Lesson 1

Techniques of Applied Instruc on

1. Teaching & The Internal Factors Influencing Behavior
Teacher’s Problems:
The process of teaching/problems faced by teachers can be split into two parts, namely:
● Presenta on of ma er
● Follow-up measures to retain these impressions.

How To Make Impressions:

To make an impression on the learner’s mind we have to ensure their preparedness to receive the informa on by
assessing the following about them: Prepared By- Capt. Rachit Singhal
● Their physical comfort
● Their mental/emo onal comfort

Needs of the taught

● Physical - the most compelling of all needs, like food, sleep, bodily comfort, clothing, protec on, etc.
● Security & Safety - the desire to avoid danger or hurt to the body & mind.
● Belongingness - the need for affec on, which in simple words means the desire to be pe ed or fondled, but also
includes the love that is generated by belonging to a group.
● Self Esteem or Self Regard - the desire to be recognized
● Self Realiza on - the urge to be crea ve and express oneself.
It is no use trying to teach a person anything if some of these needs within them are so strong that they cannot focus
on anything else. Hence they are not able to absorb or understand the informa on taught to them. Therefore, it is
paramount that these needs are sa sfied.

2. External Factor Influencing Behaviour & Strengthening of

Impressions.
Having ensured that the needs of the students are meet and that they are comfortable, it is now the task of the
instructor to ensure that the informa on is taught in such a way as to make the greatest possible and right
impression on the learner’s mind.
“S muli” : It is a reac on caused in the brain by what is seen, heard, felt, smelt or tasted.
These s muli create “traces” to certain memories or informa on that the learner might have experienced or received
in the past. Essen ally, you are s mula ng the brain with factors that might make the informa on you are trying to
teach more memorable in the learner’s mind.

The factors affec ng the strength of an impression are:

● A en on : The more a en on a learner gives to the informa on being taught, the stronger traces are created in
their mind
● Vividness: Crea ng a clear and “vivid” picture of the informa on in the learner’s mind
● Mental Imagery: How clearly the student can mentally picture the concept that is being taught.
● Appeal to the senses: The instructor should try to appeal to as many senses as possible. The instructor can do this
by presen ng the informa on visually ( video / presenta on) , auditorily ( with some kind of sound or audio) , by
touch ( by physically experiencing the concept) etc
● Teaching on topic: Ma er must be presented in the form in which it is going to be used. Examples should be given
in rela on to how the informa on might be used prac cally.
● Variety in presenta on: Making the teaching interes ng by introducing variety in the ways you teach the material
so as to not make the presenta on boring. Do not be monotonous.

3. Factors affecting ability to recall and understanding of a subject

RECALL:
● Strength of original impression: How clearly and effec vely informa on has been explained.
● Will or inten on to learn : How much a student wants to learn something.

UNDERSTANDING:
● Reasoning while learning by a careful explana on by the instructor: Explain to the student the “how” and “why”
while teaching.
● Exploratory Learning : Le ng the student explore and learn by trial and error.
● Different Approaches: Teaching students visually, auditorily or by appealing to other senses.
● Organiza on : Organising the informa on in such a way that one topic leads to another in a logical fashion. Start
from the basics and building on them to learn the more advanced topics
● Pu ng Sense into Nonsense: For remembering unrelated or difficult pieces of informa on by certain “catch
words” etc. Ex : HASELL, BODMAS (in maths) etc
● Learning by whole rather than by Parts : Ge ng an overall idea of a process and the effects of that process on
the whole, rather than just learning the steps , makes recall easier. Ex : Understanding the effect of each step of the
Start up checklist on the aircra instead of just memorising the steps.
● Curve of Reten on : Students tend to remember the most informa on at the beginning and the end of the
lesson/class. Hence, we can take advantage of this by pu ng the important points at the beginning and end of class.
The informa on in the middle of class should be repeated at the end of the class.
● Over-Repe on: Do not repeat one topic too many mes. O en if students are mo vated to learn, they do not
need too much repe on of the informa on
● Wrong Associa on : Do not teach by giving vague, wrong or unrelated examples of a topic.
● Confirming by Repe on : The learner should be asked to repeat the ma er only to confirm that they have
understood it.
● Applicable Knowledge : Ensure that the knowledge gained is available for applica on whenever wanted. That is, if
something is taught in theory, the student should know how to apply that
during prac ce.
● Preven ng Total Forge ng : Emphasize that what is learnt will con nue to be useful in many different scenarios.
Two main ways to do this:
○ Learning a li le more than what is required
○ Reinforcement by a form of periodical revision

4. Fundamental Causes Of Forgetting

Forge ng is an ac ve behavioral phenomenon. It is a result of three fundamental condi ons:
● Altered S mula ng Condi ons: When students are taught in reference to a par cular s muli (ie. situa on), they
will have a higher tendency to forget when the s muli ( situa on) changes.
○ This can be overcome by “learning for transfer” that is, informa on should be taught in a way that it can
be used in general, even if the situa on/environment the informa on is taught in changes. The student should be
able to apply that knowledge in different situa ons
○ This kind of “learning for transfer” does not occur automa cally, it needs to be specifically taught by the
teacher.
○ Compe ng S muli: If a student gets distracted by something strongly ( they have a compe ng s muli)
then they won’t be able to learn or pay a en on to what the teacher is trying to teach them. Hence, they will be
more likely to forget the material being taught.
● Forge ng Caused by Inadequate or Different Mo va on:
○ If learning and recall is a result of the learner’s strong and par cular mo va on, then forge ng is related
to the lack of that mo va on when the me comes to remember what they have learned. This is to say, that if the
learner does not consider the informa on being taught as important , then they are more likely to forget it.
● Forge ng is a Result Intervening Ac vity:
○ Forge ng is increased when you are taught a new topic (new learning) right a er learning a different
topic before it (original learning) . The new learning that occurs a er the original learning causes a person to forget
what they were originally taught when asked to recall the original learning. That is called “intervening” learning
ac vity causes forge ng of the original learning.

● Variables of the intervening ac vity that causes forge ng:

● What kind of ac vity was it?
● How mentally difficult was the ac vity ?
● How long a er the original learning was the intervening ac vity?
● How much me has passed between the original learning and when the learner is asked to recall it?
● How well has the student learned or been taught the original learning?
● The student’s own ability to study and learn the original learning

5. An Integrated Approach To Retention Transfer

The Teacher,& Learning for Use
● The teacher always has to make sure that the subject is taught in such a way that the learner gains an overall,
general understanding of what is being taught, so that they can apply it in various situa ons.
● The material should be taught in such a way that the student actually remembers what has been taught even if
they are asked about it at a much later me
● The teacher should ensure that the student not only remembers all the important points of what is being taught,
but also that they can readily use the informa on whenever they need to

The Teacher, and Learning for Use

● The learner o en learns material for temporary use, only to achieve a further step in learning, but as soon as this
step is achieved it, the material is very quickly forgo en
○ For example : Studying and learning only to pass an exam. Once the exam is over, the student quickly
forgets what they had learned.
● However, some mes, one forgets the temporarily learned material and replaces it with more advanced material.
The idea is that once the learner understands advance concepts, they will have to or be able to, recall the basics.
○ This phenomenon is most common in Sports , Typing, Musical Instrument playing and other such skill
areas
The Rela onship of Old & New Learning
● Success of Learning: It should not only be measured in terms of how much the learner is able to directly recall,
but rather it should be measured by their overall understanding of the teaching
● All new learning must be integrated with previous learning: Any new concept taught must be able to be related
to previously taught concepts, as well as to the bigger picture of what is being taught. The new concept may be
completely misunderstood if it is taught without an understanding of previous concepts that are related to it.
● New material restructures understanding of old material: Any new learning may not make sense by itself but
might make sense when applied to previously understood material. That is, learner might forget new material, but
that material may influence how much the learner understands and applies the previously learned material.
Retroac ve Inhibi on
What the learner does before, during and a er being taught some concept or material influences how much they will
remember or forget what was taught.
● Retroac ve Inhibi on : This occurs when a learner learns some material , then engages in ac vity which interferes
with what they were taught, causing them to forget or misremember what they had learned originally.

Proac ve Inhibi on
● Proac ve Inhibi on: This works in the opposite manner as retroac ve inhibi on. Past Learning may interfere with
anything new the student is trying to learn. This can occur in two ways
○ The way a student was taught something in the past may be interfering with them understanding the new
concepts because they aren’t able to adapt to the new informa on.
○ The new informa on may be so closely related to the old material, that there may be a problem with
differen a ng the old from the new, thereby making it more difficult to understand and remember the new
informa on

Summary
The Background of Methods can be summarized as below:
The learner must be mo vated.
The teacher must present the subject so as to make the greatest possible impression and the right impression on the
learner’s mind.
The teacher must ensure that the learner understands what he is learning.
The teacher must strengthen and confirm the impressions by repe on and by making the learner recall that
informa on.
The teacher must ensure that the learning remains available.
The teacher must have an integrated approach to the reten on-transfer problem taking into account the retro-ac ve
and pro-ac ve inhibi ons

TO SAY IN SHORT

The "Techniques of Applied Instruction" focus on the process of teaching, particularly the methods
instructors use to make learning effective and ensure that students retain the information.
It emphasizes two main aspects: the presentation of content and the follow-up measures to strengthen
retention.
The key to effective teaching is ensuring that learners' basic physical, emotional, and psychological needs
are met before learning can occur.
Teachers should also focus on external factors like attention, vividness, sensory appeal, and varied
presentation methods to enhance learning.
Factors such as the ability to recall and understand concepts depend on the strength of initial impressions,
motivation, and the logical organization of content.
The teacher must also address challenges like forgetting by using strategies like reinforcement, exploration,
and learning for transfer to make information applicable in different contexts.
Effective teaching integrates new material with prior knowledge, helping learners not only retain but also
apply the knowledge they acquire.

In short,
the "Techniques of Applied Instruction" are about using thoughtful, systematic methods to make
learning meaningful, memorable, and practical for students, ensuring that knowledge is both
understood and retained.
 Lesson: 2
Assessment of Students in Those Subjects In Which
Ground Instruc on Is Given
Assimila on
● Assimila on is A process of taking in and fully understanding informa on or Ideas.
● It is the responsibility of the instructor to help the learner assimilate and then check the learner’s
assimila on.
● For helping the learner assimilate, factors affec ng “reten on of impressions and ability to recall” should
be strengthened. That is, the factors affec ng how well the student learned something and how much they
are able to recall and remember , should be strengthened.
● Checks of assimila on can be done by Ques ons & Tests.

Prepared By- Capt. Rachit Singhal

Assimila on - Tests: When can they be done.

● At the beginning of a lesson: To enable the instructor to judge the ini al standard/level of the class , so
as to plan the extent and intensity of teaching required.
● At the middle of a course: To know the effect of the instructor’s teaching and the degree of the learners’
assimila on.
● At the end of a lesson: To test whether the learning objec ve has been achieved.
● Periodically : To strengthen the curve of reten on.

Assimila on - Tests: Effects and Uses.

