it through re-recitation. The fifth 'Sitka' of
Rig-Veda resembles the Guru Kula with the croaking frogs. The Vedic education
aimed to sharpen the knowledge of the students and build up their character.
Education of the ' days was basically religious. The pupils were also taught about
Ethics, art of warfare, art of metals, the concept of Brahma and philosophy, as well as
about basic sciences like agriculture, animal husbandry and handicrafts. This
education was in high public esteem as it had a special role to play in consolidating
the social system. Caste system:
At the beginning of the Vedic Age, there was no caste system. Members of a
family were engaged in various individual works and duties and lived a happy and
contented life. This goes to prove beyond doubt that there was no caste-system in the
Rig-Vedic Age. Everybody was competent to do every kind of work. This is a
glowing testimony to the stability and versatility of the society.
Position of women:
 History-6 17
Woman was held in high esteem in the early Vedic Age. She was the sole
manager of the household. No religious function could be performed by the men
only, but by men and women jointly. Education was equally open to boys and girls.
The women participated with men in Hanja, spiritual discourses and meetings. Even
the ladies coined Vedic hymns.
Gosh had coined two hymns of Rig-Veda. The women also functioned as
teachers. Some of the famous women of the age were Gargi, Paula, Mastery,
Vestavia, Lopamudra and Sikata. The girls got married after attaining puberty.
Sometimes the girls choose their husband in the 'Swayamvara' (assemblage of eligible
bachelors) but otherwise the parents of the bride were entrusted with the
responsibility of her marriage. The daughter-in-law was equated with Lakshmi.
The system of Sati was unknown but widow-remarriage was permitted in the
society. The-cows and gold and other items of dowry was regarded as the sole
property of the wife, her in-laws were permitted only to use it but not to own it.
Except for members of the royal court who sometimes adoptee polygamy, monogamy
was the order of the day.
There was no system of veil (pariah system) in the society. The woman
depended on her father before her marriage, on her husband after her marriage and on
her son in her old-age. It would not be a travesty of truth to say that women enjoyed a
high status in the social hierarchy during the early Vedic Age.
The condition of the early Vedic society was a highly developed one. A
healthy and happy family-life and education were primary objectives of their lives.
Simple food, dress and ornaments encapsulate their life style. The esteemed position
of women in society of early Vedic Age is unique and unmatched till date. A
peaceful, contented, healthy and refined social life was the forte of the early Vedic
Aryans.
Religions
The changing features of social and economic life such as the growth of
towns, expansion of the artisan class and the rapid development of trade and
commerce in the 6th BC were closely linked with changes in the religious field. It
was a period of religious upheaval not only in the history of India but also in the rest
of the world. In India various sects and reformers came into existence. They protested
against the existing social and religious evils and attempted to reconstruct a new
socio-religious order. As a result there arose a conflict between the established
orthodoxy and the aspirations of newly rising groups in the urban centres.
These sects were regarded with scorn and Brahmans were particularly harsh
towards them. Of all these sects two such came to stay were Jainism and Buddhism
which later became independent religions.
 Causes for the emergence of new religions
 Jainism
 Buddism
Causes for the emergence of new religions
1. Complications and ritualism in Hinduism
 18 History -6
2. Vedic religion had become complex and degenerated into superstitions,
dogmas and rituals.
3. The sacrifices prescribed by the Vedas became complicated.
4. The Vedic mantras were complicated and went beyond the understanding of
common man.
5. The supremacy of the Brahmans created unrest. They no longer led pure and
holy life.
6. All the sacred Vedic texts were written in Sanskrit which was the language of
the elite and not the masses.
7. The masses could connect with the new sects as Mahavira and Buddha spoke
to them in their language.
Jainism
It is generally believed that the founder of Jainism was Mahavira.It is now
recognized that Mahavira was the 24th Tirthankara.The sacred books of Jain tell us
that their first Tirthankara was Rishab, the founder of Jainism. He was the father of
Bharata the first Vedic king of India.Rishab was followed by 23 Tirthankaras.The
Vishnu Purana and Bhagavat Purana describe Rishab as an incarnation of
Narayana.His four main teachings were
i. Not to injure life
ii. Not to tell a lie
iii. Not to steal
iv. Not to possess property

It is said that only the 5th doctrine was added by Mahavira, the other four
being taken over by him from previous teachers. The Jaina philosophy shows a close
affinity to Hindu Samkhya philosophy. They ignore the idea of God and accept that
the world is full of sorrows and believe in the theory of karma and transmigration of
souls. In Jainism the devotees have been classified in five categories, in the
descending order;
1. Tirthankara who has attained salvation
2. Arhat who is about to attain nirvana
3. Acharya the head of the ascetic group
4. Upadhaya,teacher or saint
5. Sadhu class which includes the rest
From the remaining 30 years Mahavira moved from one place to another and
preached his religion. He founded a new sect called Jains.He also met Ajatashastru,
the king of Magadha and is said to have converted him. At the age of 72 he attained
Kaivalya (death) at Pavapuri near Patna in 468 BC.

The Coming of Aryans : Occupation & Political life

 History-6 19
Agriculture was the main occupation of the people. Agricultural products
were wheat, rice, cotton and oil seeds. Farmers depended on rain. However, they had
some irrigation system using canals; wells and lakes.
Besides agriculture, people engaged themselves in weaving, tanning and
metallurgy. Artisans such as carpenters, potters, blacksmiths and goldsmiths too
made living.
Agricultural products led to trade. Rivers were used for transportation and
many commercial towns came into existence on the banks of rivers. Bullocks, horses
and camels were used for transportation. In those days the barter system was
practiced in trade.
People also domesticated animals. Some of them were used for ploughing or
drawing carts. Horses, bulls, cows, dogs and goats were the main animals
domesticated by the Aryans.

Political life of Aryans

When Aryans came to India they came in the form of tribes, this tribal system
survived for many centuries. The tribes were organized in a patriarchal groups, and in
the early stages the chief of the tribe was merely a tribal leader. As the need for
protection grew, the most capable protector was elected chief, and he gradually began
to assume privileges generally associated with kingship. The rapid development of
monarchies was kept in check, by the two tribal assemblies, the sabha and the samiti.
The sabha was an exclusive council of the tribal elders, whereas the samiti may have
been a general assembly for the entire tribe. Among tribes which had no elected
monarch's these assemblies played the pivotal role.
Soon the status of the king became hereditary. Consequentially the position of
the sabha and the samiti underwent a change; they could act as a check on the king
but king was the final authority.

A rudimentary administrative system was introduced, with the king as the

pivot. The tribal kingdom (rashtra) contained tribes (jana), tribal units (vish), and
villages (grama). The nucleus was the family (kula), with the elsdest male member as
its head (kulapa). The king was assisted by a court of the elders of the tribe and by the
village headmen. Even closer to him were two officers: the purohita or chief priest,
who combined the function of priest, astrologer, and adviser; and the senani or
military commander. Spies and messengers completed his entourage. Later sources
mention a more elaborate group surrounding the king: the charioteer, the treasurer,
the steward, and the super-intended of dicing.
The Vedic Religion
We get information on the religion of the Aryans from the Vedas. The Rig
Veda is believed to be the oldest; and is the source of the religion of the early Vedic
period. Aryans seem to have believed in monotheism. Some of the hymns express the
idea that God is one, but he is called by many names.
 20 History -6
The early Aryans worshipped phenomena of nature in the form of nature
gods. These forces of nature were worshipped as male or female gods.
Indra was the Aryan superman, the god of strength, foremost in battle,
always ready to smite dragons and demons and to destroy cities. He was the God of
thunder, the rainmaker, and the victor over the forces which the Aryans could not
vanquish.
Agni the God of fire, received many beautiful tributes; he dominated the
domestic fireplace, and marriages were solemnized in the presence of fire, as they are
to this day in Hindu rites. Fire was the purest of the five elements and was held in
high esteem.
Surya (Sun), Savitri (a solar deity to whom the famous Gayatri mantra is
dedicated).

Varuna was the god of water. He was the sustainer of plant and animal life. It
was his responsibility to uphold the natural order.
Soma (god of intoxicating juice soma).
Yama, the god of death, had a prominent place.
Vayu (the god of winds).
Prithvi was the goddess of Earth. and Usha, the goddess of Dawn.
A characteristic feature of the Vedic religion is that male deities like Varuna,
Surya and Agni were given prominence and goddesses like Prithvi and Usha
occupied a subordinate position.

Although a large number of gods are referred to in the Vedas, yet the Vedic
religion cannot be considered as polytheistic (having belief in more than one god).
All these gods represent various phenomena of nature and were the manifestations of
one Supreme God who is the Creator, Preserver and Destroyer of the universe. They
called Him Ishwar, Brahma or Vishnu.

The gods were engaged in the conflict between good and evil and ultimately
suppressed the evil.
Worship and Religious Sacrifices
The central feature of Aryan religious life was, however, sacrifice. Small
oblations were restricted to the domestic sacrifice, but from time to time larger
sacrifices were organized in which not only the entire village but also the entire tribe
participated. The goodwill of the Gods was necessary to the continually warring
tribes, and the Aryans felt that the sacrifice persuaded the god into granting them
boons. The Gods were believed to participate unseen by the humans. The sacrifice
was certainly a solemn institution, but its also served purpose of releasing energies
and inhibitions, through the general conviviality which followed at the end of the
sacrifice and particularly after the liberal drinking of soma.
One aspect of the ritual of sacrifice was the important role of the priests,
hence the description Brahman, applied to him who possessed the mysterious and
 History-6 21
magical power Brahma; another aspect was the gradual acceptance that the God, the
Priests, and the offering passed through a moment of complete identity.
The ritual of sacrifice resulted in some interesting by-products. Mathematical
knowledge grew, since elementary mathematics was necessary for the elaborate
calculations required to establish the positions of the various objects in the sacrificial
arena. The frequent sacrifice of animals led to some knowledge of animal anatomy,
and for a long time anatomy was more advanced than physiology or pathology
(although sacrifices in the early Vedic period consisted of offering of milk, juice of
the soma plant, grains ghee and flesh, only in the later Vedic period did animal
sacrifices got prominence).
Ritualism
In the later part of the Vedic period the powerful priestly class emerged and
they transformed the simple Vedic religion into a complicated ritual religion filled
with superstitions. The emphasis was placed more on rituals than on religious
chanting of the sacred hymns of the Vedas. Complicated mantras were composed to
make the sacrifices more effective. On account of this, Brahmins emerged as an
important class in the society. Besides, the complicated rituals resulted in growth of
superstitions. A small error during the yajnas was said to bring the wrath of the gods
on the person for whom the sacrifice was offered. Gradually the performance of
sacrifices became costly and beyond the reach of an average man. This brought in
discontent among the masses which gave rise to various religious reformers like
Bhagwan Mahavira and Gautam Buddha, in the sixth century B.C.
New Gods
The nature gods like Indra and varuna of the early Vedic period lost their
importance in the later Vedic times. In their place, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva became
prominent. Brahma was the creator of life. Ram and Krishna were believed to be the
incarnations of Vishnu. Shiva was considered to be the destroyer of the universe.
During the later Vedic period, Ganesh too was worshipped. Besides, the female
energy as represented by Shakti, Durga, Kali and Parvati came into prominence.
The Caste Systems
The division of society into four varnas (classes) had its origin in the Rig
Vedic period. Members of the priestly class were called Brahmins; those of the
warrior class, kshatriyas; agriculturists and traders, vaishyas; and the menials, sudras.
It is said that the caste system in the Rig Vedic times was based on occupations of the
people and not on birth. Change of caste was common. A Brahmin child could
become a kshatriya or a vaishya according to his choice and ability.
In the beginning, the class system was not rigid. But in the later Vedic period
it became rigid when the Brahmins and the kshatriyas became powerful and the
vaishyas were made to pay tributes. The sudras became miserable and began to be
treated as untouchables.

The caste system, in those days had some advantages. It reduced friction
within the society. Marriages within the caste reduced maladjustments in family life.
 22 History -6
It ensured continuity of occupation as the sons usually followed the fathers
occupation. This reduced unemployment and brought about perfection of several arts
and crafts. Furthermore, since the caste system was based on the principle of division
of labor, the Aryans were able to establish and maintain a sound economy.

But soon caste system became a social evil. It suppressed an individual's

talent and became an obstacle for his personal development. It gave rise to
untouchability and acted against the feeling of common brotherhood. Because of the
mutual jealousies among the various castes, the Hindu society disintegrated and fell
an easy prey to foreign invaders and alien religions.
The Impact of Aryans
1. The Aryans gave to India, Sanskrit language which served as the mother
language for many regional languages. Sanskrit, thus, became a unifying force in the
sub-continent.
2. The Vedic period is known for its spiritual and intellectual attainments. The
philosophy of dharma and karma, the concept of maya and the transmigration of the
soul, have foundations in the Vedas.
3. The philosophy of the Vedas and the Upanishads has influenced the great
thinkers in India.
4. The Aryans were an agrarian society who cleared forests and cultivated land.
Their society gradually developed into powerful kingdoms with proper political
setup.
5. The Vedas and the Upanishads became the basis for the present day Hindu
religion. With the passage of time gods of the early Vedic age like Indra, Varuna and
Surya receded into the background and the new gods like Vishnu, Ram and Krishna
became prominent in the later Vedic period.
6. The caste system too had its origin in the Vedic literature.
7. The Bhagwat Gita has become a very popular sacred book among the masses
and Vedic hymns are chanted at Hindu ceremonies connected with Birth, Marriage
and death.
Vedas
Vedas are the oldest sacred books of Hinduism. Indian literature begins with
the Vedas. They were probably composed beginning about 1400 B.C. The Vedas
were a series of sacred texts used in religious rituals and sacrifices and composed in
an early form of Sanskrit (Vedic Sanskrit). Even in modern times, the Vedas are
regarded as the cornerstone of Hinduism. The Vedas include the basis of the doctrines
concerning Hindu divinities. They also present philosophical ideas about the nature of
Brahman, Hinduism's supreme divine being. The word Veda comes from the root
'Vid' which means knowledge.

Vedic Literature
The Upanishads
 History-6 23
They are the concluding parts of the brahmanas and are also called the
Vedanta, which means the summing up of the Veda. The word Upanishads means to
sit close to. It suggests that this sacred material was originally secret. The most
important ones appeared between 800 and 600 B.C.
Several important Hindu schools of thought, including the sankhya and yoga
schools, were founded on the teachings of the Upanishads. They contain information
about Indian philosophy, on matter (prakriti), soul (atman) and God (Brahma). The
Upanishads criticize rituals and lay stress on the doctrine of karma and the right
knowledge. They also deal with the doctrines of Karma (action), mukti (salvation),
maya (illusion) and the transmigration of the soul. They have been translated into
major languages of the world because of their philosophical content.

The literary works referred to above are believed to contain sacred knowledge
or divine revelation. This knowledge had been handed down by oral transmission by
the sages to their pupils by word of mouth. This method of oral transmission is called
the shruti or 'revelation by hearing'.

The Puranas.
Following the two great epics, the texts called Puranas are the next major
collection of Hindu lore and religious debate. Purana means that which renews the
old or 'ancient lore'. The Puranas use popular legends and mythology to illustrate and
expound the philosophical and religious ideas of the Vedas. Together with the
Ramayana and Mahabharata, the Puranas are the origins of many of the stories and
anecdotes of the social, religious, and cultural history of India.

The main Puranas are 18 encyclopedic collections of legend and myth.

Among which the Bhagwat Purana and the Vishnu Purana are the most important.
The Vishnu Purana helps us to unfold the understanding of the history of the
Mauryas. The Puranas describe the origin of the world, birth or origin of Gods and
the historical and mythological events of the ancient times.

They were probably compiled between about A.D. 500 and 1000. They
develop the ideas of classical Hinduism through stories of gods and heroes set in the
sacred plains, mountains, and rivers of India. The main Puranas have five subjects:
(1) the creation of the universe, (2) the cyclic process of destruction and re-creation,
(3) the different eras or cosmic cycles, (4) the histories of the solar and lunar
dynasties of gods and sages, and (5) the genealogies of kings. Each Purana adds other
details of religious practice. These Puranas are a meeting point of diverse religious
and social beliefs and represent a synthesis of various cultural traditions from the
Indian subcontinent.

The Vedic Literature

 24 History -6
The Vedangas mean limbs of the Vedas. They are six in number. They form
a part of the Vedas, but they were written by scholars of the later Vedic period. They
interpret the Vedas in simple language and deal with the pronunciation of words,
grammar, astronomy as well as rituals.

Upvedas deal with secular subjects. The Ayurveda deals with medicine, the
Dhanurveda with the art of warfare, the Gandharva Veda with music and Shilpa Veda
with architecture.

Sutras explain the customs and rituals of the later Vedic period, especially
with the rituals relating to soma (yajna) sacrifice. The Dharma Sutras deal with civil,
criminal and moral laws; While the Grihya Sutras throw light on rituals in all the
ashramas of a man's life.

Epics An epic is a long narrative poem of brave deeds and adventures of

ancient warriors. The poem could be sung to music. The two great Indian epics are
the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. The Ramayana is older and nearer to the Aryan
tradition than Mahabharata. There is a controversy regarding the age of the epics. It is
certain that at least Mahabharata underwent numerous additions and alterations in
successive ages, and assumed its present form in the third or fourth century A.D.
Both the epics are the products of neo-Hinduism. Rama and Krishna are considered to
be the two incarnations of Vishnu. Ramayana and Mahabharata are of great historical
importance. They hold out before us a mirror that reflects the Indian society as it was
thousands of years ago - the virtues and views that characterized people, and the high
ideals which inspired them. More information about them are given later.

Manu Smriti Manu in Hindu mythology, was the man who systematized the
religious and social laws of Hinduism. These ancient laws are called the Manu Smriti
(Code of Manu). They still influence the religious and social life of India, where
Hinduism is the chief religion. The Manu Smriti has three main parts: (1) varna, (2)
ashrama, and (3) dharma. Varna sets forth the basis of caste, the strict Hindu class
system. Hinduism has four major varnas (groups of castes).

Ashrama describes the four ideal stages of a Hindu man's life. First, he studies
Hindu scriptures called the Vedas, and the duties of his caste. Second, he marries.
Third, after he fulfils his family obligations, he retires with his wife to a forest to
meditate. Finally, in old age, the husband and wife separate and wander as beggars
called sannyasis, preparing for death.

Dharma describes the four goals of life. They are (1) dharma--fulfilling one's
religious obligation in society, (2) kama--enjoying sex and other physical pleasures,
(3) artha--achieving worldly success through one's occupation, and (4) moksha--
gaining spiritual release from worldly existence.
 History-6 25

Panini's Ashtadhyaya is a non-religious book. It is a work of Sanskrit

grammar written by Panini. Perhaps the greatest grammar ever written in any
languages.

Hinduism
The origins of Hinduism can be traced to the Indus Valley civilization
sometime between 4000 and 2500 BCE. Though believed by many to be a
polytheistic religion, the basis of Hinduism is the belief in the unity of everything.
This totality is called Brahman. The purpose of life is to realize that we are part of
God and by doing so we can leave this plane of existance and rejoin with God. This
enlightenment can only be achieved by going through cycles of birth, life and death
known as samsara. One's progress towards enlightenment is measured by his karma.
This is the accumulation of all one's good and bad deeds and this determines the
person's next reincarnation. Selfless acts and thoughts as well as devotion to God help
one to be reborn at a higher level. Bad acts and thoughts will cause one to be born at a
lower level, as a person or even an animal.
Hindus follow a strict caste system which determines the standing of each
person. The caste one is born into is the result of the karma from their previous life.
Only members of the highest caste, the brahmins, may perform the Hindu religious
rituals and hold positions of authority within the temples.
Buddhism
Buddhism developed out of the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama who, in 535
BCE, reached enlightenment and assumed the title Buddha. He promoted 'The Middle
Way' as the path to enlightenment rather than the extremes of mortification of the
flesh or hedonism. Long after his death the Buddha's teachings were written down.
This collection is called the Tripitaka. Buddhists believe in reincarnation and that one
must go through cycles of birth, life, and death. After many such cycles, if a person
releases their attachment to desire and the self, they can attain Nirvana. In general,
Buddhists do not believe in any type of God, the need for a savior, prayer, or eternal
life after death. However, since the time of the Buddha, Buddhism has integrated
many regional religious rituals, beliefs and customs into it as it has spread throughout
Asia, so that this generalization is no longer true for all Buddhists. This has occurred
with little conflict due to the philosophical nature of Buddhism.
Jainism
The founder of the Jain community was Vardhamana, the last Jina in a series
of 24 who lived in East India. He attained enlightenment after 13 years of deprivation
and committed the act of salekhana, fasting to death, in 420 BCE. Jainism has many
similarities to Hinduism and Buddhism which developed in the same part of the
world. They believe in karma and reincarnation as do Hindus but they believe that
enlightenment and liberation from this cycle can only be achieved through asceticism.
Jains follow fruititarianism. This is the practice of only eating that which will not kill
the plant or animal from which it is taken. They also practice ahimsa, non-violence,
 26 History -6
because any act of violence against a living thing creates negative karma which will
adversely affect one's next life.
similarities and differences between Jainism and Buddhism
Both Buddhism and Jainism. have many similarities and dissimilarities. As
remarked be Monier Williams.
"Buddhism and Jainism were not related to each other as parent or child but
rather children of common parent, born at different intervals, though at about the
same period of time and marked by distinct characteristics, though possession a
strong family of resemblances". W.W. Hunter writes "Jainism is as much independent
from other sects, specially from Buddhism as can be expected, from any other sect.
Not withstanding certain similarities, it differ from Buddhism in its ritual and
objects of workship."
Similarities :
(1) The source of both the religion is vedic religion and both and indebted to
Upanishads
(2) Both Gautam Buddha and Mahavir belonged to princely families and not to
priestly families.
(3) Both deny the existence of God.
(4) Both denied the authority of the Vedas and the necessity of performing sacrifices
and rituals.
(5) Both have accepted the theories of Karma rebirth and Moksha.
(6) Both taught in the language of the common people i.e. Prakrit and not in Sanskrit
which was the language of the priests.
(7) Both of them were opposed to animal sacrifices.
(8) Both of them admitted disciples from all the castes and from both sexes.
(9) Ahimsa is the prominent principle of both the religions.
(10) Both Buddhism and Jainism put stress on right conduct and right knowledge and
not on religious ceremonial and ritual as the way to obtain salvation.
(11) Both, the religions came as a sort of reform of Hindu religion.
(12) Both the Religions were later on divided into two sects. Buddhism was divided
into Mahayana and Hinayana. Jainism was divided into Svetambara and Digambara.
(13) Both had their own three gems or 'Tri Ratna'. Tri Ratna of Jainism were right
philosophy right knowledge and right character. The Tri-Ratna of Buddhism were
Budhha, Dhamma and Sangha.
(14) Both had three main religious texts. Tripitaka, i.e. Vinaypitak, Suttapitaka and
Abidhamma pitak were the three religious texts of Buddhism, where as Anga i.e,
Anga, Upanga and Mulgrajitha were those of the Jainism.
Dis-similarities :
(1) Difference regarding conception Moksha :
According to Buddhism, a man attains Moksha when he ends all the desires
and can attain it while living in the world. But according, to Jainism Moksha is
freedom from miseries and can be attained only after death.
(2) Means of attainment of Moksha:
 History-6 27
According to Buddhist Sangha is proper for attainment of Moksha and they hate self-
mortifications and severe penances. Jainism believes in fasts and severest penances.
(3) Ahimsa :
Though both emphasise the principle of Ahimsa, yet Jainism is more strict in this
connection.
(4) Soul:
Buddhists do not believe in the existence of soul whereas Jainism believes the
existence of soul in every living being.
(5) Regarding Conduct:
Buddhism emphasises the eight noble piths whereas Jainism emphasises Tri Ratna.
(6) Language of Religious texts :
Most of the Jain texts are in Sanskrit and Prakrit whereas Buddhist text are in Pali.
(7)Their connection with Hinduism : Jain religion is nearer to Hinduism whereas
Buddhism followed the policy of keeping away from Hinduism.
(8) Caste system :
Jains opposed it but Buddhism opposed and attacked vehemently.
(9) Royal support and patronage :
Buddhism received the royal support and patronage of kings like Ashoka and
Kanishka. But Jainism could never receive strong royal support and Patronage.
(10) Propagation :
Buddhism spread to foreign countries whereas Jainism did not travel outside the
boundaries of India.
Gandhara Civilization

The two major ancient civilizations of Pakistan, were the Indus Valley
Civilization (Harappa in 7 BC and Moenjodaro 4 BC) and the Gandhara Civilization
(500 BC to 10 AD).
Gandhara is the region that now comprises of Peshawar valley, Mardan, Swat, Dir,
Malakand, and Bajuaur agencies in the North West Frontier Province (NWFP),
Taxila in the Punjab, and up to Jalalabad in Afghanistan. It is in this region that the
Gandhara civilization emerged and became the cradle of Buddhism. It was from here
that Buddhism spread towards east as far away as Japan and Korea.
The intriguing record of Gandhara civilization, discovered in the 20th century,
are found in the archeological sites spread over Taxila, Swat and other parts of
NWFP. The rock carving and the petroglyphs along the ancient Silk Road
(Karakoram Highway) also provide fascinating record of the history of Gandhara.
Taxila is the abode of many splendid Buddhist establishments. Taxila, the
main centre of Gandhara, is over 3,000 years old. Taxila had attracted Alexander the
great from Macedonia in 326 BC, with whom the influence of Greek culture came to
this part of the world. Taxila later came under the Mauryan dynasty and reached a
remarkable matured level of development under the great Ashoka. During the year 2
 28 History -6
BC, Buddhism was adopted as the state religion, which flourished and prevailed for
over 1,000 years, until the year 10 AD.
During this time Taxila, Swat and Charsadda (old Pushkalavati) became three
important centers for culture, trade and learning. Hundreds of monasteries and stupas
were built together with Greek and Kushan towns such as Sirkap and Sirsukh, both in
Taxila.
Gandhara Art
The Gandhara region had long been a crossroad of cultural influences. Being
an Indian region of the ancient past, Gandhara is now in northwestern Pakistan.
Gandhara art, one of the most prized possessions of Pakistan, flourished for a period
of 500 years (from the first to the fifth century AD) in the present valley of Peshawar
and the adjacent hilly regions of Swat, Buner and Bajaur. During the reign of the
Indian emperor Ashoka around 3rd century BC, it had already become the striking
scene of intensive Buddhist missionary activity. Gandhara Art in its early stages
received the parronage of Kanishka, the great Kushan ruler, during whose reign the
Silk Route ran through Peshawar and the Indus Valley, bringing great prosperity to
the whole region.
Since the Ist century AD, Gandhara became the center of a flourishing school
of sculpture and architecture. The origins of this school have been much disputed, but
it contained both Indian and Hellenistic (or Roman) elements. The former were
largely associated with the spread of Mahayana Buddhism, while the later owed their
introduction to the extensive trade of the Parthians with the Mediterranean, and their
development to the Kushans. The earlier view that the art style arose from the Greek
dynasties in Bactria and northwest India appears to be incorrect. On the whole,
however, it may be articulated that it was the product of a blending of Indian,
Buddhist and Graeco-Roman sculpture.
Gandhara art presents some of the earliest images of the Buddha. Earlier at
Bharhut and Sanchi, the Buddha’s presence was represented by symbols, such as the
pipal tree, the wheel of life, footprints, and an empty throne. The Gandhara style was
profoundly influenced by 2nd-century Hellenistic art and was itself highly influential
in central and eastern Asia. Ivories and imported glass and lacquer-ware attest to the
cosmopolitan tastes and extensive trade that characterized the period. Stupas and
monasteries were adorned with relief friezes, often carved in dark schist, showing
figures in classical poses with flowing Hellenistic draperies.
The Gandhara School lasted at least locally until the Muslim invasions in the
7th and 8th centuries. The architecture is mainly of stone, frequently adorned with
sculpture in either schist or stucco. The monuments take the form of Buddhist stupas
and monasteries. The sculptures are almost entirely Buddhist: many of the details and
motifs find close parallels in the contemporary art of Rome. The schools of Gandhara
and Mathura influenced each other, and the general trend was away from a
naturalistic conception and toward a more idealized, abstract image. The Gandharan
 History-6 29
craftsmen made a lasting contribution to Buddhist art in their composition of the
events of the Buddha’s life into set scenes.

Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great was the son of King Philip II of Macedonia and one of
his wives, Olympias, a daughter of the non-Macedonian King Neoptolemus I of
Epirus. At least, that's the conventional story. As a great hero, there are other more
miraculous versions of the conception.
Alexander was born around July 20, 356 B.C. Being non-Macedonian made
Olympias' status lower than the Macedonian woman Philip later married. As a result,
there was much conflict between Alexander's parents.
Alexander was tutored by Leonidas (possibly his uncle) and the great Greek
philosopher Aristotle. During his youth, Alexander showed great observational
powers when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus. In 326, when his beloved horse
died, he renamed a city in India/Pakistan, on the banks of the Hydaspes (Jhelum)
river, for Bucephalus.
In 340 B.C., while his father Philip went off to fight rebels, Alexander was
made regent in Macedonia. During his regency, the Maedi of northern Macedonia
revolted. Alexander put down the revolt and renamed their city after himself.
In 336 after his father was assassinated, he became ruler of Macedonia.
The Gordian Knot:
One legend about Alexander the Great is that when he was in Gordium,
Turkey, in 333, he undid the Gordian Knot. This knot had been tied by the legendary,
fabulously wealthy King Midas. The prophecy about the Gordian knot was that the
person who untied it would rule all of Asia. Alexander the Great is said to have
undone the Gordian Knot not by unraveling it, but by slashing through it with a
sword.
Major Battles:
1. Battle of the Granicus - 334 B.C. (western Turkey) against Persian satraps
with Greek mercenaries.
2. Battle of Issus - 333 B.C. (Hatay province of Turkey) against King Darius of
Persia
3. Battle of Gaugamela - 331 B.C. (northern Iraq) against King Darius of Persia
4. Battle of the Hydaspes (Jhelum) - 326 B.C. (northern Punjab, in modern
Pakistan) againstKing Poros, who ruled a small kingdom, but had war elephants.
Near the end of Alexander's expansion. (Although Alexander had intended to go
further, and was soon thwarted by his own men, he thought he was near the edge of
the earth.)
Death:

In 323, Alexander the Great returned to Babylonia where he became ill

 30 History -6
suddenly, and died. The cause of his death is unknown. It could have been disease or
poison. It might have had to do with a wound inflicted in India.
Alexander’s Invasion
The primary motive of Alexander’s invasion of Asia is contained in his letter
to Darius (Persian emperor), which reads: “your ancestors invaded Macedonia and
the rest of Greece and without provocation inflicted wrongs upon us. I was appointed
leader of the Greeks and crossed over into Asia for the purpose of avenging those
wrongs for ye were the aggressors”. Later Darius proposed terms, which Alexander
declined. Darius was ultimately defeated in the battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC.
Darius fled with his men to the north. His big supporters were Bessus, the leader of
the Bactrian and tribal forces (from the present Pakistan). When Darius was killed,
Bessus took the leadership in his hands. Alexander now chased Bessus in his own
home province in Bactria successfully and became master of the Oxus valley and the
upper Kabul valley. But he had still to chastise the tribal forces, which had sided with
Darius. For this reason, probably it was the assistance of Porus to Darius that brought
Alexander to India.
Around 327 BC King Ambhi, ruler of Taxila met Alexander in the city of
Nicaes (the victorious city), and surrendered the city to him. Many people had fled to
a high fortress called Aornos. Alexander took Aornos by storm. Then Alexander
fought the famous battle of Hydaspes in 326 BC against Porus, a ruler of a region in
the Punjab. After attaining victory, Alexander dealt with Porus kindly and appointed
him as satrap of his own kingdom. Alexander continued to conquer all the headwaters
of the Indus River.
Near the Ganges River, in the East of Porus’ kingdom, was the powerful
empire of Magadha, which was ruled by the Nanda dynasty. Alexander’s army
mutinied at the Hyphasis (modern Beas River) and refused to march further east as it
was exhausted by years of campaigning. After seeking advice of his officer, Coenus,
Alexander was convinced that it was better to return. Alexander was, however, forced
to turn south, conquering his way down the Indus to the Indian Ocean. He sent much
of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran) with his general Craterus and
commissioned a fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus,
while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the
Gedrosia (present day Makran in southern Pakistan). He faced resistance by the tribes
and later while crossing through Balochistan, he faced natural calamities, which ailed
him and caused his death at Babylon in 323 BC.

Alexander's Invasion
Regarded as one of the greatest conquerors of all times, Alexander the Great
was the King of Macedonia. He had an ambition to conquer the entire world. After
conquering Persia, his forces moved towards the Indian sub-continent. It is estimated
that Alexander lived from 356 B.C to 323 B.C. Though Alexander's invasion affected
 History-6 31
only the North Western parts of India, the event marks an important landmark in the
history of India. Here is a brief write up on India's invasion by Alexander.
India was not unknown to the Greeks before the invasion by Alexander. Many
Indian territories were ruled by the Persians who gained revenue from here in the
form of gold. Herodotus, the Greek historian was aware of the riches that India had
since he knew about the revenue collected by the Persian Empire. Roughly around
326 B.C Alexander decided to enter India from the northern frontiers. He crossed the
Indus River and met King Ambi in Taxila. The king bowed down to the supremacy of
Alexander and did not show any resistance.

His greatest battle was with King Porus, who was considered to be a very
powerful Indian ruler during that time. The army of Greeks and Porus clashed during
a fierce thunderstorm near River Hydaspes. Porus put up strong resistance against the
Greeks. It was so fierce and violent that even Alexander was impressed by chivalry
and power of Porus. It was during this battle that the faithful horse of Alexander got
injured and died. Alexander named a city Buckephalia after the name of the horse
Bucephalus. Ultimately Porus was defeated and was captured. But Alexander was
impressed with the heroic Porus and decided to let him go and return his kingdom.
Alexander wanted to cross the Ganges River next but his army and deputies
advised him otherwise. They told him to leave India since it was not easy to cross the
river Ganges. Moreover, they had heard that the Nandas at the other side of Ganges
were very powerful and possessed elephants and a gigantic army of soldiers. Thus, it
would become difficult to defeat them. The Greeks were also becoming homesick
and wanted to return. Halfheartedly, Alexander had to return due to the increasing
pressures on him. Thus, the army of Alexander arranged and built ships in order to
reach the ocean and take the oceanic route westwards to Greece. Half of the army
came on the ships and the rest traveled along the coast.
The Mauryan Empire
Maurya was an ancient Indian dynasty. It was founded by Chandragupta
Maurya in c.325–c.183 BC when he conquered the Magadha kingdom and
established his capital at Pataliputra (now Patna). His son, Bindusara and his
grandson, Ashoka were the most notable ruler of ancient India. The most significant
feature of the empire is that for the first time in history Ashoka brought nearly all
India, together with Afghanistan, under one administration. Mauryan culture
represents the first great flowering of Indian civilization, which cannot to be equaled
until the coming of the Gupta dynasty.
The historical knowledge of Mauryan age has been collected on the account
of Megasthenes, the Arthashastra of Kautilya and the inscriptions of Ashoka.
Archaeology has produced evidence of a definite contrast in the cultural levels of
different regions of Mauryan Empire. The Mauryans brought about administrative
unity, encouraged the construction of roads, popularized alphabetic writing, expanded
coin currency, propagated a lingua franca and finally provided common moral bases
 32 History -6
especially in Ashoka’s reign to support the edifice of administration. But these
features in no way point to homogeneity of life within the empire. The administration
that was originally based on bureaucracy devised by Kautaliya degenerated into a
paternal form of government in the time of Ashoka. Even administrative unity broke
down after Ashoka’s death and brought about the end of the empire. However the
empire held together different areas in varying stages of cultural developments.
The Indus region maintained its tribal organization along with pastoral form
of life and new agricultural pattern of irrigated lands whereas the Ganges valley had
evolved a caste-ridden society by absorbing the tribes into a graded society meant to
serve the rising monarchies. The South during the period had vastly differing
societies. The pattern of Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker
kings. Brhadrata was the last ruler of the Mauryan ruled territories that had shrunk
considerably from the time of emperor Ashoka. Nevertheless, he was still upholding
the Buddhist faith. After Brhadrata’s assassination in 185 BC, the Sunga empire came
to power which led to a wave of persecution of Buddhists, and a resurgence of
Hinduism. The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber unguarded and a wave of foreign
invasions followed.