Tests help the trainees:
● As mo va on to learn
● To know the effect of one’s own prepara on
● To know the further effort required on the part of the learner
Tests can be used to examine:
● Knowledge
● Skills
● Technique

Assimila on - Tests: Requirements of Good Tests

● Objec ve: With undisputed standards of tes ng and marking.
● Adequate : With the right degree of difficulty for the learners.
● Prac cal : Constructed with careful regard to the ques on of availability of knowledge acquired.
● Valid : On what is taught in the class and befi ng the job the student is going to undertake.
● Comprehensive: Covering a large part of the subject and not confined to a few por ons
● Easy to Give and Easy to Test: So that more trainee can be examined, more number of mes.
Tests should be:
Assimila on - Tests : Essay Form vs Objec ve
Essay Type (Subjec ve)
Disadvantages:
Advantages: ● Not very reliable since it cannot be
● Power and ability of expression can be tested. comprehensive ( detailed ). Student may not have
● Tests ability to reason or explain answers in me to answer in detail about the en re subject.
detail. ● Individuals with selec ve prepara on may be
● Li le scope for guess work. able to do well, by chance.
● It can be much more a test of the learner’s ability
to express himself.
● Marking is not easily made objec ve, and
depends largely on individual instructor’s whims.
● Takes a long me to correct and is a lot of work.

Objec ve Type (MCQ type)

Advantages: Disadvantages:
● Can be comprehensive, and therefore, reliable ( ● Scope for guess work.
can test for the en re subject in a reasonable ● Cannot be used to test power of expression.
amount of me). ● Cannot always be used for
● Marking, ie. Correc ng, is easy for the teacher. reasoning out, explaining or arguing
● No scope for subjec vity, ie, there is only one about the answer.
right answer.
● Cannot always be used for reasoning out,
explaining or arguing about the answer

TO SAY IN SHORT
The lesson on "Assessment of Students in Those Subjects in Which Ground Instruc on Is Given"
highlights the importance of assessing students' assimila on of knowledge.
Assimila on refers to the process of understanding and retaining informa on.
Instructors play a cri cal role in helping learners assimilate and then assess their understanding through
various tests.
These tests can be conducted at different points during the lesson—at the beginning to assess the class's
baseline, in the middle to measure progress, and at the end to evaluate whether the learning objec ves
have been achieved. Tests are designed to assess knowledge, skills, and techniques, and should be
objec ve, adequate, prac cal, valid, comprehensive, and easy to administer.
The lesson also contrasts two types of tests: essay (subjec ve) and objec ve (like MCQs), outlining their
respec ve advantages and disadvantages, such as the ability to test reasoning and expression in essays
versus reliability and ease of marking in objec ve tests.

In short,
In summary, "Assessment of Students in Those Subjects in Which Ground Instruc on Is Given"
emphasizes the importance of using effec ve tes ng methods to gauge students' understanding and
reten on, ensuring that the learning process is both comprehensive and aligned with the instruc onal
objec ves.
 Lesson: 3
The Learning Process

What is Teaching?
● Teaching is a triangular process. The three focal points of this process are the teacher, the learner and
the subject ma er.

Prepared By- Capt. Rachit Singhal

What is Teaching?
It (teaching), in short, is a process of impar ng knowledge, and mo va on and guiding the trainees
through their own ac vi es, training their emo ons, and developing their abili es and capacity so that
they are able to make effec ve decisions and learn the subject ma er more effec vely.

What is Learning?
Learning is a rela vely permanent change in behavioral tendencies and deep assimila on of overall subject
ma er. The results of learning are reinforced through regular prac ce.

TO SAY IN SHORT
The lesson defines teaching and learning as interconnected processes.
Teaching is described as a triangular process involving the teacher, the learner, and the subject ma er. It
involves not just the delivery of knowledge, but also mo va ng, guiding, and training students emo onally
and intellectually to enhance their decision-making abili es.
Learning, on the other hand, is viewed as a permanent change in behavior and a deep understanding of the
subject ma er, which is reinforced by regular prac ce and applica on.

In short,
“The Learning Process" refers to the development of new behaviors, skills, and knowledge through ac ve
engagement with the material. It involves a transforma on in the learner’s understanding, which is
solidified over me through con nuous prac ce and reinforcement.
 Lesson: 4
Elements of Effec ve Teaching
Principles of successful teaching:
● The Principle of aim: There should be a definite aim for every lesson since without it even the best lesson would fail to achieve
its objec ves. The aim directs the teacher to the achievement of desired objec ves.
● The Principle of ac vity or learning by doing: Prepared By- Capt. Rachit Singhal
Teaching is ineffec ve if the learners do not ac vely par cipate in the learning process.
● The Principle of linking with actual life & other subjects:
Good teaching requires that knowledge learnt must be essen ally linked with the requirement in life and if possible correlated
with the other subjects which the learners are studying.
● The Principle of planning:
Good teaching is always well planned. The problem or the topic has to be well thought out carefully in advance.
● The Principle of interest or mo va on:
Mo va on is the crea on of a desire to learn.
It is the duty of the teacher to keep the learner interested in what is being taught.
● The Principle of sympathy & kindly atmosphere:
Good teaching cannot take place in an atmosphere which lacks kindness and sympathy.
Scolding, nagging and shou ng have no place in good teaching.
What is required is a ‘teaching situa on’ which happens when the learners have confidence in their teacher.
● The Principle of coopera on:
Good teaching is so planned as to give abundant opportunity for coopera on in organiza on,
management and other classroom ac vi es between the teacher and among the learners themselves.
● The Principle of sugges veness:
Good teaching is sugges ve rather than authorita ve. ( That is, it gives hints rather than commands)
Sugges on has the effect of provoking courteous response and invi ng coopera on.
● The Principle of diagnos c & remedial teaching:
Good teaching diagnoses difficul es and suggests remedies.
Early diagnosis of the shortcomings of the learners enables taking correc ve measures in me.
● The Principle of looking forward:
Good teaching looks ahead while it also takes into account the past experiences of the learners.
● The Principle of libera ng the learner:
The idea of good teaching is to ‘liberate the learner’, i.e. , to ‘ develop ini a ve’, independence
of thought, self reliance and confidence so that eventually the learner is able to solve their problems independently.
● The Principle of crea vity:
The idea of a good teacher should be to increase the crea vity in the learners.

The various phases/steps involved in the process of teaching & learning are:
➢ Percep ve:
a) Object in Mind (Set a target to learn)
b) Prepara on (Prepare to teach/ study the topic)
➢ Interac ve:
c) Transmission –Method and Manner. (Ways to communicate your teaching/learning)
d) Recep on –Management and Mo va on (How the teacher teaches / How the learner
keeps themselves mo vated)
➢ Post Ac ve:
e) Assimila on/Assessment and Feedback (test and ques ons)
Object in mind
● The instructor has to keep the object/objec ve of his teaching in mind always for,
a) Impar ng certain technical knowledge and skills, and
b) Improving their mental & physical quali es
● If the Instructor fails to keep the object before him:
a) Time is wasted, and
b) The taught fail to discern (recognize) what is required & what is not required
● Also, failure to keep the object in mind affects:
a) The prepara on of the instructor, as it is not clear in the mind of the instructor as to what ma er is to be taught & to
what extent
b) The method & manner of transmission which depend on what is to be taught & for what purpose
 c) The recep on on the part of the learner, since they may not be properly mo vated because of vagueness of the
object
d) The test of assimila on of the subject ma er, since the test depends en rely on the object or
purpose of teaching.

Prepara ons (ma er)

● In preparing the ma er, the requirements that an instructor should have are:
a) Mastery of the subject, and
b) Adequate background knowledge of the subject to give him enough confidence, enable him to
answer any ques on & make his teaching interes ng.
● A er the ma er is collected the instructor has to decide:
a) How much is to be taught
b) How much can the class take
c) How much is necessary
d) Job analysis of what exactly a man must know to fit himself for his type of job
e) Classifica on of ma er into ‘Must Know’, ‘Should Know’ & ‘Could Know’ points according to the instructor’s target & keeping
in mind the intelligence & capacity to learn of the learners.
f) The type of training aids required
g) The method of transmission (teaching)
h) The manner of tes ng the assimila on
j) Home assignment

Transmission - Steps involved

● Communica on involves transmission or presenta on & recep on.
● It includes all those ac vi es undertaken by the teacher during the me of his interac on with the learners.
● It involves the following steps:
○ A good introduc on designed to capture interest.
○ A logical development having a series of connected ideas built up into a whole concept.
● There are five dis nct stages in the presenta on of a single idea:
(i) Problem: Pose a problem & make the learners think
(ii) Sugges on: If the problem is put across clearly, the learners will soon be wai ng to make sugges ons.
(iii) Amplifica on: At the right moment amplify( that is, highlight more) the sugges ons that are suitable, and build up
the lesson
(iv) By way of training aids
(v) Consolida on: It is necessary to consolidate(unify) what has been taught.
It is generally done by wri ng on the board about the brief statement of essen al facts, special terms or defini ons etc.

Transmission - Method of transmission

● The primary considera on affec ng the selec on of the method of transmission is what the instructor wants the students to
acquire:
a) Facts – e.g. knowledge of rules of driving on a highway
b) Skills – e.g. skill of driving
c) Technique – i.e. applica on of facts & skills – e.g. driving an automobile on a highway

The methods of transmission & their characteris cs

Transmission - Method of transmission
Lecture:
(i) Cannot be used for teaching skills.
(ii) Can be used only for teaching knowledge of facts.
(iii) Appeals to only one sense, the sense of hearing.
(iv) No class ac vity, and no contribu on, therefore, towards individual development.
(v)Useful for mo va ng a class by giving an interes ng general background to a subject before star ng teaching it.
Lesson:
(i) A much more in mate form of instruc on than lecture, where the instructor deals with a small no. of learners, not more than
10 to 12
(ii) Greater individual a en on is possible
(iii) There is scope for individual development
(iv) Can be used to teach both knowledge & skills
(v) Both visual & auditory senses can be appealed to
Discussion:
(i) Cannot normally be sa sfactorily used when the learners are in their early stages of learning
(ii) In teaching knowledge of facts, once the learners learn certain amount, it is o en an excellent way of trengthening or
broadening their knowledge, or of teaching the uses to which the knowledge can be put
(iii) Skills cannot be taught
(iv) Class is kept mentally ac ve
(v) Not suited to classes larger than 10 or 12 unless the class is divided into syndicates.
Demonstra on:
(i) Involves considerable difficulty in pu ng a demonstra on.
(ii) Normally follows a lesson or lecture or other form of instruc on.
Sweat and Test method:
(i) Useful when teaching a subject in which there is no par cular reason so that it has got to be learnt by rote. (e.g. capaci es of
vehicles, aircra details, etc.)
(ii) Normally combined with a test at the end
(iii) Discussion some mes replaces the test at the end
Mutuals:
Members of a group prepare the subject and put it across to themselves
(i) Makes the learner to get down into the subject and prepare thoroughly
(ii) More me than normally spent by the instructor is to be allo ed.
Schemes and Exercises:
(i) Cannot be used in the ini al stages of instruc on in any subject.
(ii) Of very great use to teach applica on a er certain knowledge or skills are acquired
(iii) Can also be used to test or toughen
Coaching Method:
The learner goes to his director for guidance whenever he is stuck while solving a problem. The instructor/guide is on nuously
by the side of the learner and teaches him a skill like driving or stripping and assembling etc.