Seleucus Invasion of India

Alexander died in 323 B.C. As he had no heir to inherit his vast empire, it was
parceled out by his three prominent generals among themselves. Seleucus was also
one of them and he got the Asian parts of the Alexandrian empire. The fragmented
India which Seleucus had seen during the Porus-Alexander war inspired him to see
the dream of the conquest of India. His dream however, remained unrealized as by
now Chandragupta Maurya had established a strong empire in India.
Seleucus was one of the leading generals of Alexander. While journeying
back to Greece from India, Alexander reached Babylon, he fell seriously ill and died
there in 323 B.C. Alexander died without any heir. So his extensive empire was
shared out by his three generals among themselves. Thus, the far flung empire of
Alexander was split up into three parts- the Greek, the Egyptian and the Asian. The
first two parts came into the possession of Ptolemy and Antigones respectively, while
the third i.e. the Asian part fell to the lot of Seleucus. Seleucus's Asian empire
extended from Syria up to the Euphrates. Some parts of Punjab and Afghanistan were
also held by him. Seleucus had accompanied Alexander during his invasion of India
in 326 B.C. After the death of Alexander in 323 B.C. Chandragupta Maurya had
established as strong empire in India and had driven out the Greeks from the Indian
soil. Seleucus therefore wanted to regain these territories and to move further to the
east of Indus.
The coronation of the Mauryan emperor, Chandragupta took place in 321 B.C.
two years after Alexander had left India. He united the country into a strong and well
Knit empire. With the help of his able minister and astute diplomat Kautilya, he
succeeded in laying the foundation of a strong empire. The image of India which
 History-6 33
Seleucus had formed in his mind was that of a country fragmented into small
kingdoms and were prone to mutual rivalries and jealousies. He, therefore,
entertained the ambition of conquest of India, but little did he knew that India which
he was going to face was even more powerful than his own empire. Consequently
Seleucus advanced with a huge army against India in 305 B.C. The Indian soldiers
were in fine fettle and their horsemen, chariot army and elephants were ready to
inflict defeat on the invaders. A terrible war followed on the north-west borders of
India. The Greeks could not withstand the onslaught of the gallant Indian fighters.
The army of Chandragupta Maurya routed the invaders and Seleucus was forced to
sign a peace treaty. Chandragupta Maurya, advised by Kautilya, presented his terms
to the defeated army. Seleucus was forced to accept. By the terms of the treaty,
Seleucus surrebderred his territories in Afghanistan - Herat, Kandhar, and the Kabul
valley - to Chandragupta Maurya. In return, he was presented the gift of 300
elephants. On Kautilya's advice, Chandragupta married the daughter of Seleucus,
Helen. Seleucus also appointed Megasthenes as his ambassador to the Mauryan court.
Megasthenes wrote a famous account of his stay at the Mauryan court in a book
entitled Indica.
Besides the preponderant army and armaments, one factor that contributed to
the victory of Chandragupta Maurya in this war was that as a result of Alexander's
invasion, Indians had also become familiar with the Greek methods of warfare.
Moreover, it was by dint of his bravery and Kautilya's sharp intelligence that
Chandragupta Maurya had built up such an extensive empire. His vast army was also
well-trained and well-equipped.
No detailed accounts of this war between Seleucus and Alexander are
available. The Greek historians have also confined themselves to just mentioning its
results. From the results, however, we can draw the conclusion that Seleucus
certainly sustained a crushing defeat in the war, and his dream of the conquest of
India was shattered forever.
The Mauryan Empire : Bindusara
Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara in 297 B.C. To the Greeks,
Bindusara was known as Amitrochates, perhaps the Greek translation of the Sanskrit
Amitraghata, the destroyer of the foes.
Apparently he was a man of wide interest and taste, since tradition had it that
he asked Antiochus I to send him some sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist.
Bindusara campaigned in the Deccan, extending the Mauryan empire in the peninsula
to as far as Mysore. He is said to have conquered 'the land between the two seas',
presumably the Arabian sea and the Bay of Bengal.

Early Tamil poets speak of Mauryan chariots thundering across the land, their
white pennants brilliant in the sunshine. At the time of Bindusara's death in 272 B.C.,
practically the entire sub-continent had come under Mauryan suzerainty. The extreme
south was ready to submit, thus eliminating the need for military conquest. Yet one
 34 History -6
area alone remained hostile and unconquered, Kalinga, on the east coast (modern
Orissa). This was left to Bindusara's son Ashok, who campaigned successfully
against Kalinga.
Ashoka, the Great - Part I
Ashoka (?-232 B.C.), also spelled Asoka, was the greatest emperor of ancient
India. He ruled the Maurya Empire from about 272 B.C. until his death. Ashoka was
the grandson of Chandragupta, founder of the Mauryan dynasty. His father,
Bindusara, ruled northern India for 29 years.
Ashoka was a fierce military leader who expanded his kingdom in the
Ganges-Jamuna valley. He continued his victorious campaigns in southern and
eastern India for eight years. In 261 B.C., he conquered Kalinga (now known as
Orissa), a region on the east coast of India.

The conquest of Kalinga marked a turning point in Ashoka's life and reign.
His armies killed about 100,000 people in battle and took 150,000 prisoners.
Horrified at the slaughter of the defenders of Kalinga, Ashoka decided to renounce
warfare. He sent peace missions to his Asian neighbours as far away as Burma and
Sumatra. Although born into the Hindu religion, Ashoka turned to the teachings of
Buddhism, which challenged many Hindu beliefs. He vowed to maintain his rule by
dharma, the Buddhist law of piety.
Ashoka believed that a king's duties took precedence over recreation,
relaxation, enjoyment, and sleep. He often worked late into the night in consultation
with his ministers of state. He was responsible for many reforms. These reforms
included an efficient civil service and a fair system of land taxation. He introduced a
secret information service to help him gauge the mood and needs of his people first
hand. The network of agents speedily conveyed his commands and collected
information from distant parts of the kingdom. He set up his court in the capital,
Pataliputra (now Patna in Bihar). His messengers regularly entered and left the capital
at night, after the great gates were closed. They used specially built tunnels to move
quickly and safely.
Ashoka also built safe roads, with rest houses for travellers. He established
hospitals for both people and animals. He encouraged and controlled international
trade and restrained the powerful trade guilds that developed from these measures. He
boosted agriculture with revolutionary ideas. These included improved systems of
irrigation and drainage. He also offered state-sponsored loans to poorer farmers. After
a period of five years, the farmers became owners of the land they cultivated.
Kalinga War
When Ashoka, the son of the Mauryan emperor Bindusara and the grandson
of Chandragupta Maurya, ascended the throne of Magadha in 273 B.C. treading in the
footsteps of his forefathers he set out to expand his empire. In the 12th year of his
reign, he sent a message to Kalinga asking its submission, but the Kalingaraj refused
to submit to the Mauryan empire.
 History-6 35

As a result Ashoka lead a huge army against Kalinga. This took place in 261
B.C., the freedom loving people of Kalinga offered a stiff resistance to the Mauryan
army. The whole of Kalinga turned into a battle arena. History offers us but few
examples of such fiercely fought wars as this. The Kalingaraj himself commanded his
army in the battle field. However, the limited forces of Kalinga were no match for the
overwhelming Magadha army. Contrary to Ashoka's expectations, the people of
Kalinga fought with such great valor that on number of occasions they came very
close to a victory. The soldiers of Kalinga perished in the battlefield fighting till their
last breath for their independence. The victory ultimately rested with Ashoka.

The war took a tremendous toll of life and property. The 13th rock edict of
Ashoka throws light on this war. Atleast 0.1 million Kalingans were killed while
another 0.15 million were taken prisoners. And almost equal number of Magadha
soldiers were also killed. There was not a single man left in Kalinga to live a life of
slavery.
This is the singular instance of a war in history which brought about a
complete change of heart in a stern ruler like Ashoka. The scene of the war presented
a horrible sight, the whole terrain was covered with the corpses of soldiers, wounded
soldiers groaned in severe pain, vultures hovered over their dead bodies, orphaned
children mourning the loss of their nears and dears, widows looked blank and
despaired.
This sight overwhelmed Ashoka. He realized that his victory at such a cost is
not worthwhile. The whole war resulted in Ashoka's deviation towards Buddhism and
after two and a half years he became an ardent follower of Buddhism under Acharya
Upgupta.

Economic and Administrative life in the Mauryan era

Apart from the metropolitan area, which was directly governed, the empire
was divided into four provinces each under a prince or member of the royal family
whose official status was that of a viceroy. Governors administering smaller units
were selected from amongst the local people. The provincial ministers were powerful
and could act as a check on the viceroy, and were on various occasions effective
rulers. Ashoka sent inspectors on tour every five years for an additional audit and
check on provincial administration. There were specially appointed judicial officers
both in the cities and in the rural areas. Fines served as punishments in most cases.
But certain crimes were considered too serious to be punished by fines alone, and
capital punishments were delivered.
Each province was sub-divided into districts, each of these into groups of
villages, and the final unit of administration was the village. The group of villages
was staffed with an accountant, who maintained boundaries, registered land and
deeds, kept a census of the population and a record of the livestock; and the tax
 36 History -6
collector, who was concerned with the various types of revenue. Each village had its
own officials, such as the headman, who was responsible to the accountant and the
tax-collector. Officers at this level in rural administration were paid either by a
remission of tax or by land grants.
Urban administration had its own hierarchy of officers. The city
superintendent maintained law and order and the general cleanliness of the city.
Cities were generally built of wood, necessitating the maintaining of fire precautions.
The city superintendent was assisted by an accountant and a tax collector.
Megasthenes has described the administration of Pataliputra in detail. The city was
administered by thirty officials, divided into six committees of five. Each committee
supervised one of the following functions: questions relating to industrial arts, the
welfare of foreigners, the registering of births and deaths, matters relating to trade &
commerce, supervision of the public sale of manufactured goods, and, finally,
collection of the tax on articles sold.
Two of the key offices controlled by the central administration were those of
the Treasurer and the chief collector. The Treasurer was responsible for keeping an
account of the income in cash and for storing the income in kind. The Chief Collector
assisted by a body of clerks, kept records of the taxes which came in from various
parts of the empire. The accounts of every administrative department were properly
kept and were presented jointly by all the ministers to the king, perhaps to avoid fraud
and embezzlement. Each department had a large staff of superintendents and
subordinate officers. The superintendents worked at local center and were a link
between local administration and the central government. Those specifically listed in
the Arthashastra are the superintendents of gold and goldsmiths, and of the
storehouse, commerce, forest produce, the armoury, weights and measures, tools,
weaving, agriculture, liquor , slaughter houses, prostitutes, ships, cows, horses,
elephants, chariots, infantry, passports and the city.
Salaries of officials and expenditure on public works constituted a sizeable
portion of the national expenses, one quarter of the total revenue being reserved for
these. The higher officials were extremely well paid and this must have been a drain
on the treasury. The chief minister, the purohita and the army commander received
48,000 panas, the treasurer and the chief collector 24,000 panas; the accountants and
clerks received 500 panas, whereas the ministers were paid 12,000 panas; and artisans
received 120 panas. The value of the pana is not indicated, nor the intervals at which
the salaries were paid.
Decline of the Mauryan empire
Ashoka ruled for thirty seven years and died in 232 B.C. With his death
political decline set in and soon after the empire broke up. The Ganges valley
remained under the Mauryas for another fifty years. The north-western areas were
lost to the Bactrian Greeks by about 180 B.C.

The reasons for this political decline are, up to a point , similar in the
 History-6 37
disintegration of most empires on the Indian sub-continent,. The basic reason which
have been associated with the decline of the Mauryan empire, is the policies of
Ashoka. He was responsible for causing a virtual revolt within the Brahmans because
of his pro-Buddhist policy. But making this factor, singly, responsible for the decline
of the Mauryan empire would be a exaggeration of facts. Mauryan economy was
under considerable pressure. The need for vast revenues to maintain the army and to
finance the salaries of officials and settlements on newly cleared land must have
strained the treasury.
By 180 B.C. the first experiment in imperial government in India had ended.
Other experiments were to be made in later centuries but the conditions were never
quite the same.
The Gupta Era
The age of the Guptas in the 3rd and the 4th centuries CE is considered to be
the golden and classical age of ancient civilization. The Gupta Empire was founded
by Chandragupta the first (not to be confused with Chandragupta Maurya who
founded the Maurya empire in the 3rd century B.C.E.). It is a coincidence that the
names of the founders of both the major Hindu empires of ancient India were
“Chandragupta”. Gupta rulers (320–550) ruled over much of northern and central
India. They rose from East, swept the whole of the Ganges valley and built up an
empire extending from the Himalayas to the Vindhyas and from sea to sea. Early in
the beginning of the fourth century, a chief called Sri Gupta ruled a small kingdom in
Magadha. He was succeeded by his son Ghatokacha. They were generally minor
rulers in east Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The dynasty’s prime age started in the
Magadha region of the middle Ganges valley, with the capital Pataliputra. Gupta
influence was extended through military conquest east, west, and south by
Chandragupta I, Chandragupta II, and Samudragupta. Gupta rulers bore simple title
of maharajadhiraja (the great king of kings). The country was united under one and
the only rule of the Gupta Emperors and their allies. Sciences and Arts flourished.
Paintings of world-famous Ajanta caves were also made in this era. Samudragupta
had inscribed the story of his conquests on the rustproof Askoka pillar, which today
stands in the Pithoragarh (where the Kutub Minar was also built later Kutub-ud-din
Aibak). According to the story he had uprooted 17 kings from the Ganges valley to
lay the foundations of a pan-Indian empire.
But the most illustrious emperor of the Gupta line was Vikramaditya who
succeeded Samudragupta. He shifted the capital from Pataliputra to Ujjaini (Modern
Ujjain in Central India). It was in Vikramaditya’s court that he had the Navaratnas
(Nine Jewels) who included the playwright Kalidas and the astronomer Varaha-
mihira. His rule can be said to epitomize the zenith of ancient Hindu civilization.
For Gupta Dynasty that rose from east and swept the whole of the Ganges
Valley, the task was not so easy. It was necessary to bring together the socio-religious
elements that had been shaken by the influx of the foreign racial elements and the
emergence of the non-Aryan populace as participants in religious, social and cultural
 38 History -6
activity. As a result Buddhism had grown stronger but the same forces had also
affected other religious systems like Shaivism and Vishnuism which had not
challenged the Brahmanical social order and could now be developed and
incorporated into the social structure of the Ganges valley. Gupta conquest brought
about varying degrees of independence and created a prosperous society in which
Sanskrit grew out of its religious sphere to become the official language, at least in
northern India.
It was during this age that the great Indian epics were finally redacted.
Puranas found their final shape, as new ceremonies, rituals and festivals were
defined. The orthodox Brahmanical religion changed from the Vedic system, adopted
the forms of Shaivism and Vishnuism and finally the caste system was accepted as
the unbreakable foundation of society. The Guptas did all within their power to
encourage development, which may be regarded as the foundation of Modern
Hinduism. The opening of the eastern and western ports brought new metals into the
empire, which enabled the Gupta rulers to issue coins in gold, silver and copper.
Overseas commerce brought rich profits and added to peace and prosperity. Indian
merchants and ships sailing from the shores were able to win trading facilities and
posts in the islands of South East Asia. The information about Gupta Dynasty is
known from the archaeological remains, inscriptions and coins.

Administration under the Guptas

In the Ganges valley, which was under the direct control of the Guptas, the
administrative hierarchy was superficially akin to that of the Mauryas. The king was
the centre of the administration, helped by the crown prince. The other princes were
appointed as viceroys of provinces. Ministers of various kinds and advisers assisted
the king.
The province (desha or bhakti) was divided into a number of districts
(pradesha or vishaya), each district having its own administrative offices. But local
administration was for all practical purposes independent of the centre. Decisions
whether of policy or in relation to individual situations were generally taken locally,
unless they had a specific bearing on the policy or orders of the central authority. The
officers in charge of the districts (ayukta) and a Yet higher provincial official (with
the title of kumaramatya) were the link between local administration and the centre.
This was the significant difference between the Mauryan administration and that of
the Gu,ptas : whereas Ashoka insisted that he must know of the doings of even the
smaller officials in the districts, the Guptas were satisfied with leaving it to the
kumararnatyas and the ayuktas.
Villages came under the control of rural bodies consisting of the headman and
the village elders. The tendency was to introduce administration which was
representative of local interests rather than an officially inspired system. Similarly, in
urban administration each city had a council which consisted of the President of the
City -corporation, the chief representative of the Guild of Merchants, a representative
 History-6 39
of the artisans, and the chief Scribe. These may have been duplicated in each ward of
the city. Again, the difference between the council and the Committee described by
Megasthenes and Kautalya is that the Mauryan government appointed the
Committees, whereas in the Gupta system the council consisted of local
representatives, on which, interestingly enough, commercial interests predominated.

Revival of Hinduism
The period of the Gupta rule is the brightest feature in Indian history. In fact
the period from 320 A.D. to 480 A.D. is known as the 'Golden Age' of Indian culture.
This period has also been called 'the Hindu Renaissance' or the revival of
Brahmanism in India. During this period, India had peace, progress and prosperity.
There was an all-round progress in art, architecture, literature and science. Also, after
the Ashokan zeal for Buddhist expansion had faded, the Brahmanism revived in the
Gupta period. The main features of this period are given below:

During the Gupta rule, the old Brahmanical religion of the Vedas was put into
the new mould of Hinduism as we know it today. The Gupta kings were
Brahmarnical Hindus and were, therefore, great patrons of this religion. During this
revival of Hinduism, the old gods of the Vedic period like Surya, Varuna and Indra
receded into the background and new gods such as Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh
came to the fore-front. Lord Vishnu was worshipped by many names such as
Vasudeva, Janardhan and Gobind. Legends on Vishnu were compiled in Vishnu
Purana. The cult of Vishnu was known as Vaishnavism. A code of law called Vishnu
Smriti was also compiled, during this period. The later Gupta rulers worshipped
Shiva was also known by innumerable names such as Pashupati, Rudra, Mahadeva
and Shambhu. Legends on Shiva were compiled in Shiva Purana. The cult of Shiva
was known as Shaivism. The worshippers of Shiva were found in great numbers in
southern parts of India while the worshippers of Vishnu were mostly found in the
north. Lord Brahma was the paternal figure, worshipped equally by both the
Vaishnavas and the Shaivas, though independent temples were rarely built for this
god, who was responsible for the task of creation.
Gradually, the position of supremacy in religion, which was held by
Buddhism now recovered by Hinduism. In this period Bhagwad Gita became the
source of inspiration. The Bhakti cult or the devotion to one's personal god with love
and surrender, assumed great importance. The Bhakti cult gave importance to
devotion rather than to knowledge. The cult became very popular in the 11th and 12th
centuries. The Gupta emperors were followers of Hinduism but they never persecuted
those who followed Buddhism and Jainism. They respected Buddhism and Jainism
and employed learned scholars from these two religions.
The Gupta rulers were patrons of Brahmanism. They worshipped Lord Vishnu
and other Hindu gods. They built innumerable temples in their honour and gave
grants to Vedic scholars. Great achievements were made in the fields of art,
architecture, science and literature during the Gupta period.
 40 History -6
Classical Sanskrit Literature
The Sanskrit language, once ignored under the Buddhist and Jain influence,
was patronised during the Gupta period. It was recognised as the court language and
was used in their inscriptions. Gradually it became the lingua franca of India. Even
Buddhist scholars, especially the followers of the Mahayana cult, began writing their
scriptures in Sanskrit. The Jain writers too, who had been writing in Pali and Prakrit,
switched over to Sanskrit, which gradually became the literary language of northern
India.
Great poets, dramatists, grammarians and playwrights lived in the period.
Some of the well-known scholars who flourished during this period are mentioned
below:

Kalidasa.
He was the greatest Sanskrit poet and playwright of this age. Meghadutta and
Ritu Samhara are his lyrical poems, while Kumara Sambhava and Raghuvamsa are
great epic poems. Among his plays, Abhijyanam Shakuntalam is known for its fine
characters, imagery and choice of words. Among his other plays the most important
are Vikramorvashi and Malvikagnimitram.

Vishakhadutta
It was a great poet and playwright of the Gupta period. His two great
historical plays are Mudra-Rakshasa and Devi Chandra Gupta. Mudra-Rakshasa (seal
of Rakshasa) was the story of how Chandragupta Maurya managed to get the throne
of Magadha. Devi Chandra Gupta is a historical play dealing with the early life of
Chandragupta II.
Shudraka wrote the famous play Mrichchakatika which throws light on the
socio-cultural conditions of the Gupta period.
Harisena was court poet of Samudragupta. He wrote a famous poem praising
the valour of Samudraguta. The poem is inscribed on the Allahabad Pillar.
Bharavi wrote the great epic Kiratarjuniya. In this epic he describes the battle
between Arjuna and Lord Shiva disguised as 'Kirata'.
Dandin was a versatile writer. His Dash Kumara Charita (Tales of the Ten
Princes) describes the adventures of ten princes. These adventures give us
information on the socio-cultural conditions of that period.
Subandhu was a prose writer. In his famous Vasavadatta, he narrates the
story of the heroine Vasavadatta and prince Kandarpaketu. During the Gupta period
the Sanskrit grammar was systematically written by such grammarians as Panini and
Patanjali.
Panchatantra
It was during the Gupta period that the Panchatantra, a collection of fables,
was written. It is said that these stories were written to teach statecraft to disinterested
princes. In these stories, animals and birds play the part of king's ministers and
common men, These animal stories were a help in instructing children in moral
 History-6 41
values. The famous work Hitopadesa is based on Panchatantra. The Panchatantra has
been translated into many languages and no other book except the Bible has been
translated into so many languages as this famous book. The book is a treasure-house
of people's feelings and emotions in human relations. The stories contain wisdom and
common sense needed for daily living.
Higher Education - Famous Universities
The Gupta rulers encouraged higher learning by patronizing centers of higher
education at Nalanda, Takshila, Ujjain, Vikramshila and Vallabhi. Each university
specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of
medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest
centre, handled all braitches of knowledge. During the Gupta period India became a
centre for higher studies by attracting scholars from all parts of India and from
several foreign countries.
These universities became popular in the seventh and eighth centuries A.D.
People flocked to the Sarnath university to study Buddhist religion and to Ajanta to
specialize in art, architecture and painting. These educational institutions were
financed by grants of land and liberal donations from kings as well as from other
affluent people.
Nalanda University.
Nalanda, situated near Rajgriha in Bihar, was probably the highest seat of
Buddhist learning. It was established as a Buddhist monastery probably during the
reign of Kumara Gupta I (414-445 A.D). A Buddhist tradition says that Sakraditya
established this centre of learning. It was spread over an area of 1:6 km x 0.8 km. It
had about 1500 professors and 10,000 students. Such eminent people as Panini,
Jivaka and Chanakya are said to have studied there. It was supported by the revenue
from many villages donated by the kings and also by donations from merchants.
According to Hsuan Tsang's report, it was a six-storeyed building. It was a residential
university where the staff and students had free board and lodging. No fees were
charged and the students were admitted after a tough entrance test. The famous
Shilbhadra, who was generally known as the 'Treasure of Right Law', had once been
the head of this university.

Nalanda University offered a choice of many subjects for study, though it

specialized in Mahayana Buddhism. Instructions were imparted in logic, grammar,
philosophy, astronomy, literature, Buddhism and Hinduism. The method of
discussion was used in the class rooms. This centre of learning was destroyed towards
the end of the l2th century by Muhammad Bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, a general of
Mohammad Ghori. The university had helped to spread Indian culture in foreign
countries such as Tibet, China, and Central Asia and also in South East Asian
countries.

Takshila University.
 42 History -6
This centre of learning was situated about 50 km west of Rawalpindi in
Pakistan. It was not a well organized university like Nalanda. Panini, the famous
Sanskrit grammarian, Kautilya who wrote Arthashastra and Charaka, the famous
physician of ancient India, and Chandragupta Maurya were the products of this
university. It gained its importance again during the reign of Kanishka. It was
probably, the earliest of the ancient seats of higher education. The Taxila town was
already famous in about 300 B.C. at the time when Alexander the Great had come to
India.

Vikramshila University.
It was established by the Pala king, Dharam Pala in Bihar (780-815 A.D.). It
was situated in Magadha. Like Nalanda, it was a monastery and a Buddhist seat of
learning. It imparted education in many subjects. All students were provided with free
board and lodging. It was attacked by Bakhtiyar Khilji towards the end of the l2th
century. This university was responsible for spreading Indian culture in Tibet and
Nepal. Vallabi University. It was situated in modern Gujarat. It was a Buddhist
monastery and served as a center of religious learning. The university specialized in
many branches of learning such as Arthashastra, Law, Medicine etc.
The Gupta Art and Architecture
The Gupta kings were fond of art. The art of this period is of a very high
standard from the point of view of beauty, ideas and representation. During this
period, art, architecture, sculpture and painting reached a remarkable level of
excellence.
Very few of the Gupta buildings have survived as most of them had been
destroyed by Muslim invaders. Yet the few specimens of Gupta monuments surviving
till today ,speak very highly of the Gupta architecture. The Vishnu temple at Deogarh
in Jhansi district, a small temple near Sanchi and a brick temple at Bhitragaon, near
Kanpur, are good examples of Gupta architecture.
Scientific & Cultural Life of India under the Guptas
The first major expositions of Indian astronomy in the last few centuries B.C.
are recorded in two works, the Jyotishavedanga and the Surya-prajnapati. Contact
with the Greek world introduced a variety of new systems, some of which were
assimilated and others rejected. Aryabhatta was the first astronomer to solve the more
fundamental problems of the astronomy, in A.D. 499. It was largely through his
efforts that astronomy was recognized as a separate discipline from mathematics. He
calculated pi to 3.1416 and the length of the solar year to 365.3586805 days, both
remarkably close to recent estimates. He believed that the earth was a sphere and
rotated on its axis, and that the shadow of the earth falling on the moon caused the
eclipses. His more revolutionary theories were opposed by later astronomers, who
tended to compromise with the demands of tradition and religion.
Aryabhata was the most scientific of Indian astronomers, and the later
objection to his ideas may have been motivated by a wish not to displease the
supporters of orthodox ideas. It is significant that in the work of his close
 History-6 43
contemporary Varahamihira the study of astronomy is divided into three branches
each of equal importance - astronomy and mathematics, horoscopy, astrology - a
division which Aryabhata would have rejected since Varahamihira's emphasis is on
astrology rather than astronomy, an emphasis which was to destroy the scientific
study of astronomy. The most interesting work of Varahamihira is the
Panchasiddhantika (Five Schools of Astronomy), a concise account of the five
currently used schools, of which two reflect a close knowledge of Greek astronomy.
Poetry and prose in Sanskrit were encouraged on a lavish scale, through royal
patronage. It was the literature of the elite, the court, the aristocracy, and those
associated with such circles. The name which immediately comes to mind is that of
Kalidasa, regarded as the most outstanding writer of classical Sanskrit. His most
famous work, the play Shakuntala, later came to be known in Europe through the
impact it made on Goethe. Meghaduta (The Cloud Messenger), his long lyrical poem,
was obviously very popular at the time, since inscriptions on occasion carry echoes of
it. Plays continued to he romantic comedies in the main, tragic themes being avoided,
since the purpose of the theatre was to entertain; a significant exception being
Mrichchha Katika (The Little Clay Cart) by Shudraka. Of the prose writers Bana was
acclaimed, his biography of Harsha being held as an excellent example of the best
Sanskrit prose. Bana also wrote prose fiction much quoted in a number of theories on
literary criticism. The fables of the Panchatantra were elaborated in various versions,
and stories from this collection became the nucleus of a number of further
anthologies. Literature was judged by the manner in which it depicted emotions
(rasa), and the test of good literature was that it should provoke an emotional
response.

In addition to Sanskrit, literature in Prakrit (a language more closely related to

the speech of the times than was classical Sanskrit) also had its patronage outside the
court circle. Prakrit literature written by Jainas tended to be more didactic in style,
with a substantial religious content. A notable feature in the Sanskrit plays of this
period is that the characters of high social status speak Sanskrit, whereas those of low
social status and all the women speak Prakrit, which indicates the standing of Sanskrit
and Prakrit in the social context.
Political history of Guptas
The Poona Copper Plate inscriptions of Prabhavati Gupta describe Sri Gupta
as the Adiraja of the Gupta dynasty. Ghatotkacha has been described in the Gupta
records as the son and successor of Sri Gupta. In the Gupta records the title Maharaja
is used both for Sri Gupta and Ghatotkacha. This title was often borne by feudatory
chiefs. It is suggested that the early Guptas were subordinate rulers under the
Murundas.
1. Chandragupta I
2. Samudragupta
3. Chandragupta II
4. Kumaragupta I
 44 History -6
5. Skandagupta
6. Other Successors
Chandragupta I
The third ruler Chandragupta I the son and successor of Ghatotkacha was
definitely a strong ruler whose hands were sought by the Lichchhavis who gave their
princess Kumaradevi in marriage to him. This matrimonial alliance with this ancient
historic family no doubt enhanced the status of the obscure Guptas. The Lichchhavis
territory of north Bihar and the adjoining principality over which the Guptas ruled
were united under Chandragupta and the latter was able to extend his dominion over
Oudh as well as Magadha and along the Ganges as far as Prayaga or Allahabad.
Chandragupta I is usually regarded as the founder of the Gupta era which
commenced in AD 320 to commemorate his accession an era which continued in
parts of India for several centuries.
Samudragupta
Chandragupta I was succeeded by his son, Samudragupta who became the
ruler after subduing his rival Kacha an obscure prince of the dynasty. The Allahabad
Pillar Inscription written by Harisena gives a detailed account of the conquests of his
royal master. This account contains a long list of states, kings and tribes which were
conquered and brought under various degrees of subjugation. This list can be divided
into four categories.
1. The first one includes the 12 states of Dakshinapatha with the names of
their kings who were captured and then liberated and reinstated. They were Kosala,
Pistapura, Kanchi, Vengi, Erandapalli, Devarashtra, Avamukta, Dusthalapura,
Mahakantara, Kurala, Kothura and Palakka.
2. The second one contains the names of the 8 kings of Aryavarta who were
exterminated.
3. The third one consists of the rulers of forest states who were reduced to
servitude and the chiefs of five pratyantas or Border States and also nine tribal
republics that were forced to pay all kinds of taxes, obey his orders and come to
perform obeisance. The states were Samtata, Davaka, Kamrupa, Nepal and Kartipura.
4. The fourth one includes the Daivapura Shahanushahs, Saka Murundas and
the dwellers of Sinhala and all other islands who offered their person for service to
Samudragupta. Harisena the court poet of Samudragupta lays special emphasis upon
Samudragupta's learning and wisdom, sharp and polished intellect and above all his
poetical and musical talents. He also refers to Samudragupta's charity and kindness
even to conquered kings.
The variety of gold coins issued by Samudragupta not only indicate the
power, wealth and grandeur of his empire but also give us some idea of his
appearance and insight into his personal qualities. The Guptas were followers of the
Brahmanical religion and Samudragupta fully maintained the tradition of religious
toleration.
 History-6 45
Chandragupta II
Samudragupta was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II surnamed
Vikramaditya.But according to some scholars the immediate successors of
Samudragupta was his son Ramagupta,the elder brother of Chandragupta II. A drama
Devichandraguptam by Visakhadutta mentions that Ramagupta agreed to surrender
his queen Dhruvadevi to the infatuation of a Saka chief who had invaded his
kingdom. The honour of the queen was saved by Chandragupta; younger brother of
Ramagupta who killed the Saka chief usurped the throne and married the widow.
However the historicity of Ramagupta is matter of great doubt as neither the
contemporary inscriptions nor the coins mention any king of that name.Chandragupta
inherited the military genius of his father and extended the Gupta Empire by
conquests of his own. His principal opponent was the Saka ruler of Gujarat and
Kathiawar Peninsula belonging to the family of western Satraps whose continued
independence prevented the political unity of India. His efforts were crowned with
success. Rudrasimha III the last of the long line of Saka satraps was killed. The
annexation of Kathiawar and Gujarat not only expanded the Gupta Empire from the
Bay of Bengal to the Arabian Sea but also brought it in direct contact with the
western world.
The acquisition of Broach, Sopara, Cambay and other ports dotted on the
western coast of India and the income from the custom duties collected at the
numerous ports gave economic prosperity to the Gupta Empire. The most important
entrepot at the time was Ujjain where most of the trade routes converged. The effect
of this extension of the western frontier was immense on the trade and commerce as
well as the culture of northern India. The European and African trade received
immense help with the Gupta conquest of the Kathiawar ports. The western traders
poured Roman gold into the country in return for Indian products and the effect of
this great wealth on the country in noticeable in the number of coins of Chandragupta
II. Chandragupta had other military conquests to his credit. An inscription engraved
on the iron pillar near Qutub Minar at Delhi states that a king named Chandra
defeated a confederacy of hostile chiefs in Vanga and having crossed the seven
mouths of the river Sandhu conquered the Vahlikas. Chandragupta II extended the
Gupta empire in all directions-west, east and north-west.
Kumaragupta I
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his son Kumaragupta who enjoyed a long
reign of 40 years. He performed an asvamedha sacrifice which implies new conquest.
He was able to maintain intact the mighty empire which he had inherited from his
father. His coin are discovered at Ahmedabad, Valabhi, Junagarh and Morvi in the
west and as far as Satara and Ellichpur. It is probable that Kumaragupta added a part
of western Malwa to the Gupta Empire. Towards the close of Kumaragupta's reign
the empire was threatened by hordes of the Pushyamitras who were defeated by
Skandagupta the crown prince.
 46 History -6
Skandagupta
Soon after his accession Skandagupta had to face the Hunas who had already
proved themselves to be terror to both Europe and Asia. About the middle of the fifth
century AD one branch of the Hunas known as White Hunas occupied the Oxus
valley and threatened both Persia and India. They conquered Gandhara and
threatened the very existence of the Gupta Empire. Skandagupta inflicted such a
terrible defeat upon the Hunas that they dared not disturb the empire for nearly half a
century. It was a magnificent achievement for which he assumed the title
Vikramaditya in imitation of his grandfather.
The ChandraVyakarana and Kathasaritsagara refer to Skandagupta's victory
over the Hunas. His constant source of anxiety was the old Saka kingdom of
Saurashtra newly annexed to the Gupta Empire where he appointed Parnadatta as
governor. An inscription in the Girnar hill near Junagarh in Kathiawar refers to the
restoration of the ancient embankment of the great Sudarsana Lake which had burst
owing to heavy rains in the first year of Skandagupta's reign. Inspite of the Huna
invasion and other troubles Skandagupta was able to maintain the mighty empire.
Other Successors
The history of the imperial Guptas after the death of Skandagupta is obsure.
The official genealogy traces the imperial line from Kumaragupta through Purugupta
and ignores Skandagupta. Purugupta reigned for a brief period and the imperial line
was continued by his two sons Buddhagupta and Narasimhagupta. With the accession
of Buddhagupta the history of the imperial Guptas stands on a firm ground. The
records of his reign prove beyond doubt that he ruled over extensive regions
stretching from Malwa to Bengal. But it was during his reign that the Gupta Empire
showed signs of visible decay with feudatory states breaking away from the empire.
The coins of Buddhagupta also reflect the process of decline that had set in the Gupta
empire. His coins are very rare which prove that the internal weakness and war of
succession had taken over the Gupta Empire. The death of Buddhagupta was
followed by a confused period of internal dissensions leading to the breaking of the
empire and renewed invasion of the Huns.
According to official genealogy Buddhagupta's brother Narasimhagupta
occupied the imperial throne and was followed by his son and grandson. The reigns
of these three emperors covered the first half of the 6th century AD. It was during this
period we find the existence of two other kings-Vainyagupta (506AD) ruling in
Samatata and Nalanda and Bhanugupta (510-11 AD) in Eran. Vainyagupta was first
appointed as a provincial governor of Bengal by Buddhagupta and then he ascended
the imperial throne in 506 AD. The other Bhanugupta known from a single
inscription of Eran fought a famous battle in which his general Goparaja died and his
wife committed sati. The battle fought at Eran must have been directed against the
Huna chief Toramana who had conquered this region. Vishnugupta was the last ruler
of the imperial Gupta family which had enjoyed sovereignty for more than 230 years.
 History-6 47
Guptan Architecture
When the Mauryan empire collapsed, about 200 BC, for more than five hundred years
Indian leaders were too busy fighting warsagainst each other to build any big
buildings. But around 350 AD some victorious leaders formed a new empire,
the Guptan Empire. Once there was peace, people began to build again, and, for the
first time, they began to build free-standing stone temples. By by this time not so
many Indian people were Buddhists anymore, and the new temples were
mainly Hindu temples.
These first stone temples were built to honor the Hindu gods like Krishna
and Vishnu. The earliest stone temple is a small one at Tigawa, in central India. The
Tigawa temple has a small stone chamber, with a flat stone roof, and a porch
supported by four carved stone columns in the front. The temple's thick walls and
small size show that the builders were not used to working in stone yet.
But people kept on cutting rock-cut temples too. Around 600 AD, builders in
Mumbai carved the rock-cut temple of Elephanta Cave in Mumbai, a temple to the
Hindu god Shiva. Like the earlier Tigawa temple, Elephanta has a porch with four
columns in front, and a room with a statue of Shiva in the back.
People also carved many more rock-cut temples at the old site of Ajanta, near
Mumbai. These later temples are much fancier than the earlier Mauryan period
temples. And, between 600 and 1000 AD, they carved many other temples at a new
site at Ellora, not far from Ajanta.
At the same time, other Indian builders were working in the Chalukya
kingdom in southern India. Chalukya builders began to work in stone at about the
same time as in northern India. At Aihole (eye-HO-lee),they built six stone temples
between about 500 and 800 AD. Around this time, Indian builders began to use
cement mortars to hold the stones together. This Durga Temple, from about 675
AD, has a central room with solid walls and columns all around the outside, like a
Greek temple. The apse is curved, which is unusual in Indian temples, and there's a
tower on top of the flat roof.