Manners of Transmission:Personnel characteris cs

Bearing:
Has effect even before teaching starts.
● Dress and Carriage – have to be clean & dy, smart and spruce.
● Carriage has to be disciplined, bright & cheerful.
● Private life – has to be one of integrity & uprightness since the learners are unwi ngly affected in their admira on by the
private life of their instructor.
Enthusiasm:
● Lack of Enthusiasm – has to be concealed since it demoralises the class.
● Over Enthusiasm – is to be avoided to avoid wrong perspec ve of the subject leading to loss of confidence in the instructor
when the learners realise this later.
Voice and manner of speech:
● Though a natural gi can s ll be improved.
● Improvement is o en required for effec ve communica on with the students, as the instructors gains
more experience.
Gestures and Mannerisms:
● These are to be avoided since more o en, then not they are distrac ng.
● Any gestures made should be relevant to explaining the topic, and not just to entertain the class.
Delivery:
● Slow: To enable the thinking of the students to go along with what is spoken.
● Pause: Raises the expectancy and eagerness of the class and gives the instructor as well as the class me to think. However,
too long pauses make talk monotonous.
● Emphasis: Break the monotony of speech & replaces effec vely repe on of words.
● Meaningless expressions: Like ‘I see’, ‘you know’, etc. to be avoided.
● Provincial accent: To be overcome.
 Manner of Transmission: A tude towards the class
Sarcasm:
● To be avoided since it leads to loss of mutual confidence.
Favouri sm:
● Broods resentment and jealousy, results in loss of respect for the instructor.
Bluffing:
● Never to be done. In case of want of informa on (by the learner) the instructor can promise to find out the answer and give it
at the earliest opportunity later.
Unfriendly a tude:
● A student should never feel that his instructor in hos le towards him.
● The a tude of instructor has to be friendly and firm avoiding familiarity, since familiarity breeds contempt.
Humour:
● Of cheap and obscene (rude) nature is to be avoided.
Know the learners:
● By name since it evokes greater response.
Chasing Red Herring:
● The habit of being diverted from topics by some students. Results in the instructor being led rather than leading he students.
The object of the lesson is to be kept in mind and the instructor has to be firm.

Recep on: Man-Management for recep on

● However efficient the instructor may be, no real learning is likely to result unless the learners are in the right state of mind to
receive what is being transmi ed to them.
● Man-management helps to bring about the right state of mind.
Physical needs:
● Programmes - With due thought to meals ming and physical rest.
● Class Comfort - Comfort of si ng, room-temperature, ligh ng and ven la on.
Security:
● The feeling in the minds of the students that their instructor can give sympathe c
considera on for their problems in and out of the classroom.
Belongingness:
Men in groups:
● If men are placed in groups, that fosters a feeling of belongingness and builds up group
morale and group compe on.
Belongingness:
Class of Equal Ability:
● Means easy teaching for the instructor and keener compe on among the trainees.
● In a class of in-equal abili es, the instructor finds it difficult to adjust to the varying standards of the taught, & weaker students
con nue to lag behind further.
● But, at the same me, realisa on on the part of the students of a par cular class that theirs is a below average class puts the
class morale down.
● Also, the speed of learning of different classes varies entailing difficulty in the comple on of syllabus.
Belongingness:
Solu on:
● The best way of grouping would, therefore, be to make groups of Average and Above
Average in some sec ons and Average and Below Average in some sec ons.

Recep on: Mo va on for recep on

● By telling the Reason or Purpose to the learner the ques on of ‘why’ does not arise,
and reasons the doubt in the mind of the learners or those given a task.
● By se ng Goals and Standards.
● By showing the Progress and Achievement of the trainees by tests and results which
give a sa sfac on of achievement
Mo va on for recep on:
By reward and Punishment:
● Though both reward and punishment are learners work, reward is be er than punishment since reward ncourages while
punishment breeds an aversion (hate) towards the instructor and the praise as required has to be direct and not vague.
Compe on and Rivalry:
● Compe on can be between classes & between individuals in a class by announcement of class averages & individuals’
rela ve performance for the whole entry, by ranking classes as well as individuals, etc
Mo va on for recep on:
Class Ac vity:
● Crea ng class ac vity, by le ng the learners do things for themselves, infuses a spirit of compe on among the individuals.
Instructor’s Manner and Technique:
● Instructor’s manner and enthusiasm in presenta on are infec ous, & mo vate the class instantaneously.

Effec ve Communica on
Basic Elements of Communica on
● Communica on takes place when one person transmits ideas or feelings to another person or group of people.
● The effec veness of the communica on is measured by the similarity between the idea transmi ed and the idea received. The
process of communica on is composed of three elements:
○ Source (sender, speaker, writer, encoder, transmi er, or instructor)
○ Symbols used in composing and transmi ng the message (words)
○ Receiver (listener, reader, decoder, or learner)
Effec ve Communica on
● Effec ve communica on is the essen al element of instruc on
● An instructor may possess a high level of technical knowledge, but they need to cul vate the ability to communicate
Effec vely in order to share this knowledge with the learners
● Although effec ve communica on is a difficult and complex process, teachers need to learn a comfortable communica on
style that meets the goal of passing on desired informa on to the learners.
● It is important to recognize that effec ve communica on is two-way process, between the teacher and the student
● Every teacher and every student may have their own unique communica on styles, different from one another . Bridging the
gap between these two styles is an important aspect of effec ve communica on.
Barriers to Effec ve Communica on
● It is essen al to understand the dynamics of communica on, but the instructor also needs to be aware of several barriers to
communica on that can prevent or slow down the student’s understanding of what is being taught.
● The nature of language and the way it is used o en lead to misunderstandings.
● These misunderstandings can be iden fied by five barriers to effec ve communica on: lack of common experience, confusion
between the symbol and the symbolized object, overuse of abstrac ons, external factors and interference.
Barriers to Effec ve Communica on : Lack of Common Experience.
● Lack of common experience between the communicator (instructor) and the receiver (learner) is probably the greatest single
barrier to effec ve communica on.
● The instructor, due to their experience, may say one thing, but the learner may understand a different meaning to the
instructor’s words due to the learner not having the same knowledge or experience as the instructor.
● Words, rarely carry exactly the same meaning from the mind of the teacher to the mind of the student. In fact, words, in
themselves, do not transfer meanings at all. They simply act as a means of transporta on for the teacher to transfer their
knowledge and experience to the student.
Barriers to Effec ve Communica on : Confusion Between the Symbol and the Symbolized
Object
● Confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object results when a word is confused with what it is meant to represent.
● Example: An avia on maintenance engineer (AME) might be introduced as a mechanic. To many people, the term mechanic
makes them think up images of a person working over an automobile.
● Words and symbols do not always represent the same thing to every person. To communicate effec vely, speakers and
writers should consider possible misinterpreta on.
Barriers to Effec ve Communica on : Overuse of Abstrac ons
● Abstrac ons are words that are general rather than specific.
● Concrete (Specific) words or terms refer to objects people can relate directly to their own experiences. These words or terms
specify an idea that can be perceived or a thing that can be visualized. Ex: “Swimming”
● Abstract words, or abstrac ons, stand for ideas that cannot be directly experienced, things that do not call forth mental
images in the minds of the learners.
● Example : The word “aircra ” is an abstract word. It does not call to mind a specific aircra . One learner may visualize an
airplane, while another might visualize a helicopter, and s ll another learner might visualize an airship.
Barriers to Effec ve Communica on : External Factors
● External factors are factors that are outside of the instructor’s control , that prevent a process or communica on from being
carried out effec vely.
● These factors may include physiological, environmental, or psychological elements rela ng to either the instructor or student
or both, that might make the teaching/learning process ineffec ve.
● To communicate effec vely, the instructor should consider the effects of these factors and reduce or eliminate them where
possible.
Interference
● Interference occurs when the message gets disrupted, truncated, or added to somewhere in the communica on sequence.
● While the instructor or learner may believe that an intact message has been sent and received, the assump on may be
inaccurate. Noise and other factors may distort the message.
● Psychological factors also interfere with the receipt of a message. Addi onal feedback and confirma on reduce poten al
harmful effects from interference.

How to Develop Communica on Skills

Developing Communica on Skills
● Communica on skills need to be developed over me; they do not occur automa cally.
● The ability to effec vely communicate stems from experience and prac ce
● The experience of instruc onal communica on begins with role playing during training to be an instructor, con nues during
he actual instruc on, and is enhanced by addi onal training.
Role Playing
● Role playing is a method of learning in which learners perform a par cular role.
● In role playing, the learner is provided with a general descrip on of a situa on and then applies a new skill or knowledge to
perform the role.
● Experience in instruc onal communica on comes from actually doing it and is learned in the beginning by role playing during
the instructor’s ini al training.
● For example, a flight instructor applicant can fly with a flight instructor who assumes the role of a learner pilot. In this role, the
flight instructor can duplicate known learner responses and then cri que the applicant’s role as instructor.
Actual Instruc on
● It is essen al for the flight instructor to develop good ground instruc on skills, as well as flight instruc on skills to prepare
learners for what is to happen in the air.
● Developing effec ve communica on is necessary to reinforce the skills that have been a empted and to assess or cri que the
results of a student’s efforts or skills.
● This development con nues as an instructor progresses in experience. What worked early on might be refined or replaced by
some other technique as the instructor gains more experience
Instruc onal Communica on
● Instruc on has taken place when the instructor explains a par cular procedure or idea and then determines that the learner
exhibits the desired response.
● The instructor can improve communica on by adhering to techniques of good communica on.
Techniques to develop or improve Instruc onal Communica on (1)
● One of the basic principles used in public speaking courses is to encourage par cipants to
make presenta ons about something they understand. It would not be good if an instructor
without a maintenance background tried to teach a course for avia on maintenance
engineers. Instructors perform be er when speaking of something they know very well and
for which they have a high level of confidence.
● The instructor should not be afraid to use examples of past experiences to illustrate
par cular points.
○ Example: When teaching the procedures to be used for transi oning from Instrument
Meteorological Condi ons (IMC) to visual cues during an approach, it would be helpful
to be able to tell the learner about encountering these same condi ons.
Techniques to develop or improve Instruc onal Communica on (2)
● An instructor’s personal experiences make instruc on more valuable than reading the same informa on in a textbook. The
instructor should be cau oned, however, to exercise restraint with this technique of illustra on, as these types of discussions
frequently degrade into a “war story” or “there I was” discussion, which might make them lose sight of the topic of being taught
, and get turned into more of a story narra on.
 Effec ve Listening
● Effec ve Listening is more than hearing. Most instructors are familiar with the concept that listening is “hearing with
comprehension.”
● When the learner hears something being communicated, they may or may not understand what is being transmi ed.
● On the other hand, when the learner truly hears the communica on, they then interpret the communica on based
on their knowledge to that point, processes the informa on to a level of understanding and a empt to make a correla on of
that communicated informa on to the task at hand. This is the goal of Effec ve Listening.
Effec ve Listening for Instructors
● Instructors should know something about their learners in order to communicate effec vely. As discussed earlier, an
instructor needs to determine the abili es of the learners and properly communicate. One way of becoming be er acquainted
with learners is to be a good listener.
● Good instructors work to master listening ability and frequently self-evaluate in this area.
● Instructors can use a number of techniques to become be er at listening.
Effec ve Listening for Learners
● Just as it is important for instructors to want to listen in order to be effec ve listeners, it is necessary for learners to want to
listen.
● Wan ng to listen is just one of several techniques that allow a learner to listen effec vely.
● Instructors can improve the percentage of informa on transfer by teaching learners how to listen.

Ques oning

Why is Ques oning Important?