Harshavardana
Harshvardana was the court poet of Harsha and the author of Harshacharita,
Kadambari and Parvatiparinay. Hiuen Tsang was the Chinese pilgrim who visited
India in the 7th century AD. Both deal with Harsha's wars and his reign. Harsha's
dramas such as Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarshika give us information about
the political conditions in those days.

Nausasi Copper plate gives us information about Harsha's successful

expedition against Valabhi. Madhuban plate Inscription dated 631 AD traces the
 48 History -6
genealogy of Harsha up to four generations. The Banskhera, Nalanda and Sonepat
inscriptions of Harsha describe him as a worshipper of Siva. The Banskhera
inscription shows that Harsha was an expert calligraphist.
Early life of Harsha
Harsha was the second son of Prabhakaravardhana, the first king of
Pushyabhuti dynasty with its capital at Thanesvar. Pushyabhutis were the feudatories
of the Guptas but had assumed independence after the Huna invasions. Harsha was a
great warrior and a conqueror and fought against many powers. In his first expedition
he drove away Sasanka from Kannuj who had occupied it after killing his elder
brother. It appears that there was a war between Harsha and the king of Valabhi. His
hostilities with Valabhis ended through matrimonial alliance. Upon consolidating his
position in the north Harsha led an expedition to the south. But he was defeated by
King Pulakesin II of Chalukya dynasty. However Harsha was successful in his
eastern campaign.
In the east the empire extended right up to the Brahmaputra. A Chinese
account mentions him as the king of Magadha in 641 AD, the king of Kamarupa,
Bhaskaravarman was his ally in his campaign of Bengal and other parts of eastern
India. According to Bana, his empire included the states of Kashmir, Sindh and
Nepal. It included the states of eastern Punjab, UP, Bihar, Bengal, Orissa,
Saurashtra, Kanyakubja etc. He maintained cordial relationship with China and
Persia. Harsha was a great scholar and authored several dramas and books. He
profusely encouraged learning and patronised the learned persons. The Nalanda
University was the great seat of learning which came to forefront under his patronage.
His court was adorned with scholars like Bana, Matanaga, Divakara, ayasena, Bharti
hari. He reigned for about 41 years and died in the beginning of 647AD.
Harsha's Administration

The system of administration was practically that of the Gupta Empire on

heritance from earlier times. Hieun Tsang the Chinese pilgrim visited India during the
reign of Harsha and left a detailed account of his administration. Although it was an
autocracy it was decentralized to the point that even villages were governed by
village community functioning as a democracy within the field of its local affairs.
The king used to visit and inspect posts throughout his dominion. There was a council
of ministers known as Mantriparishad to assist him. Besides having a say in the
election of the king, the council of ministers influenced foreign policy. For the
convenience of administration the entire empire was divided into provinces and each
province was placed under the control of a viceroy of Governor.
Provinces were called Bhukti and were divided into districts called Visaya.
The district of Visayas was further divided into tehsils called Pathakas. The smallest
units were known as Uparika. The village headman was called Gramika. The
government was based on principle of serving the people. The penal code was
severe. The main source of income was the land tax, duties at ferries and barrier
 History-6 49
stations paid by the traders and merchants. Taxation was light. One sixth of the crops
were considered as land revenue.
Economy under Harsha

The nature of the economy under Harsha became increasingly more feudal
and self-sufficient. The decline of trade and commerce went on unabated under
Harsha. This is evident from the decline of trade centres, paucity of coins and almost
complete disappearance of guilds of traders and merchants. The decline of trade and
commerce affected the handicrafts and other industries for want of demand. This
decline affected even agriculture though indirectly. When trade was flourishing a
great part of the merchandise consisted of food stuffs and also most of the raw
materials for handicrafts and industries came from agricultural production.
But now there was a lack of large-scale demand for agricultural goods. So the
agriculturist now began to produce only that much which was required to meet his
own needs and those of the locality but not for the market, both internal and
external. This naturally led to the rise of a self-sufficient village economy in which
all the needs of the village were met from within and also marked by an increasing
dependence on agriculture.
Society
This period witnessed the ascendancy of varnasrama-dharma and it became an
indispensable cornerstone of the Brahmanical social structure. Hiuen Tsang writes
about the existence of four varnas or orders in Indai. Bana characterised Harsha as
one who carried out all rules for the varnas and asramas. The first varna Brhamins
continued to enjoy a very high and respectable position in the society and the
glorification of gifts to them by the other three varnas became a distinct feature of
Brahmanism. Despite the existence of some Sudra kings, the Kshatriya kings were in
overwhelming majority. The third varna Vaishyas formed the class of traders
according to Hiuen Tsang. The fourth varna Sudras comprised the agriculturists
according to Hiuen Tsang. Both Bana and Hiuen Tsang talk about the existence of
many sub castes such as the class of vernacular poets, class of bards, class of betel
bearers and so on.
The rise of those sub castes was due to the social violation in the code of
marriages and general ethics and also different occupations. Hiuen Tsang takes note
of many outcastes and untouchables such as butchers, fishermen, executioners and
scavengers who were segregated and were not allowed to mix with the people of the
higher varnas and had habitations marked by distinguishing sigh. The position of
women seems to have suffered a further decline during this period. The institution
of svayamvara declined and there is no instance of its practice in the contemporary
literature. Remarriage of widows was not permitted particularly among the higher
varnas. The evil system of dowry according to Bana was quite common. There were
few examples of practice of committing sati.
 50 History -6
Religion
Brahmanisim which reasserted itself under the Guptas got further
strengthened during this period. Its gradual ascendancy brought about the decline of
Buddhism despite the patronage given to it by Harsha which is evident from the
account of Hiuen Tsang. But Jainism did not undergo any major changes and it made
neither progress nor any decay. Saivism became the main theistic system of this
period. But Vaishnavism which was popular during the age of the Guptas was
gradually declining during these period. The Vedic ceremonies and rituals once again
came to be regarded as inseparable and integral constituents of Brahmanisim and the
people practised them on a larger scale.
Achievements of Emperor Harsha Vardhana
Emperor Harsha achieved remarkable success both in the field of peace and
war. His age was characterized by political fragmentation of North India and after a
gap of more than 100 years Harsha established unity and integrity in whole of North
India.
Harsha is mentioned as Sakalouttarapatha (the lord of North India) in the
Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II.This title also indicates that Harsha ruled over
whole of North India. His Empire extended from Himalayas in North to the river
Narmada in south and from Punjab in west to Bengal in East. This unification of
North India by Harsha was one of the remarkable achievements.
Harsha was an efficient administrator as well. He successfully established a
strong and efficient administrative system in whole of North India; the contemporary
references suggest that peace and stability prevailed in North India. During the reign
of Harsha and common public enjoyed large degree of freedom in the public and
private life.
The reign of Harsha was also characterized by lofty ideals and benign
principles. According to Hiuen Tsang Harsha pursued high ideals during his reign.
No excessive control was imposed on the subjects and the demands of the state were
minimal. The rate of land revenue collected by Harsha was 1/6th and other taxes were
also light. The families were not required to register themselves and people were not
subjected to forced labour.
The enlightened character of Harsha’s administration also found expression in
the four fold division of state income. According to Hiuen Tsang one part of state
resources was used for meeting the expenses of government, second part were used
for paying the salaries of public servants. Third part was used for rewarding the
intellectuals and fourth part was gifted to various religious sects.
Harsha divided his daily schedule into three parts where one part was used for
looking after government affairs and remaining two parts established his control over
these feudal elements and kept the centrifugal forces in check. This achievement
could also be understood in the light of development that followed his death when
feudal forces emerged in dominant manner once again and the central authority
disappeared.
 History-6 51
Harsha maintained a dept of records and archives and this dept were entrusted
with the responsibility of recording every significant event taking place in empire.
Harsha took personal interest in improving the efficiency of the
administration. The officers were instructed to visit their areas and he organized
official tours to understand the difficulties of the masses. This was remarkable in the
age which was characterized by all round decline in different aspects of life.
Harsha was not only an efficient administrator but he was also a successful
military conqueror as well. According to contemporary sources Harsha fought
number of wars and battles during his reign and conquered many areas. He did not
adopt barbarious methods of conquests. He never ordered mass slaughter of the
civilians and emphasized upon the moral methods. This was also part of his
achievements.
The reign of Harsha was also remarkable for his friendly diplomatic
relations.Harsha knew the significance of maintaining friendly relations with other
kingdoms and outside world. According to contemporary sources, Harha exchanged
embassies with China and the Chinese rulers sent three embassies to the court of
Harsha.Harsha also maintained friendly relations with King Bhaskaravarman of
Kamrupa.
Harsha was also great patron of cultural activities and organized Kanauj
assembly in the honor of Hiuen Tsang.He patronized Banabhatta,the author of
Kadambari and Harshacharita.Harsha himself was a fine scholar and composed
Nagananda,Ratnawali and Piyadasika.

Limitations of Emperor Harsha’s Reign

Though Harsha accomplished a number of remarkable achievements during
his reign but it was also characterized by number of limitations. Though Harsha could
check and control the feudal forces during his reign but he could not eliminate them
because of this these feudal forces continue to threaten the unity and integrity of
North India and emerged in much stronger form after his death.
Though Harsha tried to establish an efficient administrative system but the
peace and security in his empire had many limitations. According to Hiuen Tsang he
was looted twice while passing through central India.
The administrative system of Harsha was effective only in the areas around
the capital and the contemporary references inform that semi-autonomous vassals
ruled in other outer areas.
Emperor could not reverse the process of economic decline as well. The
economic activities continued to decline during his reign and number of flourishing
urban centres was depopulated. The level of the monetization of economy was also
very low and according to Hiuen Tsang shells were used as means of exchange.
The socio-cultural life of North India was also characterized by downhill
trends.Harsha’s age was marked by great rigidity in social life. The social mobility
had disappeared. The status of women declined sharply during this period due to the
 52 History -6
popularity of child marriage and prohibition of widow remarriage. The social evils
like sati became more popular.
The period also saw decline in the social status of vaishyas and they came to
be equated with shudras.
Major principalities

Chapter 3
Muslims in South Asia-I
Muhammad bin Qasim

Muhammad bin Qasim was orphaned as a child and thus the responsibility of
his upbringing fell upon his mother. She supervised his religious instruction herself,
and hired different teachers for his worldly education. It was the uncle, Hajjaj bin
Yousaf, who taught him the art of governing and warfare. Qasim was an intelligent
and cultured young man who at the age of fifteen was considered by many to be one
of his uncle's greatest assets. As a show of faith in his nephew's abilities, Hajjaj
married his daughter to Qasim.

At the age of sixteen, he was asked to serve under the great general, Qutayba
bin Muslim. Under his command Muhammad bin Qasim displayed a talent for skilful
fighting and military planning. Hajjaj's complete trust in Qasim's abilities as a general
became even more apparent when he appointed the young man as the commander of
the all-important invasion on Sindh, when he was only seventeen years old.
Muhammad bin Qasim proved Hajjaj right when he, without many problems,
 History-6 53
managed to win all his military campaigns. He used both his mind and military skills
in capturing places like Daibul, Raor, Uch and Multan. History does not boast of
many other commanders who managed such a great victory at such a young age.

Besides being a great general, Muhammad bin Qasim was also an excellent
administrator. He established peace and order as well as a good administrative
structure in the areas he conquered. He was a kind hearted and religious person. He
had great respect for other religions. Hindu and Buddhist spiritual leaders were given
stipends during his rule. The poor people of the land were greatly impressed by his
policies and a number of them embraced Islam. Those who stuck to their old religions
erected statues in his honor and started worshiping him after his departure from their
land.

Muhammad bin Qasim was known for his obedience to the ruler. Walid bin
Abdul Malik died and was succeeded by his younger brother Suleman as the Caliph.
Suleman was an enemy of Hajjaj and thus ordered Qasim back to the kingdom.
Qasim knew of the animosity between the two. He was aware that due to this enmity,
he would not be well treated. He could have easily refused to obey the Caliph's orders
and declare his independence in Sindh. Yet he was of the view that obeying ones
ruler is the duty of a general and thus he decided to go back to the center. Here he
became a victim to party politics. He was put behind bars where he died at age of
twenty. Many historians believe that had he been given a few more years, he would
have conquered the entire South Asian region.

Arrivals of Arabs in the Subcontinent

Introducton:
Arabs, as traders entered the sub-continent within a two years after their
conversion to Islam. The Muslim traders played a very significant role in preaching
Islam in the subcontinent, as Hitti remarks that it has passed through three distinct
stages “originally a religion, Islam later became a state and finally a culture”.
The Arab Muslims conquered Sindh in the seventh century A.D. Sea faring
and maritime interest of the Arabs on the coast of India were considerable even
before Islam: and under a centralized government of Umayyad, the commercial
activities expanded in the subcontinent. Mohammad bin Qasim, the conqueror of
Sindh made Sindh Dar-ul-islam and based his policy on the Sharia; the laws of Islam.
The majority of converts who entered the fold of Islam belonged to lower caste of
Hindus to whom Islam at once brought that social equality which Hinduism had
denied them from a long time. Arab missionary activities also played a significant
role in the large scale conversion of Hindus. As T.W. Arnold says, “But for the
 54 History -6
arrival of the Portuguese, the whole of this coast would have become
Mohammedan”.Feroze Shah Tughlaq in his autobiography writes, “I encouraged my
infidel subjects to embrace the religion of the Prophet. The new converts were
favoured with presents and honours”.
Traders and growth of islam:
Islamic influence first came to be felt in the Indian sub-continent during the
early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders. Arab traders used to visit the
Malabar region , which was a link between them and the ports of South-East Asia to
trade even before Islam had been established in Arabia. According to Historians
Elliot and Dowson in their book ‘the history of Indians as told by their historians’, the
first ship bearing Muslim travelers was seen on the Indian coast as early as 630 AD.
H.G. Rawlinson, in his book: Ancient and Medieval History of India y J. Sturrock
claims the first Arab Muslims settled on the Indian coast in the last part of the 7th
century AD.
The Arab merchants and traders became the carriers of the new religion and
they propagated it wherever they went. However, it was the Muslim conquests in
Persia, including the provinces of Kirman and Makran, which brought the Arabs face
to face with the then ruler of Sindh, who had allied with the ruler of Makran against
the Muslims. But, it was not until the sea borne trade of the Arabs in the Indian
Ocean was jeopardized that serious attempts were made to subjugate Sindh.
Bab-ul-Islam: The invasion of Muhammad bin Qasim ushered the way for
spread of Islam in sub-continent.But,to say that the invasions were reasons of spread
of Islam is absolutely wrong because if it so then why Halaku khan could not succeed
in spreading Buddhism anywhere in the World?
Advent of Islam in the Sub-Continent
The last Prophet of Islam, Prophet Muhammad (SAW), completely changed
the intellectual outlook of Arabia. Within a span of 23 years he transformed the
barbarous and impious Arabs into a civilized and religious nation. During his life and
also after his death, Muslims took the message of Islam to every corner of the world
and within a few years Muslims became the super power of the era.
Trade relations between Arabia and the Sub-continent dated back to ancient
times. Long before the advent of Islam in Arabia, the Arabs used to visit the coast of
Southern India, which then provided the link between the ports of South and South
East Asia. After the Arab traders became Muslim, they brought Islam to South Asia.
A number of local Indians living in the coastal areas embraced Islam. However, it
was the Muslim conquests in Persia, including the provinces of Kirman and Makran,
which brought the Arabs face to face with the then ruler of Sindh, who had allied
with the ruler of Makran against the Muslims. But, it was not until the sea borne trade
of the Arabs in the Indian Ocean was jeopardized that serious attempts were made to
subjugate Sindh.
 History-6 55
During the reign of the great Umayyad Caliph Walid bin Abdul Malik, Hajjaj
bin Yousaf was appointed as the governor of the Eastern Provinces. At that time, Raja
Dahir, a Brahman, ruled Sindh. However, the majority of the people living in the
region were Shudders or Buddhists. Dahir treated members of these denominations
inhumanly. They were not allowed to ride horses or to wear a turban or shoes. Sindhi
pirates, protected by Dahir, were active on the coastal areas and whenever they got a
chance, they plundered the ships passing by Daibul.
During those times, some Muslim traders living in Ceylon died and the ruler of
Ceylon sent their widows and orphans back to Baghdad. They made their journey by
sea. The King of Ceylon also sent many valuable presents for Walid and Hajjaj. As
the eight-ship caravan passed by the seaport of Daibul, Sindhi pirates looted it and
took the women and children prisoner. When news of this attack reached Hajjaj, he
demanded that Dahir return the Muslim captives and the looted items. He also
demanded that the culprits be punished. Dahir replied that he had no control over the
pirates and was, therefore, powerless to rebuke them. On this Hajjaj decided to invade
Sindh. Two small expeditions sent by him failed to accomplish their goal. Thus, in
order to free the prisoners and to punish the guilty party, Hajjaj decided to undertake
a huge offensive against Dahir, who was patronizing the pirates.

In 712, Hajjaj sent 6,000 select Syrian and Iraqi soldiers, a camel corps of
equal strength and a baggage train of 3,000 camels to Sindh under the command of
his nephew and son in-law, Imad-ud-din Muhammad bin Qasim, a young boy of just
seventeen years. He also had a ‘manjaniq’, or catapult, which was operated by 500
men and could throw large stones a great distance. On his way the governor of
Makran, who provided him with additional forces, joined him. Also, a good number
of Jats and Meds, who had suffered at the hands of native rulers, joined the Arab
forces.
Muhammad bin Qasim first captured Daibul. He then turned towards Nirun,
near modern Hyderabad, where he easily overwhelmed the inhabitants. Dahir decided
to oppose the Arabs at Raor. After a fierce struggle, Dahir was overpowered and
killed. Raor fell into the hands of the Muslims. The Arab forces then occupied Alor
and proceeded towards Multan. Along the way, the Sikka (Uch) fortress, situated on
the bank of the Ravi, was also occupied. The Hindu ruler of Multan offered resistance
for two months after which the Hindus were overpowered and defeated. Prior to this,
Muhammad bin Qasim had taken Brahmanabad and a few other important towns of
Sindh. Muhammad bin Qasim was planning to proceed forward when the new Caliph
Suleman bin Abdul Malik recalled him. After the departure of Muhammad bin
Qasim, different Muslim generals declared their independence at different areas.
The Muslim conquest of Sindh brought peace and prosperity to the region.
Law and order was restored. The sea pirates of Sindh, who were protected by Raja
Dahir, were crushed. As a result of this, sea trade flourished. The port of Daibul
became a very busy and prosperous commercial center.
 56 History -6
When Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh, the local people, who had
been living a life of misery, breathed a sigh of relief. Qasim followed a lenient policy
and treated the local population generously. Everyone had full religious freedom and
even the spiritual leaders of local religions were given salaries from the government
fund. No changes were made in the local administration and local people were
allowed to hold offices – particularly in the revenue department. All taxes were
abolished and Jazia was imposed. Everyone was treated equally. Poor people,
especially Buddhists, were very impressed by his policies and many of them
embraced Islam. A number of Mosques and Madrasas were constructed in important
towns. In a short period of time Sindh became a center of Islamic learning. A number
of religious scholars, writers and poets were emerged and they spread their
knowledge. The Muslims learned Indian sciences like medicine, astronomy and
mathematics. Sanskrit books on various subjects were translated into Arabic. During
the reign of Haroon al Rasheed, a number of Hindu scholars were even invited to
Baghdad.
The establishment of Muslim rule also paved way for future propagation of
Islam in Sindh and the adjoining regions. Later Sindh also attracted Ismaili
missionaries who were so successful that Sindh passed under Ismaili rule. With the
conquest of Lahore by Mahmud of Ghazni, missionary activity began again under the
aegis of Sufis who were the main agents in the Islamization of the entire region.

Conquest of debal
From Makran, Mohammad-bin-Quasim proceeded to Debal. On the way, the
Jats and Meds joined him against Dahir. It was in the spring of 712 A.D. that he
reached the port of Debal and besieged it. A nephew of Dahir was in charge of the
town and he offered stiff resistance. It is stated that Brahmanas of Debal prepared a
talisman and placed it near the great red flag which flew from the temple. The Arabs
were not able to conquer Debal in spite of best efforts.
However, a Brahman deserted Dahir and disclosed the secret of the talisman
to the Arabs. The result was that the Arabs made the flagstaff the target and broke the
talisman. Once the red flag was pulled down, the people surrendered in despair. There
was a great massacre for three days. The Hindus and Buddhists of Debal were given
the option to become Muslims and those who refused to do so were murdered or
enslaved.
All those who were above 17 were put to the sword. Huge booty-fell into the
hands of the Arabs. "700 beautiful females under the protection of Buddha" were
among the prize of Mohammad-bin-Quasim. A part of the booty and women were
sent to Hajjaj and the rest were distributed among and soldiers. A mosque was
constructed in place of the damaged temple.
Muhammad-bin-Quasim wrote thus to Hajjaj. "The nephew of Raja Dahir, his
warriors and principal officers has been dispatched, and the infidels converted to
Islam or destroyed. Instead of idol-temples, mosques and other places of worship
have been created. Khutbah (Friday prayer) is read, the call to prayer is raised, so that
 History-6 57
devotions are performed at stated hours. The Takbir and praise to the Almighty God
are offered every morning and evening."
Conquest of Multan
Muhammad-bin-Quasim proceeded towards Multan, the main city of the
Upper Indus. There was tough resistance everywhere, but in spite of that he appeared
before the gates of Multan and captured it through treachery. A deserter told him the
stream from which the people got their water- supply and by cutting off the same,
Mohammad-bin-Quasim was able to capture Multan. The Arabs got so much of gold
that they named Multan as the city of gold.
After capturing Multan, Mohammad-bin-Quasim began to draw a plan of
conquering the rest of India. He sent an army of 10,000 horses under Abu Hakim to
conquer Kanauj. However, before that could be accomplished, Quasim himself was
finished.
Arab Conquest of Sindh 711 AD
Imaad-ud-Din Mohammad bin Qasim Yousaf Thaqifi (December 695-July
18,715) is the name of the turn of civilization in the history of Sub-Continent when he
came to Sindh to emancipate the prisoners of war under the custody of Indian pirates
in the age of Raja Dahar, the then ruler of Sindh.
A wounded call from a lady prisoner shook the foundations of the rule of Raja
Dahar and initiated the Muslim civilization in this region. (Some historians disagree
with the tale of pirates and claim that the real reason behind the invasion was the
asylum of Sassanians who were defeated by the Muslims and escaped to Raja Dahar
who sheltered them. On demanding those Sassanians, Raja refused to hand over them
to Hajjaj who was afraid of their counter attack either from India or supported by
Indian ruler. As a pre-emptive measure, he attacked Sindh).
Before Mohammad bin Qasim’s arrival, Hajjaj Bin Yousaf Thaqifi (Administrator of
Taif, the paternal uncle and father-in-law of Mohammad Bin Qasim) had sent two
expeditions which met with failure due to the fierce resistance of the local warriors. It
infuriated Hajjaj Bin Yousaf and he sent the more concentrated expedition to Sindh
under his seventeen years old nephew Mohammad Bin Qasim in 711 A.D. Sindh was
being ruled by a tyrant Raja Dahar who was inhumanly cruel to his masses consisting
of Budhists and the Shooders (a class in Hinduism which is deprived of almost all
human rights enjoyed by the High-Status Brahmans and other two strata). The poor
Shooders and Budhists were not allowed to wear shoes and turbans and ride horses.
Raja Dahar patronized the pirates of Sindh who plundered in the coastal areas.
Some traders from Baghdad died in Ceylon and the King of Ceylon sent their widows
and orphans to Baghdad along with precious gifts for Walid (the Caliph) and Hajjaj.
The convoy was looted by the Sindhi pirates and the ladies along with children were
imprisoned. Getting this news, Hajjaj asked Raja Dahar to take action against the
pirates and release the prisoners but Raja did not pay heed to him which led to the
perish of Raja’s empire and inception of Muslim rule in India. Hajjaj sent 6000
soldiers, 3000 camels loaded with commodities in 711 A.D under the supervision of
Bin Qasim, his nephew. Enhancing the military muscle of Mohammad Bin Qasim the
 58 History -6
army was equipped with Manjnique which made the real difference in the battle.
Mohammad Haroon, the governor of Makran enjoined him with his military men and
five Manjniques. Besides them, the Shooders and the down trodden strata of the local
population saw a liberator in the person of Mohammad Bin Qasim and joined his
force later.
Muhammad Bin Qasim captured Daibul, having a temple with a flag hoisted
on its summit and the flag was considered ominous for Hindus. Mohammad bin
Qasim hit that flag with “Aroos” (his special Manjnique) dropping the flag down. It
dispirited the Hindus and they surrendered. A mosque was built in front of Daibal
Temple and 4000 soldiers were appointed in the city. Nirun, inhabited by Budhists,
and Haidarabad were occupied when Raja Dahar came out to combat Mohammad Bin
Qasim at Raor.
Raja Dahar gathered 50,000 men with horses at Raor and confronted
Mohammad bin Qasim on the eastern bank of River Indus. Mohammad Bin Qasim
urged his men to fight against Raja Dahar saying, “O men of Arabia! These crowds of
infidels have come prepared to fight with us. You must use all your strength, for they
will put up a furious resistance for the sake of their wealth and families. Ride against
them. With the help of God, we hope to make them all food for our sharp swords,
take away their wealth and their families, and obtain large booty. Do not show
weakness, and remember that God makes the end of the pious happy”. The words of
Mohammad bin Qasim provoked the audience and they fought with a marvelous
valor. During the war Raja’s elephant slipped into water of River Indus however, he
secured himself and rode a horse. But his army, mistakenly taking him dead, retreated
and the battle finally went into the favor of Muslim army. Raja was killed with the
death toll of 6,000 men of his army. Alore and Uchh were occupied after the death of
Raja Dahar. In Brahmanabad (Sindh), Jai Singh, the son of Raja Dahar faced Muslim
forces but was defeated with 8,000 dead bodies in the end. Suraj Devi and Permal
Devi, the daughters of Jai Singh were arrested. Aror, Multan (714) and some other
towns of Sindh came under Mohammad Bin Qasim. The people suppressed by the
atrocities of Raja Dahar took a sigh of relief, Shooders and Budhists converted to
Islam seeing its equality in the society. Social stratification among the masses became
the social glue after Mohammad Bin Qasim captured these areas.
Bin Qasim was thinking of marching towards other states and cities but the
pages of history turned and Suleman Bin Abdul Malik came into throne (it was no
more Caliphate in the true sense and spirit and had converted into kingdom) when
Walid, the Caliph died. Prior to this, Hajjaj, the governor of Iraq had died and Saleh
Bin Abd-ur-Rehman became the new governor of Iraq. Hajjaj Bin Yousaf earned a
bad name due to his strict rule. His enemies numbered in thousands who were
imprisoned by him. Sueman released 20,000 prisoners arrested by Hajjaj who
demanded their compensation from Suleman. Mohammad Bin Qasim, being the son-
in-law of Hajjaj and his favorite general was targeted by them. Suleman called
Mohammad Bin Qasim back and handed him over to Saleh Bin Abd-ur-Rehman who
was malicious towards Hajjaj because the later had had Adam Bin Abd-ur-Rehman,
 History-6 59
the brother of Saleh killed. Saleh tortured Mohammad Bin Qasim to death in prison
on July 18, 715 A.D. According to some chroniclers, he was sacked into the skin of a
cow as a sentence of an allegation lodged by Suraj Devi and Permal Devi, the
daughters of Jai Singh who claimed (in the court) their molestation of the Caliph by
Mohammad Bin Qasim. After the death penalty of Bin Qasim, they admitted before
the Caliph that it was merely an accusation with no reality embedded in it. Knowing
the reality told by the claimants, the Caliph got them killed by dragging them through
the streets of Baghdad. The history does not support this event with a reliable source.
Whatever might be the reason, the world of Islam lost one of the greatest
generals of history. Suleman had been called “Miftah-ul-Khair” (the key to virtue) by
the historians but his wrong decision of calling Bin Qasim back to the capital delayed
the conquest of South Asia for next three hundred years. Had the Caliph not called
him back, the later would have conquered the whole of South Asia, say the
chroniclers. (Reference: Pakistan Chand Tarikhi Isharay by Doctor Anwar Rooman)
He was one of the most junior in age generals of the world who proved himself as a
skilled warrior, competent administrator, just ruler, and a reformer. He was adored by
the people of Sindh due to his personality traits. They made his statues as the
emancipator from the cruelty of Raja Dahar and started idolizing him in their temples
after his departure. (Some chroniclers do not accept that there was any tyranny or
oppression in the society when Mohammad Bin Qasim invaded. They maintain that
there was a perfect harmony on religious basis and the masses enjoyed the religious
liberty. One such reference is G.M. Sayyed from Sindh, Pakistan who was jailed in
1964 to interpret or misinterpret the reality. No Brahmanism prevailed over the
society, they claim. This viewpoint is supported by the Hindu writers as well. If it is
true, why did only the Shooders and low-caste people embraced Islam? Majority of
them turned towards Islam if not all. Mohammad Bin Qasim came to Sindh with
15,000 men and the number was added with another 5,000 personnel but how did he
get this number multiplied when he went back to Baghdad? Was it out of Bin
Qasim’s tyranny? If yes, where were the local warriors and why did they not step
forward to redeem their country men? Why did the local population welcome him if
they were contended with their lives and there was a perfect harmony in the society?)
History leaves us with some burning questions. Why was Bin Qasim chastised
in such a brutal way by Saleh Bin Abd-ur-Rehman? His military and administrative
prowess was beyond any doubts, why did the Caliph call him back to the capital?
Only to pacify the wounded emotions of the people who were affected by the
atrocities of Hajjaj? Prior to Mohammad Bin Qasim’ arrival in Sindh, two voyages
had badly failed but he succeeded in conquering Sindh. He should have been hailed
by the Caliphate instead of such an atrocious end leading to a heavy toll in the form
of a delayed access to the South Asia. He sent all the booty to the center and obeyed
the directions from the capital Baghdad despite knowing the enmity between Saleh
and Hajjaj Bin Yousaf while he could have revolted against the order of Suleman, the
Caliph. He made no mistake on military or administrative side to come to such end.
His army obeyed him in an ideal way and the subjects under him breathed a sigh of
 60 History -6
relief. Non-Muslim communities were declared “Zimmis” which bound the Arab
administration to shoulder the full-fledged responsibility of these communities. Was
his return to the capital merely out of vengeance? Was it enough to be the nephew of
a person with whom Suleman Bin Abdul Malik, the Governor of Iraq was not on
good terms? History unfurls the cruel ploys of the Muslim premiers like Suleman and
Saleh who focused on their individual eminence instead of working on the collective
cause of the Muslim Ummah.
According to Sir William Muir, Bin Qasim enslaved the prisoners in the
beginning but later he changed his policy and initiated tolerance and synchronization.
Sindhis were given military and civil jobs and Hindus were employed even in the
treasury. The new Muslim government was abounding in wealth and gold taken from
the temples. According to Chach Nama, a chronology, Bin Qasim looted 52,000
kilogram gold from only one temple. The aggregate revenue from Sindh and Multan
reached 270,000 pounds per annum collected in the form of Zakat (an Islamic tax)
and Jiziya (tax levied on non-Muslims). In the Judiciary, Qazis were responsible to
give its verdicts according to Sharia. But in civil cases, Hindus enjoyed liberty to
have their decisions according to their Punchaiyats (the conference of their chiefs).
Army was given regular salary and the 1/5th of the “Maal-e-Ghaneemat” (the booty)
after winning a war. Sir Wellesley Haig admits that Hajjaj was such a strict ruler who
could not accept Idolism in return for Jiziya. But he had to adopt a reconciliatory
policy towards the people of Brahmanabad when the later requested to show
tolerance after being defeated.

Ultimate consequences of Arab conquest of Sind

Arab conquest of Sind was of great significance and impact, politically, socio-
culturally, religiously, intellectually and even economically. Though the Arabs were
not the actual conquerors of India, they were the path finders and torch bearers. The
conquest was a great give and take. Historians attach little importance to Arab rule in
Sind, but though the visible traces of Arab ascendancy have been obliterated, its
invisible effects were many and far-reaching. Most of them, of course, relate to the
province of Sind, which has been called "the Hijaz of the Indo-Pakistan sub-
continent".
Effects of the conquest of Sind:

Little effect in Political Sphere:

There is no doubt that Arab conquest was confined to Sind and Multan only
and the major portion of northern India was not directly affected. Expeditions were
send against Hindu princes of the north, but the Rajputs were too strong to be
defeated. The sudden death of Muhammad bin Qasim and fruitless help of the
Khalifah had greatly shaken the Arab stability in Sind. Within the decline of the
power of the Khalifah, territories of Sind were divided into independent states.
Qasim’s attack revealed the political and military weakness of sub-continent:
 History-6 61
The Indo-Pakistan sub-continent presented a chequered picture of warring
dynasties and of small kingdoms hostile to one another on the eve of the Arab
invasion. There was no central government in the country. All these states enjoyed
complete independence and sovereignty. The same situation was on the occasion of
the invasion of Alexander the Great. Throughout the history of the sub-continent they
united on few occasions otherwise they were fighting for the supremacy on one
another.
It was proved from the Muhammad bin Qasim’s invasion that people of sub-
continent could not unite from against their common enemy. If they are managed to
form a confederation against a common enemy then they also cannot get their goals.
Because in their army there is lack of uniformity and discipline. They belong to
different areas and princes thus could not fight bravely and secondly their main
problem was lack of leadership. Thus the attack on Sind revealed their political and
military weakness which were helpful for the establishment of Muslim Empire in the
sub-continent in the later periods.
The arrangements made by Muhammad bin Qasim with the non-Muslims
provided the basis for later Muslim policy in the sub-continent.
Arab soldiers settled:
Most of Arab soldiers settled in Sind for good and some of them married
Sindi women. The Arab and Hindus lived side by side in peace and amity for a long
time. The Arabs left a legacy behind in the shape of buildings or administrative or
cultural institutions that might have exerted influence on India.
Legacy of Arab Administration:
The Arabs were not only great warriors and conquerors, but also good
administrators. The administration introduced by Muhammad bin Qasim in Sind
leads us to believe that the Arabs possessed experience in the art of administration
and were not cruel and fanatic as it is general supposed by the people.
The Arab governors were farsighted statesmen and great politicians. They did
not disturbed the existing system of administration in Sind. According to Chach
Nama, "Reposing full confidence in them, Muhammad bin Qasim entrusted them
with high offices and placed all important affairs of the place in their hands." Steps
were taken to improve and encourage agriculture and trade. Artisans and merchants
were free from molestation.
Justice was administered without fear or favour. The Qazis who were well-
versed in Islamic Law and Jurisprudence, filled the seats of Judgment. In matter of
pubic and political offences the law made no distinction between Muslims and non-
Muslims. Some cases among the Hindus were decided according to Hundu Law by
the Panchayats.
When Muhammad bin Qasim was dismissed and arrested by the orders of
Khalifah the people started worship of his statue due to his good administration and
justice. The Arab administration was based on the principles of Justice, equality,
toleration and welfare. It was a role model for the later Turk sovereigns.
Cantonments turned into big cities:
 62 History -6
Muhammad bin Qasim was a genius administrator. He established many
cantonments in different places for the internal peace, law and order and for
discipline. He permitted the Arab soldiers to settle and marry with Sindi women.
Mansura, Kanda, Baiza, Mehfooza and Multan were the famous cantonments of that
time. These cities proved to be the centre of culture and civilization.

Dr. Ishwari Prasad, " It may by conceded at once that the Arab conquest of
Sind from political point of view, was an insignificant event in the history of Islam"
The statement is nullified by the above mentioned facts.
2- Profound and far-reaching effect on culture
The establishment of Muslim rule in Sind had profound and far reaching
effects in the field of culture and learning of the land. "The Arabs had brought with
them a new religion and a new civilization which they introduced among the
conquered people. They brought India into direct contact with the Islamic world and
opened immense possibilities of commercial and cultural progress". (K.Ali)
i.Social Effects:
Before the conquest of Sind the Arabs were not only nomads but also bandits. The
were uncivilized. The terrirotory of sind became civilized after the inasaion of Arabs.
They got awareness of law, its importance and obedience.
Until recently the social pattern in Sind was largely tribal, the place of Arab
Shaikh being taken by the Sindi Wadera. The world Wadera itself is a literal
translation of Arabic counterpart. Such Arab virtues as hospitality have always
distinguished Sind, and the standard of Arabic scholarship has also remained high.
After the interaction of two different nations a new civilization came into existence,
whose vivacious example "Sindi Language" is still present today.
Arab scholars inhabited in Sind and several Hindu scholars embraced Islam
and permanently settled in Arabia. The Muslim treated the Sindi generously and
granted them complete religious freedom. In a result a lot of Sindi Brahman and
Buddhist embraced Islam.

Arab had started some new kind of industries in Sind. They planted in Sind
some new kind of plants. The Arab brought horse and camels Sind and still today
they inhabitants use the camel.
ii- Religious Effects:
Toleration was shown by the Arab governors of Sind to their subjects
irrespective of caste and creed. Some of the temples were no doubt destroyed during
the days of war, but that was a temporary phase, for the destruction was not due to
religious bigotry or fanaticism but to the fact that the temples were the repositories of
India’s aglong accumulated wealth. Once a place was occupied and peace restored or
the people submitted to the ruler and sought peace, the conqueror adopted a kind and
conciliatory policy towards them. When the people of Brahmanabad, for instance
submitted to the conqueror, they were allowed to rebuild their temples which were
destroyed during the time of war.
 History-6 63
The Brahmins were permitted to perform their rites and ceremonies in the
manner prescribed by their religion. Hajjaj bin Yusaf sent a farman to Muhammad
bin Qasim instructing him to grant the population of Sind rights to life and property
in lieu of their submission and willingness to pay taxes to the Muslim administration.
They were also given the right to perform their religious rites as they pleased.
The Arab believed on the policy of toleration, they have given complete
religious freedom. They also given the permission to repair the ruined temples and
construct the new ones. Due to the High moral and character the Muslims attracted
the local population. In a result majority of the population of Sind accepted Islam.
Numerous Ulema, scholars, preachers, traders from Arabia settled in Sind.
Ulema and Sufis had given great importance to the propagation of Islam and majority
of the Sindis embraced Islam.
iv-Intellectual Effects:
The Arab acquired from the Hindus some new knowledge in Indian religion,
philosophy, astronomy, medicine and folklore and carried it to their own country as
well as to Europe.

Many of the Sanskrit works on astronomy and mathematics were translated

into Arabic under the patronage of the Abbassid Khalifahs. During the reign of
Harun-ar-Rashid Hindu scholars were invited to Baghdad to translate into Arabic
Sanskrit works on medicine, philosophy, astronomy and other subjects. Similarly
many Arab savants studied Sanskrit to satisfy their thirst for knowledge of Indian
culture.
The digit system was first invented in the sub-continent. Arabs adopted that
procedure. Even today the Arabic digits form one to nine are same like written in
Hindi and these are called Arabic Numerals. Famous Arab mathematician Khuarzami
translated Hindi mathematics into Arabi.

Once the Khalifah Harun-ar-Rashid fell ill. For his treatment a physician was
called from the sub-continent. Khalifah recovered with his vedic treatment. After that
vedic physician was appointed in the hospital of Baghdad. Hindi herbs were imported
and several books on medicine were translated into Arabic.
Ishwari Prasad opines, "It must be admitted that Muslims soon secularized the
learning they borrowed from India and presented it to the European world in a new
garb which was perhaps more acceptable to the European mind". Amir Khusrau
mentioned that the Arab astronomer Abu Mashar came to Benares, the seat of Hindu
learning, and studied astronomy there for ten years.
Thus we find that the exchange of ideas and the cultural contact between the
Arabs and the Hindus were possible as a result of the Arab conquest. To the natives,
particularly to the lower class, the Muslim rule symbolized prosperity and
emancipation. This is why the Jats and the Meds accorded welcome to the Arabs by
blowing conch-shell. So from the cultural point of view, the invasion of Sind cannot
be regarded as an isolated military event.
 64 History -6
The Arabs left a legacy behind in the shape of buildings or administrative or
cultural institutions that might have exerted influence on India. The Sindi language
shows Arab influence even today. It is wrong to say that the Arab conquest of Sind
had absolutely no effect on India. (K.Ali)

K.Ali rebutted, "From the political, religious, social, cultural and literary point
of view, the invasion of Sind cannot be regarded as an isolated military event. Hence
the statement, that the Arab conquest of Sind was a triumph without results, cannot be
accepted in toto".

Sultan Mehmood Ghazanvi

One of the most controversial personalities in the history of South Asia,
Mahmud Ghaznavi is known as one of the greatest conquerors the world has ever
seen. He was one of the very few leaders who were never defeated in a battlefield.
Born in 979, Mahmud became the Sultan of Ghazni in 998. He inherited the small
state of Ghazni from his father Subuktigin, and turned it into an empire that lasted for
about a century. He was a brave man and use to take part in all the battles his forces
fought. Though he was interested in extending his empire toward Central Asia, the
maneuverings of the Hindu rulers of Punjab forced him to invade South Asia. He
came to South Asia seventeen times and went back to Ghazni every time with a great
victory. He fought against the strong forces of Jaipal, Annadpal, Tarnochalpal,
Kramta and the joint forces of Hindu Rajas and Maharajas but all of them were
forced to flee away from the battlefield due to Mahmud’s war strategy as a general.
After the conquest of Multan and Lahore, Mahmud made Punjab a part of his empire
in 1021.

Unlike other great conquerors like Alexander and Chengez Khan, Mahmud
did not leave the areas conquered to the mercy of his soldiers. After becoming the
first Muslim ruler to conquer Northern Punjab, he consolidated his rule in the area
and established his provincial headquarters at Lahore. He established law and order in
the areas that he ruled, giving special attention to the people he ruled. The department
of police and post were efficient. His judicial system was very good as everybody
was equal before the law and justice was the order of the day.

Development in education and art during the regime of sultan mahmood

ghazanvi
Mahmud was also a great patron of learning. His court was full of scholars
including giants like Firdosi the poet, Behqi the historian and Al-Biruni the versatile
scholar. It is said that he used to spend four hundred thousand golden Dinars on
scholars. He invited the scholars from all over the world and was thus known as an
abductor of scholars. Under Mahmud, Ghazni became one of the most important and
beautiful cities of the Islamic world. It was the city of mosques, madrasas and
 History-6 65
libraries. He also established a Museum in Ghazni. During his rule, Lahore also
became a great center of learning and culture. Lahore was called ‘Small Ghazni’.
Saad Salman, a poet of those times, has written about the academic and cultural life
of Lahore.
Mahmud was also a deeply religious man. He himself wrote a book on Fiqh. He had
respect for other religions. A large number of Hindus lived in Ghazni, and they
enjoyed religious freedom. One of his commanders named Tilak was a Hindu. A
number of soldiers in his army were also Hindus. Mahmud attacked the Hindu
Temples in India because of political and not religious reasons.
Mahmud Ghaznavi died on April 30 1030.

Literary Stars of Mehmud Ghaznavi

Mehmud Ghaznavi, the founder of Ghaznavid rule in India nurtured a bunch
of writers, poets, and chroniclers around him which showed his keen interest into
knowledge and wisdom. They were not only the “Qasida go” (praising the king), but
they also excelled in Hadith, Islamic Jurisprudence, history, mathematics, geography,
physics, and chemistry.
The boundaries of the fame of his scholars expanded globally in different spheres.
Some of his bright luminary personalities are as under:

Abu Rehan Mohammad Bin Ahmad Al-Bairuni (973-1048 AD)

Al-Bairuni is the most dazzling celebrity who was born in Bairun, a village
adjacent to Khawarism, Turkistan and joined the court of the ruler of Jirjan and
Tibristan in 996 AD. From there, he wrote “Aasar-ul-Baqiah”, his famous book and
shifted to Khawarism and associated with the court of Mehmud Ghaznavi. He
contributed a lot to the diverse walks of life including Mathematics, Geography,
history, Chemistry, minerals, and Physics etc. He wrote 114 books in Persian, Arabic,
Sanskrit, Turkish, and Ibrani languages. “Indica”, his globally famous book written in
Sanskrit (which has been translated into German, English and other languages of the
world and Anjuman-e-Taraqqi-e-Urdu has also translated it in two volumes) throws
light on the ways of living of the Hindus in India. He writes about the rites, and
religious supremacy of the Brahmins in India and the concept of “Malichs”, a dogma
religiously accepted and preached which divides the human beings into broad
categories of Brahmins, Khashtris, Wesh and Shooders. Shooders are the most
negated strata of the Hindu society which have been deprived of almost all human
rights. They cannot touch or hear the Veids (the holy verses) otherwise they are
brutally punished. Al-Bairuni says in Indica:
“One of the biggest disparities between us (the Muslims) and Hindus is that
we take all the citizens of society equal and only piety deserves to be superior. This
disparity is the biggest hurdle between Hindus and Islam.” He says that the Brahmins
were never subject to life sentence whatsoever they had done and that they enjoyed
enormous concessions in the religion. On the contrary, the lowest strata were doomed
to long for even petty things in the society.
 66 History -6
Ansari
Ansari was one of the most high up poets of Mehmud Ghaznavi who wrote
more than 30,000 verses (though his book published in Tehran shows only 3,000
verses). Due to his sublime status in poetry, he was titled as “Malik-ul-Shuara”, the
chief of poets.
Farrukhi
Abul Hasan Ali Farrukhi’s father was the slave of Amir Khalf Bin Ahmad, the
ruler of Sistan. Farrukhi outshined in poetry and accessed the court of Mahmud who
hailed him because of his book “Tarjuman-ul-Balagha”.
Asjadi
Abdul Aziz Bin Mansoor was the disciple of Ansari and had a vital place
among the poets of Mehmud. On the conquest of Somanath temple, he wrote a poem
praising Mehmud.
Asadi
Hakim Abu Nasr Ahmad Bin Mansoor Asadi was the resident of Toos and the
teacher of Firdousi. Being popular because of his Qasidas, Asad died in 1033 AD in
the reign of Mas’ud.
Ghazairi
Abu Zaid Mohammad Bin Ali Ghazairi, a tenant of Ray (Iran) used to sent a
qasida every year to Sultan Mehmud Ghaznavi and get 1000 dinars as reward.
Amir Qaini
Hasheem Bin Ibrahim Qaini was the contemporary of Mehmud and Mas’ud
both and was appreciated by them for his poetry in Persian and Arabic.
Firdausi
Universally known for his Shahnama, Firdausi was born in 622 or 623 Hijra
and came to Mehmud who first minister Khawaja Abul Abbas Fazl bin Ahmad
Asfarini had very good terms with him. Firdausi wrote “Mathnavi” throwing light on
the history of Iran.
Celebrities in the age of Ghaznavids
Ghaznavids fostered a host of personalities from diverse domains who won
everlasting fame for themselves and the Ghaznavids. Among such icons, people from
art and literature, history, and mysticism are remarkable. The sun of Islam rose in the
area due to the religious scholars and saints who came to India from Ghazna and
other regions of the world.
It would not be wrong to say that the spread of Islam in this region was mainly due to
the dedicated efforts of these celebrities who worked for Islam by enlightening the
natives. The Muslim kings and crowns could hardly have spared any time to work for
the cause of religion as they all the time engaged themselves either in warfare or in
luxuries. The marvelous persona in or around Ghaznavid age, consisted of:
Hazrat Ismail Lahori
Hazrat Ismail Lahori is said to be the very first Muslim preacher, Muhaddith
(expert in Hadith), and Mufassir (expert in the elucidation of Quran) in Lahore. His
piety and magnetic traits made thousands of local people from Hinduism and other
 History-6 67
religions embrace Islam. He came to Lahore in 1005AD when Lahore had not been
included into the Muslim empire of Ghazna. He died in 448 Hijra. The grave of the
first Muslim preacher and saint lies adjacent to a church on the Hall Road of Lahore.
Hazrat Fakhr-ud-Din Hussain Zanjani
Hazrat Hussain Zanjani was born in Zanjani in 347 Hijra came to Lahore in
387 Hijra to preach Islam. He was the disciple of Hazrat Sheikh Abul Fazl Khatli. He
is said to be the first Muslim preacher in Punjab. When Sayed Ali Hajveri was sent to
Lahore by his spiritual guide (who was the same Hazrat Sheikh Abul Fazl Khatli) to
say azaan in the land of Hindus, Sayed Ali Hajveri (known as Data Ganj Bakhsh)
rose a question that Lahore was already under Hazrat Fakhr-ud-Din Hussain Zanjani.
But Sheikh Abul Fazl Khatli said that it was a divine verdict and only Allah knew his
secrets better. When Ali Hajveri reached Lahore in 431 Hijra, the funeral of Hazrat
Hussain Zanjani was being taken to the Zanjani Bagh, Chah Meeran.
Sayed Ali Hajveri (Data Ganj Bakhsh)
Data Ganj Bakhsh came to Lahore (according to some historians in the age of
Sultan Mas’ud, the son of Sultan Mehmud Ghaznavi) as a teacher, preacher and
reformer. Thousands of Hindus and Sikhs embraced Islam at his hands. Born at
Ghazna around 990 AD (as Hasani Sayed, the pedigree of Hazrat Ali RA), Data Ganj
Bakhsh earned an everlasting name in the world of Islam and mysticism. His greatest
contribution to Islam and mysticism is “Kashf-ul-Mahjub”, the unfolding of the
secrets which was primarily written in Persian but has been translated in many
languages now. Hazrat moin-ud-Din Chishti paid his tribute to Data Ganj Bakhsh in
these words which have become his title couplet on his shrine:
‫گنج بخش فیِض عالم مظہِر نوِر خدا‬
‫ کامالں ر ا ر ہن م ا‬،‫ناقصاں ر ا پیِر کامل‬

Ganj Bakhsh has become the manifestation of the light of Allah for all the
people. He is a perfect guide unto the imperfect people and a guide unto the perfect
ones.
He died in 1077AD in Lahore where his shrine is visited by thousands of his devotees
and followers.
Hazrat Salar Mas’ud Ghazi
Hazrat Salar Mas’ud Ghazi is said to be the Sultan-ul-shuhada (the chief of
the martyred). His shrine is in Bhraych in united province of Agra and Oudh. He was
martyred in 1033 fighting against Hindus of Bhraych. Sultan Mohammad Tughlaq
made his grand mausoleum. “Chadion wala mela” (festival of the sticks) is celebrated
on his shrine even today.
Sultan Sakhi Sarwar
His real name was Sayed Ahmad also known as Lakh Data. Born in Kursi Kot
(Multan) he preached Islam and converted the Hindus to Islam and those Hindus who
did not embrace Islam, was so impressed by his character that they named themselves
as Sultani Hindus. Before the partition of Punjab, these Sultani Hindus adopted the
 68 History -6
traits of the Muslims though they did not recite the Kalima of Islam. Sakhi Sarwar
was martyred in 1180 AD. “Qadmon ka mela” (the festival of Steps) is held at
Lohari, Shah Alami, and Delhi Darwaza Lahore for three days respectively.
Sah Yousaf Gardezi
His family migrated to Gardez from Baghdad and Gardez is called his birth
place. He came to Multan in the age of Behram Shah and preached Islam.He died in
1152 AD and his shrine is visited by his followers in Multan where his offspring is
present even today.
Abul Farj Doni
Abul Farj Doni was the teacher of Persian poetry in the age of Ibrahim
Ghaznavi and Mas’ud bin Ibrahim. His collection of poetry published in Iran throws
light on the culture and life style of Ghaznavids in Lahore. His death is reported to be
in 489 Hijra.
Mas’ud Sa’d Salman
One of the most prominent poets of Persian, Mas’ud Sa’d Salman enjoyed an
esteemed status in the age of Sultan Ibrahim. Historians say that he was born in any
year between 1046 and 1048 AD and was among the elites of Saif-ud-Daula
Mehmud, the son of Ibrahim. But he came under the cloud when Saif-ud-Daula had
hard times of his life. Salman was imprisoned for ten years but Abu Nasr (the ruler of
Lahore appointed by Sultan Mas’ud, the son of Ibrahim) who was a great admirer of
Mas’ud Sa’d Salman, released him. When Abu Nasr was dethroned and imprisoned,
Mas’us Sa’d also had to pay the price in the form of his freedom. He was jailed where
he wrote his immortal poetry published twice in Iran. After three years he was
released from the jail. He died in Lahore but his date of death and grave are unknown
to date.

Ghurids dynasty
The Ghurids were a native Iranian Sunni Muslim dynasty
of Persianate[5] culture, which established rule over parts of modern day Afghanistan,
Iran and Pakistan from 1148 to 1215.[6]The dynasty succeeded the Ghaznavid Empire.
[7]
Their empire was centered inGhor Province, in the heartland of what is
now Afghanistan. It encompassedKhorasan in the West and reached in the East to
northern India, as far as Delhi. Their first capital was Fīrūzkūh in Ghor, which was
later replaced by Herat[2] whileGhazni[3] and Lahore were used as additional capitals,
especially during the winter seasons.
The Ghurids were succeeded in Persia by the Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty and in
northern India by the Mamluk dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate.
Muhammad Shahab-ud-Din Ghori

Moiz-ud-Din Mohammad bin Sam (Shahab-ud-Din Ghauri) is rightly called

the true founder of the Muslim empire in India as it was he who compressed the
 History-6 69
political muscle of the Rajputs and laid the foundations of a strong Muslim India.
Ghaur is the name of a Turk tribe in the White Mountain Range in the north and east
of Ghazna.
In the 12th century AD when the Ghaznavids were on the verge of collapse,
Ghauris headed towards Ghazna. The Ghauri tribe was led by Ghiyath-ud-Din who
was made the king of Ghaur in 1160 AD. Shahab-ud-Din, his fourth brother invaded
the west of India in the get-go and then attacked the north of India. Following it, he
turned his face to Ghazna in 1173 AD and reconquered it. He conquered Multan in
1175 AD while Sindh and Lahore came under his rule in 1182 AD and 1184 AD
respectively. Moiz-ud-Din Mohammad Ghauri could not succeed as Muhmud
Ghanavi did some 200 years ago.
Mohammad Ghauri marched towards India in 1178 AD but was defeated in
Anhalwara. Khusrau Malik, the last Ghaznavid king mutinied in Lahore and
Mohammad faced him in the next year snatching Peshawar from him followed by a
fort built at Sialkot. Pushed by Ram Chakar, the ruler of Jammu, he launched another
expedition against Khusrau Malik whose authority was already on the wane.
Mohammad captured Bathenda and Sirhind and appointed Zia-ud-Din the governor
of Bathenda who made the history in the face of Prithvi Raj later.
First Battle of Tarain (1191)
On hearing the news of Mohammad Ghauri’s arrival, Raja Prithvi Raj of
Ajmer and Delhi planned to meet him. Sultan stepped ahead to reach Punjab crossing
the Khyber Pass and faced Prithvi Raj in the battle field of Tarain in 1191. Severely
wounded Mohammad had to retreat from the battle field and Prithvi came up as the
man of the day. He captured the fort of Sirhind.
Second Battle of Tarain (1192) and the aftermaths
To brush off the humiliation of the first battle of Tarain, Mohammad left for
India against 150 Hindu rajas who solicited an alliance against him. A huge Hindu
army consisting of 3 lac pedestrians, 3 lac horse riders, and 3000 elephants while
Sultan’s army was constituted by 120,000 armed soldiers met in the battlefield of
Tarain again. Mohammad invited Prithvi to embrace Islam but he refused. Ghauri
attacked his army and Prithvi had to lose this time when he left the elephant and rode
a horse. He was arrested, blinded and later killed. The victory of Sultan led to his
upper hand on the areas of Ajmer, Hansi, Sarsoti, and other districts. The second
battle of Tarain takes a remarkable place in history as it founded the Sultanate of
Delhi in India. Qutab-ud-Din Aibak was appointed the viceroy of Delhi when Shahab
went back to Ghazna. Aibak occupied the areas of Koel (Ali Garh) and Meerath and
looted Ajmer which was given to the son of Prithvi Raj.
Mohammad Ghauri plundered the empire of Jai Chand Rathore (Prithvi Raj
had forcibly wedded his daughter Sanjogta) in 1196 AD and massacred the men
therein sparing ladies and children. Jai Chand, wounded in his eye, could not survive.
After it, Ghauri looted Benaras (which was considered the center of Hindus) and
carried the booty on 14,000 camels to Ghazna. Beyana and Gwalior also came under
Ghauri. Provoked by the ruler of Anhalwara, the Raja of Ajmer stood against Ghauri.
 70 History -6
Ghauri sent two expeditions to crush the rebellion of Raja Bhem, the ruler of
Anhalwara. First expedition in 1195 AD met with failure whereas the second one in
1197 AD resulted in the humiliating defeat of Raja Bhem. Ghauri, then, marched
towards the Chandel rulers of the central India and captured the forts of Kalinjar.
Behar and Bengal (1197, 1199 AD)
Bengal and Behar were being occupied under Ikhtiyar-ud-Din Mohammad bin
Bakhtiyar Khilji, a Turk slave. He captured Behar in 1197 AD and in 1199 AD he
forced Rai Lakhshmania, the raja of Bengal to flee, looted the treasure and captured
the city. When the generals of Ghauri were making history with their conquests in
India, he himself had to face an embarrassing defeat at Andkhoi at the hands of Turks
in 1205 AD. A rumor of his death exploded and the Khokhars on the boundary rioted
and marched ahead defeating the ruler of Multan. They blocked the passage to
Ghazni from Lahore. Finding Qutab-ud-Din Aibak unable to handle the deteriorated
situation, Sultan Mohammad Ghauri himself reached India and crushed the Khokhar
forces between River Jehlum and Chenab. Khokhars were massacred and enslaved on
a large scale
Death of Mohammad Ghauri
Sultan Mohammad Ghauri came to Lahore on February 25, 1206 and left for
Ghazni but was killed on March 15, 1206 on the bank of the River Indus. His killer is
a myth even today. Some historians say that he was avenged by the Khokhars and
according to some, Hindus murdered him. His dead body was carried to Ghazna
where he was buried. He had no issue but he was proud of tens of his loyal
companions who fought for him. He was succeeded by two of his peers but his real
legacy were the four Turk slaves who jazzed his rule up with their devotion and
loyalty. They included Taj-ud-Din Yaldoz, the ruler of Ghazni, Nasir-ud-Din
Qabacha, the governor of Multan, Ikhtiyar-ud-Din, the ruler of Lakhnowti and Qutab-
ud-Din Aibak, the ruler of Delhi. The slaves especially Qutab-ud-Din Aibak earned
historical status by elevating himself from the slave to the king and founded the
Slaves’ Dynasty in the days to come.
Invasion of india
After the death of Mahmud of Ghazni, for nearly hundred and fifty years there
was no Turkish invasion in India. Shahab-ud-din Ghori`s first invasions were on the
Muslim states of Multan and the fortress of Uch.
In 1179, he attacked Gujrat but was defeated by its raja. His next attack was
on Lahore in 1181, which was a successful one and this ultimately ended the
Ghaznavids Empire, bringing the remaining territory under Ghori`s control.
In 1191 he fought against Prithviraj Chauhan, who was the ruler of Delhi,
Ajmer and its allies, and was one of the most powerful rajas of India; Ghori was
defeated in this battle which is called the first battle of Tarain 1191.
However, he was not dishearten and prepared his army for the next attack —
this time with much strategy and power. His efforts made him defeat Prithviraj
Chauhan in the second battle of Tarain, 1192. The victory paved the way for Ghori to
push Muslim rule further in India.
 History-6 71

After Prithviraj`s death, there was no strong and brave ruler who could fight
and hold back Turkish invasions with such great valour as that of Prithviraj`s.
Ghori treated his slaves very nicely and sometimes with as much affection as
a father would have for his son. One of his slaves was Qutb-ud-din Aibak. With the
time, he rose through the ranks to become the most trusted general of Ghori. His
greatest military successes occurred while working directly under Ghori`s leadership.
He was left with independent charge of Indian campaigns and thus became the first
Muslim emperor of Northern India. He also established Turkish rule in India and
made Delhi and Lahore his capital cities.
In 1206, a rebellion rose in Punjab so Ghori returned and crushed the rebels
and on his way back to Ghazni he was assassinated by someone which is still
arguable as some say it was a Hindu Ghakars while others say it was a Hindu
Khokers — both different tribes.
Shahabuddin Ghori did not have any offspring who could inherit his empire.
But he treated his Turkic slaves as his children, he provided them with education and
trained both as soldiers as well as administrators. Many of his loyal slaves got
positions in government as well as in army.
In India Qutb-ud-din Aibak became his successor and ruled over Delhi.
Another slave, Nasir-ud-din Qabacha became the ruler of Sindh and Multan. In fact,
Qutb-ud-din Aibak laid down the foundation of slave dynasty in India. Nasir-ud-din
Qabacha was finally defeated by Shams-ud-din Iltutmish and Sindh and Multan
became part of the Delhi kingdom.

Mahmud of Ghazni opened the gate for the Turkish conquests in India but the
task of consolidation was done by Shahab-ud-din Ghori and his successors led to the
establishment of Muslim settlements in the subcontinent for many hundred years.
The Invasion of Mahmud of Ghazni. By the end of the ninth century A.D., the
Abbasid Caliphate declined. The Turkish governors established independent
kingdoms and the Caliph became only a ritual authority. One among them was
Alptigin whose capital was Ghazni. His successor and son-in-law Sabuktigin wanted
to conquer India from the north-west. He succeeded in capturing Peshawar from
Jayapala. But his raids did not produce a lasting effect. He was succeeded by his son,
Mahmud.
Conquest of Ghori
Impacts of Ghori,s invasion
indianetzone
Slave Dynasty
The Indian slave dynasty lasted from 1206 to 1290. The slave dynasty was the
first Muslim dynasty to rule India. It is said that Muhammad Ghori did not have a
natural heir to the throne and he the habit of treating his slaves like his own children.
 72 History -6
Thus after the death of Ghori, one of the most able slaves by the name of Qutub-ud-
din Aibak descended the throne. The history of the slave dynasty begins with the rule
of Qutub-ud-din Aibak. He was succeeded by two more able rulers after which the
slave dynasty vanished in no time due to lack of able rulers.

Qutub-ud-din Aibak
Mohammad of Ghaur died in 1206 AD leaving no heir but he was succeeded
by a horde of capable generals who carried the heavy responsibilities of the empire
left by him. These generals included Taj-ud-Din Yalduz, Mohammad bin Bakhtiyar
Khilji, Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha, and Qutb-ud-Din Aibak who took the hold of the
empires of Ghazni, Bengal, Multan, and Delhi respectively.
Qutb-ud-Din Aibak laid the foundation of the Slave Dynasty. The word slave
for the whole dynasty has wrongly been used by the chroniclers as only Aibak was
the slave bought by Mufti Fakhr-ud-Din Koofi, the Qazi (judge) of Neshapur. He was
a native of Turkistan who was brought up along with the two sons of the Qazi. He
was taught Arabic, Persian, and science with the handiness of horse-riding and
warfare. After the death of Qazi, Aibak was again sold and brought to Ghazna by a
trader from where Mohammad of Ghaur bought him as a slave. Since Islam removes
the difference between the master and the slave, and the slaves could have flourished
them through their knowledge and skills, the Muslim rulers supported and
encouraged them to reach the zeniths. The Dynasty was founded by Qutb-ud-Din
Aibak who executed his duties as the Ghauri administrator in the reign of Ghauri
from 1192-1206 AD.
Qutb-ud-Din Aibak (1206-1210 AD)
After the death of his master, Qutb-ud-Din Aibak came to power and
celebrated his crown in Lahore with the title of Sultan. Hearing this news, Taj-ud-Din
Yalduz, the ruler of Ghazna revolted against him and marched towards Punjab which
resulted in the capture of Lahore by Yaldus. Sultan Aibak met Yalduz and forced him
to retreat and made Lahore his capital after regaining it. Other generals of
Mohammad of Gaur also claimed the throne. Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha stood against
Aibak whereas Ali Mardan raised a voice against him in Bengal. Instead of opening
war on all the fronts, Aibak adopted a reconciliatory policy to pacify the insurgents.
He married the daughter of Yalduz and wedded his own daughter to Shams-ud-Din
Altumish and second daughter to Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha. These political “kinships”
brought about the message of peace for him from these adversaries.
The reign of Qutb-ud-Din Aibak
Aibak ruled only for four years after the death of his master Shahab-ud-Din
Ghauri. But his administrative qualities can be seen in the life of Ghauri who
showered his favors on him due to his valor and loyalty. He was declared as prince
crown of the empire by the Sultan in 1205 AD when the later was killed on the bank
of River Indus. Quwwat-ul-Islam Masjid and Qutab Minar in Delhi (built in the
commemoration of Khawaja Bakhtiyar Kaki, a famous Sufi saint of his time and
 History-6 73
which was completed by his successor), and Adhay Din ka Jhonpra Mosque at Ajmer
are the remarkable monuments of Qutb-ud-Din Aibak. Being a man of good taste, he
patronized the writers like Fakhruddin, the author of Tarikh-e-Mubarak Shahi and
Hasan Nizami, the writer of Taj-ul-Muasir. It is surprising that he had to meet no
military power in his reign partly because his tenure was too short and partly due to
his reconciliatory policy towards his opponents especially Taj-ud-Din Yalduz who
was the strongest rival. Qutb-ud-Din Aibak died in 1210 AD when, playing polo, he
fell down from the horse and died of the subsequent wounds. His tomb lies in
Anarkali Bazar of Lahore.

Iltumish
Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish (or Atamish, the son of Neem Khan from Ilbri clan of
Turkistan) came as the third king of the Ilbri Turks who succeeded after the death of
Qutab-ud-Din Aibak. Being the son-in-law and trust worthy general of Aibak, he was
selected as the sultan of India though the elites of the court put the crown on the head
of Aram Shah, the son of Qutab-ud-Din Aibak. Aram Shah could not qualify as the
king because the governors in all of the major areas did not support him.
Ghazni was under Taj-ud-Din Yaldoz, Qabacha was ruling Lahore and Sindh,
Khilji governed Behar and Bengal, and Iltutmish was the governor of Badayun. The
Amirs of Delhi (Amir Dawood and Amir Ali) asked Iltutmish to depose Aram Shah
who was not in a position to combat the combined forces of these generals. In
January 1211, Iltutmish defeated Aram Shah and rose to power. Muslim rule in India
owes a lot to Iltutmish who took the reins of the empire in his hands; otherwise it was
almost impossible for a weak king like Aram Shah to secure and carry the vast
empire. Chroniclers remember him as a capable general and a prudent politician on
one hand and a pious man on the other.
Early life
Being ultra-intelligent and the most handsome of his brothers, Iltutmish
excited the jealousy of his brothers who sold him in Bukhara. The trader, who bought
him, sold him to Jamal-ud-Din Amir who nurtured and educated him. He was again
sold. This time his destiny was opening the doors of affluence on him and the buyer
this time was Qutab-ud-Aibak who bought him for his master Shahab-ud-Din Ghauri.
Aibak made out the promising features of Iltutmish and wedded his daughter to him.
He was promoted to army chief and then elevated to the office for Nazim of Barn,
Badayun, and Gwalior. As soon as he sat on the throne, the elites of Qutab-ud-Aibak
voiced out their rivalry whereas the Hindu rulers of Central India and Rajputana were
already in ambush to liberate them from the Muslim empire.
Rivalry and Expeditions
Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha, Taj-ud-Din Yalduz, and Ali Mardan were his sturdy
claimants who took it as a challenge and turned against him. Iltutmish had to topple
the Amirs of Delhi who were pro-Aram Shah during 1211-1214 AD. Taj-ud-Din
Yalduz, the governor of Ghazni came up with the fiercest resistance. In 1214 AD
Alaa-ud-Din, the ruler of Khawarism assaulted Ghazna. Finding him unable to meet
 74 History -6
him, Taj-ud-Din Yalduz fled to Lahore and occupied it. Iltutmish took it as a serious
threat on the northern frontiers and defeated him at Tarain (Thanesar) in 1216 AD.
Yalduz was arrested and died in the next year in the prison.
Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha, the governor of Multan mutinied against Iltutmish but
surrendered in 1217 AD and was appointed the governor of Sindh, Multan and
western Punjab. Ali Mardan of Bengal was deposed by the Khilji elites because of his
bad governance and atrocities on the subjects. They chose Ghiyath-ud-Din as their
governor and Iltutmish had to curb him in 1225 AD. He disintegrated Behar from
Bengal and appointed Aziz-ud-Din as its governor and Oudh was put under Nasir-ud-
Din Mehmud, his son. As soon as he returned, Ghyath-ud-Din re- attacked Behar
which was taken by Nasir-ud-Din Mehmud. After the death of Nasir-ud-Din Mehmud
(the son of Ghiyath-ud-Din) captured Bengal but Iltutmish defeated and killed him.
In 1228, Iltutmish turned his face towards Multan where Qabacha was poking him
with malpractices though militarily he was too weak to meet Iltutmish. Repulsed by
the onslaught of Iltutmish, Qabacha fled from Uch to the Bhhakkar Fort. Iltutmish
captured Uch after the confiscation of three months. Nasir-ud-Din Qabacha drowned
himself in an effort to cross the Indus River. Following it, Iltutmish left for Gwalior
to pin down it. Ranthambor, Malwa, Mando, and Bhelsa came under his influence.
The Caliph of Baghdad rewarded him Khil’at (the royal dress, a sign of supremacy).
Mongols’ assault in 1221 AD is the most outstanding event of the age of
Iltutmish. Mongols were a feral nation headed by Chengez Khan (Temojin), who
dominated over the areas of China and rushed to the bank of the River Indus. They
plundered the areas of Bukhara, Samarkand, and Balkh in East Asia and then
marched towards Jalal-ud-Din Shah, the ruler of Khawarism who fled to India riding
on the back of a horse which swam into the River Indus taking him across the river.
He sought an asylum in the empire of Iltutmish but the later refused. Chengez Khan
went back to Central Asia. After his departure, Jalal-ud-Din molested Nasir-ud-Din
Qabacha and confined him to Multan. Iltutmish grabbed the occasion and occupied
Sindh.
Administration
Iltutmish occupies the most prominent place among the Turk Ilbari sultans. In
his 20 years’ rule, he not only pacified the military upraises against him but also
expanded his empire from Sindh, Ranthambor, and Malwa to Nirbada. “The Forty”
were the forty slaves of Iltutmish who were elevated from slavery to the high-profile
ranks in his court. One of these Negro slaves, Jalal-ud-Din was bestowed with
extraordinary favors of the Sultan and was promoted to the office of Amir-ul-Umara
(chief of the chiefs). Their influential role excited the envy of the provincial
governors plotted against them in the days to come. He is accredited for his coinage
in silver and copper called Taanka and Jital respectively. He also introduced Iqtadari
system which was the division of the empire into small parts to grant salaries of the
officials.
Architecture
 History-6 75
Qutab minar was finished in the age of Iltutmish. Haud-e-Shamsi, Jamea
Masjid Qutabi, and Mehrabi Jali are the notable constructions in his age.
Death
Sultan Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish died in 1236 AD after a rule of 26 years. His
devoutness and piety have been quoted by the chroniclers who call him a saint. When
Khawaja Qutab-ud-Din Bakhiyar Kaki, a famous Sufi of his day died, no one was
eligible to lead his Namaz-e-Janaza (the funeral prayer) because according to the will
of Bakhtiyar Kaki, it should be led only one who had never missed the four “Sunnah
of the Asr Prayer” and had never committed Zina (rape) in his life. After waiting
sometimes, Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish stepped ahead and led the funeral prayer of the
saint. He was succeeded by his sons and the universally famous daughter Razia
Sultan in the later years.
.
Razia Sultana
Daughter of Iltutmush, Razia Sultana was the first female Muslim ruler of
South Asia. She was a talented, wise, just and generous woman. She was a great
administrator and was well versed in governmental affairs. She was not only a good
leader in the battlefield but herself was also an excellent fighter. As the most capable
son of Iltutmush died during his own life, and the rest were incompetent to govern,
Iltutmush nominated his daughter, Razia Sultana, as his successor on the throne of
Delhi. Whenever Iltutmush had to leave his capital, he used to leave Razia Sultana in
charge of the affairs in Delhi. But when Iltutmush died, Rukn-ud-din Firuz, one of his
sons, occupied the throne and ruled for about seven months. Razia Sultana, with the
support of the people of Delhi, secured the throne after defeating her brother in 1236.
Razia Sultana established complete law and order in her country. To rule the country,
she abandoned her femininity and adopted a masculine getup. She used to dress as a
man when appearing in public, be it in court or on the battlefield. She made an
Ethiopian slave named Jalal-ud-din Yaqut her personal attendant and started trusting
him the most. This challenged the monopoly of power claimed by the Turkish nobles.
The Turkish nobles resented having a woman as their ruler, especially when
she started challenging their power. They began conspiring against her. In 1239, the
Turkish governor of Lahore rebelled against Razia Sultana. However, when she
marched against him, he first fled and then apologized. Then the governor of
Bhatinda revolted. When Razia Sultana was trying to suppress the rebellion in
Bhatinda, her own Turkish officers deposed her from the throne of Delhi and made
her brother Bahram the Sultan. Razia Sultana married the governor of Bhatinda,
Malik Altunia, and with his help tried to reoccupy the throne. She was defeated by
the Turkish nobles and was compelled to flee away. A peasant who had offered her
food and shelter while fleeing from an encounter killed her in her sleep. She died in
1240.

Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud (1246 to 1266 A.D):

 76 History -6

A man of pious disposition, Nasiruddin Mahmud (rule 1246-66) was a

grandson of Iltutmish. According to some experts, he was the youngest son of
Iltutmish. He succeeded Alauddin Masud Shah to the throne of Slave Dynasty at the
age of sixteen.