● Good ques oning can determine how well the learner understands what is being taught.
● It also shows that the learner is paying a en on to the instructor and that the instructor is interested in the learner’s
response.
● An instructor should ask focused, open-ended ques ons and avoid closed-ended ques ons. Focused ques ons allow the
instructor to concentrate on very par cular, desired areas.
● An instructor may ask for addi onal details, examples, and impressions from the learner. This allows the instructor to ask
further ques ons if necessary. The explana on can then be modified to fit the understanding of the learner.
What are Open-ended Ques ons ?
● Open-ended ques ons are designed to encourage full, meaningful answers using the learner’s own knowledge and
percep ons
● Open-ended ques ons, which typically begin with words such as “why” and “how” tend to be more objec ve and less leading
than closed-ended ques ons.
● O en open-ended ques ons are not technically ques ons, but statements that absolutely ask for comple on. An instructor’s
ability to ask open-ended ques ons is an important skill to develop.
What are Closed-ended Ques ons?
● Closed-ended ques ons encourage a short or single-word answer.
● Closed-ended ques ons tend to evaluate the learner’s understanding only at the root level of learning.
● Closed-ended ques ons can be answered by “yes” or “no.” When used in a mul ple choice scenario, closed-ended ques ons
have a finite set of answers from which the respondent chooses.
● One of the choices may be “other.” It is a good idea to allow respondents to write in an op onal response if they choose
“other” because developing the learner response may lead to insights into the learning process.
The Elements of Effec ve Teaching are:
1. Knowledge of the subject material
2. Skill at Instruc onal and Effec ve Communica on
3. Skill at Effec ve Listening
4. Asking Effec ve Ques ons
Summary
1. Knowledge of the subject material
2. Skill at Instructional and Effective Communication
3. Skill at Effective Listening
4. Asking Effective Questions

TO SAY IN SHORT

Effective teaching hinges on several core principles and practices that guide both the teacher
and the students toward achieving meaningful learning outcomes.
Central to effective teaching is having a clear aim or objective for each lesson, ensuring active
participation through practical activities, and connecting the content to real-life situations.
Planning, motivation, and creating a supportive classroom atmosphere further enhance the
learning experience.
Teachers must employ various methods of instruction, such as lessons, discussions, and
demonstrations, each suited to different contexts and learner needs.
The teacher’s communication skills, including clear speech, appropriate enthusiasm, and the
use of relevant gestures, play a crucial role in transmitting knowledge effectively.
Furthermore, active listening, asking insightful questions, and maintaining a respectful, unbiased
attitude are essential for fostering engagement and trust with students. To develop as an effective
educator, one must continuously improve their instructional communication, hone listening skills,
and understand the importance of asking both open- and closed-ended questions to guide student
learning and critical thinking.

Summary in Points:

1. Principles of Successful Teaching:

o Clear lesson objectives (Principle of Aim).
o Active participation (Principle of Activity).
o Relevance to real life and integration with other subjects.
o Thorough lesson planning.
o Engaging students’ interests and motivation.
o Creating a supportive and empathetic classroom atmosphere.
2. Phases of the Teaching & Learning Process:
o Perceptive: Understanding students' needs and learning styles.
o Interactive: Promoting active student engagement and discussions.
o Post Active: Activities to reinforce learning after the lesson.
3. Methods of Instruction:
o Lesson: Small group, focused instruction.
o Discussion: Effective for deepening understanding after foundational knowledge.
o Demonstration: Showing practical application of knowledge.
o Sweat and Test: Useful for rote memorization and factual knowledge.
o Mutuals: Peer teaching for deeper engagement.
o Coaching: One-on-one or small group guidance.
4. Teacher's Characteristics and Communication:
o Positive bearing (appearance and demeanor).
o Genuine enthusiasm, balanced voice, and clear speech.
o Relevant and purposeful gestures.
o Avoidance of sarcasm, favoritism, and bluffing.
o Cultivating a friendly but firm attitude toward students.
5. Effective Communication Skills:
o Developing clear communication and overcoming barriers (e.g., external factors, lack of common experience).
o Techniques to improve instructional communication (e.g., role-playing, feedback).
o Importance of active listening for both instructors and learners.
6. Questioning Techniques:
o Importance of questioning in stimulating thinking and assessing understanding.
o Open-ended and closed-ended questions as tools for engaging students.
7. Key Elements of Effective Teaching:
o Mastery of subject knowledge.
o Strong instructional and communication skills.
o Effective listening abilities.
o Proficiency in asking meaningful questions.
 Lesson: 5
Student Evalua on & Tes ng Training Philosophies

Assimila on: Ques ons

Good ques oning technique can be used not only to check assimila on, but also as a s mulus
Prepared By- Capt. Rachit Singhal
Types of Assimila on- Ques ons
● The Rote Ques ons: Used to find out the extent of factual knowledge of the learners
○ Example : Which of these aircra s has the longest range?
● The Reasoning Ques ons: Those designed to make the learners reason out of themselves some logical process
and understand. These ques ons are also meant to encourage curiosity in the learner.
○ Example : What happens when the piston moves ?
● Rote + Reasoning Ques ons : Combina on of the first two types. Learners have to use the knowledge of facts, in
addi on, reason out things
○ Example : Where do you aim to land ? How do you carry out a prac ce stall procedure?

Criteria For Appropriate Assimila on-Ques ons

● Suitable: Ques ons should have a reasonably expected answer, within the scope and depth of learning by the class, so as
to test the knowledge or skills of the learner. The Ques ons should be realis c and encourage curiosity in the class
○ Example : Asking ques ons related to the mathema cal calcula ons of fluid mechanics when discussing the
aerodynamics of the wing of an aircra . This kind of ques on would generally be out of scope or depth of a general avia on
Technical General class.
● Clear: The meaning of the ques ons should be obvious to the students and it should take into considera on the students
current level of knowledge and thinking ability.
○ Example : Asking ques ons related to cross country procedures to an ini al low-hour/pre-solo student. The
student may not understand the meanings of all the terms used hence the ques on will not be clear to them.
● Simple: Ques ons should be worded in the simplest, easy to understand vocabulary
○ Example: Asking ques ons using complicated, difficult to understand words.

TO SAY IN SHORT
In summary, effective questioning techniques are essential for checking learner assimilation and
stimulating their curiosity. By using a combination of rote, reasoning, and rote + reasoning
questions, instructors can guide students to better understand concepts.
To ensure effectiveness, questions should be suitable for the learner's level, clear in meaning, and
simple in language.
This approach promotes better learning and engagement for students.
 Lesson: 6
Training Programme Development

Prepara on Of Programmes
The problems and considera ons to take into account when preparing a teaching programme.

Prepara on Of Programmes: Considera ons

● Ques ons of Syllabus : How much to be taught and how much me that will take.
● Ques ons of Sequence : How to arrange the informa on in the syllabus so that it may be taught in a logical order ( Usually
taught from basics to more advanced topics that build on the basics)
● Ques ons of Presenta on: How to present the syllabus in an easy to understand manner, so that it would capture the
a en on of the students, encourage curiosity in them and ensure that they deeply understand the topic that is being taught.

Prepara on Of Programmes: Problems

● How much does the instructor wants to teach : Since teaching too much of the syllabus in a short amount of me can cause
an informa on overload for the learner , it is important to consider how much of the syllabus should be taught by the instructor
in each teaching session.
● In how much me is the subject to be taught : The instructor must factor in the me restric ons and deadlines for teaching
the specified syllabus. They must ensure that the classes are taught at a consistent and manageable pace so the students can be
well prepared when the me comes for them to perform the required tasks or appear for an examina on.
● The overall teaching programme therefore must be designed taking into account the previous two points, namely: How much
can be taught in the me available while considering the understanding and learning abili es of the students.

Prepara on of Programmes : Learning Curves

Learning curves are obtained by plo ng proficiency against the amount of teaching, indicate the speed
and success of learning. These curves guide in:
● The teaching standard to aim at Prepared By- Capt. Rachit Singhal
● The me required to teach up to a certain standard
● When to test the learners

Difficult subjects are learnt slowly at first Easy subjects are learnt quickly at first, but
and then quickly towards the end. the rate of learning drops towards the end
 Prepara on of Programmes: Drop in Performance Over Time

● Drop in learning performance of the students a er an ini al phase of quick learning may arise due to :
○ Bad Instruc on / Teaching : Teaching in an uninteres ng or monotonous manner
○ Student’s lack of mo va on : Not wan ng to learn more about the subject
○ Natural learning tendencies: Students tend to naturally re of learning the same topic over a long period of me,
thereby reducing learning performance.
● Teaching Programmes should be planned with due considera on for these factors.

Prepara on of Programmes : Presenta on

While planning for presenta on of the subject ma er, the following points should guide the programmes:
● A process of organic growth and progressiveness are to be followed, so that by that end of the
programme the student has complete knowledge of the subject
● Variety in the style of teaching and the actual content to be taught should be planned, so as to prevent
the feeling of satura on in the student.
● Learning two or more similar subjects side-by-side causes an inhibi on known as retroac ve inhibi on.
● Learning two or more aspects of the same subject causes reinforcement of the subject.
● Rules of breaks, mo va on and tempo(pacing) are to be followed for increasing efficiency and avoiding
mental and physical redness.
● Daily, weekly and monthly work should be divided into blocks of effort, such that each block has an
a ainable and realis c final objec ve.

TO SAY IN SHORT
In summary, developing a teaching programme requires careful considera on of syllabus content, sequence, and presenta on.
It’s important to balance the amount of material covered with the available me and the students' ability to absorb the
informa on.
Learning curves and factors like mo va on and teaching style also play key roles in ensuring that students maintain engagement
and progress.
Effec ve planning with breaks, varied teaching methods, and realis c goals will help maximize learning outcomes.

Points To Remember:-
Considera ons for Preparing Teaching Programmes:
Problems in Programme Prepara on:
Learning Curves:
Drop in Performance:
Effec ve Presenta on:
 Lesson: 7
Lesson Planning
Planning A Lesson - Layout of A Lesson Plan
Planning A Lesson - Layout of A Lesson Plan: Teaching Material
Material available to an instructor may be in one of the following forms:
● Material already prepared into a lesson
● Material collected, but not in the form of a lesson
● Material spread over several books, pamphlets, typescripts etc
● Material downloaded from the internet

Prepared By- Capt. Rachit Singhal

Planning A Lesson - Layout of A Lesson Plan
● An already prepared lesson gives no indica on of the instructor’s approach to the subject nor the ques that are to be asked.
● A good instructor would like to use their own words when preparing the lesson
● Also, a good instructor must have enough background knowledge, beyond even what is given in a prepared lesson
● The instructor then has to select the extent of the lesson the students can learn in the given me
● The order of priority of teaching should be planned as:
○ Recapping what the class already knows - By brushing up their memory
○ Must know points
○ Should know points
○ Could know points

Planning A Lesson - Layout of A Lesson Plan: Considera ons

The primary considera ons in the teaching and prepara on of a lesson are:
● Object of the lesson and of the course
● Subject ma er to be selected for each lesson
● Teach a li le and teach it well
● Teach the Must Know points properly at all costs
● Understand your student’s difficul es learning the material
● Allow for prac ce by the class

Contents and Organisa on of A Lesson Plan

Organisa on of A Lesson Plan
The Layout of the Content of a Lesson Plan handed out/projected in Class should have:
● Serial No.
● Unit and Department
● Subject
● Index : Part -
● Index: Course -
● Lesson
● Dura on

Content of A Lesson Plan

● Objec ves ( In behavioural terms ) : Learning and Lesson
● Training-Aids : Physical Material , Audio Aids, Powerpoint Presenta ons, Video Aids ( Movies / Shows ) , Instruc onal drawings
● Bibliography : Sources of the informa on
● Previous Lesson Tie-In: Rela ng current lesson to previous lesson
● Methodology:
○ Lecture
○ Case study
○ Discussion
○ Prac cal Demo/ Exercise
Chronological Index of The Lesson Plan
The Lesson must include :
● Intro
● Lesson-Coverage Points in chronological order. Must Know por ons underlined
● Summary & Conclusion
● Ques ons to the class to check assimila on
● Homework
● Prepared By:
● Approved By : CFI/CGI etc
● Date of Issue /Date of Lesson
● Department / Sec on of the Subject

TO SAY IN SHORT
In summary, a lesson plan is an essen al tool for effec ve teaching, guiding instructors to organize material, structure lessons,
and engage students. It includes clear objec ves, proper teaching methods, and relevant resources, with careful a en on to
student difficul es and prac ce opportuni es.
A well-structured lesson plan ensures that key content is taught efficiently and that students can assimilate the informa on
effec vely.