Nasiruddin Mahmud was ill-qualified to rule. A puppet in the hands of his

courtiers, he was married to the daughter of Ghiyasuddin Balban, one of the leading
Turkish nobles. In reciprocation to this Balban was appointed to the post of regent
(naib-i-mamlakat) and was conferred with the title of Ulugh Khan (premier Khan) by
the Sultan.
Except for a brief period (1253-55) when some nobles opposed to Balban
instigated Nasiruddin to exile him, Balban was the de facto ruler of the Delhi
Sultanate during the Sultan’s reign. Nasiruddin Mahmud died in 1266. Since he had
no male heirs, he designated Balban to be the Sultan. The fourteenth century
historian Isami as well as African traveller Ibn Batuta clearly mention that Nasiruddin
was murdered by Balban. However, Yayiha bin Ahmad Sarhindi does not accuse
Balban of regicide and according to him, Nasiruddin Mahmud died a natural death.

Ghiyasuddin Balban
The last effective emperor of the slave dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Balban. He
ruled from 1266 to 1286. During his reign, the administration was strengthened and
he paid much attention to governance in his empire. The army was trained effectively
to use weapons and the production of arms and other war weaponry was at its peak.
This is what helped them fight against attacks by the Mongols. He died in 1286 and
after him the slave dynasty collapsed.

Ghiyas-ud-din Balban was undoubtedly the greatest Sultan of the Slave

dynasty. He was not one of those overnight successes. He had risen to power the hard
way – by dint of work, will power and some astute politics. Who would have thought
that the young Ilbari Turk who had been captured by Mongols and sold in Ghazni
was destined to rule the throne of Delhi.
Through a twist of fate in 1232AD Altamash bought Balban, along with other
slaves. Once in Delhi, Balban started displaying the sagacity he has always been
credited with. His first step towards the limelight was when he managed to become
part of the Sultan’s elite Chahelgan (The Forty) slaves. Under the reign of Raziya
Sultan, Balban rose a step closer to the throne – he was appointed the Amir-I-Shikar
or the Lord of the Hunt. From there on Balban, as the cliché goes, never really looked
back. Slowly but steadily he climbed the rungs of power in both the court of
Delhi and the military establishment.
Balban Inherited A Throne
 History-6 77
In 1253 there was a temporary lull when he fell out of favor with the then
Naib (Prime Minister), and hence the Sultan. However Balban dealt with this in his
characteristic ruthless way by simply eliminating the Naib and taking over his seat.
By this time of course Balban had become one of those too-powerful people who can
neither be ignored nor clutched to the bosom by the Sultan. So in a way Balban’s
ascendancy to the throne had become inevitable, the only remaining question was
when. His moment finally came when the sainted Nasir-ud-din Mahmud died in
1266.
Balban inherited a throne that had been discredited by weak predecessors. The
nobility was only too eager to break away, particularly those on the fringe of the
Sultanate. Repeated raids from the Mongols (who had been camping along the Indus
for sometime, and hung in there till 1270) and highly effective guerrilla warfare from
the Rajputs put the Sultanate financially and militarily on the backfoot. It had become
completely vital that the Turkish power in India be consolidated.
Balban Proved Once Again With His All Valor
Balban, fortunately, was just the right man for the task. He put down
rebellions with such determined severity that the nobility and Rajputs were reined in
for good. He set fierce Afghan troops after the rebels in the Doab region so that the
entire area was flushed clean of opposition. In the troublesome area of Rohilakhand,
he let loose such a reign of terror (villages were burnt, the entire male population put
to death and so on) that the area was petrified into a long silence.

Encouraged by Balban’s old age and the distance that separated them,
Balban’s former colleague Tughril Khan declared independence in Bengal. This piece
of poor judgement cost him his life – his head was cut off and body thrown in a river.
Barani tells us that ‘on either side of the principal bazaar (of Lakhnauti, now
Lucknow), in a street more than two miles in length, a row of stakes was set up and
the followers of Tughril were speared upon them. None of the beholders had ever
seen a spectacle so terrible and many swooned with terror.’

A Successful Military Operator

No wonder that Balban had little or no trouble with rebels from here on. Next
he prepared to tackle the Mongols, which posed a slight problem. Balban was an
extremely shrewd military operator and the rule he lived by was not to trust anyone.
He never travelled so far from Delhi that he couldn’t turn back at the first hint of
trouble. But to fight the Mongols he had to meet them at the frontiers which meant
leaving Delhi.
However he was a firm believer in action and therefore loath timidly wait and
watch. So he adopted a two-fold policy to deal with the Mongols. First of all he set up
well-equipped fortresses, garrisoned by soldier-farmers along the route of the
invaders all the way up to the western frontiers. These forts were always to be in a
state of readiness for military action and were put in the charge of experienced and
 78 History -6
battle-scarred generals. In case of need, new forts could be set up with amazing speed
and efficiency. Finally he himself led raids against the Khokars and the Mongols
which, while not having any far-reaching effect, were at least immediately successful.
After various experiments with other generals, which failed, Balban put his own son
Muhammad in charge of the border areas which turned out to be more effective.

Created Secure Environ For The New Dynasties To Come

Despite these tactics, the Mongols led two great invasions into India, in 1279
and 1285AD. They were defeated and driven away, but the expense was great:
Muhammad was killed and the poet Amir Khusro was captured in battle. Balban
eventually came to terms with the fact that his authority was unquestioned upto
Lahore but beyond that the ungovernable hills were the territory of the freewheeling
Mongols.
Balban eventually never set up a dynasty, but he did make Delhi safe and
organized enough for the dynasties to come. A complete autocrat, Balban brought the
magnificence and majesty back to the throne of Delhi. He struck awe and terror in the
hearts of people by his heavy-handed military policies and discouraged familiarity by
the sheer grandeur of his court. As soon as he came to the throne he stopped
entertaining friends and drinking wine, lest anyone should feel he was still one of the
lads and could be counted upon for a favor or two.

Strict Rules of The Court Were Laid Dawn

It is said that his court was done up in such an imposingly splendid style that
no one dared to raise his eyes to the king. He believed in strict formality between the
king and the courtiers – thus keeping an aura of loftiness around the throne. Balban’s
ideas on kingship were along the same lines as the divine right to rule theory of the
west and he took on the title of Zil-i-Illahi, or the shadow of God on earth. The
practise of sijda or prostration and paibos or kissing the feet of the monarch were
always part of Turkish culture, but of course no one actually followed them seriously.
It must have been a rude shock to the finicky Turkish nobility in Delhi when they
realised that Balban intended to amend this and that they were expected to observe
both religiously.
The people and nobility of Delhi would have scoffed at all these airs had these
demands not been backed by solid military strength and administrative efficiency.
Balban improved the administration of Delhi out of all knowledge. All the hiccups in
its smooth functioning were removed with the same dogged persistence as the rebels
had been crushed. Having himself been the member of the Chahelgan (The Forty
Slaves), he knew that they were simply too powerful to allow a Sultan to reign in
peace. So he systematically dealt blow after blow to their power and ultimately
squashed them. Balban also rightly concluded that, for a king, knowledge is power,
so he established an extremely efficient system of espionage. Spies were put in all
 History-6 79
departments filtering down to every province and district. He left behind him a well-
oiled machinery for government that would serve well for years to come.
For all his affected severity, Balban must have been a devoted family man.
When he came to know of his son’s death, he was struck with such grief that he died
soon after. But thanks to his work, Delhi and the Sultanate survived.
Invasion of Mongols
The Mongol Empire launched several invasions into the Indian
subcontinent from 1221 to 1327. Some of those later raids were made by the
unruly Qaraunas of Mongol origin. The Mongols made Kashmir theirvassal state. The
Mongol Empire also occupied most of modern Pakistan and Punjab for decades.
However, the campaigns against the Delhi Sultanate proved unsuccessful, in spite of
constant Mongol incursions.
Background
After pursuing Jalal ad-Din into India from Samarkand and defeating him at
the battle of Indus in 1221,Genghis Khan sent two tumens (20,000 soldiers) under
commanders Dorbei the Fierce and Bala to continue the chase. The Mongol
commander Bala chased Jalal ad-Din throughout the Punjab region and attacked
outlying towns like Bhera and Multan and had even sacked the outskirts of Lahore.
Jalal ad-Din regrouped, forming a small army from survivors of the battle and sought
an alliance, or even an asylum, with the Turkic rulers of Delhi Sultanate, but was
turned down.
Jalal ad-Din fought against the local rulers in the Punjab, and usually defeated
them in the open but could not occupy their lands. At last he proposed an alliance
with the khokhar chieftain of the Salt Range and married his daughter. The Khokhar
Rai's son joined Jalal ad-Din's army along with his clansmen and received the title of
Kalich (sword) Khan. Jalal ad-Din's soldiers were under his officers Uzbek Pai and
Hassan Qarlugh.
Khokhar tribe of Punjab was in alliance with Mongols during their invasion of
India.
While fighting against the local governor of Sindh, Jalal ad-Din heard of an
uprising in the Kirman province of southern Iran and he immediately set out for that
place, passing through southern Baluchistan on the way. Jalal ad-Din was also joined
by forces from Ghorand Peshawar, including members of the Khilji, Turkoman,
and Ghori tribes. With his new allies he marched on Ghazni and defeated a Mongol
division under Turtai, which had been assigned the task of hunting him down. The
victorious allies quarreled over the division of the captured booty; subsequently the
Khilji, Turkoman, and Ghori tribesmen deserted Jalal ad-Din and returned
to Peshawar. By this time Ögedei Khan, third son of Genghis Khan, had
become Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. A Mongol general named Chormaqansent
by the Khan attacked and defeated him, thus ending the Khwārazm-Shāh dynasty
Administrative System of Ghiyas-ud-Din Balban
Destruction of "The Forty"
 80 History -6
Balban was responsible for the destruction of "The Forty". He knew full well
that "The Forty" would never allow him to exercise all the powers of Sultan. He had
not forgotten that they had reduced the Sultan to the position of a figure-head by
usurping all his powers. Balban promoted junior Turks to important positions and put
them on a position of equality with. "The Forty".
Whenever any member of "The Forty" made any mistake, he was severely
punished. When Malik Baqbaq, Governor of Badaun, caused his servant to be beaten
to death, Balban ordered Baqbaq to be publicly flogged. Haibat Khan was the
Governor of Avadh.
He was found guilty of killing a man while drunk with wine. Balban ordered
him to be flogged with 500 stripes and he was handed over to the widow of the
victim. Haibat Khan had to pay 20,000 Tankas to the widow and he never left his
house after that till his death.
Balban got Amin Khan, Governor of Avadh, hanged at the gate of the city of
Ayodhya. Sher Khan Sanqar was got poisoned as Balban was jealous of him. The
result was that Balban was able to destroy "The Forty". Those nobles, who escaped
death or dismissal, became submissive on account of terror.
Spy System
Balban organised a very efficient system of espionage. Secret reporters were
put in every department. Secret news-writers were stationed in every Province and in
every district. The news-writers were given good salaries and kept independent of the
Governors and the Commanders and they were required to send correct news
unmindful of the person involved.
They were severely punished if they failed in their duty. It is stated that the
news-writer of Balban did not report the conduct of malik Baqbaq and consequently
he was hanged over the city gate. It was with the help of this spy system that Balban
was able to strengthen his position.
Cancellation of Grants
Balban reorganized his army and made it an efficient instrument. In the time
of Iltutmish, some land had been granted on condition of military service. The
grantees continued to enjoy those lands although some of them were dead and others
had become old.
Their descendants had "taken possession of the grants as an inheritance from
their fathers and had caused their names to be recorded in records to the Ariz
(Muster-master)." There was a general tendency on their part to evade service in the
field. Balban resumed the old grants but allotted subsistence allowances j to the
grantees according to their age. There was lot of discontentment and ultimately
Balban cancelled the orders for the resumption of lands. The result was that the abuse
continued.
Army
Balban put Imad-ud-Mulk in charge of the army. He was appointed Diwan-i-
Ariz or Army Minister. He was a very competent officer. He was made independent
of the Minister of Finance. He looks keen interest in matters relating to recruitment
 History-6 81
salaries and equipments of the troops. The result was that strict discipline was
enforced in the army which became really efficient.
Strategies of Ghias-ud-Din Balban
Being ugly and unsightly from his appearance, Ghias-ud-Din Balban proved
to be one of the most stringent and inflexible ruler in the history of Indo-Pakistan
whose tenure introduced the policy of blood and iron to crush the upheavals of the
adversaries.
After ascending the throne, Balban put three main targets before him which were:
1. Removal of the rival Turk chiefs
2. Defense of the empire from Mughal onslaughts
3. Appeasement of the riots of the Hindu Rajputs
Rivalry of the Turk chiefs
Balban himself belonged to the Chihalgan (the forty influential court elders)
who were excited of jealousy with Balban’s evolution with the passage of time. They
fostered an enmity against him which alerted his senses to get rid of them. He
visited Punjab where he survived of a murder attempt in 1253 AD. Then he was
dismissed by the Sultan due to the conspiracies of the Chihalgan (the Forty) which
made him decide on the fate of these members who had become a constant threat for
the empire. He broke the spell of Imad-ud-Din Rehan and Qatlagh Khan by killing
them which paved the way to a smooth rule in the years to come and which made him
able to concentrate on the administrative affairs of the empire.
Defense of the Empire from Mughal Attacks
Balban adopted a precise and meditated policy to cope with the raids of
Mughals who had occupied Khurasan andKabul and were looking forward to access
the empire of Delhi. Balban appointed the best and trusted generals of his team as
Warden of Marches on the frontier areas. He united the provinces of Sindh
and Punjab under the statute of Sher Khan, his paternal cousin. He deployed the best,
well-trained and the strongest army personnel on the borders to meet the fierce
Mughals. It was he who first time divided the defense position into three lines: first,
second and third defense line to stop and hinder the enemy at three points. First line
was made in Multan and Uch, the second was in Pakpattan and Depalpur, and the
third was on Hansi, Snam and Smana. Every line was stocked with artillery for the
hard times. He noticed the tribes of the frontier province who supported the Mughal
invaders. Balban and Sultan Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud went to punish these clans in
1246 AD. Balban also adopted a policy of reconciliation when he sent his ambassador
to the Mughals in 1258 AD. In the next year, the ambassador of Halaku Khan came to
Balban’s court and the enmity between the two kings was mollified.
End of the rebel Rajput Chiefs
Balban’s iron fist policy came up against rebel Rajputs who started flouting
the Sultan as the plotting politics of the Forty encouraged them to go against Balban.
He crushed the Hindu landlords of Doaab and forced the Rajputs of all the areas of
Katra and Kaliyan. Chanderi, Gwaior, and North Rajputana came under his influence
and the chastisement of Mewatis led to the establishment of peace in the surrounding
 82 History -6
of Delhi. His iron hand rule helped him focus on the defense of frontiers, welfare and
construction in the empire. Had he not adopted such a blood and iron policy, he
would easily have swayed by the Forty who were waylaying him to capture the
throne.

Moiz-ud-Din Kekubad (1287-1290AD)

Moiz-ud-Din Kekubad (the son of Bughra Khan) ascended the throne of his
grandfather when he was eighteen years old but his indulgence in licentious habits
took a heavy toll from the hard-earned rule of his dynasty and the Khiljis stepped in
Punjab. His lavishness was reported to his father Bughra Khan who tried to reform
his character but nothing worked. And the day came when Bughra Khan reached
Bihar to counter his own son, Kekubad but ultimately the encounter ended up with
the restoration of the good terms of the both. Kekubad was killed in 1288 AD in his
palace drowning the sun of 75 years’ rule of Turkan Ilbari Dynasty which came to an
end and Jalal-ud-Din Khilji took the reins of empire in his hands.

Chapter 4
Muslims in South Asia-ii
Khilji Dynasty
The Khilji Dynasty initiated its rule in Delhi in 1290 AD after the death of
Balban, the last ruler of Slave Dynasty. The glory of Khilji dynasty started with the
crowning of Jalaluddin Khilji in 1290. But within few years he was killed out of
conspiracy planned by his nephew Alauddin Khilji. After the death of Jalaluddin
Khilji, Alauddin Khilji dominated the Delhi Sultanate through his courageous
achievements. During his rule, the Khilji dynasty was marked by the brutal wars and
internal conflicts among the Empire. Alauddin Khilji won over various parts namely
Gujarat, Ranthambhor, Chittor, Malwa, Ujjain, Dhar and more. By 1311, he had
conquered whole of North India and became a successful emperor. In 1316, the Khilji
dynasty saw its end with the death of Alauddin Khilji.
Sultan Jalal ud-din Firuz Khilji
The first Indian ruler of the Khilji dynasty was Jalal-ud-din Firuz Khilji, who
ruled from 1290 - 1296. He invaded India and built his capital in Delhi, though he
never really ruled from there. He constructed another capital at Kilokhri, and ruled
from there for around 6 years. During the time Mongols attacked the country, Jalal-
ud-din Khilji put up a brave front and smart negotiations made the Mongols depart.
They came back however, five years later and attacked once again when his nephew
 History-6 83
ascended on the throne. Jalal-ud-din Khilji was murdered by his own nephew when
he was going to visit him in Kara.
Jalaluddin Firuz Khilji (died 20 July 1296) was the first sultan of the Khilji
dynasty, who reigned from 1290 to 1296. He built his capital at Kilughari, a few
miles from the city of Delhi and completed the unfinished palace and gardens of
Sultan Qaiqabad.) He ruled from there for six yearsi.e.(1290-1296).

Early life and succession

Jalaluddin Khalji original name is Malik Firuz. He was appointed by Sultan
Qaiqabad to the fief of Baran and the command of the army. Soon, Sultan Qaiqabad
suffered from a paralytic stroke and Firuz marched towards Delhi. The nobles
placed Kayumars, the three-year-old son of Qaiqabad on the throne. But the sons of
Firuz dashed into the city and carried away the infant Sultan, defeating a force sent in
pursuit of them. Most of the Turkic nobles now submitted to Firuz. Qaiqabad was put
to death and his corpse was thrown into the Yamuna. On 13 July 1290 Jalal-ud-Din
Firuz was enthroned in the palace of Kalughari.He was made a slave from there.
Reign
After the accession to the throne, Jalal-ud-Din Firuz allowed Malik Chhajju,
the nephew of Balban to retain his fiefdom of Kara-Manikpur. The post of wazir was
conferred on Khvaja Khatir, who had held it under Balban and Qaiqabad. Fakhr-ud-
Din, the kotwal of Delhi was also allowed to continue. Firuz's eldest son received the
title of Khan Khanan, his second son received the title of Arkali Khan and his third
son received the title of Qadr Khan. He appointed his younger brother the ariz-i-
mumalik (army minister) and conferred upon him the title of Yaghrush Khan. His two
nephews, Alauddin and Almas Beg received significant responsibilities in the royal
household and his relation Malik Ahmad Chap was appointed deputy master of
ceremonies.
In 1292, a horde of more than 100,000 Mongols invaded India. Successes in
battle and smart negotiation caused a partial retreat on the part of the Mongols. They
rose again five years later when his nephew and son-in-law Ala ud din Khilji was on
the throne.
Ala-ud-din was also responsible for a successful raid in to Deccan as
Governor of Kara under his uncle, Jalal-ud-din. Sadly Jalal-ud-din was killed by his
cruel nephew Ala-ud-din Khilji when he arrived to dinner with him at kara..

Ala-ud-Din Khilji (1296-1316 AD)

The history of slaughter goes on and Ali Gurshap Khan (commonly known as
Ala-ud-Din Khilji) colored his hands with the blood streaming out of the neck of his
guardian, uncle, and father-in-law making it the last echelon to position himself as the
next Sultan in1296 AD. The callousness of time and power takes the toll of another
skull and leaves for a new journey surrounded by the ambushes, conspiracies, and the
claimants to the throne.
 84 History -6
When Ala-ud-Din Khilji killed Sultan Jalal-ud-Din Khilji (his father-in-law),
Multan was ruled by Arkali Khan, the eldest son of Sultan Jalal-ud-Din. The widow
of Sultan Jalal-ud-Din incited Qadar Khan (the younger son of Sultan Jalal-ud-Din) to
claim the throne as Rukn-ud-Din Ibrahim. Ala-ud-Din fell upon the news and reached
Kilugarhi (Delhi) and blessed his kinship and chiefs with the high offices and jagirs
to win their sympathies. The widow of Sultan Jalal-ud-Din requested Arkali Khan to
capture Delhi but he did not pay heed to her and Ala-ud-Din Khilji reached Delhi
accompanied with 60,000 riders and 60,000 pedestrians. Rukn-ud-Din Ibrahim
marhed forward to face him but his army rebelled against him and joined the forces
of Ala-ud-Din Khilji at the eleventh hour. Consequently, Rukn-ud-Din Ibrahim had to
flee towards Multan.
After occupying the throne, Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khilji sent Alagh Khan
(Almas Baig) to Multan to chastise Rukn-ud-Din Ibrahim who was deserted by his
army after Alagh Khan reached Multan. Rukn-ud-Din and Arkali Khan both bowed
before Alagh Khan (Almas Baig) and Multan fell under Ala-ud-Din Khilji. Alagh
Khan (Almas Baig) left for Delhi with the two brothers and other chiefs to Delhi but
he blinded the both along with Alagh Khan (the son-in-law of Jalal-ud-Din Khilji)
and imprisoned them in the fort of Hansi. The widow of Jalal-ud-Din Khilji and
Malik Ahmad were arrested in Delhi while two sons of Arkali Khan were murdered
and the ground was leveled for Ala-ud-Din whose rule lasted for next twenty years.
The blitzes of Mongols
The lenient policies of Jalal-ud-Din Khilji encouraged the Mongols and they
were allowed to reside around or near Delhi called Mughalpura. Though they had
embraced Islam but they were proud of their pedigree and the warrior blood running
into their veins. As soon as Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khilji ascended the throne, a Mongol
army of 100,000 men headed towards Delhi and were countered by Alagh Khan at
Jalandhar Doab and met with failure with a heavy death toll of 12,000 soldiers. They
returned under Amir Saldi but could not succeed and Zafar Khan, the general of Jalal-
ud-Din arrested 2,000 Mongol men.
In 1298 AD Qatlagh Khawaja attacked India with 300,000 soldiers and
reached the bank of the River Jamuna crossing the River Indus. It created a panic in
the people of India and they started gathering in Delhi to secure themselves. Qatlagh
Khan surrounded Delhi and Sultan sent Alagh Khan and Zafar Khan,his generals to
fight against the Mongols though he was advised to reach a truce with the Mongols.
Sultan’s army, consisting of 300,000 riders and 2,700 elephants, fought valiantly in
the battled of Siri and Sultan appeared as winner by the end of the day. Mongols
retreated from the battlefield but they found Zafar Khan chasing them and finding
him alone, they killed him leaving Sultan deprived of one of the most heroic and trust
worthy generals.
In 1301 AD Mongols led by Amir Targhi appeared with an army of 120,000
soldiers. Finding him unable to fight them due to his exertion in the expedition of
Chitor, Sultan decided not to fight them and fortified himself in the fort of Siri. The
Mongols could not succeed despite their repeated attacks. Frustrated of their failure to
 History-6 85
meet and defeat the Sultan, they went back. Some historians report that the Sultan
attributed the return of the Mongols without any plunder to the prayer of Nizam-ud-
Din Aulia (a famous Sufi saint in Delhi).
Mongols came back in 1304 AD under Ali Baig and Khawaja Tash who
reached Amroha and brought about an impending peril for the empire of Sultan.
Sultan sent Malik Kafoor and Malik Tughlaq to combat them and overpowered the
Mongols arresting their 8,000 warriors who were killed under the verdict of the
Sultan. In 1306 AD Amir Kebek invaded India and reached near Multan crossing the
River Indus and was met by Malik Tughlaq and the battlefield witnessed the lines of
the killed Mongols. The last invader from the Mongols was Iqbalmand who was
killed at the hands of Malik Tughlaq
North of India
After eliminating the perils from the invaders from outside, Sultan turned his
face to the north of India and invaded Devgari in Decan. He overawed the south and
north of India by conquering Chitor, Warinkal, Ajain, Anhalwara, and Dwarsamdar.
In 1297 AD Sultan left for Gujrat (the center of sea trade and uncountable riches in
the south of India) with Nusrat Khan and Alagh Khan. Gujrat was ruled by Raja
Kiran Roy who, finding him too feeble to combat Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khilji, fled
(along with his daughter Deval Devi) to Ram Dev, the ruler of Devgari. His wife
Kamla Devi and Malik Kafoor (the eunuch) were arrested by Sultan. Sultan came into
a marital bond with Kamla Devi and Malik Kafoor worked wonders on the behalf of
Sultan in the battles of north of India and in the wars against Mongols. After the
conquest of Gujrat, Nusrat Khan and Alagh Khan looted the uncountable wealth from
the traders of Kambhayat but their soldiers had a discrepancy on the question of the
fair distribution of the booty. The new Muslim Mongol soldiers gathered under
Mohammad Shah and killed Azuddin, the brother of Nusrat Khan. Infuriated on the
murder of his brother, Nusrat Khan wreaked vengeance from the rebels who sought
shelter under the ruler of Ranthambor.
The conquest of Mewar (1303 AD)
Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khilji turned to Mewar, the biggest state of Rajputana in
1303 AD. Some people have mentioned the love tale of Sultan Ala-ud-Din who
nurtured a deep feeling of love with Rani Padmani of Mewar. He arrested Rana Ratan
Singh and asked for Rani Padmani as a ransom. When Rana Ratan Singh was forced
to surrender, he sent for Rani to Delhi. This news brought about a fright among the
Rajput chiefs and they devised a ploy to release the arrested Raja. They sent a group
of soldiers disguised in ladies’ outfit to Delhi and floated a rumor that the ladies from
the royal family were on their way to Delhi. Reaching Delhi, they attacked the fort
where Raja Ratan was kept as prisoner. They liberated him and rushed back to
Mewar. Sultan’s army chased them when he came to know the real story but the
disguised soldiers had crossed his boundaries. Sultan assaulted Chitor as revenge and
forced the Rajput chiefs to surrender. Finding no escape and the chance of Rajput
victory, Rani Padmani along with her companions and other princesses burnt her
down out of honor and nobility. When Sultan reached the fort, he could not access
 86 History -6
but the ashes of Deval Devi. The historians do not confirm this legend and take it
merely as a fiction. Amir Khusrau has mentioned it in his verses. Mewar was
captured and Sultan renamed it as Khizarabad after his son.
Ranthambor (1303 AD)
Sultan sent Alagh Khan and Nusrat Khan in 1199 AD to occupy Ranthambor
but they could not win and Nusrat Khan was killed. Sultan’s army had to confine to
the fort of Jhain. Sultan wanted to support them with an extended army but could not
do anything because of the internal perils and upheavals. Finally he attacked
Ranthambor in 1303 AD and defeated the Rajputs appointing Alagh Khan the
governor of Ranthambor and Jhain.
The conquest of Malwa (1306 AD)
The conquest of Ranthambor and Mewar encouraged Sultan to step forward
and he sent Amin-ul-Mulk, his general to Malwa. Amin-ul-Mulk overwhelmed Roy
Rev and Koka, his minister and occupied Malwa. The conquest of Malwa brought the
message of the submission of other states of north India and Rajputana.
Deccan expeditions
The successes in the north of India paved the way to the opening of new doors
in the southern part of India for Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khilji. Remembering the
uncountable wealth and riches of Kara and Oudh, Sultan thought of invading Devgari
on the pretext of not receiving the annual payments pledged by the Raja of Devgari.
Devgari (1306 AD)
The breach of the Raja of Devgari was a blessing in disguise as it leveled the
ground for the Sultan who was in intending to bring Deval Devi, the daughter of Raja
Kiran (whose wife had been taken into the bond of marriage with Sultan in the
expedition of Gujrat). Kamla Devi wanted Deval Devi, her daughter to be brought to
the harem of Sultan who launched an expedition to bring Deval Devi. Alif Khan, the
ruler of Gujrat and Malik Kafoor (the eunuch exalted to the rank of general by the
Sultan) were assigned the task of bringing her. Alif Khan kidnapped Deval Devi
when she was out to visit the Ellora caves and brought her to the royal palace of the
Sultan who married Deval Devi with his son Khizar Khan. Though Sultan
overpowered Devgari but he returned Devgari to Raja out of his veneration and titled
him as Roy Raiyan.
Talangana (1309 AD)
An expedition was launched by Sultan to Talangana under Alagh Khan but it
could not bring the desired results on account of the death of Alagh Khan. Sultan
resent his army headed by Malik Kafoor who drove Raja Paratab Dev ll to submit and
received 300 elephants, gold, silver, and thousands of horses as homage. The booty
included the statue of Raja Paratab which was made of gold with a chain of gold in its
neck. It was taken to the capital loaded on 1,000 camels.
Dwarsamdar (1310 AD)
Elevated with the conquest of Talangana, Malik Kafoor was assigned the task
of conquering the south of India as he was lustful for the take-over of the whole of
south. Malik Kafoor reached Dwarsamdar (Mysore) and finding an enmity between
 History-6 87
two big clans, grabbed the occasion and plundered the capital Dwarsamdar. Raja
Veer lll was arrested on November 18, 1310 AD and sent to Delhi and all the riches
in the temples was seized and sent to the capital.
Madora (1311 AD)
Veera Pandia and Sundar Pandia, the two brothers of Madora had a bad blood
on power. Veera Pandia deprived Sundar of power who requested Malik Kafoor to
infiltrate. Malik Kafoor plundered the city and instituted his rule. The booty he sent to
the capital was 312 elephants, 20,000 horses, and gold and diamonds worth100
million tankas. Following Madora, the conquest of Devgari stamped the writ of Ala-
ud-Din in the whole of southern India. After the death of Ram Dev (the ruler of
Devgari), Shankar Rao Dev (his successor) refused to pay annual homage to Sultan,
Malik Kafoor was sent by Sultan to reprimand him. Malik Kafoor arrested the new
Raja after a slight resistance.
Rebellions in the age of Ala-ud-Din Khilji
The age of Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khilji was the age of upheavals. Starting from
the ambushed murder of his paternal uncle, father-in-law, and guardian, Ala-ud-Din
faced a series of conspiracies and uprisings after every now and then. He could not
rely on the nobles and chiefs of his uncle who backed him up as the wheel of time
could move otherwise and they could turn into his foes any time. Therefore, he
deprived them of their riches, awards, and properties and converted them into hand to
mouth lot so that they should engage themselves in earning their livelihood and could
not think of plotting against Sultan. He blinded, disarmed, and even killed his rivals
who could be a peril for him in the days to come. Despite all these steps, the
rebellions could not be fully appeased and Sultan stayed all his life busy in pacifying
them.
One of the most dangerous upheavals was of Haji Maula who looted the royal
treasure and declared a young man of Iltutmish family as emperor when Sultan was
away from Delhi. But his uprising was conciliated by killing all the characters
embroiled. Following Haji Maula’s uprising, Umar and Rangu Khan, the governors
of Badayun and Oudh respectively and nephews of Sultan Ala-ud-Din stood against
Sultan but they were arrested and blinded as penalty of their daring act. Sultan’s
paternal nephew Akat Khan (who was accompanying Sultan) rose against him when
Sultan was on an expedition in Ranthambor. When Sultan was out for hunting, Akat
Khan attacked his uncle to capture the throne and wounded him. Taking him dead,
Akat Khan declared his kingdom in the royal tents and even started taking oath from
the nobles. When he wanted to enter the tent of Sultan, Malik Kafoor hindered him
and demanded the head of the dead Sultan Ala-ud-Din to allow him to go in.
meanwhile Sultan, rose up from his wounds, appeared and Akat Khan was beheaded
on the spot instead of wearing the crown as the next Sultan.
The rebellions in the age of Sultan Ala-ud-Din were mainly due to these
factors:
1. 1.Negligence in the intelligence department
2. 2.Permission of alcohol publicly
 88 History -6
3. 3.Frequent encounters of the nobles and knitting plots against the Sultan
4. 4.An increase in the properties and jagirs of the nobles
Seeing the upheavals snaking up quite frequently in the empire, Sultan decided to
take matter of fact steps to coup with the rebels:
1. 1.Intelligence department was reordered to assure the flow of information
even from the far off and remote areas of the empire.
2. 2.Taking alcohol overtly was strictly forbidden and Sultan himself set an
example of breaking the bottles of wine.
3. 3.Chiefs and nobles were prohibited to intermarry and even interdine as these
meetings generally ended up in the intrigues against the Sultan. Ban on these parties
and get-togethers triggered the best effect in favor of Sultan
4. 4.Sultan devised a different way to disarm the nobles by depriving them of
their precious possessions. Leaving them as a hand to mouth lot, Sultan closed all the
doors opening against him.
Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khilji’s extended intentions
Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khilji nurtured a desire to be the Alexander the Great ll but
he exceeded his limits and started thinking over claiming the prophet hood. He
believed that he was surrounded by the four companions (Zafar Khan, Nusrat Khan,
Alif Khan, and Alagh Khan) on the same lines of the four Caliphs of the Holy
Prophet (Peace be upon Him). He was checked by his advisor Ala-ul-Mulk who
constrained his desire of devising a new religion. Ala-ul-Mulk also advised him to
conquer the rest of India and abstain from the vices to overwhelm the untouched
areas.
Last years of Sultan Ala-ud-Din
Being a patient of blood pressure, Sultan started losing his temper frequently
and spent his last years in skeptics. He did not trust anyone around him. That was
why he imprisoned Khizar Khan and his mother, his son and wife respectively and
nominated Shahab-ud-Din, his immature son as his successor. Seeing the inaction and
inability of Sultan and his successor, the rebels all over the empire rose against him
and started making inroads in his empire. The successor of Shankar Dev, the ruler of
Devgari declared his independence whereas the Raja of Chitor ousted the Muslims
from his state and the Raja of Gujrat also broke the shackles of slavery. These
incidents weakened the Sultan and he passed away on January 2, 1316 AD leaving
anarchy behind him. According to some chroniclers, Malik Kafoor poisoned the
Sultan to succeed him.

Economic reforms of Alauddin Khilji

One of the biggest credits of Ala-ud-Din Khilji was the economic reforms
which emancipated the masses from the hoarders and inflation and which were
imitated by the rulers of the world. He fixed the prices of the commodities all over
the empire and set up a strict supervision system to insure the availability of goods at
equal prices.
 History-6 89
Thus, curtailing the monopoly of the selected few, he facilitated the common
people with low and fixed price commodities. Advised by Malik Faqir-ud-Din
(according to some writers, Khatir-ud-Din), the most senior advisor, the Sultan fixed
the prices of almost all commodities in the market. Some of them were rice, sugar,
salt, vegetables, fruits, grams, lentils, crockery, clothes, caps, shoes, needles, cows,
goats, camels, buffaloes, bulls, slaves and even prostitutes. No one dared to change
the price of these goods throughout the empire and anyone found guilty of deviation
was cruelly punished by the Sultan. Sultan himself supervised and invigilated the
prices in a disguised way and sent the children to different shops to buy different
things in order to know the rates of those goods.
Hoarding was strictly banned and the surplus grain was kept in the
warehouses of the government and the officials appointed by Sultan bought the grain
directly from the farmers and gave it to the traders who sold it with the percentage of
profit defined by the Sultan. Sultan kept an eye on the weather conditions and floated
required exemptions in case of any catastrophe. He was also concerned about the care
of farmers and dealers. The people, who were averse of the atrocities of the hoarders,
took a sigh of relief and the royal treasure was filled with the grain (to serve in bad
times) first time in history.
Sultan established “Srai Adls”, the clothes market where the traders were
allowed to sell the clothes within specific time. Other than these markets, clothes
were not available and if someone was found selling clothes beyond the given
parameters, Sultan ordered to cut his nose or ear. Except the registered traders, no one
could trade in clothes. Thus Sultan regularized the market with the fixed prices. For a
fine cloth, the head of Srai Adl issued permits to the traders and all the traders were
given 200,000 rupees from royal treasure to buy the cloth.
Ala-ud-Din fixed the salary of the soldiers on annual basis and salary of a soldier was
234 tunka per annum while the allowance was78 tunka. Every soldier was bound to
keep two horses in a year and was responsible for the upkeep of the horses along with
his artillery and family expenditures within the given income.
He established markets in big cities for grain traders and inhabited the traders
in those markets facilitating the subjects with grain from a single point. No one was
allowed to buy or sell the grain from somewhere else. These markets obeyed the
opening and closing hours defined by the Sultan who noticed even the minor
violation of the rules and took serious actions. Shahna, an official from Sultan was
responsible the successful flow of economy. Supported by Nybe Shahna, the second
to the official, he was bestowed with especial jagir and discretionary powers. Besides
them, spies were assigned the task of reporting any malpractices by the traders to the
Sultan. These economic reforms laid the foundations of a successful economic system
which was followed by the rulers of the rest of the world. Inflation was controlled in
a tremendous way and price check system brought the name of Sultan on the top of
those who designed the economic system.
 90 History -6
Revenue System of Ala-ud-Din Khilji
Ala-ud-Din Khilji inherited an economically down trodden empire surrounded
by the upheavals of Hindu and Rajputs of India while the Mongols were posing a
consistent threat to his rule. It required the restructuring of the economy to uplift the
conditions of the people and the state. Therefore, Sultan enacted economic reforms
and a precise system of revenue all over the empire.
His policies offered no exemption to any noble and chief in and around his
court. His economic policies became his fame in history as no one since Qutb-ud-Din
Aibak had trickled down the economic fruits. His reforms and revenue system
included the following steps:
The confiscation of the lands and jagirs of the nobles
Soon after coming into power, Sultan ordered the amputation of the
properties, jagirs and valuable possessions of the influential courtiers, chiefs, and
religious scholars to deprive them of the privileges which turned or could turn a threat
to the throne. All titles, awards, and accolades were taken back from them while all
the land was included into Khalsa, the land of the government. He discontinued the
system of Iqtadari, granting lands and other privileges to the successful warriors and
other prominent celebrities. Their position was constrained after the confiscation of
their lands, rewards, and grants. Sultan took hold of their possessions reducing their
authorities and the chances of their uprisings in the days to come.
Taxation
Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khilji defined 50 % tax on the agrarian produce which was
more than traditional percentage of the Hindu age but he did not compromise on it. In
the Hindu age, it was 1/5th or even 1/6th of the total produce while in the days Delhi
Sultanate especially in the days of Iltutmish and Balban, it was 1/5 th but Sultan Sultan
adamant of this high percentage despite some voices raised against it. This percentage
was applied equally on all landlords and cultivators though it was disliked by them.
He also made it sure that the landlords could not burden the poor farmers and
received tax in form of grain in Doab. He also imposed tax on cows, buffaloes, and
goats other than house tax and graving tax. His economic reforms were endorsed in
Delhi, Kotla, Afghanpur, Rewari, Palampur, Lahore, Asam, Samana, Depalpur,
Rohailkhand, Jhain, and in some parts of Rajputana.
Method of collecting Tax
Ala-ud-Din received taxes in the form of either produce or money and assured
the honest and fair deal with the farmers by appointing honest officials to receive
taxes. He raised the salaries of these officials to kill the opportunity of any unfair
deal. Due to the regular system fairly working all through his empire, the Sultan
collected a huge amount making the empire strong and unconquerable for the foes.
The credit of the success of his economic reforms mainly goes to Musharraf Qai, his
minister who seconded to none due to his intelligence, judiciousness, prudence,
marvelous oratory, and dedication. On account of the steps taken by Sultan, the
chances of the rebellions of the Chouhdaries, elites, and the courtiers were nipped as
they had to pay 50% of their produce to the government.
 History-6 91
Measurement of land
Ala-ud-Din is accredited with measuring the land and first time fixing 50%
tax on the total produce in the history of the Sub-Continent. It was known to the
Hindus as it was in practice in Pola state in the south of India though there are no
clues that the northern part was familiar with it. These reforms affected the farmer
and the landlord both and during the phase of starvation or any other catastrophe, the
people were suffering. Therefore, Sultan divided the land into two sections i.e. those
which was to pay the tax and the other which was declared famished. Sultan was the
first person who hit the issue at grass root level and checked the record of the Village
Accountant (Patwari) to ensure the fair deals in land affairs.
Split of the Hindu Muscle
Hindus enjoyed a sturdy position in the avenues of power and played a vital
role in toppling the empires of Delhi before Ala-ud-Din. He took special steps to curb
the authority possessed by the Hindus who had been elevated to the rank of
middlemen. They collected tax money from the farmers as much as they could and
dispatched the minimum part of it to the government. They used their “earned”
money to buy weaponry and strengthening their military clout which could turn a
threat to the rulers of the day. Sultan felt the pulse of the problem and hit it from the
root by canceling their privileges and exceptions and bridled them by imposing taxes
and confiscating their enormous possessions.
These steps fortified the empire of Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khilji and improved the
financial position of the poor masses and farmers who had since long been exploited
by the landlords and chiefs. Being a strategist and wise ruler, Sultan enlisted him into
those who became the torch-bearer of economic reforms to be copied .

The Successors of Ala-ud-Din Khilji

Sultan Ala-ud-Din Khilji died of Oedema in 1316 AD (according to some
historians, he was poisoned by Malik Kafoor) leaving an empire which was safe and
sound from the external perils and internal conflicts because of his stern and
relentless policies. Being found of Alexander the Great ll, he overwhelmed the north
and south of the India and executed the economic reforms making the lives of the
masses easy.
Hearing the tiding of the death of Sultan Ala-ud-Din, Malik Kafoor took the
reins of the empire in his hands and put Shahab-ud-Din Umar, the immature son of
Sultan Ala-ud-Din on the throne and started ruling the empire under the name of
Shahab-ud-Din Umar. In his desire to become the sole ruler, he blinded Khizar Khan
and Shadi Khan and checked their way to the throne but Mubarak Shah managed to
escape and became the third ruler of Khilji Dynasty as soon as Malik Kafoor was
killed in his bed by an unknown killer.

Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah Khilji (1316-1319 AD)

After the murder of Malik Kafoor, Mubarak ascended the throne as Qutb-ud-
Din Mubarak Shah. He showered the people around him with riches and high ranks
 92 History -6
and discontinued some of the policies of his father such as release of 17,000 prisoners
imprisoned by him. Alif Khan rose against him but Mubarak Shah dominated him.
Harpal, the Raja of Devgari was robbed of his skin after being defeated by Mubarak
Shah. With the passage of time, Mubarak Shah lost his control over the government
and all the state affairs slipped into the hands of Khusrau Khan, a new Muslim.
Lustful of power, Khusrau Khan declared his independence after capturing Madora
and Warangal when he was sent to the expedition of southern India. When Qutb-ud-
Din Mubarak Shah returned to Delhi from southern India, the rivals plotted against
him and put the 10-year old son of Khizar Khan on the throne. They issued the
coinage in his name in the empire. Infuriated on this daring act, Mubarak Shah
wreaked vengeance and killed all the culprits and even suspects including Khizar
Khan, Umar Khan, Zafar Khan, his father-in-law and Shadi Khan.
Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah abandoned himself to the luxuries of life and
neglected the state responsibilities. The public caught the color of the Sultan and
drowned itself into opulence and affluence became the matter of every day in the
empire. Qutb-ud-Din Mubarak Shah sent for Khusrau Shah, his esteemed advisor to
Delhi from Deccan to join his hedonistic get-together but Khusrau Shah, after
reaching Delhi, murdered Sultan Qutb-ud-Din and ascended the throne titled as
Nasir-ud-Din Khusrau Shah.

Nasir-ud-Din Khusrau Shah

The land of India saw the new ruler in the form of Nasir-ud-Din Khusrau
Shah, a shooder (the untouchable class of Hinduism) elevated to the rank of minister
by Mubarak. He put off his cloak of religion and disregarded the ladies in the royal
palace and killed the children. Waheed-ud-Din Qureshi was titled asTaj-ul-Mulk
whereas Ain-ul-Mulk Multani was called Alam Khan and Amir-ul-Umara. He
distributed the high offices among the nobles of the old days who had been deprived
of their ranks in the age of Sultan Qutb-ud-Din. Hindus of his own class were
conferred upon high ranks outlawing the Muslims. Ain-ul-Mulk and the other Muslim
nobles turned against him. Jona Khan reported his father Ghazi Malik of the
malpractices of the Sultan who constituted an army to molest Khusrau Shah and
encountered him near Delhi. Khusrau Shah was defeated and beheaded after being
arrested in the battle and Ghazi Malik celebrated his coronation In Siri Palace on
September 8, 1310 AD as Sultan Ghiyath-ud-Din Tughlaq. The sun of the Khilji
Dynasty drowned within four years after the death of Ala-ud-Din Khilji ans Tughlaqs
came into power.

Tughlaq dynasty
The Tughlaq dynasty also called "Tughraq", was a Muslimdynasty of Turkic
origin which established a Delhi sultanate. Its reign started in 1321 in Delhi when
Ghazi Malik assumed the throne under the title of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq.
 History-6 93

Ghias-ud-Din Tughlaq (1320-1325 AD)

Reportedly, a son of the slave of Ghias-ud-Din Balban, Ghazi Malik came to
power after eliminating the Khilji Dynasty by killing Khusrau Shah, the last weak
ruler of Khiljis who hastened a plain sailing for Tughlaq. His father had married a
woman of Jat clan and Ghias-ud-Din was born.

According to Ibn Batoota, the word Tughlaq came from Qatlagh which
transformed into Qatloo and later into Tughlaq. Ghias-ud-Din was assigned the task
of graving horses of a trader in Sindh in his childhood and was picked up by Alagh
Khan, the ruler of Sindh and the younger brother of Ala-ud-Din Khilji, as pedestrian
and then elevated to the rank of rider in his army. Soon he was ranked as Mir Akhor
and his discretions encouraged him to take actions against the unable and lavish
Khusrau Shah. After coming into power, Sultan Ghias-ud-Din showered his
companions and kinship with jagirs, riches and other royal blessings. His sons were
titled as Alagh Khan whereas other sons were named as Zafar Khan, Mehmud
Khan, Behram Khan, and Nusrat Khan and Malik Shadi Khan was ranked as Dewan-
e- Wazarat (Minister). Being a noble person at heart, he regarded the ladies of the
royal pedigree of Ala-ud-Din Khilji and wedded the daughters of Sultan Ala-ud-Din
while all the nobles, who tilted to him in his rebellion against Khusrau Shah, were
killed.

Sultan Ghias-ud-Din Tughlaq inherited an empty treasure due to the

extravagance of the previous rulers especially Mubarak Shah and Khusrau Shah.
Following the lines of actions by Ala-ud-Din Khilji, he had to take emergency steps
to fill the treasure. He raised the salaries of the officials to reduce the bribery and
corruption in the state and advised the jagirdars and Amirs to receive Malia (taxes of
riches, land etc.) between 1/15 - 1/20 of the total produce. Avoiding the unnecessary
expenditures, Sultan saved the royal cache and spent it on urgent lieu such as drought
and starvation in the empire. Malia was revised in case of any catastrophe and it was
raised gradually in case of any increase required.

Adventures of Warangal

Sitting on the throne, Sultan Ghias-ud-Din Tughlaq turned his face to Deccan
and sent Jona Khan, his son to curb the upheaval of its Raja. Raja confined himself to
the Fort of Warangal and siege by the Jona Khan’s army prolonged. An epidemic
broke out in the royal army in the rainy season to down the morale. All the passages
to Delhi were blocked and someone floated the hiding of the death of Sultan which
provoked Malik Kafoor who rebelled against Jona Khan and deserted him along with
other generals. Another rumor broke out in Delhi was of the uprising of Alagh Khan,
the son of Sultan Ghias-ud-Din Tughlaq who was reported to capture the throne
 94 History -6
transmitting the news of his father’s death. Jona Khan lifted up the siege and went
back to delhi but the rumors proved to be wrong. Consequently, the royal wrath fell
on Malik Kafoor who, along with his family, was perished as a penalty. Sultan sent
Jona Khan again to Deccan and conquered Warangal in 1332 AD. Raja submitted to
Jona Khan and pledged the homage to the Sultan. Jona Khan conquered Jaj Nagar
and Baider and returned to Delhi.

The conquest of Bengal

Sultan turned towards Bengal where Nair-ud-Din and Bahadur had a bad
blood between them on the possession of throne. He left Jona Khan in Delhi and went
to Bengal. As soon as he reached Bengal, Nair-ud-Din bowed to him and Sultan
responded him by making him the governor of Bengal whereas Bahadur was
dismissed by the Sultan. On his return, Sultan invaded Tarhat and compelled its raja
to flee to the forest and Sultan reached Delhi in 1333 AD after appointing a Muslim
governor in Tarhat.

Revenue administration of Sultan Ghias-ud-Din Tughlaq

Sultan did not altogether discontinue the revenue policies of the previous
regime and rectified it gradually as per his requirement. Sultan accommodated the
percentage of tax on the produce according to its condition. If the produce was below
average on account of any natural calamity, Sultan reduced the percentage of tax on it
otherwise the farmer had to pay it in full which was determined by the government.
This lenient policy facilitated the farmer without burdening him beyond his muscle.
The rate of tax was not more than 10% on Iqta and 9% on Bilad whereas some
historians narrate this rate of revenue as high as 15% which looks closer to the facts
and the tendency of Sultan. He ordered his personnel to receive Malia to maintain the
financial condition of the farmer along with increasing it every year with a bearable
percentage. To limit the Hindus, he ordered to tax them as much as they could not
pose any threat to the crown and as low as they could earn their living easily and
were not forced to leave the cultivation of land.

The dispensations to the landlords

Sultan Ghias-ud-Din Tughlaq distributed the Jagirs (even in the areas where
Ala-ud-Din enacted his rule and jagir were prohibited to be conferred upon) among
the nobles and chiefs to win their sympathies and favors. Especially the revenue
officers were the apples of his eyes and he restored their positions, high salaries, and
rewards turning rich and influential but Sultan ensured the check on the unfair
dealings of these officers.

Death of Sultan
Sultan Ghias-ud-Din Tughlaq left for Afghan Pur, a few miles away from
Delhi to see Jona Khan, his son. Jona Khan decided to offer a splendid reception to
father and built a palace within three days to please him. Sultan spent a night with his
 History-6 95
youngest son Mehmud Khan in the palace appreciating it and intended to return the
next day after the meals. As soon as Jona Khan came out of the room to supervise the
elephants and horses offered to the Sultan, the roof of the room fell down due to the
lightening from the sky crushing the Sultan to death along with his five cohorts
including Mehmud Khan. When Sultan’s dead body was taken out, he was leaning on
his son Mehmud Khan as if he had tried to escape Mehmud from death. The sad
demise of the roof and Sultan’s subsequent death has been differently interpreted by
different historians. To some, it was merely an accident and co-incident that after
Jona Khan left the room; it fell down because Jona Khan was dining with his father
and who predicted the moment of death? On the contrary, some chroniclers are of the
opinion that Jona Khan plotted against his father. He had a magic in the palace due to
which it fell down as soon as came out of the room. According to Ibn Batoota,
Mohammad Khan (Alagh Khan) was a devotee of Hazrat Sheikh Nizam-ud-Din
Aulia, a famous Sufi saint of Delhi who was famous for his state of reverie and
anything he said in that condition proved to be true. Alagh Khan assigned his men the
task of informing him whenever Hazrat Sheikh had gone to the state of ecstasy. He
was reported about the condition of Sheikh and he rushed to Sheikh. Seeing him,
Hazrat Nizam-ud-Din said to him, “We have conferred the throne upon you”. His rule
over India is believed to be the upshot of the prayer of Hazrat Nizam-ud-Din Aulia.
Doctor Eshwari Parashad is of the view that Sultan’s death was due to the
conspiracy of Alagh Khan and Hazrat Nizam-ud-Din Aulia. He quotes Sir Wellesley
Haig:
“Sir Wellesley Haig put a special construction on Baroni’s words and
concluded that he did not speak the truth for fear of incurring the displeasure of
Sultan referring to Baroni’s phrase, ‘a thunderbolt of a calamity from heaven’ he
contends that it should have been ‘the calamity of thunderbolt from the sky’ if Baroni
really meant to express thereby the stroke of lightening. But the changed order of
words is, in fact, immaterial. The meaning remains the same in either case. The
phrase Bala-i-Asmani and not Saiqa-i-Asmani is idiomatic, as is borne out by Minhaj
Siraj. The words Saiqa and Bala are quite clear and significant”.
Sadar Jahan Gujrati exposes the fact of the death of Sultan Ghias-ud-Din
Tughlaq in a very strange way where he calls it an act of magic. He believes that the
palace was built with a magic in it and it fell down crushing the Sultan along with his
companions when Alagh Khan was out of the room. No other writer confirms his
views. Ibn Batoota also relates it to the Sufi saint of Delhi who prophesied the
kingdom of Alagh Khan. While Sir Wellesley Haig penned down another event of
Sultan’s enquiry from Hazrat Sheikh Nizam-ud-Din Aulia on the question of Sma’a
(hearing music on religious lyrics). Sheikh took it as affront and cursed the Sultan
which brought about the death of the later with lightening sparing his son, the next
Sultan. Facts and figures tell another tale which runs that the palace was built in three
days and it was wet in the roots while the Sultan ordered the elephants’ parade in it
which shook its roots and it fell down.
 96 History -6
What may be the story; the pages of history are replete with truths and lies
amalgamated at the same times. The writers in history are either Muslims or Hindus
having their gross differences of religions, cultures, rites, heroes, and foes. The third
source of history is written by the adventives writers who mainly rely on the local
writers of the same two communities. No one can rotate the wheel of time and bring
the days and nights of the bygone ages back to dig the realities out. Consequently, the
truth remains veiled in the dungeon of the past covered by the dust of time and ages.
Sultan Mohammad Shah Tughlaq (1325-1351 AD)
Jauna Khan/Alagh Khan/Fakhr Malik ascended the throne in 1325 AD in
Tughlaqabad as Sultan Mohammad Shah Tughlaq after the death of his father who
was crushed under the newly-built palace in Afghanpura. After the forty days of the
burial of Sultan Tughlaq, Mohammad Shah, the eldest child of Sultan Tuglaq rejoiced
his coronation in Delhi and started his regime which lasted for 26 years.
Being an expert of many languages and a poet and writer of Turkish, Arabic,
and Persian, Mohammad Shah enjoys an exalted position among the kings and
crowns. Knowledge of Mathematics, Astronomy, Philosophy, and Physics made him
streets ahead of his contemporaries. Medicine and fine arts at the same time turned
him a “versatile genius” as he was rightly called by the historians. Besides these, he
had beautiful hand writing and sharp memory along with the knack of oratory and
knew how to convince and win the audience.
The historians do not commemorate him in high-quality words and call him a crazy
man who has nothing to do with logic. And these historians include the famous
names of Badayuni, Farishta, Asami, and even African tourist Ibn Batoota who
unanimously declare him mad and round the bend. But the question is that how can a
person with expertise in such a large number of domains be mad? How can a man
with his expertise in Mathematics, Physics, Astronomy and Philosophy be crazy?
Being a man of logics and reason, he disbelieved the hearsays and indoctrinated
beliefs of the common people and even kings before him which had been in vogue
since long. He was innovative in his nature to devise the new ways away from the
conventional practices especially in religion. Innovations in age which was far away
from such “blasphemous” acts brought a bad name of the Sultan in the pages of
history.
After coming into power, Sultan banned the religious fanatics and Qazis in his
court as they, in his opinion, adulterated the basic creeds of the people. He went to
the extent of punishing these Mullas (people with strict religious orientation) and
made inroads in their monopoly in the society. The religious community which was
“trading in religion” and befooling the laymen with their miracles and preaching,
turned against Sultan and propagated him as mad. Sultan was called an insane person
by the chroniclers because according to them, he has penalized some of the highly
venerated celebrities such as Sheikh Houd (the ascendant of Sheikh Baha-ud-Din
Zakaria Multani) who started spending his riches in opulent activities instead of
preaching and religion and was ordered to be killed. Another scholar Sheikh Shams-
ud-Din was sentenced to death because he had assisted a rebel noble of the Sultan in
 History-6 97
conspiring against him. Besides them, Sheikh Haidari was murdered for his plotting
against the king. The reason of insanity looks closer to another trait of his personality
which was his stubbornness and haste which hastened the death penalties of such
people and even his regime. He devised the reforms to facilitate the public but instead
of indoctrinating those reforms in the subjects, he forced them to obey to his
commands. Thus, his positives moves turned negative as with such a sharp and smart
brain, he was a misfit in those days. Rightly someone called him premature saying
that “he was born before his time”.
The capital shifted from Delhi to Devgari (1327 AD)
The Muslim empire in the age of Mohammad Tughlaq expanded on all
directions and the vast empire needed a focused administration in the remote and far
off areas such as Talangana and Devgari. The Mongols were consistently invading
Delhi and the governors of Madora and Kernatak inclined to rebel against the king
which drove the Sultan to shift his capital from Delhi to Devgari named as
Daulatabad later. Lying in the center from Gujrat, Lukhnauti and Delhi, it located at
700 miles equally from these areas. Sultan not only shifted his capital to Devgari but
also ordered the population of Delhi to migrate to Devgari. He did not spare the ladies
and children who were forced to leave their homes and belongings. Delhi was left
desolate and no man’s land after the public shifted to Devgari. They could not realize
the dream of Sultan as some of them died on the way, some died of nostalgia and
unavailability of the facilities of life though Sultan tried his level best to facilitate the
masses with everything they needed. But the home-sickness took the life of most of
the people populating the graveyards all around Devgari. The imprudent decision of
transferring the capital to Devagari was taken back after two years and “Delhi” came
back to Delhi. Sultan was intending to turn Daulatabad the center of the whole
Islamic world. This desire is seen from the coinage of those days. Irrespective of the
desire of the Sultan, it was the peak of injudiciousness of him.After the capital was
shifted to Devgari, Mongols invaded India and plundered Delhi, Lahore, and Multan
besides Badayun, and Samana. Sultan had to withdraw and submitted to the Mongols
for the bundles of riches and they returned via Multan and Sindh.
Coinage of Mohammad Tughlaq
Sultan is accredited with the coinage of gold and silver called Denars and Adli
respectively in the beginning. But later, he issued bronze and copper coins but soon
he had to revise the policy of coinage when the public started making counterfeit
coins and undermining the national economy. He could not stop the forgery of the
people and the coinage was soon devalued in the market. Other countries refused to
recognize it on its value which forced Sultan to replace the bronze coins possessed by
the public with gold and silver coins. Consequently, the royal treasury ran short of
money. Sultan issued the bronze coins on the same line of China but the forgery on a
large scale could not be stopped by him and the idea of bronze coins ended in smoke
as the people disbelieved the coins of gold and silver which fell short in the state to
replace the bronze coins.
Taxation in Doab
 98 History -6
Sultan increased the tax rate in Ganges and Jamuna which created unrest in
the farmers and landlords who left their lands uncultivated as the heavy taxes were
beyond their capacity. The decision of imposing such a heavy tax was ill-advised and
improperly implemented by Sultan who earned a bad name due to these reforms.
Quests
Sultan Mohammad Shah Tughlaq instigated diplomatic terms with the
Mongols and the king of Egypt and intended to invade Khurasan and Iran seeing the
differences and conflicts of the both. Supported by the nobles of Khurasan, he
prepared a convoy of 370,000 soldiers to invade Khurasan and paid these personnel
even for the next year. But he had to postpone the expedition due to the internal
conflicts and the fear of rebellion in the empire. He also sent an expedition against the
Rajas of Himala while another was sent to Nepal but it ended in failure because of the
rainy season and the lack of support from the capital. The local people looted the
royal army and perished it in their guerilla style war. Thus the campaign could not
bring the desired upshots.
Insurrections
Sultan spent the first 10 years of his rule with a plain sailing but later, the
states after states went on slipping from his hands. Mysur, Bengal, Deccan, and
Talangana liberated themselves from the royal control and the empire, which
sprawled over from Himala to Mysur and from Sindh and Punjab to Bihar and
Bengal, now squeezed to Gujrat and northern India. Malabar revolted against the
Sultan in 1335 AD and Jala-ud-Din Ehsan Shah, the ruler of Malabar declared his
independence. Mohammad Shah Tughlaq assaulted the south of India to penalize
Jala-ud-Din Ehsan Shah despite the calamities of starvation and revolts in the empire.
But cholera broke out in the unfortunate army of Sultan who had to come back.
Fakhr-ud-Din, the flag-bearer of the governor of East Bengal, murdered his master
and captured the throne. Qadir Khan, the governor of Lakhnauti tried to check him
but was killed by Fakhr-ud-Din who declared his independence. In 1336 AD Bengal
was disintegrated from the capital.

Amin-ul-Mulk, the governor of Oudh (who was a capable general and a trust-
worthy soldier of Sultan and had assisted Sultan in the days of starvation with the
grain worth 7000000-8000000 tankas. He had checked the rebellion of the governor
of Kara) was transferred to Deccan from Oudh. Outrageous of his unwanted transfer,
he headed against the Sultan but was soon crushed by the Sultan who forgave him
and appointed him as the guardian of the royal gardens in Delhi. In 1342 AD the
rebels of Sindh invited Sultan to curb them but they were arrested and released after
they embraced Islam.

In 1335 AD Madora got liberation from the capital and in 1336 AD Vijia
Nagar, a Hindu state came into existence after a coup. Sultan’s weakness as a king
encouraged the other states to crumble the empire. Warangal was captured by
Krishan Natak, the son of Paratab Dev and the ruler of Warangal escaped to
 History-6 99
Daulatabad which was already a hot seat of revolts. Qatlagh Khan, the ruler of
Daulatabad was unable to rule the state and the Sultan replaced him with his brother
Alim-ul-Mulk who was supported by four junior officers. But all these steps could
not restore peace in the state. Sultan Mohammad Tughlaq appointed Aziz the
governor of Malwa but he adopted a policy of blood and iron in the state and killed
the nobles in a large number. It resulted in massive uprising on the chiefs and Aziz
was arrested and killed by them.

The flame of Malwa reached Gujrat and seeing the power spilling over to the
others; the outrageous Sultan plundered his empire and left for Daulatabad which no
more hosted the Sultan. Hindus, Turks, and Afghans of Daulatabad solicited an
alliance against him. Before he could appease the rebellion of Daulatabad, he had to
go back to Gujrat where a cobbler revolted against him but he fled to Sindh after
Sultan reached there. The rebels in Daulatabad lifted their heads again when Sultan
went to Gujrat and they killed Imad-ul-Mulk, the son-in-law of Sultan and made
Hasan Gangu their king. Hasan Gangu came to power under the title of Ala-ud-Din
Behman Shah and founded the Behman sultanate in 1347 AD. Sultan overwhelmed
the Raja of Jona Garh, but the later uplifted his head as soon as the Sultan departed
from Jona Garh.

Court of Sultan Mohammad Shah Tughlaq

Sultan Mohammad Shah Tughlaq (1325-1351 AD) built a palace in Delhi

having many doors called “Babs” (doors) and the guards kept on standing on these
doors with drums beaten on the arrival of any noble to inform the king and welcome
the visitor. On the first door, “Jillads” (the royal killers) were appointed to kill anyone
according to the verdict of Sultan.

The dead body of the killed unfortunate stayed there for three days to make
the viewers learn a lesson and refrain from displeasing or disobeying the Sultan.
There was a wide threshold between the first and the second door on one side of
which the musicians were standing and on the other, the guards guarded the door.
Between the second and third door, head of the guards (equipped with weapons of
either gold or silver) were standing to supervise his juniors. On the third door, Sultan
could see whosoever entered the door. The number of the courtiers was fixed to
accompany the visitors visiting the king who were registered in the book kept on the
first door to keep their record.

The hilarious part of the royal meetings was that according to the royal
command, anyone who stayed absent from the court for three days with or without
prior notice, was not permitted to reappear in the royal avenues until he was allowed
by the Sultan himself. The entry required a “Hadia” (gift) to the Sultan which could
 100 History -6
be the Holy Quran in case the visitor was well-to-do otherwise it could be a prayer
mat or miswak (a fresh branch to clean teeth ) or rosary in case the visitor was
financially down. With the third door, the palace with thousand pillars was built
where Sultan sat on the throne after the Asr prayer and sometimes in the morning.
White sheets were spread on a stage and the king sat with the pillows all around him
and the audience used to sit knee-down before him. The Vazir stood ahead of the line
of the courtiers standing according to their ranks in the court. The courtiers sat knee-
down in a posture like in the prayer and uttered the word of Bismillah when the king
sat on the seat with 100 armed soldiers on his both sides. He was aired by Malik
Kabir with a hand fan.
Qazis, the brothers of Sultan, his son-in-law and 60 horses bridled with gold
or black silk used to stand in the royal court. Then there were 50 elephants for Sultan
with their drivers who were alert. The king was amused with the hymns comprised of
his grandeur, generosity, and elevation. The slaves of the Sultan were ordered to
stand in the last queue ornamented with swords. No one was allowed to pass between
the lines in the court. Such practices of kingdoms took the heavy tolls from the
Muslims in the form of their decays and declines. They did not nurture the capable
successors to handle the empire after their death which resulted in anarchy after the
death or murder of every king. They were Muslims but they forgot to rule like
Muslims and follow the true examples set by the Muslims in the age of the Holy
Prophet (Peace be upon him) and the four Caliphs. The empire of Sultan Mohammad
Shah Tughlaq comprised of almost the whole of India consisting of 20 provinces. But
the king disintegrated his empire in his own life on account of his high-headedness
and reckless actions. He intended positively but acted otherwise which resulted in the
revolts of the states and the empire dissolved within years. The hard-earned sultanate
went to dogs and Sultan could not do anything because he was alone on every front.
Ultimately the last ruler of Tughlaq Dynasty was confined to Delhi and its
surroundings.

Death of Sultan Mohammad Shah (1351 AD)

The Sultan could not bear the continuous battles and wars and fell ill in a
place near Kernal. He had to rush to Thatha (Sindh) to crush an upheaval and stayed
with a Soomro chief. He again fell ill and breathed his last on the bank of River Indus
on March 1351 AD. He was alone on all the fronts before him. It was highly
unfortunate that he could not foster any capable team of generals and governors to
rule the empire in a peaceful way. He had to indulge himself in many military
campaigns at one time which weakened his political and military muscle and finally
took his life. The vastness of the empire was in dire need of a trust worthy and loyal
teamwork which was unfortunately not destined to Sultan Mohammad Shah. He
would be remembered for his bold experiments and decisions which met with severe
criticism by the historians of that age and the ages to come.
 History-6 101
Feroz Shah Tughlaq (1351-1388)
The son of general Rajab (who was the younger brother of Ghiyath-ud-Din
Tughlaq) Feroz Shah Tughlaq was born in 1309 AD. Rajab Khan (his father), Abu
Bakar and Shah Tughlaq came to India in the age of Ala-ud-Din Khilji and were
elevated to the highest ranks in the court. Shah Tighlaq was appointed the governor
of Depalpur where he came across
Tughlaq submitted to the beauty of Natika, the daughter of Ranamal (the ruler of
Depalpur) and he sent a message for marriage with her but the message was
unanswererd. Infuriated on the unreqited love and his message, tughlaq wreaked his
vengeance upon the poor pulic and imposed malia (tax) on the people of Talondi who
got sick of the atrocities of Tughlaq. sseing the miserable condition of the people, the
princess agreed to marry shah Tughlaq and the masses were liberated from the cruelty
of Tughlaq. Natika was renamed as Sultan Bibi Kad Bano after marriage and Feroz
Shah Tughlaq was born in the next year. When Feroz was only seven years old, his
father died and he came under the kind auspices of Sultan Ghiyath-ud-Din Tughlaq
who taught him the arts of warfare and tactics of kingdom. When Mohammad Shah
Tughlaq took the reins of kingdom, he was 18 years old. Sultan appointed him Amir
Nybe under the title of nybe Barbak and he was assigned the miliyary task with 12,
ooo soldiers under him. He was granted one part of Delhi Empire when the empire
was divided into four parts. When Sultan fell ill in Thatha, he willed to put Feroz
Shah tughlaq as the succeeding king. in that age of turmoil and everything in the
empire was at sixes and sevens and the revolts were being reported from every nook
and corner of the empire, Feroz Shah was unanimously chosen as the king though he
was not ready to lift the responsibilities of the state. He wanted to go for Hajj but the
nobles and chiefs made him the Sultan. Khudawandzada, the daughter of Sultan
Ghiyath-ud-Din was longing for of making her son Dawar Malik the next king but
wily nilly she agreed to the decision and Feroz Shah appeared on the throne.
Feroz Shah Tughlaq inherited the empire replete with rebelliions and the
Sultan engaged in appeasing those upheavals engaging all his nobles who manly
faced the rebel Mughal chiefs including Altun Bahadur, Amir Farghan and Shirin
Khan. Sultan's army won the battles and Sultan came back to Delhi triumphantly.
Revolt of Khawaja Jahan
Khawaja Jahan was governing Delhi when he heard the news of the death of
Sultan Mohammad Shah and the rumor of the arrest of Feroz Shah at the hands of
Mughals, he hoisted his flag in Delhi and claimed the throne by putting a yougman as
the son of Mohammad Shah Tughlaq. Sultan returned to Delhi and found the situation
deteriorated in Delhi due to the new claimant Khawaja Jahan. Seeing himself alone
on the front and after all his companions deserted him, Khawaja Jahan submitted to
the Sultan who forgave him due to his old age but he was ordered to go to Samana
which was given to him as jagir. Khawaja Jahan was killed on the way to Samana by
a minister.
Khudawandzada, the sister of Sultan Ghiyath-ud-Din knitted her plots against
Feroz and tried to replace him with her son Dawar Malik. Sultan used to go her place
 102 History -6
daily to eat 'Pan' offered by Khudawandzada. One day he went to her but Dawar
Malik exposed the story of her plotting to him in an unspoken way and gestures.
Sultan had to escape from her and he surrounded the palace of Khudawandzada and
usurped all her riches and exiled her husband.
After ascending the throne, the Sultan adopted a reconciliation policy and forgave all
those who been punished or imprisoned by the ex-Sultan. He asked all those who had
been executed by Sultan Mohammad Shah Tughlaq to forgive him in written and
their written redemptions were buried near the grave of Sultan Mohammad to console
his soul. Such initiatives floated a message of good will from the new Sultan to the
public.
His expeditions and captures
Sultan was not a warrior at heart nor was he found of conquering new areas
and expanding the empire but he had to plunge into warfare due to the revolts in the
state but he adopted lenient policy even in and after the wars. When Ilyas Shah, the
ruler of Bengal (who captured the Bengal and titled as Shams-ud-Din) forced him to
attack Bengal, he was not in mood to start any war and was thinking to forgive Ilyas
Shah. But Ilyas Shah had been unfair against his public in imposing taxes on the
people. Apart from it, he had killed the innocent people of Lukhnauti and Terhat
including women under his patronage. These crimes invited the outrage of the Sultan
who assaulted Bengal to liberate the people therein from the mayhem of Ilyas Shah.
Hearing the news of the arrival of Sultan, Ilyas Shah confined himself to the fort
Aldala near River Ganges. Sultan put his elephants in a queue and crossed the river.
Ilyas was defeated and he fled but Sultan did not plunder the fort hearing the crying
ladies and children and came back to Delhi without conquering it.
In 1359 AD Zafar Khan, the son-in-law of Fakhr-ud-Din came to Sultan and
requested him to conquer Bengal and with the permission of Sultan he mugged
Bengal accompanied with 70,000 riders and 500 elephants save the pedestrians.
Sultan inhabited a new city of Jaunpur in commemoration of Sultan Mohammad
Tughlaq.