Points To Remember:
Teaching Material: pre-prepared lessons, collected materials, or resources from mul ple sources
Lesson Planning: crea ng lessons in their own words, drawing on background knowledge.
o Recap prior knowledge
o Must-know, should-know, and could-know points.
Considera ons in Lesson Planning:
 Focus on the objec ves of the lesson and course.
 Emphasize teaching key points thoroughly.
 Understand students' learning difficul es and allow prac ce.
Lesson Plan Contents and Organiza on:
 Lesson: 8
Classroom Instruc onal Techniques

Methods of Instruc on
Lecture and lecture e :
Lectures can be divided into three main types:
● Mo va onal Lectures.
● Background Lectures.
● Factual Lectures.

Mo va onal Lecture:
● The aim of this type of lecture is to put the learners in a desired frame of mind.
● Emo ons, rather than intelligence, are appealed to. The success or failure of a mo va on Lecture depends almost en rely on
the sincerity and personality of the speaker.
● Prepara on, stage se ng and the correct atmosphere are required, but the speaker and his words must influence the
audience. Eg Opening addresses, ‘pep’ talks, etc.
Background Lecture:
● The aim is not to impart detailed knowledge, but to present a broad picture to the audience.
● Any detail the teacher/lecturer may men on will be in explana on of the main theme, and by itself will not be important.
● This type of lecture usually relies on the personality of the speaker and the general interest of the subject to sustain the
a en on of the learner.
● With the excep on of the occasional use of a map or diagram, training aids are seldom used. Examples: Historical, world
affairs, etc. without details.
Factual Lecture:
● What is a Factual Lecture ?
● In this, instructor is out to teach certain facts in detail.
● Use of all the various principles of good teaching are called for, ie, the instructor cannot rely on personality or emo ons or even mere subject ma er
for doing jus ce to his instruc on in the form of lecture.
● When to Give a Factual Lecture?
● The answer is surprisingly simple
● Don’t give a factual lecture if it can possibly be avoided.
● When there is a li le personal contact and li le class ac vity.
A factual lecture is permissible only under the following circumstances:
● Time: When me is limited this may be the only method of instruc on.
● Few Instructors: If the number of instructors is so low that the propor on of instructors to students presents use of any other
form of instruc on, lecture becomes unavoidable.
● Inadequate Equipment: Lack of space, i.e., classrooms, or equipment like blackboards, diagrams or models leaves lecture as
the only form of instruc on.
● High Level of Audience: A high level of audience, sufficiently intelligent and well mo vated can take a lecture.

Lecture:
No Straight Talk:
● To avoid making a lecture uninvi ng, it should be sandwiched with interes ng fillers.
Importance of Object, Introduc on and Ma er:
● The object must be clear, limited.
● The introduc on to the subject should make the audience prick up their ears.
● Ma er must be sorted with greater a en on.
Maintenance of Interest of the Class:
● This being the major problem with a lecture, two points have to be kept in mind Brevity and Variety.
● Lecture should be kept as short as possible.
● 45 minutes is about as much as anyone can absorb, though it depends on the typ of audience.
● ‘Solid’ talk should not be for more than 10 minutes at a me, with followers following it.
Test of Assimila on:
● Test of assimila on, at the end of a lecture, by way of ques ons, is essen al.
Planning-Curve of Reten on:
● The lecture must be planned as systema cally as any other lesson, subdividing the ma er, distribu ng them, not evenly, but
as per the curve of reten on filling the ‘trough’ with less important things and repe on of important ones.
Stage Management:
● Since the impact of a lecture depends as much on the delivery as on the ‘interes ng’ ma er, the lecturer must be a slick
performer.
● The tempo must be kept up and not allowed to flag through faulty stage management.
● All aids must work automa cally and without appearing to be needing any effort.
● With a lecture, management, par cularly includes such things as sea ng, ligh ng, ven la on, warmth, and ensuring that
everyone can hear and see.
Precis:
● Being precis in a lecture is very useful for reference purpose and as aid to memory.
● Knowing the type of audience it should be decided whether to give the précis before or a er the lecture.
Lecture e
● Lecture e is a short talk, say for about five to ten minutes, meant to give prac ce in public speaking to the trainees.
● The object is to boost the confidence and prepare the men as future speakers.
● Subjects for the lecture e are normally selected out of the topics given by the speaker.
● Normally, debrief on the exercise is conducted immediately a er the talk, the instructor highligh ng relevant points in respect
of the speaking technique.
The discussion group
What is a discussion group:
● It is an organised conversa on group, organised in the sense that it is not casual and that it has a purpose and conversa on,
both of which are concerned with statement of points.
● A discussion is simply a joint effort by a group of people to arrive at an understanding of some problem.
● One might even say that discussion is the group’s means of thinking and of communica ng thoughts.

Purpose of discussion group:

● To enable men to know each other and their leader(s) and ul mately understand themselves.
● To develop a sense of security and self-confidence.
● To provide opportuni es for the individuals to develop the capacity for clear & responsible thought.
● To implant in them the habit of study.
● To help the person in developing team spirit.

Advantages of The discussion group:

Excellent Teaching Valve:
● Although only one student at a me is talking, the en re group has to be on its toes, as at one me or the other, each
individual has to give his view.
● From these various views, the individuals see different aspects of the subject and so understand the subject be er, and are
able to form well-informed opinions.
Character Development:
● Having to give a considered opinion in front of a number of other friends is excellent character training for young and shy
students, and however shaky they may be, with an encouraging instructor they are bound to become more confident.
● The instructor will also find the different quali es and capabili es of his individual students this way.
Auto-Mo va on:
● Mo va on is provided largely by auto-mo va on, and is excellent during the first few discussions. (So the discussion has to be
kept as new as possible without being used too o en.)

Disadvantages of The discussion group:

Limited Choice of Subject:
● Not all subject can be taken up for discussion.
● Eg. Science subjects where clear-cut rules exist, mathema cs, etc. Waste of Time:
● A certain amount of me is bound to be wasted by students wandering off the point by chasing red herrings.
● A good instructor should be able to control this and keep it down to a minimum.
Unsuitability to Large Classes:
● The ideal discussion is held in the in mate atmosphere of about 10 to 15 students who will each have plenty of opportunity to
speak.
● Discussion can, however, be held in a big class of say about 50 students by dividing them into 2 or 3 syndicates, asking the
syndicates for their views & giving them a couple of minutes to talk it over before answering.
● In prac ce, quite effec ve discussion can be held on a play-level if the ‘ul mate’ group to discuss are small in number.

The discussion group - Summary:

● If advantages are weighed against disadvantages, it is clear that discussion is one of the best forms of instruc on.
● Its teaching and character forming features are excellent, and there is plenty of mo va on and class ac vity without the need
for a training aids.
● Though not suited to large audiences, it can be adopted even for classes upto 50 by sub-dividing it into sub-syndicates.
● Instructor’s control is essen al to prevent the par cipants from straying.
● A badly run discussion group is dangerous to class discipline and morale.

The discussion group - Choice of subject:

● The subject for discussion should be selected with great care.
● It should be of topical interest and within the mental and intellectual grasp of the group.
● Subjects of a highly technical nature are not very suitable for discussion.
● Under no circumstances should the discussion develop into a cri cism on an individual and personal ma ers.
● The subjects can be divided into three types :
○ Recrea onal.
○ Educa onal – General and Technical.
○ Consulta ve.

The discussion group - Conduc ng a discussion:

● The first thing a Discussion Group leader must do is to confirm the easy, informal atmosphere by his own a tude and bearing
towards the trainees.
● Such a tude and expressions will break the ice with most of the trainees.
● Having created the right atmosphere the leader can straightway introduce the subject.
● This should make the object clear & focus their minds on it.
● The leader/moderator then throws out a challenge or ques on, and sets the ball rolling.
● He then picks up remarks from the men which fit in his planning of discussion, and invites other men to comment on them.
● If an opinion is badly worded or expressed, he re-words it in a clear, concise way to avoid confusion.
● Thus, by judicious direc ng, ques oning and promp ng, he covers the ground phase by phase, and summarises the essence in
a clear, concise form.

The discussion group - Prac cal hints on running a discussion

● The first speaker should be chosen to be someone on whom reliance can be placed to set the ball rolling.
● Students should be selected according to the ques on.
● Shy & re ring students should be given easy things to discuss at first, un l they get prac ce & gain confidence.
● A tally, even if only mental, should be kept of those who speak so that a fair opportunity is given to re ring people to speak.
● Whenever relevant, personal experience should be invited.