Nagarkot
The Hindu Raja of Nagarkot was reported to ransack the population around
him and Sultan decided to take action against him in 1360 AD. Raja surrendered and
sought pardon. Sultan restored his position and Feroz happened to gain some rare
books in Sanscrit which were translated to Persian.
Sindh
90,000 riders along with the elephants and pedestrians were sent to capture
Sindh to avenge the death of Mohammad Tughlaq but the lack of supply drive the
royal convoy to Gujrat where it was misled by the guides and the whole of army got
stuck into ditch. For six days, the Sultan did not receive any news of his army. The
convoy, somehow, managed to reach Gujrat after many days. Sultan dismissed the
governor of Gujrat and set off to Sindh. He was reinforced by Khan-e Jahan Maqbool
 History-6 103
Khan who sent him fresh battalion of army and led to the victory of Sultan. Jam
Babiana, the governor of Sindh bowed to Sultan and Sultan appointed his brother as
the new governor of Sindh.
Atrocities on Hindus
Kind to his subjects, affectionate even to the rebels, generous, and God-
fearing Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlaq is discredited by the historians with his
impatience to the Hindus especially of Brahman strata and the reference is taken from
Tarikh-e-Feroz Shahi, the history recorded in his own age. According to Tarikh-e-
Feroz Shahi, he ordered the persecution of the Brahman Hindus on not embracing
Islam. It says:
“An order was accordingly given to the Brahman and was brought before
Sultan. The true faith was declared to the Brahman and the right course pointed out,
but he refused to accept it. A pile was risen on which the Kaffir with his hands and
legs tied was thrown into and the wooden Tablet on the top. The pile was lit at two
places his head and his feet. The fire first reached him in the feet and drew from him
a cry and then fire completely enveloped him. Behold Sultan for his adherence to law
and rectitude”.
He is also alleged of his imposition of Jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) on
Hindus the non-payment of which was subject to severe punishments. They were not
allowed to build their temples and erect their gods to be worshipped and the violation
of royal command brought the wrath of the Sultan on them and they were brutally
executed on a large scale.
Reforms of Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlaq
Sultan concentrated to the revenue of the state after coming into power and
appointed Khawaja Hasam-ud-Din Junaid as his revenue minister to analyze the
financial condition of the empire. Khawaja visited the whole of his country and
concluded his report in the light of which Sultan took necessary actions and
introduced reforms. He omitted the unnecessary taxes which were not commanded by
religion. 1/5thKhraj was taken from agriculture produce which was defined by the
government according to the real produce instead of the number of fields. Ushr was
the 1/10th of the cultivated land including all those lands which were granted to the
nobles by the Sultan. Zakat was 2.5% of the total income due only on Muslims.
Jizya was imposed on Hindus and all other non-Muslims. Sultan imposed
Jizya on the Brahmans while they were exempted from Jizya in the ages of the
previous kings. Brahmans protested against this jizya and threatened fast unto death
but the Sultan did not pay heed to them. But finally, sultan had to compromise and he
reduced the amount or rate of Jizya on Brahmans. 1/5 th was the rate of booty and
mines. Sultan cancelled many taxes on the manufacturers of soups, fish, and other
commodities which undermined the national economy by reducing the income.
Jagirdari system which had been curtailed by Ala-ud-Din Khilji and Mohammad
Tughlaq was restored in the age of Feroz and he granted the properties to the nobles
and generals to win their sympathies. These jagirdars brought about a decrease in the
 104 History -6
national income as they expoilted the people under them and did not pay taxes which
deteriorated the economic position.
He banned the appearance of ladies in bazaars, markets and shrines as it
generated many vices in his opinion. He disallowed the use of gold and silver
utensils, drawing pictures of humans and animals on cloth, wearing silk clothes for
men, and inhuman punishments on crimes.
New cities and villages
On his return from Bengal, Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlaq stayed at Pandwa and
renamed it as Ferozabad after his name. Many cities and villages were registered as
new places in his tenure. He also built a fort near Hansi which was named as Hisar-e
Feroza (now called Hisar). Huge water storage was built inside the fort and a large
and deep ditch was dig all around the fort to fortify it. Sultan populated this area with
the help of two canals dig from Satlej and Jamuna. He inhabited another city in the
north of Delhi which was named Ferozabad (later Feroz Khan Kotla) Its ruins are
present in Delhi even today and talk of the bygone days of the Muslim empires. It
was ruined by Timur in the days to come. Going from Qanauj to Oudh, Sultan Feroz
Shah peopled another city on the bank of river Gomati. It was named as Jaunpur on
the name of his predecessor, Jona Khan.
On the bank of river Jamuna, he founded a city of Ferozabad (a town of Agra
now-a-days). His regime is also because of the construction of rest houses where a
free meal was available to the guests for three days. Only Delhi and Kotla had 120
such houses which had become the houses of the royal generosity. Besides cities and
towns, he built many canals and gardens. 1200 gardens were grown only in Delhi, 44
gardens in Chitor, and 80 in Slora. He enjoys the credit of networking the canals
throughout his empire which contributed to the affluence and prosperity of the
empire. Two canals got enormous popularity: one was Jamuna Canal which flew
from Jamuna River and watered Hisar, Hansi and Rohtak and the second was taken
from River Satlej which cultivated Jhihjar. The bounties of farming due to the plenty
of water were to be seen all through his empire. The commodities were available in
the market at very low prices due to their abundance. He built 50 dams to reserve the
extra water, 30 ponds, 20 mosques, 30 colleges, 20 palaces, and 100 rest houses.
Death
The lenient policies of Sultan Feroz Shah Tughlaq brought the message of
decay of the forty years of his rise and he witnessed a bad blood between
Mohammad, his son and Jona Shah Khan -e Jahan, his minister Jona availed the
insanity of the sultan in his later years and incited the king against his son and he
ordered the arrest of Mohammad, then asked Mohammad to kill Jona Khan and again
turned against his son Mohammad. The courtiers and nobles in the court divided into
two factions for and against Mohammad who had to escape to Sarmu hills. Sultan
nominated Tughlaq bin Fateh Khan, his grandson as his heir but Fateh Khan fell a
prey to death in his prime splitting all hopes of the king. He built a mausoleum of his
grandson in Delhi and named a village of Hisar district as Fatehabad after him. In
October 1388 AD Sultan breathed his last leaving an empire which disintegrated into
 History-6 105
pieces after death and slipped from the hands of Tughlaqs. Handing over all the
affairs of the state to Khan Jahan Maqbool Khan, his minister (who converted to
Islam from Hinduism) took its toll in the later years when after death in 1370 AD his
son Jona Khan was titled as Khan-e Jahan who came at cross purposes with the
Prince and hastened the decline of the forty-year rule of Feroz Shah Tughlaq. The
sultanate could not stand around one center and the kingdom went to the hands of
Sayed Dynasty due to maladroit successors of Feroz Shah Tughlaq.

Amir Taimur
Tamerlane (1336-1405) was a central Asian conqueror who gained power in
the late 1300s. His Islamic name was Timur; Tamerlane is the English version. He
was a barbaric warrior and a brilliant military leader whose fearsome tactics earned
him the name Tamerlane the Terrible. By 1370 he was a powerful warlord whose
government was centered in the province of Samarkand, in present-day Uzbekistan.
In 1383 he launched a series of conquests that lasted more than 20 years and gained
him control of a vast region including Iraq, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Georgia, Russia,
and parts of India. He died in 1405, on an expedition to conquer China. His body was
entombed in an elaborate mausoleum, which is considered a treasure of Islamic art.
After his death, his sons and grandsons fought for control of his dynasty, which
remained intact for another hundred years. Tamerlane and his heirs built Samarkand
into a great city; in its day it was a center for culture and scholarship in central Asia.

Attack of ameer taimur

In 1398, Timur invaded northern India, attacking the Delhi Sultanate ruled
by Sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq Dynasty. He was opposed
by Ahirs and Jats but Delhi Government did nothing to stop him. After crossing
the Indus river on 30 September 1398, he sacked Tulamba and massacred its
inhabitants. Then he advanced and captured Multan by October.
His campaign was officially justified by claims that the Muslim Delhi
Sultanate was too tolerant toward its Hindu subjects, but was motivated greatly by the
considerable wealth to be gained. By all accounts, Timur's campaigns in India were
marked by systematic slaughter and other atrocities on a truly massive scale inflicted
mainly on the subcontinent's Hindu population.[43]
Timur crossed the Indus River at Attock on 24 September 1398.
His invasiondid not go unopposed and he encountered resistance by
the Governor of Meerut during the march to Delhi. Timur was able to continue his
relentless approach to Delhi, arriving in 1398, to fight the armies of Sultan Mehmud,
which had already been weakened by a succession struggle within the royal family.
Effects of invasions
The battle took place on 17 December 1398. Sultan Mahmud Khan's army had
120 war elephants armored with chain mail and with poison on their tusks. With his
 106 History -6
Tatar forces afraid of the elephants, Timur ordered his men to dig a trench in front of
their positions. Timur then loaded his camels with as much wood and hay as they
could carry. When the war elephants charged, Timur's army set the hay on fire and
prodded the camels with iron sticks, causing them to charge at the elephants howling
in pain: Timur had understood that elephants were easily panicked. Faced with the
strange spectacle of camels flying straight at them with flames leaping from their
backs, the elephants turned around and stampeded back toward their own lines. Timur
capitalised on the subsequent disruption in Mahmud Khan's forces, securing an easy
victory. Delhi was sacked and left in ruins. Before the battle for Delhi, Timur
executed 100,000 captives
Sayyed Dynasty (1412-1451)
After the Tughlaq dynasty disintegrated, the Sayyid dynasty rose to power.
They were essentially the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate of India and reigned from
1414 to 1451. The history of the Sayyid dynasty is not clearly known but they
claimed to be the descendants of Prophet Mohammed. The Sayyid Empire was
formed amidst chaos when there was no figure of authority to control Delhi. The
Sayyid dynasty had four basic rulers.

Khizr Khan
The founder of Sayyid dynasty was Khizr Khan and ruled from 1414-1421.
He was known to be an able administrator and was very soft natured. He never
resorted to bloody battles until it was absolutely necessary. It was his kind and docile
nature that did not let him acquire many kingdoms during his reign. He defeated the
Hindus of Daob, Kalithar and Chandwar since they had stopped paying tributes.
Though he didn't wage many battles during his reign, he was busy suppressing revolts
in different parts of his kingdom. He could not come up with many great reforms but
still he was greatly respected and loved by his subjects.
Mubarak Shah
After the death of Khizr Khan, his son Mubarak Shah succeeded him on the
throne. Like his father, Mubarak Shah was a wise man and an efficient ruler and
remained on the throne from 1421-1434. He used his resources carefully and to the
fullest. He was a devout Muslim and cared for his subjects. He was not quite able to
possess many areas and kingdoms during his rule and kept suppressing revolts like
his father. The city of Mubarakabad was founded by him in the year 1433.

Muhammad Shah
After the death of Mubarak Shah, his brother's son Muhammad Shah
succeeded him on the throne since Mubarak Shah did not have a son. Muhammad
Shah ruled from 1434-1444. He was not an able ruler and misused his power and
position of authority. He lost the trust and affection of his nobles and royal force who
 History-6 107
had freed him from his captors. He was lethargic and lazy ruler who just wanted to
live his life in pleasure.
Alam Shah
After the death of Muhammad Shah in 1444, his son took over the throne
under the title of Alam Shah. During the year 1447, he visited a place called Baduan
and loved it so much that he decided to stay there forever. Till 1451, Delhi was ruled
by Buhlul Lodhi. Alam Shah ruled Baduan till he died in the year 1478. with his
death the Sayyid dynasty came to end.

Lodhi Dynasty
Lodhi Dynasty was a Pashtun dynasty that was the last Afghan tribe to rule
the Delhi Sultanate. The dynasty founded by Bahlul Lodhi ruled from 1451 to 1526.
The last ruler of this dynasty, Ibrahim Lodhi was defeated and killed by Babur in
the first Battle of Panipat on April 20, 1526.
It was during the time of Lodi Dynasty in Delhi, the first Portuguese
Armada underVasco da Gama landed in India.

Sultan Behlol Lodhi

Bahlul Khan Lodi (died 1489) was the founder of the Lodi Dynasty of
the Delhi Sultanatein India upon the abdication of the last claimant from the
previous Sayyid rule. He was born into an Pashtun family of traders, and became a
renowned warrior and governor of Sirhind (Punjab). He became the first sultan of the
dynasty on 19 April 1451 (855 AH). He died in July 1489.
Ancestry and early life
Bahlul belonged to the Shahu Khel clan of the Lodi Pashtuns. Bahlul's
grandfather, Malik Bahram, settled in Multan during the reign of Firuz Shah
Tughluq and took service under the governor of Multan, Malik Mardan Daulat. Malik
Bahram had a total of about five sons. His eldest son, Malik Sultan Shah Lodi, later
served under the Sayyid dynasty ruler Khizr Khan and distinguished himself by
killing in the battle later's worst enemy Mallu Iqbal Khan. He was rewarded with the
title of Islam Khan and in 1419 appointed the governor ofSirhind. Bahlul, the son of
Malik Kala, the younger brother of Malik Sultan was married to Malik Sultan's
daughter.
In his youth, he was involved in the trading of horses and once sold his finely
bred horses to the Sayyid dyansty Sultan Muhammad Shah. As a payment he was
granted a pargana and raised to the status of amir. After the death of Malik Sultan, he
became the governor of Sirhind. He was allowed to add Lahore to his charge. Once,
Sultan Muhammad Shah asked for his help when the Malwa Sultan Mahmud Shah I
invaded his territory. Bahlul joined the imperial army with 20,000 mounted soldiers.
By his clevernees, he was able to project himself as a victor over the army of the
 108 History -6
Malwa Sultan and Sultan Muhammad Shah conferred on him the title of Khan-i-
Khanan. He also accepted Bahlul's occupation over a large part of Punjab.
In 1443, Bahlul attacked Delhi but he did not succeed. During the reign of last
Sayyid ruler Sultan Alam Shah, Bahlul again made another unsuccessful attempt to
capture Delhi in 1447. Finally, when Alam Shah retired to Badaun in 1448, a minister
of Alam Shah, Hamid Khan invited him to occupy the throne of Delhi. After the
voluntary abdication of the throne by Alam Shah, Bahlul Shah ascended the throne of
Delhi on April 19, 1451 and adopted the title of Bahlul Shah Ghazi. Alam Shah
continued to live in Badaun till his death in July 1478.
The humble tomb of the founder of the Lodi dynasty lies close to the shrine of
the noted Sufi saint, Nasiruddin Chirag-e-Delhi, in a locality that goes by his name,
'Chirag Delhi'.
The reign
After ascending to the throne, Bahlul decided to dispose of Hamid Khan. His
cousin and brother-in-law Malik Mahmud Khan alias Qutb-ud-din Khan (Governor
Of Samana) imprisoned Hamid Khan.
In 1479, Sultan Bahlul Khan Lodi defeated and annexed Sharqi dynasty based
at Jaunpur. Bahlul Khan did much to stop rebellions and uprisings in his territories,
and extended his holdings over Gwalior, Jaunpur and upper Uttar Pradesh. In 1486,
he appointed his son, Babrak Shah as viceroy of Jaunpur. In time, this proved to be
problematic, as his second son, Nizam Khan (Sikandar Lodi) was named successor,
and a power struggle ensued upon his death in 1489.
When you see the octagonal tomb, a typical example of Lodhi architecture,
with a covered verandah and symmetrical arches, remember that the man who lies
buried in it was a great king but an unfortunate father. The tomb of Bahlol Lodhi,
founder of the dynasty, is a forgotten monument. It is situated near the shrine of
Hazrat Nasiruddin Mahmud in Chirag Delhi, so named because the 14th Century
saint-king was regarded as the Lamp of Delhi. Bahlol never let success go to his
head. He remained humble, never sitting on a throne but on a carpet along with his
nobles. He died in July 1489 after a long reign.
Bahlol's tomb is a drab place compared to other mausoleums. It's a square
chamber with three arched openings on all sides, surmounted by five domes, the
central one being the biggest. Koranic verses are inscribed on the arches but there is
hardly any other ornamentation. Perhaps a tomb which reflects the times in which
Bahlol loved - rugged and sans the sophistication of the later rulers. But he was the
only one to `buy' a kingdom from a dervish
Founder of new Sub-Cast Behlim Rajput
Behlul Khan Lodhi belonged to a Rajput family. He introduced a sub cast
with his name for his family with name of "Behlim" in 1486. Now there are a lot of
Belhlim families are present in Punjabi Rajput families.
 History-6 109
Sultan Sikandar Lodhi (1488-1518 AD)
After the death of Behlol Lodhi, Nizam Khan, the son of Behlol and Bibi
Ambha was nominated as the next king while the other chiefs desired to put Barbak
Shah, the ruler of Jaunpur and other son of Behlol. Finally Nizam Khan sat on the
throne titled as Sikandar Lodhi on July 15, 1489 AD but Barbak Khan declared his
independence in Jaunpur.
Sikandar Lodhi did not avenge after defeating him and reappointed him as the
governor of Jaunpur. He came on good terms with Alam Khan, his uncle who tried to
seize the throne in the opinion of Sikandar Lodhi.
Conquests
Sikandar Lodhi marched towards UP to curtail the rebel landlords therein and
also conquered Bihar and appointed Dariya Khan Lobani its governor. Azam
Humayun, his son was given the responsibilities of Turhat after conquering it. He
invaded Bengal but he came to the table of negotiation with Sultan Ala-ud-Din, the
ruler of Bengal agreeing on the terms that both the parties would not undermine the
cause of the other and that the escaped rebels from Delhi would not be canopied in
Bengal. He tried his level best to conquer Gwalior Fort but could not realize his
dream even after attacking it five times. He made his inroads by entering Narwar, a
place near Gwalior after a siege of eleven months. The people were suffocated to
starve on account of the consistent blockage which forced them to bow down before
the Sultan. He was again defeated by Maharaja Man Singh, the ruler of Gwalior.
Religious policy of Sikandar Lodhi
Sultan Sikandar Lodhi has been questioned on his policy of religious
tolerance though he has been reported by the chroniclers as a kind ruler. He is said to
burn a Hindu Pandit (religious entity) alive. The Pandit was found guilty of saying
that Hinduism and Islam were the same if practiced with the sincerity and devotion.
Historians have found him razing the Hindu temples and constructing mosques
instead. He also forbade the Hindus from bathing into the Muslim bath rooms and
handed over the pieces of the broken idols to the butchers to use them as weights.

Callousness to the nobles

Sultan adopted a stern policy which was contrary to the Sultan Behlol Lodhi.
He ordered them to be accountable to the finance department which noticed the
embezzlements of some of the nobles. Chiefs and noble guilty of any
misappropriation were severely punished along with the retrieval of the misused
money. Due to his policy, some of the elites tried to displace him and put Fateh Khan
(his brother) as king but Fateh Khan unfolded the conspiracy of the nobles to the
Sultan.
Agra in his age
In 1504 AD Sultan Sikandar Lodhi populated a city near Agra which was
named as Sikandra after his name. Sultan made it his capital to supervise the areas of
 110 History -6
Rajputana and (present) UP. This city was crushed under a terrible earthquake on July
6, 1505 AD.
Remarkable works in his age
Sikandar Lodhi came up as a capable ruler who expanded the Lodhi Empire to
Bihar and Gwalior. He brought his own natives Afghan tribe under him through his
strategy and expanded his empire to Bihar and Gwalior. His diplomacy with Ala-ud-
Din can be quoted as his political approach in that age. Also his trade across the
boundaries of the empire shows his keen interest in the financial affairs of the state.
The city of Agra is accredited to be commissioned by him in 1503 AD. He built
mosques in it and gave new basis to the city. His poetry penned under the name of
Gulrukh enjoys a special status in the history of his age. Being fond of learning, he
ordered to translate the great works on medicine in Sanskrit to Persian. Persian was
made the official language of accountancy in his regime.
Sultan Sikandar Lodhi was a generous ruler who distributed wealth on Fridays
among the poor and down trodden strata of the state. He provided them with blankets
and quilts in the dead of winter. “Langurs” (food houses) were made to provide free
food to the needy. On the occasions of Eids (Muslim festivals) and Milad-ud-Nabi,
(the birthday of the Holy Prophet Peace be upon Him), he used to release the
prisoners. The lists of the poor people were updated after every six months and they
were provided with the food for the next six months. The fame of Sultan Sikandar
Lodhi attracted the religious scholars from Bukhara, Iran, Arab and other Muslim
countries. Sultan fixed their salaries and provided them with the opportunity to work
whole-heartedly on their research. The author of Tarikh-e-Daoodi mentions two bad
habits which were shaving and hearing music. Sultan Sikandar Lodhi died in 1517
AD and was buried in Lodhi Gardens of Delhi.

Ibrahim Lodhi

Ibrahim Lodi was one of the rulers of the Lodi dynasty who became the
last Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate in India. He was an Afghan who ruled over much of
northern India from 1517 to 1526, when he was defeated by Babur's army.
Lodi attained the throne upon the death of his father, Sikandar Lodi, but was
not blessed with the same ruling capability. He faced a number of rebellions.
The Mewar ruler Rana Singh extended his empire right up to western Uttar
Pradesh and threatened to attackAgra. There was rebellion in the East also. Lodi also
displeased the nobility when he replaced old and senior commanders by younger ones
who were loyal to him. He was feared and loathed by his subjects. His Afghan
nobility eventually invited Babur to invade India.
Ibrahim died in the Battle of Panipat, where Babur's artillery and the desertion
of many of Lodi's soldiers led to his downfall, despite superior troop numbers.
 History-6 111
His tomb is often mistaken to be the Sheesh Gumbad within Lodi
Gardens Delhi, though is actually situated in near the tehsil office inPanipat, close to
the Dargah of Sufi saint Bu Ali Shah Qalandar. It is a simple rectangular structure on
a high platform approached by a flight of steps. In 1866, the British relocated the
tomb during construction of the Grand Trunk Road and renovated it with an
inscription highlighting Ibrahim Lodi’s death in the Battle of Panipat.
Ibrahim ascended the throne in November 1517 after the death of his father
Sikandar Lodi. He was a weak Sultan. His reign is marked with the intrigues of the
Afghan nobles. At the time of Sikandar’s death, the princes and grandees of the Lodi
Dynasty were in Agra. They unanimously decided to divide sovereignty between
Ibrahim and his brother Jalal in order to guard their own interests. It was agreed that
Ibrahim would occupy Delhi and Agra and the boundary of his kingdom would
extend up to the border of former Jaunpur. The Afghan tradition was averse to the
centralized monarchy and a similar experiment was attempted after the death of
Buhlul in the case of Sikandar and Barbek. The feud among the various sections of
Afghans was once again responsible for division of the kingdom but in this step laid
hidden the seed of a future civil war. Within one month a war between both the
brothers started, which strengthened Rajputs under Rana Sanga of Chittor and
Sultan’s own nobility started rebelling against him. Eventually he was able to control
the rebellions. He dealt with his rebellious governors with iron hand, which proved to
be disastrous for his rule. Consequently, Sultan’s cousin and governor of Lahore
Daulat Khan Lodi was also called in the court for the same purpose. Daulat Khan
perceived the danger and invited Babur to invade India.
On 21 April 1526, Mughals and Lodies fought the first battle of Panipat. Ibrahim’s
army though numerically superior could not combat Babar’s highly mobilized army.
Ibrahim was defeated and Babur laid the foundation of Mughal rule.

Lodi Gardens
It is a park in Delhi spread over 90 acres- it has Mohammed Shah's Tomb,
Sikander Lodi's Tomb architectural works of the 15th century which ruled much of
Northern India during the 16th century and the site is now protected by Archeological
Survey of India (ASI). The gardens are situated between Khan Market and
Safdarjung's Tomb on Lodi Road. It is beautiful and serene and is a hotspot for
morning walks for the Delhiites.

The Role of Lodhi Dynasty in promotion of culture

Lodhi Sultans carried further the tradition of mixture of Tughlaq and Turkish
Style of Architecture. In their buildings arches and beams both are used and also the
balconies, caves and mandaps in the Rajasthani and Gujarati styles. Lodhi Sultans
 112 History -6
used a new style as well, e.g., construction of tombs on a raised platform so that they
can appear to be lofty and huge.
The foundation of the buildings was laid so deep that many of these buildings
are existing even today. Some other characteristics of the buildings of this period
were uniformity of the buildings, vast chambers, high domes, arched doors etc.
During this period some tombs were constructed within the parks e.g.
Tomb of Sikander Lodhi:
The Tomb of Sikander Lodhi was constructed within the Lodhi Gardens.
Some tombs of this period were octagonal. Some of these characteristics were
adopted later on by the Mughals also. In this period the outer layer of the domes were
decorated with coloured covering.
The tomb of Sikander Lodhi is the best building of this period built in 1517
A.D. by Ibrahim Lodhi. The tomb is situated in a big surrounding wall and its dome
is surrounded by an umbrella with eight pillars.
Mosques:
Among the mosques of the Lodhi period, the mosque built by the wazir of
Sikander Lodhi called 'Moti ki Masjid' was the best. In other words we can say that
'Moti ki Masjid' is considered to be the finest specimen of the architecture of the
Lodhis. (iii) Tombs of the Nobles:
The tombs of the nobles are not without much dignity and strength and the
most important among them are the tombs of Bare Khan and Chhote Khan, the Bara
Gumbad, the Shish Gumbad, the tomb of Shihab-ud-Din, Taj Khan, Dadi ka Gumbad
and Poti ka Gumbad.
Causes of Decline of Delhi Sultnate : The main causes were :-
1. Deposite and military type of government which did not have the confidence
of the people
2. Degeneration of Delhi Sultans (esp. the wild projects of Muhammad-bin-
Tughlaq, Incompetence of Firoz Tughlaq)
3. War of succession as there was no fixed law of it
4. Greed and incompetency of nobles
5. Defective military organisation
6. Vastness of empire and poor means of communication
7. Finanical instability
8. Number of slaves increased to 1,80,000 in Firoz Tughlaq's time which was a
burden on the treasury
9. Invasion of Timur

Decline of Lodi Dynasty

 History-6 113
During the early period of Ibrahim Lodi’s regime, the governmental system of
the Lodi Kingdom had crumbled down as a result of deserted business itineraries
along with exhausted exchequer. There was a business itinerary through the seashore
which was known as the Deccan. However, in the latter part of the 15 th century, the
routes for provisions of the dynasty had foundered.

The downfall and gradual breakdown of the particular business itinerary led to
discontinuation of provisions from the seashore to the internal areas of the Lodi
Dynasty. The empire simply did not have the capacity to shield itself when battles
took place on the ways of the business itineraries. As a result, the rulers of the Lodi
Dynasty stopped utilizing those business itineraries. Consequently, the commercial
activities experienced a slump which also affected the exchequer of the dynasty
badly. Because of this, they became quite weak towards domestic administrative
issues.

Disloyalty against the dynasty

There was another reason behind the downfall of this huge empire. Ibrahim
Lodi faced threats from a number of people which included his close associates and
kin. Alam Khan posed a threat to him who was his uncle by relationship. He also took
the side of Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur. Another danger that he faced was from
Rana Sanga of Mewar, a chieftain of the Rajput clan. Rana Sanga ruled in Mewar
from 1509 to 1526.

The then ruler of Punjab, Daulat Khan, talked with Zahir-ud-din Muhammad
Babur regarding Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. He assured the Mughal emperor regarding his
loyalty also. The reason why Sultan Ibrahim Lodi was constantly in danger was that a
number of kingdoms and provinces were bordering his empire from different sides.
During this time, the Khalji Empire was stationed to the northeastern part of his
province. The Gujarat Sultanate barricaded the sea in the east and the Rajput army
was positioned in the northwest side. The Berar and Khandesh provinces were lying
towards the south. The Jaunpur Sultanate, which was a part of the contemporary Uttar
Pradesh, shared boundaries with the Lodi Empire as well.

Religion of Lodi Dynasty

The religion practiced during the Lodi Dynasty was Sunni Islam.

Babur’s Rise to Power and Preeminence of the Mughals

Once Sultan Ibrahim Lodi breathed his last on the battleground, Zahir-ud-din
Muhammad Babur nominated himself as the supreme monarch of the empire of
Ibrahim Lodi, rather than leaving the throne to Lodi’s uncle Alam Khan. The tragic
 114 History -6
end to Ibrahim Lodi’s life resulted in the foundation of the Mughal Dynasty over the
country. Ibrahim Lodi was the final monarch of the Lodi Kingdom. The residual
portion of Lodi’s Kingdom was annexed by the Mughal Emperor Babur to his
kingdom. After this, Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur kept on involving in increased
number of army operations.
Behamany sultanate and its linked states
The Bahmani Sultanate was a Muslim state of the Deccan in South Indiaand
one of the great medieval Indian kingdoms. Bahmanid Sultanate was the first
independent Islamic Kingdom in South India.
The sultanate was founded on 3 August 1347 by governor Ala-ud-Din Hassan
Bahman Shah, a Persian (Tajik) descent from Badakhshan, who revolted against
the Sultan of Delhi, Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Nazir uddin Ismail Shah who had
revolted against the Delhi Sultanate stepped down on that day in favour ofZafar
Khan who ascended the throne with the title of Alauddin Bahman Shah. His revolt
was successful, and he established an independent state on the Deccan within the
Delhi Sultanate's southern provinces. The Bahmani capital was Ahsanabad
(Gulbarga) between 1347 and 1425 when it was moved to Muhammadabad (Bidar).
The Bahmani contested the control of the Deccan with the Hindu Vijayanagara
Empire to the south. The sultanate reached the peak of its power during the vizierate
(1466–1481) of Mahmud Gawan. After 1518 the sultanate broke up into five states:
Nizamshahi of Ahmednagar, Qutubshahi of Golconda (Hydrabad)Baridshahi of
Bidar,Imadshahi of Varhad,Adilshahi of Bijapur.They are collectively known
as"Deccan Sultanates"
History
Soon after Muhammad Tughlaq left Daulatabad, the city was conquered
by Zafar Khan in 1345. Independence from Delhi was immediately declared and
Khan established a sultanate of his own. Zafar Khan, a Turkish or Afghan officer of
unknown descent, had earlier participated in a mutiny of troops in Gujarat. He
probably did not feel too safe in Daulatabad, so he shifted his capital two years later
to Gulbarga(Karnataka). This town is located in a fertile basin surrounded by hills.
The mighty citadel of the sultan exists to this day. Not far from this place was the
capital of the Rashtrakutas, Malkhed or Manyakheta, which shows that this area was
ideally suited as a nuclear region of a great realm.
Zafar Khan, also known as Bahman Shah, became the founder of an important
dynasty which ruled the Deccan for nearly two centuries. He had to fight various
remnants of Muhammad Tughlaq’s troops, as well as the Hindu rulers of Orissa and
Warangal who had also expanded their spheres of influence as soon as Muhammad
had left the Deccan. The rajas of Vijayanagar had established their empire almost at
the same time as Bahman Shah had founded his sultanate; they now emerged as his
most formidable enemies. The Bahmani sultans were as cruel and ferocious as the
Delhi sultans, at least according to contemporary chronicles. Bahman Shah’s
successor, Muhammad Shah (1358–73), killed about half a million people in his
 History-6 115
incessant campaigns until he and his adversaries came to some agreement to spare
prisoners-of-war as well as the civilian population. Despite their many wars, Sultan
Muhammad Shah and his successors could not expand the sultanate very much: they
just about managed to maintain the status quo. Around 1400 the rulers of
Vijayanagar, in good old Rajamandala style, even established an alliance with the
Bahmani sultans’ northern neighbours – the sultans of Gujarat and Malwa – so as to
check his expansionist policy. But in 1425 the Bahmani sultan subjected Warangal
and thus reached the east coast. However, only a few years later the new
Suryavamsha dynasty of Orissa challenged the sultanate and contributed to its
downfall.
In the fifteenth century the capital of the Bahmani sultanate was moved from
Gulbarga toBidar. The new capital, Bidar, was at a much higher level (about 3,000
feet) than Gulbarga and had a better climate in the rainy season, but it was also nearly
100 miles further to the northeast and thus much closer to Warangal. Bidar soon was
as impressive a capital as Gulbarga had been. Anastasy Nikitin, a Russian traveller
who spent four years in the sultanate from 1470 to 1474, left us a report which is one
of the most important European accounts of life in medieval India. He highlighted the
great contrast between the enormous wealth of the nobility and the grinding poverty
of the rural population.
The most important personality of this Bidar period of the Bahmani sultanate
was Mahmud Gawan, who served several sultans as prime minister and general from
1461 to 1481. He reconquered Goa, which had been captured by the rulers of
Vijayanagar. The sultanate then extended from coast to coast. Gawan also introduced
remarkable administrative reforms and controlled many districts directly. State
finance was thus very much improved. But his competent organisation ended with his
execution, ordered by the sultan as the result of a court intrigue. After realising his
mistake the sultan drank himself to death within the year, thus marking the beginning
of the end of the Bahmani sultanate.
After Gawan’s death the various factions at the sultan’s court started a
struggle for power that was to end only with the dynasty itself: indigenous Muslim
courtiers and generals were ranged against the ‘aliens’ – Arabs, Turks and Persians.
The last sultan, Mahmud Shah (1482–1518) no longer had any authority and presided
over the dissolution of his realm. The governors of the four most important provinces
declared their independence from him one after
another: Bijapur (1489), Ahmadnagar and Berar (1491), Bidar (1492) and
Golconda (1512). Although the Bahmani sultans lived on in Bidar until 1527, they
were mere puppets in the hands of the real rulers of Bidar, the Barid Shahis, who used
them so as to put pressure on the other usurpers of Bahmani rule.
Bijapur proved to be the most expansive of the successor states and annexed
Berar and Bidar. Ahmadnagar and Golconda retained their independence and finally
joined hands with Bijapur in the great struggle against Vijayanagar. Embroiled in
incessant fighting on the Deccan, Bijapur lost Goa to the Portuguese in 1510 and was
unable to regain this port, even though attempts at capturing it were made up to 1570.
 116 History -6
The armies of Vijayanagar were a match for the armies of Bijapur. However, when
all the Deccan sultanates pooled their resources Vijayanagar suffered a crucial defeat
in 1565. Subsequently the Deccan sultanates succumbed to the Great Mughals:
Ahmadnagar, being the northernmost, was annexed first; Bijapur and Golconda
survived for some time, but were finally vanquished by Aurangzeb in 1686–7.
The Deccan sultanates owed their origin to the withdrawal of the sultanate of
Delhi from southern India and they were finally eliminated by the Great Mughals
who had wiped out the sultanate of Delhi some time earlier. The role which these
Deccan sultanates played in Indian history has been the subject of great debate. Early
European historians, as well as later Hindu scholars, have highlighted the destructive
role of these sultanates which were literally established on the ruins of flourishing
Hindu kingdoms. Muslim historians, by contrast, have drawn attention to the fact that
in art and architecture – indeed, Anastasy Nikitin’s report praised Bijapur as the most
magnificent city of India.
Culture
The Bahmani dynasty believed that they descended from Bahman, the
legendary king of Iran. They were patrons of the Persian
language, culture and literature, and some members of the dynasty became well-
versed in that language and composed in its literature.
These sultanates certainly contributed to the further development of India’s
regional cultures. Some of these sultanates made important contributions to the
development of the regional languages. The sultans of Bijapur recognised Marathi as
a language in which business could be transacted. The sweeping conquest of India by
Islamic rulers, epitomised by the far-flung military campaigns of the Delhi sultans,
was thus in direct contrast to the regionalistic aspect of the above-mentioned
ventures. The coexistence of Islamic rule with Hindu rule in this period added a
further dimension to this regionalisation.
Hindu states of rajputana???????????
 History-6 117
Chapter 5
Socio Cultural Developments (711 AD-1526 AD)
Sufis and the Spread of Islam
The spread of Islam in the Sub-continent is the story of untiring efforts of
numerous saints and Sufis who dedicated their lives to the cause of service to
humanity. By the time the Muslim Empire was established at Delhi, Sufi fraternities
had come into being and the Sufi influence was far more powerful than it was in
earlier days under the Arabs in Sindh. The two great fraternities that established
themselves very early in Muslim India were the Suhrawardiyah and the Chishtiyah.
The Suhrawardiyah order was founded by Sheikh Ab-al-Najib Suhrawardi (1097 –
1162) and was introduced into Muslim India by Sheikh Baha-ud-din Zakariya (1182
– 1268) of Multan. With Multan as its center the Silsilah became dominant in the
areas that now constitute Pakistan. Hadrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din introduced the
Chishtiyah Silsilah in the Sub-continent. He settled in Ajmer. Because he established
the first Sufi Silsilah in the Indian sub-continent, he is often referred to as Hind-al-
Wali. Khawaja Muin-ud-din Ajmeri’s chief disciple, Khawaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar
Kaki, who lived at Delhi, was held in high esteem by Iltutmush. Baba Farid who was
the disciple of Khawaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, decided to settle in Punjab. The
Chishtiyah order remained the most popular order during the Sultanate period.

Baba Farid appointed Sheikh Nizam-ud-din Auliya (1238 – 1325) as his

Khalifah. It was Nizam-ud-din Auliya who trained a group of Sufis for the
propagation of Islam in Gujarat, the Deccan and Bengal. Earlier, Sheikh Ali Hajweri,
popularly known as Data Ganj Baksh, came from Ghazni to Lahore a few days after
the death of Sultan Mahmud. He is mainly responsible for the propagation of Islam in
Punjab. The disciple of Sheikh Baha-ud-din Zakariya, Syed Jalal-ud-din Bukhari,
popularly known as Mukhdum Jahanian Jahangasht, was one of the most important
saints of the Suhrawardiyah order.
He played an important part in the propagation of Islam in Sindh. Shah Jalal
came from Turkey and was a great Suhrawardi saint of Bengal. He came to the Sub-
continent in the reign of Iltutmush. Due to his missionary activities, Islam gained
good ground in Sylhet. Sheikh Ala-ul-Haq and his son Nur Qutb Alam established
new orders after their names in Bengal, and are responsible for large-scale
conversions in Sylhet, Bengal.

Impact of Sufism
Sufi saints were responsible for the introduction of the mystical form of
Islam. Hindus and Hinduism ware deeply influenced by the Sufi saints. Sufi scholars
instrumental in the social economical and philosophical development of the
 118 History -6
masses. Sufi saints also contributed significantly in spreading Islam in the Indian
subcontinent and across Asia

Sufism in India

Sufism in India had an instrumental role in

spreading Islam in India. The Sufisbelonged to different tariqas (orders) of Sufism.
The most prominent tariqahs of India are
the Shadhiliyya, Chishtiyyah, Naqshbandiyyah, Qadiriyyah and Suhrawardiyyaorders
. Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti introduced the Chishtiyyah in India. He came to India
from Afghanistan in 1192 AD and started living permanently in Ajmer in 1195.
Centuries later, with the support of Mughal rulers, his shrine became a place of
pilgrimage. Akbar would visit the shrine every year. In India, Sufi saints have
emerged periodically to reshape the sacred in society. Although Sufi teachings
convey the message of love and harmony, many movements, including
the Wahhabi movement, arose against the developments in Sufism which appeared
during the reign of Akbar.
History
In the 9th century, when the ‘Abbasids were in decline and Sindh was slipping
out of their control, India was regarded as one of the most civilized regions outside of
Islamic rule.[4] By the time the ‘Abbasid Caliphate fell, there were many Sufi orders
that had sprung up across the Muslim world, founded by eminent scholars. They
built khaniqahs or hospices which were the focal points for the spread of Islam and
Islamic teaching. Under each main center, sub-centers sprang up which owed their
allegiance to the order. While the kings at that time used their political power, the
Sufi saints exercised their spiritual power and had a greater hold on people. The
orthodox ulema (Islamic legal scholars) were generally critical of the Sufis, but in
the history of Islam Sufis played a major role. They interpreted Islam in a liberal way
and brought about large-scale conversions to Islam. The relations between Sufis and
the rulers of Sindh were greatly influenced by the presence of the Suhrawardi order,
which enjoyed the favor of the Sindhi rulers. The Sufis in Sindh received a step-
motherly treatment until the arrival of the Mughals in 1707. Sufi saints helped in the
refinement and development of Indian languages and bridging the spiritual gap
between the masses.