Play/Drama sa on:

Advantages: Disadvantages:

● Play easily arouses interest, and so it is a good way of ● Lack of Class Ac vity: Due to the informal atmosphere at
teaching dull subjects. play, the students may not feel compelled to learn.
● Play teaches by ‘seeing’ as well as by ‘hearing’. ● Excessive Humour: There is a tendency to introduce comic
● It is possible to teach a large class by means of play. characters and make the play very amusing. This dilutes the
teaching value of the play.
● Produc on Difficul es: Plays require a lot of me, effort,
cast and stage proper es. Good plays are difficult to produce.
Play/Drama za on - Essen als:
Object:
● Play must have an object clear and well-defined.
● The students must be told beforehand what lesson is going to be taught by the play and what they will be tested for at the end
of the play.
Slick Performance:
● The play must be well performed if it is to achieve its object.
● A badly produced play will ruin mo va on and adversely affect the chances of successful instruc on.
● Factors such as choice of play, cas ng, script, stage proper es, lights, curtains, noises, rehearsals must be factored in
produc on of the play

TO SAY IN SHORT
This lesson covers various classroom instruc onal techniques, focusing on different methods of instruc on such as lectures,
discussion groups, and drama za on.
It explains the three types of lectures—mo va onal, background, and factual—highligh ng their purposes, when they should
be used, and how to maintain class interest.
It also delves into the structure and benefits of discussion groups, emphasizing their role in developing cri cal thinking, self-
confidence, and teamwork.
The lesson also explores the use of plays and drama za ons as teaching tools, no ng their advantages, challenges, and the
importance of a well-executed performance.
 Lesson: 9
Use of training aids, including simula on
training devices, as appropriate
Introduc on
● The sophis ca on & modernity of avia on equipment being introduced from day-to-day warrant a quick grasp of subjects
star ng from fundamentals.
● This means the need for a be er systems of impar ng a vast amount of knowledge in a short me.
● The limita ons imposed on the instructor in quickening the pace of instruc on can be off-set with the aid of modern training
aids.
What is a training aid?
● A training aid is to be understood as a device or means employed to focus a traineeʼs a en on on a subject or help him in
understanding a subject.
● A training aid helps to s mulate interest and curiosity, makes a more vivid impression on the learnerʼs mind and saves me
Value of Training Aids (1)
Training aids are invaluable for teaching because:
● They Sell : Aids help us to s mulate interest & curiosity and to maintain the interest and a en on of a class. They produce a
sense of realism.
● They S ck: Aids help to make a move vivid impression, make it remain longer & easy to recall.
● They Simplify: Aids help to explain things to a learner & give him that understanding which is vital to learning.
Value Of Training Aids (2)
● They save Time: Aids save me.
● They Give Variety to Classroom Techniques: They generally represent a rest from tradi onal ac vi es of school.
● They Create an Informal Atmosphere in the Classroom: While using sensory aids, the trainees may move about, talk, laugh,
ques on, comment upon, and in other ways act in a natural manner.
Value Of Training Aids(3)
● They provide with Opportuni es to Handle & Manipulate: An opportunity to touch, feel, handle or operate a model, press a
bu on or turn a crank, gives an added appeal because it
sa sfies, temporarily at least, the natural desire for mastery and ownership of the actual system/aircra .
● They Supply the Context for Sound and Skilful Generalisa on : Books lack the ability to give the learner prac cal hands-on
knowledge, via audio-visual and touch, which are provided by training aids.
Essen al Characteris cs Of Training Aids
● Simple: It should be quite simple because unnecessary material tends to confuse the issue.
● Brief: It must directly concern to the subject in view.
● Big Enough: So that all can see it in detail.
● Interes ng : It must have the capacity to produce a desire to correlate learning and reten on.
● Realis c: It must be meaningful and purposeful.
● Cost-Effec ve: It should not be very costly.

Methods Of Instruc on : Limita ons, Time of Use and Types

Limita ons Of Training Aids
● Not a cure for all instruc onal problems:
○ Instructors and books cannot be replaced by aids like even films, recordings, television, etc
○ Reading, wri ng and speaking will con nue to be considered as fundamental end points of instruc on.
● Not aids to instructor:
○ Audio-visual aids are aids to trainees rather than to the instructor, aids to learning rather than to teaching.
○ They do not lighten the work of the instructor.
○ Their use requires a considerable addi on to the me spent in planning and preparing lessons.
● Not meant to Amuse the trainees:
○ They are only meant to promote the learnerʼs interest and their comprehension. Not to be used simply for the
learnerʼs fun.
○ They are not cheap tricks to be used to trick a student into learning, they must be used inten onally.
Time Of Use Of Training Aids
Depending on the me of use, there are three main kinds of training aids:
● Aids that can be used before instruc ons, like well ● These are meant to mo vate the trainees before they enter
constructed and well-laid-out programmes. the classroom and s mulate and create expecta on and
● Aids during instruc on, consis ng of auditory aids like Ghost an cipa on.
Voice, visual aids like blackboard, charts, various ● Aids a er instruc on, like pamphlets and notes, which serve
films, eqpt, playlists, demonstra ons, etc. a useful purpose in reinforcing instruc on.

Types Of Training Aids

Non- Projected Aids: Projected Aids:
● Graphic Aids : Photographs and pictures, posters, charts, ● Overhead projector, Epidiascope, 35mm slide projector
diagrams and graphs, maps, cartoons, comics ● Audio aids: Radio, Tape recorder/Case e, PA system
● Display Boards : Black or Chalk Boards (fixed or moveable), ● Audio-Visual aids: 8/16/35mm projectors, closed circuit TV
Flannel board, Bulle n Board, Magne c Board, window board, ● Ac vity aids: Field trips, demonstra on, drama cs
etc ● Simula on : FLight Training Device ( FTD), Full Flight
● Three-Dimensional Aids: Models, Objects, Specimens, Simulator ( FFS) , Avia on Training Device ( ATD)
Mock-ups , Diagrams, Puppets, Mobiles, Overhead Projector,
Radio, PA System, Field Trips, Demonstra ons, Drama cs,

This division of aids is based on the nature of the aids, and also on the experiences, e.g. Direct experience, representa ve
experience and symbolic experience. Hence it is most scien fic and acceptable.

Non - Projected Aids

Non-Projected aids - Graphic aids
Photographs and Pictures:
● Pictures have a number of advantages in that they are cheap, easy to produce and store.
● These are good subs tutes for inaccessible objects of which the trainees cannot have a first –hand experience.
● The greatest advantage is that a picture o en shows objects in its natural surroundings.
● These are more suited for individual study than for the class use.
● These pictures may be stored in a folder having a topic heading, and the folders are then classified alphabe cally.
● Picture may be handed round the class or projected by an epidiascope.
● Trainees may be told what to look for because they require guidance and direc on.
● A picture when displayed should be followed by a series of well-arranged ques ons rela ng to it.
● Pictures may be gathered from magazines, official publica ons, newspapers and periodicals, discarded books.
Posters:
● It is a placard, usually pictorial or decora ve u lizing an emo onal appeal to convey a message aimed at reinforcing an
a tude or urging a course of ac on.
● A poster is designed to a ract the a en on of the observer, demonstra ng vividly and clearly one single idea at a glance.
● In making posters, one should decide on the theme, decide on words that are most suitable to provide a slogan or a tle.
● Posters can be used in the classroom at every or any stage of presenta on of a lesson, i.e. introduc on, presenta on or
review.
Charts:
● Charts cons tute a standard equipment because of their several advances.
● They, however, suffer from some limita ons.
● Most charts represent a sta s cal diagram or a series of diagrams which may be difficult to understand.
● Charts should be large enough for general class use.
● Prin ng should be dis nct and column effec ve.
● Too many details should be avoided.
● It should be placed where it would be visible to all in the class.
● In addi on to the simple teaching charts, other types of charts are also available:
(a) Display Charts: These are the charts which depict general informa on about the subjects, and are placed at places of
common access like conference rooms, reading rooms, tea-clubs, etc.These charts are not meant for use for teaching.
(b) Flip Charts: This is a series of charts which pertain to one topic only. One by one they are revealed to explain the various
func ons/opera ons of the equipment.
(c) Flow Charts: Flow char ng has been found very useful in subjects like computer programming and management. Flow of any
system can easily be explained by block diagrams and arrows.
Diagrams and Graphs:
● Circuitory diagrams of electric/electronic eqpts & graphical representa ons of any data are explained by means of diagrams
and graphs.
● While preparing diagrams & graphs for teaching, it should be seen that they are clear and meaningful.
Maps:
● Maps are replicas, symbolic & graphical representa ons of objects or part of the earth on a plain surface (paper).
● Maps, along with globes, help to reduce the scale of areas & distances, & thus bring the abstract concepts of size, distance &
direc on into the region of reality.
● Maps, however, depending on the projec on, suffer from distor ons in shape, distance, direc on , etc.
● Maps & globes are indispensable in the teaching of geography & naviga on.
Cartoons:
● These are interpreta ve pictures, usually drawings intended to convey a message or point of view about things, events or
situa ons.
● Cartoon is a good teaching and fixing device.
● The serious limita on is, if wrongly interpreted, wrong impressions are registered.
● Below average and even average trainees cannot understand a cartoon easily.
● Nevertheless, when effec vely used, they are good in teaching-learning situa ons.
Comics:
● A series of cartoons arranged in a sequence is called comic.
● Effec ve results have been obtained from using comics to illustrate scien fic concepts in teaching science.
Blackboard or Chalkboard:
● Black or chalk board fosters trainees par cipa on in the lesson & provides a good medium for it.
● It enables the instructor to write down concise principles, key words, outlines & summaries of the lesson.
● It is inexpensive, and can be used again & again to explain a point.
● For certain topics like circuit diagrams, black-boards are be er than pre-drawn charts since the ʻconstruc onʼ can be explained
progressively.
● Different kinds of Black Boards are:
a) Fixed Black-Boards: On the wall.
b) On Easel: Portable as well as adjustable
c) Graphical Board: With graphical lines, used for teaching mathema cs, science and sta s cs.
d)Roller Black Board: Made of thick canvas wrapped on a roller.
Flannel board:
● Flannel covered flat surfaces, upon which are placed le ers, words & other cut-outs made from flannel or felt.
● Sand papers are a ached to the backs of the cut-outs, le ers & words.
● Flannel boards save me during class presenta on, encourages visual presenta on of ideas, concepts.
● Le ers selected should be large enough for the en re class to see without difficulty.
Bulle n board:
● Used for displaying interes ng news pictures and news stories.
Magne c board:
● Made of steel on which magne c pieces and pellets are arranged in the forms required to be present.
● This is interes ng to use for simple diagrams without many curves.
Window board:
● It is a board having horizontal blots in it.
● These blots can be covered by wooden pieces which move sideways.
● All the points are wri en on a sheet of paper whose length and breadth are exactly same as that of the window board.
● This piece of paper is inserted from the top.
● All the blots are covered up in beginning.
● As the instructor starts teaching one point a er the other, he keeps on pu ng the wooden covers sideways.
● This way he explains all the points.
● Both the instructor & the trainees remember be er all the points this way.
Models:
● These are preferred to pictures and diagrams because they introduce a third dimension.
● Models may be diagramma c to emphasise a selected feature, or opera ve to show the mo on of parts.
● They are designated to represent structural characteris cs.
● A model should be large enough to be seen by all in the class.
● Models are mostly made of clay, plaster of paris, paper mach or laminated paper, etc., usually prepared by hand and then
painted.
● Clay modeling has several uses in geography par cularly for illustra ng landforms.
● Models have manageable dimensions, capture the past and the future, and simplify reality.
Objects:
● These are concrete visual materials, the more important ones being specimens, models, diorama.
● Objects are real things which have been removed as units from their natural se ng.
Specimens:
● Objects which are incomplete or which are representa ve of a group or class of similar objects

Projected Aids
Projected aids - Computer/OHP
Introduc on:
● The computer replaces ohp supplements marker board/chalk board work, or even replaces it.
● The selec on of method for projec ng on computer depends upon the nature and type of instruc on material.
Prepara on:
● Hand-wri en: Facts, teaching points and simple diagrams can be drawn with a stylus type pen.
● Photographs: Actual figures, tables, diagrams and other instruc onal material in books/ journals can be projected by
downloading the same.
● Material by any of the above methods becomes a permanent stock of the training resources of a training establishment.
● They can be put in a folder systema cally in order to keep info neat and dy.
● Properly designed material help in presen ng complex ideas in a simple, illustrated step by step, manner in the minimum
me.
Basic techniques of use
The instructor can choose any of the following techniques of projec on for his instruc onal materials with the computer/OHP:
● Chalkboard Technique: An acetate paper roll/a transparent sheet when placed on the stage of the OHP can serve an
instructor as a chalkboard.
The instructor can keep wri ng various teaching points with stylus as he develops his lesson, without losing even a moment of
contact me with his class which he is likely to do when wri ng on the chalkboard.
● Simple Pointer:
○ The most simple means of drawing a en on to items on projected material is by using a pointer.
○ A pointer can be an opaque object used on the stage to cast a shadow image on the screen or a laser pointer.
○ A pencil, pen or even a finger can serve for this a en on ge ng.
● Revela on:
○ This technique can be used to keep the class from ge ng ahead of the visual lesson.
○ Any opaque material will black out the wri en part of the image on the screen.
○ Strips of paper &, where necessary, specially shaped masking can be used for par cular revela ontechniques.
● Silhoue e:
○ Using the same principle as the revela on masking, any opaque object placed on the projector casts its image on the
screen.
○ This is a simple and drama c way of projec ng shadow picture of any small object which the instructor wants the
class to see.
● Projec ng Transparent Object:
○ Any transparent object like protractor, slide rulers can be projected to explain their use more vividly to the class.
● Overlays:
○ Info which lends itself to a step-by-step presenta on can be laid down on separate transparencies.
○ A transparency is made for each point to be raised and then the transparencies are taped to a frame in proper order.
○ The series of transparencies are then flipped into place as the points are built up.
● Coloured Transparencies:
○ For more depth & realis c presenta on, transparencies made with coloured transparent sheets will be more
effec ve.
○ Coloured transparent sheets can be used to provide a full coloured background to a transparency.

Projected aids - OHP (Points to remember)

The following points should be borne in mind when using an Overhead Projector:
● When referring to a projected image, an instructor should look either at the transparency or at the class but not at the
screen to avoid showing his back to the class.
● Turn the projector off when changing from one transparency to another or while se ng up objects on the stage of the
projector. Disorganised movements on the screen are irrita ng & distrac ng.
● Though the projector works sa sfactorily even during day me and blacking out is unnecessary, it is advisable, however, to
limit direct light especially direct sunlight on the screen.
● When the use of the material is not required even for a few moments, the lamp should be turned off to avoid glare which can
cause annoyance to the trainees.
● Teaching of complex circuit diagrams/parts of machinery which need elaborate explana on and note-taking by trainees
require long projec on. A wall chart in such cases may-serve the purpose be er.
Projected aids - Computer/OHP
Posi oning in the classroom:
● Should be posi oned on centre/rhs of user for ease of opera on.
● Screen to be fi ed preferably inclined in centre/ corner of classroom at height for easy viewing by trainees.
● The magnifica on of the projected image depends upon the distance of the screen from the projector.
● Ensure maximum area of the screen is covered by a square light pa ern when there is no object placed on the stage of the
computer/OHP.
● This is done by adjus ng the posi on of the projector.
Projected aids - Computer/IPAD/Note/Smartphones
● They are very useful teaching aids for teaching technical subjects because they can project slides of a diagram on a screen for
a large audience to see.
● Slides can be hand drawn or they can be the photographic/downloaded slides of the required size.
● A series of black and white slides, for example, can be made and projected in sequence to illustrate the various steps of a
lesson.
● It is a great convenience for an instructor to project his own material drawn or, to prepare and project summaries or notes.
● The disadvantage of projec on is that, it can be used only in complete darkness, as the projected image is never very bright.
● Instructors will find the above a great help in preparing charts or large-scale diagrams, and graphs.
● This is a convenient way of showing a series of pictures, diagrams and cap ons in a planned sequence.
The instructor is free to vary sequence and to make up his own lesson from a variety of material.

Audio & Audio-Visual Training Aids

Audio aids - Radio
● Radio enhances oral communica on crea vely.
● Radio can be used in teaching history, geography, languages, and even mathema cs and science.
Audio aids - Tape recorder
● 4 kinds of recordings are computer/plug & play devices,Ordinary Phonograph Recording, Wire Recording & Tape Recording.
● Records are not much in use because of their high cost.
Audio visual aids - Film
Film is a valuable aid to technical training, and there are many effec ve ways of using it. The advantages of the film over other
media are:
● It brings a variety of exci ng situa ons of the outside world into the classroom.
● Instructorʼs task is lightened, though not eliminated.
● Large classes can be dealt with.
● Repe on can be easily effaced as required.
● Being dark elsewhere a en on of class secured w/o doubt.
● A broad field of study can be surveyed in a short me, & can be used to reveal & explain movements through slow &
me-lapse photography.
● Informa on, otherwise dangerous to watch directly from close quarters & in inaccessible areas, can be photographed
through tele & zoom lenses & shown.
● Film is very effec ve for mo va ng the learners or influencing their outlook in induc on training and in providing
background informa on.
Audio visual aids - Film
The following points should be borne in mind by the instructor:
● Film selec on should be careful to fit with the syllabus.
● It is to be used as a learning aid at the right me with a specific objec ve, not as a means of filling in an odd period.
● The film is to be introduced explaining what it is about and how it fits into the course & what to look for. It may be useful to
set some problems for discussion a erwards as a test and to prepare a blackboard summary that can be shown a er the film to
confirm what has been learnt, and to be taken down as notes.
● A silent film can some mes be just as effec ve as a sound film par cularly if the instructor himself supplies the commentary to
suit his lesson and local condi ons, for example, where there are language difficul es.
● In teaching a skill, a film loop that repeats skilled opera ons as o en as required is very effec ve.
● Films that are designed to mo vate a class, to boost morale or to effect personal rela onship should be shown as a whole and
without interrup on. Comment and discussion a erwards may, however, be useful at the instructorʼs discre on.
Audio visual aids - Single concept film loop
● This is simply a device for projec ng repeatedly a film which has had its end joined to its beginning.
● By this means complicated physical skills or movements of mechanical parts can be isolated as a short sequence and repeated
as o en as required.
● Several loops can be used to ensure mastery of each opera ons in isola on and then a complete film shown of the whole
process .
● This is an excellent way of presen ng such subjects as the working of the four-stroke engine, gear box, etc.
Audio visual aids
Film casse es:
● A development which has made movie film much more convenient for classroom use is the 8mm casse e film loop which can
be projected in daylight through a translucent screen.
● The whole apparatus is light, portable and ready for instant use for demonstra on, and all kinds of manual and athle c skills.
TV/Closed circuit TV:
● TV, as a medium of instruc on, is of growing importance for presen ng live situa on ʻ here & nowʼ.
● Closed Circuit TV has great possibili es for wider use, par cularly in teaching skills and communica ng ideas in situa ons that
makes direct observa on difficult, dangerous or impossible.

Ac vity Aids
What are ac vity aids ?
The ac vi es, which bring trainees in close contact with reali es, are collec vely called ac vity aids. These cons tute:
a) Field trips
b) Demonstra ons
c) Drama cs
Ac vity aids - Field Trips
● Field trips involve the transporta on of learners to places where materials of instruc on may be observed and
studied directly in their func onal se ng.
● The study is made under the guidance and control of the teacher and the experts or specialist manning and
opera ng the objects of study.
Ac vity aids - Demonstra ons
● This is an old procedure which helps the instructor to show and illustrate an object or technique to the class.
● It is widely used in physical and natural sciences, engineering, etc.
● Trainees may be made to observe the experiment performed by the instructor and to draw inferences from them.
● Demonstra ons are also useful teaching devices.
● All instruments used in demonstra on should be large enough for the class to see.
● In order to hold the a en on of the trainees, it is necessary to enlist their maximum par cipa on and coopera on
● Demonstra on is most useful to set a problem without previous discussion, to illustrate a point, to help solve a problem and
review an experiment.
● It also saves me.
Ac vity aids - Drama cs
● This involves ac ng or doing.
● This is also a method of teaching based upon the assump on that pupils learn best by doing.
● Drama cs train the trainees in language, expression and in physical grace and skills.
● They remove inferiority complex of the trainees, s mulate interest and compel a en on.
● Subjects like management etc. can be taught by this method effec vely.

Hierarchy of Effec veness of Training Aids

Depending on the subject and lesson taught a par cular form of training aid in the classroom becomes the
appropriate aid.

● While teaching an electrical instrument , the actual instrument will be more useful than a model or a chart.
● While talking about the fuselage of an aircra , a model will be the most appropriate aid that can be used in the class.
● While teaching about the layers of atmosphere, a chart would be the most suited one.
● For explaining an accident scene, a playlet/film will give the best idea of conduc ng the same.
● While taking a lesson on history, a preacher will do the job be er.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTION OF TRAINING AIDS GUIDELINES DURING THE
USE OF TRAINING AIDS
Criteria for selec on of training aids
● There are several criteria in choosing appropriate media for a training programme:
a) Who: Determine the characteris cs of the group to be taught.
b) Why: Establish the objec ves.
c) What: Organise the content of the programme/lesson in rela on to the objec ves.
d) Where: Decide on the loca on best suited to the objec ve of each part of the programme/lesson.
e) How: Plan the programmeʼs implementa on as completely as possible with a n to the scheduling of resources; the
prepara on, purchase & distribu on of trg aids;& the se ng up of suitable facili es & arrangements.
● (a) & (b) above are the major criteria for deciding the most suitable teaching aid

Methods of Instruc on
Matching media & methods with type of knowledge/skill to be imparted:

Integra ng Instruc onal Techniques

● A flight instructor uses many instruc onal techniques during ground instruc on, when using simula on, and during hands-on
aircra training.
● Since flight training costs are high and new aircra are more complex than in the past, the total training experience should
provide a solid base of knowledge and maximize the learnerʼs me without sacrificing the quality of the end product. This
sec on looks these teaching techniques and aids in greater detail.

Ground Instruc on
● Studies have shown that a mix of instruc onal elements provides the best balance during ground instruc on
● Learners who use electronic media exclusively are generally not as well trained as those who receive a balanced mix of ground
teaching methods that include
○ E-learning
○ Ground Class
○ 1-on-1 instruc on integrated with technological tools that support the instruc on versus replacing it.
 Use of Flight Simula on Training Devices
Integrated Training Curriculum
An integrated training curriculum can use an FFS ( Full Flight Simulator), FTD ( Flight Training Device), ATD ( Avia on
Training Device) to provide seamless training form the classroom to the aircra .