Chishtī Order
The Chishtī Order is a Sufi order within the mysticSufi tradition of Islam. It
began in Chisht, a small town near Herat, Afghanistan about 930 CE. The Chishti
Order is known for its emphasis on love, tolerance, and openness.
The Chishti Order is primarily followed in Afghanistan and South Asia. It was
the first of the four main Sufi orders
(Chishti, Qadiriyya, Suhrawardiyya and Naqshbandi) to be established in this
 History-6 119
region. Moinuddin Chishti introduced the Chishti Order in Lahore (Punjab)
and Ajmer (Rajasthan), sometime in the middle of the 12th century AD. He was
eighth in the line of succession from the founder of the Chishti Order, Abu Ishq
Shami. There are now several branches of the order, which has been the most
prominent South Asian Sufi brotherhood since the 12th century.
In the last century, the order has spread outside Afghanistan and South Asia.
Chishti teachers have established centers in the United Kingdom, the United States,
Australia and South Africa. Devotees include both Muslim immigrants from South
Asia and Westerners attracted to Sufi teachings.

Soharwardi order
The Suhrawardiyya is a Sufi order founded by the Iranian Sufi Diya al-din
Abu 'n-Najib as-Suhrawardi (1097 – 1168 CE). It is a strictly Sunni order, guided by
theShafi`i school of Islamic law (madhab), and, like many such orders, traces its
spiritual genealogy (silsila) to Hazrat Ali ibn Abi Talib through Junayd
Baghdadi and al-Ghazali. It played an important role in the formation of a
conservative ‘new piety’ and in the regulation of urban vocational and other groups,
such as trades-guilds and youth clubs , particularly in Baghdad. Some of its usages
resemble those of Freemasonry.
The first of the Suhrawardi saints was Abu al-Najib Suhrawardi (490–563
AH). The Suhrawardiyyah order was started by his nephew and disciple Abu Hafs
Umar al-Suhrawardi of Baghdad and brought to India by Baha-ud-din
Zakariya of Multan. The Suhrawardiyyah order achieved popularity
in Bengal particularly.
Naqshbandia order
The origin of this order can be traced back to Khwaja Ya‘qub Yusuf al-
Hamadani (b. AD 1140), who lived in Central Asia. It was later organised
by Baha’uddin Naqshband (1318–1389) of Turkestan, who is widely referred to as
the founder of the Naqshbandi order. Khwaja Muhammad al-Baqi Billah Berang,
whose tomb is in Delhi, introduced the Naqshbandi order to India. The essence of this
order was insistence on strict adherence to the shari‘ah and nurturance of love for the
Prophet Muhammad. It was patronized by the Mughal rulers, as its founder was their
ancestral pīr, or spiritual guide. "The conquest of India by Babur in 1526 gave
considerable impetus to the Naqshbandiyya order". Its disciples remained loyal to the
throne because of their common Turkic origin. With the royal patronage of most of
the Mughal rulers, the Naqshbandi order brought about the revival of Islam. The
Naqshbandis earned their living by designing patterns printed on cloth.
The Qadiri order
The Qadiri order was founded by Abdul-Qadir Gilani, whose tomb is in
Baghdad. It is popular among the Muslims of South India. It is one of the most
widespread orders in Sufism. It has many branches, such as Sarwari Qadiri.
 120 History -6
The order relies strongly upon adherence to the fundamentals of Islam.
Common names for descendants of this order includeBalochi Qadri and Ahmed
Qadri. The Qadri are all Sufis.
The order, with its many offshoots, is widespread, particularly in the Arabic-
speaking world, and can also be found
in Turkey, Indonesia, Afghanistan, India, Bangladesh, Pakistan,
the Balkans, Israel,China, East and West Africa. A few famous travelers and writers
such as Isabelle Eberhardtalso belonged to the Qadiri order.
Hazrat syed ali bin usman data ganj bakhsh
Abul Hassan Ali Ibn Usman al-Hajvery also known as Daata Ganj Bakhsh
was a Persian Sufi and scholar during the 11th century. He significantly contributed
to the spreading of Islam in South Asia.
He was born around 990 CE near Ghazni, Afghanistan during the Ghaznavid
Empire and died in Lahore in 1077 CE. His most famous work is Kashf Al
Mahjub,written in the Persian language. The work, which is one of the earliest and
most respected treatises of Sufism, debates Sufi doctrines of the past.
Ali Hajvery is also famous for his mausoleum in Lahore, which is surrounded
by a large marble courtyard, a mosque and other buildings. It is the most frequented
of all the shrines in that city, and one of the most famous in Pakistan and nearby
countries. His name is a household word, and his mausoleum the object of pilgrimage
from distant places.
He belonged to a Syed family (descendant of the Holy Prophet). He
completed his earlier education in Ghazni by memorizing the Holy Quran. Then he
studied Arabic, Farsi, Hadith, Fiqh, Philosophy etc. At that time Ghazni was the
center of education in Central Asia, and it was the realm of the famous Afghan ruler
Sultan Mahmood Ghaznavi.
After completing the wordly education, he searched for the spiritual
education. He travelled to many places for this purpose, and finally became spiritual
disciple of Hazrat Abul Fazal Mohammad bin Khatli, in Junaidiya Sufi Order, who
lived in Syria.
Sayyad Ali Hujweri (d.465 AH)
Hazrat Sayyad Ali bin Usman Hujweri Lahori (d. 465 AH / 1072 or 1073 CE),
is the renowned Sufi shaykh of 5th century Hijri and is well known with his title Data
Ganj Bakhsh. He was originally from Hujwer, a town in Ghazni (now Afghanistan),
and later migrated to Lahore for the propagation of Islam and Sufism. He was a
sayyid from the line of Sayyidina Imam Hasan, and his mother was from the line of
Imam Hussain, may Allah be pleased with them both.
He wrote many books but all of them perished. The only title available today is the
masterpiece of Sufism and the first book written on this topic in Persian, Kashf al-
Mahjoob. This is the most popular book of Tasawwuf in the Indian Muslims. Sultan
al-Auliya Shaykh Nizam al-Din Auliya (d. 725 AH) is quoted to have said: “One who
does not have a Murshid will find a Murshid by the blessings of reading this book.”
 History-6 121

Hazrat Khawaja Moinuddin Chisti Ajmeri

Sultan-ul-Hind, Moinuddin Chishti was born in 1141 and died in 1230 CE.
Also known as Gharīb Nawāz "Benefactor of the Poor" , he is the most
famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order of the Indian Subcontinent. Moinuddin Chishti
introduced and established the order in the Subcontinent. The initial spiritual chain
or silsila of the Chishti order in India, comprising Moinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar
Kaki, Baba Farid and Nizamuddin Auliya (each successive person being the disciple
of the previous one), constitutes the great Sufi saints of Indian history.
Hazrat Khwaja Moinuddin Hasan Chishti (R.A) Occupies a prominent place
among the spiritual Healers of the world. Hazrat Khawaja Moinuddin Hasan
Chishti (R.A.) Popularly know as “Sultan-Ul-Hind”, Khawaja Gharib
Nawaz (R.A.), Khwaja Garib Nawaz Ajmeri, Khwaja Baba, Dargah Khwaja Saheb
Ajmer, Khwaja Ajmeri, Dargah Khwaja Sahib Ajmer, was born in 1142 A.D. in
Sanjar (Iran). His paternal genealogy is related to Hazrat lmam Hussain (A.S.) and
that of his Matemal to Hazrat Imam Hassan (A. S.) And thus he is a direct descendant
of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W.)
He is a symbol of love, harmony and truth. The sources of this power may be
traced to his own exceptional endowments. Throughout his life, he exhibited the
noble traits of character so peculiar to the house of Prophet Muhammed (S.A.W) to
which he belonged. Truth, right conduct, peace, love & non-violence are the mission
& true message of sufis
It is a well established historical fact that in spreading the ethical and
spiritual values of Islam, major and effective works have been Made by the Walis of
ALLAH (saints). It was their humanistic grade, and piety which won over the hearts
of millions of people. They made a direct contact with the masses served and loved
them, lived with them in the realization of Eternal Truth. The proof of this is more
than evident from the history of growth of Islam in India. Although Islam had made
major growth in this subcontinent of India in the first century of Hijra, but the noble
task of inspiring the people to its tenets and values in India was accomplished by
Hazrat Khwaja Moinuddin Chishty (R.A.). He did it all through his great moral
power, glorious and appealing character, with love and dedication to mankind,
without any worldly resources of wealth, power, force and material means.
Khwaja Baba was a scholar a great repute. He interpreted the true Islamic
message of love for mankind and through that, the love for the Almighty creator. He
preached the Quranic philosophy of the unity of religion and worked out its
potentialities for the whole humanity. Sufi Saint Khawaja Muinuddin Chisti was the
greatest mystic of his time. He laid the foundation of the liberal Chishti order of Sufis
in India, and inspired millions of souls to be his followers and thus served the masses
of the Indian Sub-continent. Sufi Saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti order

The Holy life and Holy mission of Khawaja Saheb have been of an
 122 History -6
exceptional character as compared with any other saint in India. His simple teaching
penetrated even stony heart, his affectionate look silenced the fiercest of his enemies.
His matchless piety and blessings knew no distinction and his "spiritual power",
amazed and did defied his bitterest adversaries who came to harm him but were
inspire to embrace Islam and become his devotees for rest of the life. He brought the
message of universal love and peace. He chose the way of non-compulsion in the true
spirit of holy Quran he says : "Let there be no compulsion in religion, will thou
compel men to become believers? No soul can believe but by the persuasion of
Allah" .Khawaja Moinuddin Chisti (R.A.) followed this dictum strictly throughout
his mission. It is because of this reason that he is popularly known as ' Khwaja Garib
Nawaz' which means the one who shows kindness to the poor. This was later
reinforced by succeeding Chishtia Sufis, who became religious pioneers in national
integration in the country. They fulfilled the objective of bringing together various
castes, communities and races, elevating the humanity from the morass of
materialistic concerns, which is the bane of mankind even today.
Hazrat Baba Farid Shaker Ganj
Farīduddīn Mas'ūd Ganjshakar commonly known as Baba Farid , was a 12th-
century Sufi preacher and saint of the Chishti Order ofSouth Asia.
Fariduddin Ganjshakar is generally recognized as the first major poet of
the Punjabi language, and is considered one of the pivotal saints of the Punjab region.
Revered byMuslims and Hindus, he is considered one of the fifteen Sikh bhagats, and
selections from his work are included in the Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh sacred
scripture. He is buried in Pakpattan, in present-day Punjab, Pakistan.
Life
Bābā Farīd was born in 1173 or 1188 AD (584 Hijri) at Kothewal village,
10 km from Multan in thePunjab region of the Chauhan dynasty in what is
now Pakistan, to Jamāl-ud-dīn Suleimān and Maryam Bībī ,daughter of Sheikh
Wajīh-ud-dīn Khojendī. He was a descendant of the Farrūkhzād, known as Jamāl-ud-
Dawlah, a Persian king of eastern Khorasan.
He was the grandson of Sheikh Shu'aib, who was the grandson of Farrukh
Shah Kabuli, the king ofKabul and Ghazna. When Farrukh Shāh Kābulī was killed by
the Mongol hordes invading Kabul, Farīd’s grandfather, Shaykh Shu'aib, left
Afghanistan and settled in the Punjab in 1125.
Farīd’s genealogy is a source of dispute, as some trace his ancestors back to
al-Husayn while others trace his lineage back to the second Caliph Umar ibn Khattab.
Baba Farid's ancestors came from Kufa, while Abdullah ibn Umar died during
the Hajj and was buried in Makkah. The family tree of Baba Fareed traces through
Abu Ishaq Ibrahim bin Adham, whose ancestors came from Kufa.
Fariduddin Ganjshakar was born in the city of Balkh. His nickname was Abu
Ishaq. Khwajah Fudhail Bin Iyadh had conferred the mantle of Khilaafate to him.
Besides being the Khalifah of Hadhrat Fudhail, he was also the Khalifah of Khwajah
Imran Ibn Musa, Khwajah Imam Baqir, Khwajah Shaikh Mansur Salmi and Khwajah
Uwais Qarni."
 History-6 123
Bābā Farīd received his early education at Multan, which had become a centre
for education; it was here that he met his murshid (master), Quṭbuddīn Bakhtiyār
Kākī, a noted Sufi saint, who was passing through Multan, from Baghdad on his way
to Delhi. Upon completing his education, Farīd left for Sistan and Kandahar and went
to Mecca for the Hajj pilgrimage at the age of 16.
Once his education was over, he shifted to Delhi, where he learned the
doctrine of his master, Quṭbuddīn Bakhtiyār Kākī. He later moved
to Hansi, Haryana. When Quṭbuddīn Bakhtiyār Kākī died in 1235, Farīd left Hansi
and became his spiritual successor, but he settled in Ajodhan instead of Delhi. On his
way to Ajodhan, while passing through Faridkot, he met the 20-year-old Nizāmuddīn,
who went on to become his disciple, and later his successor .
Bābā Farīd married Hazabara, daughter of Sulṭān Nasīruddīn Maḥmūd. The
great Arab traveller Ibn Baṭūṭah visited him. He says that he was the spiritual guide
of the King of India, and that the King had given him the village of Ajodhan. He also
met Bābā Farīd's two sons. His shrine is in Pakpattan
Bābā Farīd's descendants, also known as Fareedi, Fareedies and Faridy,
mostly carry the name Fārūqī, and can be found in Pakistan, India and the diaspora.
His descendants include the Sufi saint Salim Chishti, whose daughter was
Emperor Jehangir's foster mother. Their descendants settled in Sheikhupur,
Badaun and the remains of a fort they built can still be found.
Tomb
The small tomb of Baba Farid is made of white marble with two doors, one facing
east and called the Nūrī Darwāza or 'Gate of Light', and the second facing north
called Bahishtī Darwāza, or 'Gate of Paradise'. There is also a long covered corridor.
Inside the tomb are two white marbled graves. One is Baba Farid's, and the other is
his elder son's. These graves are always covered by sheets of cloth called Chadders
and flowers that are brought by visitors. The space inside the tomb is limited; not
more than ten people can be inside at one time. Ladies are not allowed inside the
tomb, but the lateBenazir Bhutto, then prime minister of Pakistan, managed to enter
inside when she visited the shrine.
Baha-ud-din Zakariya
Baha-ud-din Zakariya was a Sufi of Suhrawardiyya order . His full name was
Al-Sheikh Al-Kabir Sheikh-ul-Islam Baha-ud-Din Abu Muhammad Zakaria Al-
Qureshi. Sheikh Baha-ud-Din Zakariya known as Bahawal Haq was born at Kot
Kehror , a town of the Layyah District near Multan,Punjab, Pakistan, around 1170.
His grandfather Shah Kamaluddin Ali Shah Qureshi arrived in Multan from Mecca en
route to Khwarezm where he stayed for a short while. In Tariqat he was the disciple
of renowned Sufi master Shaikh Shahab al-Din Suhrawardiwho awarded
him Khilafat only after 17 days of stay at his Khanqah in Baghdad. For fifteen years
he went from place to place to preach Islam and after his wanderings Bahawal Haq
settled in Multan in 1222.
His shrine
 124 History -6
Baha-ud-din Zakariya died in 1268 and his mausoleum, Darbar Hazrat Baha-
ud-din Zakariya, is located at Multan. The mausoleum is a square of 51 ft 9 in
(15.77 m), measured internally. Above this is an octagon, about half the height of the
square, which is surmounted by a hemispherical dome. The mausoleum was almost
completely ruined during the siege of 1848 by the British, but was soon afterward
restored by theMuslims.

Hazrat Lal Shahbaz Qalandar

Syed Usman Marandi or known as Hazrat Lal Shahbaz Qalandar (1177–1274)
a Sayed Sufi saint, philosopher, poet, and qalandar. Born Syed Hussain Shah, he
belonged to the Suhrawardiyya order of Sufis.
He preached religious tolerance among Muslims and Hindus. His mysticism
attracted people from all religions. He was called Lal (red) after his
usual red attire, Shahbaz due to his noble and divine spirit, and Qalandar for his Sufi
affiliation. Many Hindus regard him as the incarnation of Bhrithari while others
(Hindus from Sindh) consider him as an emanation of Jhule lal. Thousands of
pilgrims visit his shrine in Sehwan every year, especially at the occasion of his Urs.
Life
Shahbaz Qalandar (Syed Usman Marandi) was born in Maiwand,
Afghanistan to adervish, Syed Ibrahim Kabiruddin whose ancestors had migrated
from Baghdad and settled in Mashhad, a center of learning and civilization, before
migrating again to Marwand.
During his lifetime he witnessed the Ghaznavid and Ghurids rules in South
Asia. A contemporary of Baha-ud-din Zakariya, Fariduddin Ganjshakar, Syed
Jalaluddin Bukhari Surkh-posh of Uchch, Shams Tabrizi, Mehre Ali Shah
Mast and Rumi, he travelled around the Muslim world and settled
in Sehwan (Sindh, Pakistan) where he was eventually buried. Evidence shows that
Shahbaz Qalander was in Sindh before 1196 when he met Pir Haji Ismail Panhwar
of Paat. It is believed he arrived in Sehwan in 1251. He established a Khanqah there
and taught in the Fuqhai Islam Madarrsah: during this period he wrote his
treatises Mizna-e-Sart, Kism-e-Doyum, Aqd and Zubdah.
In Multan Lal Shahbaz met Bahauddin Zachariah Multani of the
Suhrwardiyya, Baba Farid Ganjshakar of the Chishtiyya and Makhdoom Jahanian
Surkh Bukhari. Their friendship became legendary: they were known as Chahar Yar .
According to some historians the four friends visited various parts of Sindh and
Punjab in present day Pakistan. Saints of Sindh including Shah Abdul Latif
Bhitai, Makhdoom Bilawal and Sachal Sarmast were followers of Lal Shahbaz
Qalandar.
His dedication to the knowledge of various religious disciplines enabled him
to eventually become a profound scholar. He became fluent in many languages
 History-6 125
including Persian, Turkish, Arabic, Sindhi and Sanskrit. He often quoted the
teachings of Maulana Jalal ad-Din Rumi. Lal Shahbaz lived a celibate life. He died in
1274 after living 97 years.
Urs
Lal Shahbaz' annual Urs is held on the 18 Sha'aban – the eighth month of
the Muslim lunar calendar. Sehwan springs to life and becomes the focal point of
more than half a million pilgrims from all over Pakistan. On each morning of the
three-day feast the narrow lanes of Sewhan are packed to capacity as pilgrims, fakirs
and devotees make their way to the shrine to commune with the saint, offer tributes
and make a wish. Most of the people present garlands and a green chadar with
Qur'anic inscriptions in silver or gold threads, humming verses, singing and dancing
in praise of the saint till late at night. The devotional dance known as ‘dhamal’, an
ecstatic swirl of the head and body, is performed to the rhythm of the dhol, a big
barrel-shaped drum, some of giant size and placed in the courtyard of the shrine.
Bells, gongs, cymbals and horns make a thunderous din, and the dervishes in robes,
beads, bracelets and colored head-bands whirl faster and faster until, with a final
deafening shout, they run out into the courtyard.

Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya (R.A)

Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya R.A , also known as Hazrat Nizamuddin, was a
famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order in the Indian Subcontinent, an order that
believed in drawing close to God through renunciation of the world and service to
humanity. He is one of the great saints of the Chishti order in India. His predecessors
were Fariduddin Ganjshakar, Bakhtiyar Kakiand Moinuddin Chishti. In that
sequence, they constitute the initial spiritual chain or silsilaof the Chisti order, which
is widely prevalent in India and Pakistan.
Nizamuddin Auliya, like his predecessors, stressed upon the element of love
as a means of realisation of God. For him his love of God implied a love of humanity.
His vision of the world was marked by a highly evolved sense of secularity and
kindness.[2] It is claimed by the 14th century historiographer Ziauddin Barani that his
influence on the Muslims of Delhi was such that a paradigm shift was effected in
their outlook towards worldly matters. People began to be inclined towards mysticism
and prayers and remaining aloof from the world.

life
Nizamuddin Auliya was born in Badayun, Uttar Pradesh . At the age of five,
after the death of his father, Ahmad Badayuni, he came to Delhi with his mother, Bibi
Zulekha.[4] His biography finds mention in Ain-i-Akbari, a 16th century document
written by Mughal Emperor Akbar’s vizier, Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak.
At the age of twenty, Nizāmuddīn went to Ajodhan and became a disciple of
the Sufi saintFariduddin Ganjshakar, commonly known as Baba Farid. Nizāmuddīn
 126 History -6
did not take up residence in Ajodhan but continued with his theological studies in
Delhi while simultaneously starting the Sufi devotional practices and the prescribed
litanies. He visited Ajodhan each year to spend the month of Ramadan in the
presence of Baba Farid. It was on his third visit to Ajodhan that Baba Farid made him
his successor. Shortly after that, when Nizāmuddīn returned to Delhi, he received
news that Baba Farid had expired.
Nizāmuddīn lived at various places in Delhi, before finally settling down in
Ghiyaspur, a neighborhood in Delhi undisturbed by the noise and hustle of city life.
He built his Khanqahhere, a place where people from all walks of life were fed,
where he imparted spiritual education to others and he had his own quarters. Before
long, the Khanqah became a place thronged with all kinds of people, rich and poor
alike.
Many of his disciples achieved spiritual height, including Shaikh Nasiruddin
Muhammad Chirag-e-Delhi, and Amir Khusro, noted scholar/musician, and the royal
poet of theDelhi Sultanate.
He died on the morning of 3 April 1325. His shrine, the Nizamuddin Dargah,
is located in Delhi. and the present structure was built in 1562. The shrine is visited
by people of all faiths, through the year, though it becomes a place for special
congregation during the death anniversaries, or Urs, of Nizamuddin Auliya and Amīr
Khusro, who is also buried at the Nizāmuddīn Dargāh.

Architecture of Delhi Kings

Delhi sultanate was not behind in any category to ameliorates the conditions
of indo-pak. They build numerous mosques and tombs, bath and gardens, bridges and
canals; in Syrian, Egyptian and Iranian styles. The mixture of this style is well known
as Indo-Islamic architecture.
Delhi sultanate ruled by different dynasties and they performed numerous
work which can be recognized and evaluate under the following dynasties.
Slave Dynasty:
Qutbuddin Aibek was patron of art and architecture, But unfortunately he
could survive long to show the wonders of world, but still some of them still
remaining, One of the most prominent is "Qutib Minar" started by Qutbudin Aibek
but completed by his successor Shamsuddin Iltutmish. Aibek also erected Qubbat-Ul-
Islam mosque at delhi, which is wonder in itself.
However, His successor was also not left behind in this race of architecture,
he build wonderful Jama-i-Masjid at Delhi in 1223.
Khalji Dynasty:
Muhammad Bin Tujluq and Feroz Shah Tughlaq both erected the mountains
of architecture during their regime under Delhi sultanate. Jamaat Khanah Masjid at
 History-6 127
Dargah of Shiekh Nizamuddin Aulia and Alai Darwaza at Qutib Minar are the most
precious jewel of Delhi sultanate. Begumpuri Masjid build by Muhammad bin
Tughlaq. furthermore Feroz shah built stunning more than 300 cities under his
sultanate i.e ferozabad, fatehabad etc. His cheif architect was Ghazi Malik who put
his khaliji and turkish style in his architecture.
Syed and Lodhi Dynasty:
Syed and Lodhi was also not left in the race of architecture. They also erected
many beautiful and eye catching mosques, mausoleums and tombs.
The sath gumbaj mosque is wonder of wonders, its name defines the it is masjid of 60
domes, but it contains total 77 domes in Sath Gumbaj Masjid,It is built in bengal.
Jam-i-Masjid at Ahmedabad in 1311 is also a eye catching building. which is
supported on 200 pillars.
Hushand Shah's Tomb is the most prominent work of loddhies dynasty, it is
tomb which is built on by only white marbles. furthermore, Lal darwaza mosque and
jam-i-mashid was build bt Hussian shah at Malwa.
In pakistan they also erected some wonders like Sat Gumbaj Mosque and the
tomb of Khan Jehan Ali at "Khulna" by Skindar Shah. Chota Sona and Bara Sona
Masjid build at Bengal, that further enhances the beauty of bengal.
Conclusion:

In brief, the rulers of Delhi sultanate were serious architecture their invested
they talent to erect buildings, mosque, tombs and mausoleums to remain for ever.
they showed their love to architecture by applying different styles and calligraphy.

Architecture under the Sultanate

The Turkish rulers utilized the services of the local designers and craftsmen
who were among the most skilful in the world. The new fusion that started to take
place avoided the extreme simplicity of the Islamic architecture and the lavish
decoration of the earlier Indian architecture. Among the first buildings to be erected
were the mosques at Delhi and Ajmer by Qutbddin Aibak. The mosque built in Delhi
was called the Quwwatul Islam mosque. It measured about 70x30 meters. The central
arch of this mosque which is decorated with beautiful sculptured calligraphy still
stands and is about 17 meters high and about 7 metres wide. The successor of
Qutbuddin Iltutmish was a great builder. He further extended the mosque. He also
completed the building of the Qutb Minar which had been started by Qutbuddin and
now stood in the extended courtyard of the mosque.
This is a tower rising to a height of about 70 meters and is one of the most
renowned monuments of India. The next important buildings belong to the reign of
Alauddin Khalji. He enlarged the Quwwatul Islam mosque still further and built a
gateway to the enclosure of the mosque, the Alai Darwaza. Decorative element was
introduced to beautify the building. He also started building a minar which was
designed to be double the height of Qutb Minar but the project remained unfulfilled.
 128 History -6
The Tughlaqs concentrated on the building of new cities in Delhi like Tughlaqabad,
Jahanpanah and Ferozabad. A number of buildings was erected which differed in
their style from the earlier buildings. Massive and strong structures like the tomb of
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and the walls of Tughlaqabad were built. The buildings of the
Tughlaq period were significant from the point of view of the development of
architecture. They were not beautiful but massive and very impressive.

Administration Under the Sultans of Delhi

Central system
Though five dynasties ruled during the era that is considered as the Sultanate
Period, yet the administrative set up during these 320 years was very similar. In the
central administrative system, the following were the key slots:
1. Sultan:
The Sultan was the head of the state. Though he owed nominal allegiance to
the Abbasid Caliphs, yet for all practical purposes, he was totally independent. The
chief responsibilities of the Sultan were the protection of the state, the settlement of
disputes, the defense of the realm of Islam, the enforcement of laws, the collection of
taxes, and the welfare of people. The nobility, civil services and ulema supported the
Sultan. In most cases, a predecessor either nominated the Sultan, or he had to fight a
war of succession.
2. Wazir:
The most important post next to the Sultan was that of the Prime Minister, or
the ‘Wazir’. He was in charge of the entire fiscal administration of the realm and all
matters relating to income and expenditures. He had the powers to appoint the
revenue officials, organize and collect revenue, and control the state expenditure. His
department was known as the Diwan-i-Wazir.
3. Musharraf-i-Mumalik:
This post was equal to the present-day Accountant General. This office was
used to maintain the accounts of the state.
4. Mustauf-i-Mumalik:
This post was equal to the present day Auditor General. The duties involved
auditing the accounts.
5. Sadr-us-Sadar:
The appointee was also known as Qazi-i-Mumalik. Qazi-i-Mumalik’s role
was to deal with religious affairs and immunities to scholars and men of piety.
6. Munshi-i-Mumalik:
This post dealt with the entire state correspondence.

Revenue System
The revenue structure of the empire followed the Islamic traditions inherited
from the Ghaznavids. Only in the details of agrarian administration was it modified in
accordance with local needs and practices. The state depended on agricultural
produce. Three methods of assessment were sharing, appraisement and measurement.
 History-6 129
The first was simple crop division; the second was appraisal of the quantity or value
of the state demand on the value of probable crop yield; and the third was the fixation
of the demand on the basis of actual measurement of land. Revenue was taken from
the people in the form of cash or kind. Jazia was due on the non-Muslims. Women,
children, old, mentally and physically disabled people, monks and priests were
exempt from Jazia.

Army System
The army was administered by Ariz-i-Mumalik, whose duty was to provide
horses and ration to the soldiers. His office maintained the descriptive roll of each
soldier. He was to assign different tasks to the soldiers and also was responsible for
the transfers of military personnel. Even officers of the court who held military ranks
received salaries from his office. He was not the Commander-in-Chief of the army
but was its Collector General. He exercised great influence on the state.
Judicial System
The Sultan used to sit at least twice a week to hear the complaints against the
officials of the state. Qazi-i-Mumalik used to sit with the Sultan to give him legal
advice. Decisions were made according to the Shariah. Cases of non-Muslims were
decided according to their own religious laws.

Provincial system of delhi kings

Local Administration
Local administration was vague and undefined and basically traditional
system. The provinces were divided into 6 parts headed by shiqdars with main
functions to maintain law and order and protect people against oppression of
zamindars and had to perform military obligation. The shiqs were further divided into
parganas and had different officials-
1. Amil- collected land revenue and other taxes
2. Mushrif
3. Hazamdars- treasurer
4. Qazi-Civil officials
5. Shiqdar-Criminal official
6. Kotwal-Police head under shiqdar
7. Faujdar-Military official in charge of fort along with their adjoining territories
8. Amin-Measure land
9. Qanungo-Maintained previous records of produce and assessment
10. Patwari-Village record keeper
At panchayat level khuts,muqaddam,chaudhary collected taxes and in lieu of
their services they were exempted from the taxes.
1.Provincial System
2.Judicial System
3.Military organization
4.Iqtadari System
 130 History -6

Local Administration
The provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were called iqtas. They were initially
under the control of the nobles. But the governors of the provinces were called the
muqtis or walis. They were to maintain law and order and collect the land revenue.
The provinces were divided into shiqs and the next division was pargana. The shiq
was under the control of shiqdar. The pargana comprising a number of villages was
headed by amil. The village remained the basic unit of the administration. The village
headman was known as muqaddam or chaudhri. The village accountant was called
patwari.

Economy
After consolidating their position in India, the Delhi Sultans introduced
reforms in the land revenue administration. The lands were classified into three
categories:
1. iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services.
2. khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues collected
were spent for the maintenance of royal court and royal household.
3. inam land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions.
The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue, and sometimes
even one half of the produce. They also paid other taxes and always led a hand-to-
mouth living. Frequent famines made their lives more miserable. However, Sultans
like Muhammad bi Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq took efforts to enhance agricultural
production by providing irrigational facilities and by providing takkavi loans. They
also encouraged the farmers to cultivate superior crop like wheat instead of barley.
Firoz encouraged the growth of horticulture. Muhammad bin Tughlaq created a
separate agricultural department, Diwani Kohi.
During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained momentum. A
number of cities and towns had grown during this period. Lahore, Multan, Broach,
Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad, Delhi and Jaunpur were important among them.
Delhi remained the largest city in the East. The growth of trade and commerce was
described by contemporary writers. India exported a large number of commodities to
the countries on the Persian Gulf and West Asia and also to South East Asian
countries. Overseas trade was under the control of Multanis and Afghan Muslims.
Inland trade was dominated by the Gujarat Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra
merchants. Construction of roads and their maintenance facilitated for smooth
transport and communication. Particularly the royal roads were kept in good shape.
Sarais or rest houses on the highways were maintained for the convenience of the
travelers. Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period. Sericulture was
introduced on a large scale which made India less dependent on other countries for
the import of raw silk. Paper industry had grown and there was an extensive use of
paper from 14th and 15th centuries. Other crafts like leather-making, metal-crafts and
 History-6 131
carpet-weaving flourished due to the increasing demand. The royal karkhanas
supplied the goods needed to the Sultan and his household. They manufactured costly
articles made of gold, silver and gold ware. The nobles also aped the life style of
Sultans and indulged in luxurious life. They were well paid and accumulated
enormous wealth.
The system of coinage had also developed during the Delhi Sultanate.
Iltutmish issued several types of silver tankas. One silver tanka was divided into 48
jitals during the Khalji rule and 50 jitals during the Tughlaq rule. Gold coins or dinars
became popular during the reign of Alauddin Khalji after his South Indian conquests.
Copper coins were less in number and dateless. Muhammad bin Tughlaq had not only
experimented token currency but also issued several types of gold and silver coins.
They were minted at eight different places. At least twenty five varieties of gold coins
were issued by him.
Social Life
There was little change in the structure of the Hindu society during this
period. Traditional caste system with the Brahmins on the upper strata of the society
was prevalent. The subservient position of women also continued and the practice of
sati was widely prevalent. The seclusion of women and the wearing of purdah
became common among the upper class women. The Arabs and Turks brought the
purdah system into India and it became widespread among the Hindu women in the
upper classes of north India.
During the Sultanate period, the Muslim society remained divided into several
ethnic and racial groups. The Turks, Iranians, Afghans and Indian Muslims developed
exclusively and there were no intermarriages between these groups. Hindu converts
from lower castes were also not given equal respect. The Muslim nobles occupied
high offices and very rarely the Hindu nobles were given high position in the
government. The Hindus were considered zimmis or protected people for which they
were forced to pay a tax called jiziya. In the beginning jiziya was collected as part of
land tax. Firoz Tughlaq separated it from the land revenue and collected jiziya as a
separate tax. Sometimes Brahmins were exempted from paying jiziya.
Art and Architecture
The art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate period was distinct from the
Indian style. The Turks introduced arches, domes, lofty towers or minarets and
decorations using the Arabic script. They used the skill of the Indian stone cutters.
They also added colour to their buildings by using marbles, red and yellow sand
stones. In the beginning, they converted temples and other structures demolished into
mosques. For example, the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near Qutub Minar in Delhi was
built by using the materials obtained from destroying many Hindu and Jain temples.
But later, they began to construct new structures. The most magnificent building of
the 13th century was the Qutub Minar which was founded by Aibek and completed
by Iltutmish. This seventy one metre tower was dedicated to the Sufi saint Qutbuddin
Bakthiyar Kaki. The balconies of this tower were projected from the main building
 132 History -6
and it was the proof of the architectural skills of that period. Later, Alauddin Khalji
added an entrance to the Qutub Minar called Alai Darwaza. The dome of this arch
was built on scientific lines. The buildings of the Tughlaq period were constructed by
combining arch and dome. They also used the cheaper and easily available grey
colour stones. The palace complex called Tughlaqabad with its beautiful lake was
built during the period of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq. Muhammad bin Tughlaq built the
tomb of Ghyasuddin on a high platform. The Kotla fort at Delhi was the creation of
Firoz Tughlaq. The Lodi garden in Delhi was the example for the architecture of the
Lodis.
Music
New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during
this period. Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as ghora and sanam. He
evolved a new style of light music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and
Iranian systems. The invention of sitar was also attributed to him. The Indian
classical work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of Firoz
Tughlaq. Pir Bhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period. Raja
Man Singh of Gwalior was a great lover of music. He encouraged the composition of
a great musical work called Man Kautuhal.
Literature
The Delhi Sultans patronized learning and literature. Many of them had great
love for Arabic and Persian literature. Learned men came from Persia and Persian
language got encouragement from the rulers. Besides theology and poetry, the writing
of history was also encouraged. Some of the Sultans had their own court historians.
The most famous historians of this period were Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj,
Ziauddin Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afif. Barani’s Tarikhi- Firoz Shahi contains the
history of Tughlaq dynasty. Minhaj-us-Siraj wrote Tabaqat-i-Nasari, a general history
of Muslim dynasties up to 1260.
Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the famous Persian writer of this period. He
wrote a number of poems. He experimented with several poetical forms and created a
new style of Persian poetry called Sabaqi-Hind or the Indian style. He also wrote
some Hindi verses. Amir Khusrau’s Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin’s
conquests. His famous work Tughlaq Nama deals with the rise of Ghyiasuddin
Tughlaq. Sanskrit and Persian functioned as link languages in the Delhi Sultanate. Zia
Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian. The book Tutu Nama
or Book of the Parrot became popular and translated into Turkish and later into many
European languages. The famous Rajatarangini written by Kalhana belonged to the
period of Zain-ul-Abidin, the ruler of Kashmir. Many Sanskrit works on medicine
and music were translated into Persian.
In Arabic, Alberuni’s Kitab-ul-Hind is the most famous work. Regional
languages also developed during this period. Chand Baradi was the famous Hindi
poet of this period. Bengali literature had also developed and Nusrat Shah patronized
the translation of Mahabaratha into Bengali. The Bakthi cult led to development of
 History-6 133
Gujarati and Marathi languages. The Vijayanagar Empire patronized Telugu and
Kannada literature.