An instructor ini ally provides the required knowledge in a classroom

environment and then follows with procedural training in the simulator.
For example, when u lizing an integrated ground and flight-training
program, an authorized instructor would ini ally teach the required
knowledge specific to instrument landing system (ILS) design, and the
associated flight opera ons through flight and ground training Flight
Training Device (FTD)

The instructor then provides instruc on on

aircra flight procedures and details specific
to opera ons in na onal airspace system.
A er the learner has gained the required
knowledge and understands the procedures,
the instructor then adds prac cing the
psychomotor skills of the task in the
simulator. The instructor would then
demonstrate and teach the instrument
approach task to the learner simula ng the
flight environment in a qualified trainer.
Full Flight Simulator (FFS)

When the student becomes proficient with the instrument procedure in the
simulator, the instruc on would then transi on to the aircra to verify
proficiency and reinforce the airman cer fica on standards. Most
opera onal tasks and procedures for private pilot cer ficates, instrument
ra ngs, commercial pilot cer ficates, and airline transport pilot cer ficates
can be ini ally taught in an FFS, FTD, or ATD. Avia on Training Device (ATD)

TO SAY IN SHORT
Training aids, including simula on devices, play a crucial role in enhancing the effec veness of instruc on, especially
in complex fields like avia on.
These aids help s mulate curiosity, simplify complex concepts, and improve reten on by providing realis c, hands-
on learning experiences.
Various types of training aids, such as graphic aids, models, and projected media, can be used before, during, or a er
instruc on, depending on the ming and nature of the lesson.
Flight simulators and other avia on training devices offer an immersive, prac cal experience that supports both
theory and prac ce.
By carefully selec ng the appropriate aid based on the learning objec ves and the nature of the subject, instructors
can op mize the learning process, making it more engaging and efficient.
 Lesson: 10
Analysis And Correc on Of Student Errors
The Four Steps Of Analysis and Correc on Of
Student Errors
1. Replay: Allow the student to show the instructor the error they might be encountering when a emp ng to execute a
par cular maneuver in flight.
2. Reconstruct: Recreate the environment, situa on and ac ons taken by the student that led up to the error .
3. Reflect: Think about and analyze what went wrong in execu on of the maneuver or idea. Develop a strategy and techniques
to effec vely correct similar errors in the future.
4. Redirect: Encourage the student to use their new skills and knowledge to execute the desired maneuver in a safe and correct
manner.
Assessing Risk Management Skills
➢ Explain: The learner can verbally iden fy, describe, and understand the risks inherent in the flight scenario, but needs to be
prompted to iden fy risks and make decisions.
➢ Prac ce: The learner is able to iden fy, understand, and apply SRM ( Single-Pilot Resource Management) principles to the
actual flight situa on. Coaching, instruc on, and/or assistance quickly corrects minor devia ons and errors iden fied by the
instructor. The learner is an ac ve decision maker.
➢ Manage-Decide: The learner can correctly gather the most important data available both inside and outside the flight deck,
iden fy possible courses of ac on, evaluate the risk inherent in each course of ac on, and make the appropriate decision.
Instructor interven on is not required for the safe comple on of the flight.

Choosing an Effec ve Assessment Method

When deciding how to assess learner progress, avia on instructors can follow a four-step process.
1. Determine level-of-learning objec ves.
2. List indicators of desired behaviors.
3. Establish criterion (standard) objec ves.
4. Develop criterion-referenced test items.
Cri ques and Oral Assessments
Used in conjunc on with either tradi onal or authen c assessment, the cri que is an instructor-to-learner assessment. These
methods can also be used either individually, or in a classroom se ng.
• A cri que may be oral, wri en, or both.
• It should come immediately a er a learner’s performance, while the details of the performance are easy to recall.
• An instructor may cri que any ac vity a learner performs or prac ces to improve skill, proficiency, and learning.
• A cri que may be conducted privately or before the en re class.
• A cri que presented before the en re class can be beneficial to every learner in the classroom, as well as to the learner who
performed the exercise or assignment.
• In this case, however, the instructor should avoid embarrassing the learner in front of the class.
Types of Cri que:
Instructor/Learner Cri que:
The instructor leads a group discussion in an instructor/learner cri que in which members of the class are invited to offer
cri cism of a performance.
Learner-Led Cri que:
The instructor asks a learner to lead the assessment in a learner-led cri que. The instructor can specify the pa ern of
organiza on and the techniques or can leave it to the discre on of the chosen leader.
Small Group Cri que:
For the small group cri que, the class is divided into small groups, each assigned a specific area to analyze. Each group presents
its findings to the class. It is desirable for the instructor to furnish the criteria and guidelines. The combined reports from the
groups can result in a comprehensive assessment.
Individual Learner Cri que by Another Learner:
The instructor may require another learner to present the en re assessment. A varia on is for the instructor to ask a number of
learners ques ons about the manner and quality of performance. Discussion of the performance and of the assessment can en
allow the group to accept more ownership of the ideas expressed.
Self-Cri que:
A learner cri ques personal performance in a self-cri que. Like all other methods, a self-cri que receives control and
supervision from the instructor.
Wri en Cri que:
A wri en cri que has three advantages:
• First, the instructor can devote more me and thought to it than to an oral assessment in the classroom.
• Second, learners can keep wri en assessments and refer to them whenever they wish.
• Third, when the instructor asks all learners to write an assessment of a performance, the learner-performer has the
permanent record of the sugges ons, recommenda ons, and opinions of all the other learners. The disadvantage of a wri en
assessment is that other members of the class do not benefit.
Answering Learners Ques ons
Tips for responding effec vely to learner ques ons, especially in a classroom se ng:
○ Be sure that you clearly understand the ques on before a emp ng to answer.
○ Display interest in the learner’s ques on and frame an answer that is as direct and accurate as possible.
○ A er responding, determine whether or not the learner is sa sfied with the answer.
Summary
• This chapter described the methods and techniques avia on instructors use to assess learner progress.
• A well-designed and mely assessment defines what is worth knowing, enhances mo va on, and improves learning.
• Today’s learners want to know the criteria by which they are assessed, and they want prac ca and specific feedback.
• Avia on instructors familiar with different types of assessments know how and when to use them to promote a produc ve
learning environment.

TO SAY IN SHORT
The lesson on Analysis and Correc on of Student Errors outlines key strategies for avia on instructors to effec vely assess and
improve student performance. It introduces a four-step error correc on process: Replay, Reconstruct, Reflect, and Redirect,
guiding students from iden fying mistakes to applying corrected techniques. The lesson also emphasizes assessing risk
management skills through stages like Explain, Prac ce, and Manage-Decide, reflec ng a student’s progression from basic
understanding to independent decision-making. Effec ve assessment methods involve se ng learning objec ves, defining
performance indicators, and developing criterion-based evalua ons. Various cri que techniques—such as instructor-led,
learner-led, small group, peer, self, and wri en cri ques—are highlighted to foster construc ve feedback. Addi onally, ps for
answering learner ques ons ensure clear, engaging, and effec ve communica on. Overall, the lesson stresses the importance of
mely, specific assessments to enhance learning outcomes in avia on training.
 Lesson: 11
Human Behavior

Defini ons of Human Behavior

• The study of human behavior is an a empt to explain how and why humans func on the way they do. A complex topic, human
behavior is a product both of innate human nature and of individual experience and environment.
• By observing human behavior, an instructor can gain the knowledge needed to be er understand him or herself as an
instructor as well as the learning needs of learners. Understanding human behavior leads to successful Instruc on.
Mo va on
Maintaining Mo va on: Mo va on is generally not something that can be transferred from one person to another. Instructors
should become skillful at recognizing problems with mo va on and at encouraging learners to con nue to do their best.
Rewarding Success
Posi ve feedback encourages learners. Prac ce posi ve feedback frequently by:
⦁ Praising incremental successes during training.
⦁ Rela ng daily accomplishments to lesson objec ves.
⦁ Commen ng favorably on learner progress and level ability.
Human Needs and Mo va on
Mee ng Human Needs to Encourage Learning
Physiological :
• These are biological needs. They consist of the need for air, food, water, and maintenance of the human body. If a learner is
unwell, then li le else ma ers.
Belonging :
• When individuals are physically comfortable and do not feel threatened, they seek to sa sfy their social needs of belonging.
Security :
• Making sure that the learner feels safe is very important as they if they feel unsafe it’s difficult for them to concentrate.
Esteem :
• When the first three classes of needs are sa sfied, the need for esteem can become dominant. Humans have a need for a
stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect and respect from others. Esteem is about feeling good about one’s self.
Self-Actualiza on :
• When all of the foregoing needs are sa sfied, then and only then are the needs for self-actualiza on ac vated.
Self-actualized people are characterized by:
⦁ Being problem-focused.
⦁ Incorpora ng an ongoing freshness of apprecia on of life.
⦁ A concern about personal growth.
⦁ The ability to have peak experiences.
Defense Mechanisms
Defense mechanisms can be biological or psychological. The biological defense mechanism is a physiological response that
protects or preserves organisms. For example, when humans experience a danger or a threat, the “fight or flight” response
kicks in.
The instructor needs to recognize the learner’s apprehension about performing the recovery techniques and help them gain
the necessary skill level to feel comfortable with the maneuver.
• Anxiety
When anxiety occurs, the mind tries to solve the problem or find an escape, but if these tac cs do not work, defense
mechanisms are triggered. Defense mechanisms share two common proper es:
⦁ They o en appear unconsciously.
⦁ They tend to distort, transform, or otherwise falsify reality.
• Repression
Repression is the defense mechanism whereby a person places uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the
unconscious mind. Things a person is unable to cope with now are pushed away, to be dealt with at another me, or hopefully
never because they faded away on their own accord. For example, a learner pilot may have a repressed fear of flying that
inhibits his or her ability to learn how to fly.
• Denial
Denial is a refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening. It is the refusal to acknowledge what has happened, is
happening, or will happen.
For example, the instructor finds a water bo le under the rudder pedal of an aircra the student took on a solo flight and
explains the hazards of loose objects in the cabin. The learner, unwilling to accept the reality that his or her ina en on could
have caused an aircra accident, denies having been ina en ve on previous day. Or, the learner minimizes the incident,
accep ng he or she le the water bo le poin ng out that nothing bad happened as a result of the ac on.
Flight Instructor Ac ons Regarding Seriously Abnormal Learners
A flight instructor who believes a learner may be suffering from a serious psychological abnormality has a responsibility to
refrain from instruc ng that learner. In addi on, a flight instructor has the personal responsibility of assuring that such a person
does not con nue flight training or become cer ficated as a pilot. To accomplish this, the following steps are available:

● If an instructor believes that a learner may have a disqualifying psychological defect, arrangements should be made
for another instructor, who is not acquainted with the learner, to conduct an evalua on flight. A er the flight, the two
instructors should confer to determine whether they agree that further inves ga on or ac on is jus fied.
● The flight instructor’s primary legal responsibility concerns the decision whether to endorse the learner to be
competent for solo flight opera ons, or to make a recommenda on for the prac cal test leading to cer fica on as a
pilot. If, a er consulta on with an unbiased instructor, the instructor believes that the learner may have a serious
psychological deficiency, such endorsements and recommenda ons should be withheld.
Risk Management
This discusses safety risk management in the avia on community, looking at it as preemp ve, rather than reac ve.
The goal of risk management is to proac vely iden fy safety-related hazards and mi gate the associated risks. It is important
to remember the four fundamental principles of risk management:
• Accept No Unnecessary Risk - If flying a new airplane for the first me, a flight instructor might determine that the risk
of making that flight in low instrument flight rules (IFR) condi ons is unnecessary.
• Make Risk Decisions at the Appropriate Level - In the maintenance facility, an avia on maintenance technician
(AMT) may need to elevate decisions to the next level in the chain of management upon determining that those controls
available to him or her will not reduce residual risk to an acceptable level.
• Accept Risk When Benefits Outweigh the Costs - Like some mes the military has to carry out opera ons in weather
condi ons that is not at all ideal but they do it because it may benefit their country in the long run.
• Integrate Risk Management into Planning at All Levels - Risks are more easily assessed and managed in the early
planning stages of a flight. Changes made later in the process of planning and execu ng may become more difficult, me
consuming, and expensive. However, safety enhancement occurs at any me appropriate and effec ve risk management take
place.
The Pave Checklist
• By incorpora ng the PAVE checklist into all stages of flight planning, the pilot divides the risks of flight into four
categories: Pilot in command (PIC), Aircra , environment, and External pressures (PAVE), which form part of a pilot’s decision-
making process.
• With the PAVE checklist, pilots have a simple way to remember each category to examine for risk prior to each flight.
• Learn to say NO if required.
 Stress Management
Learning how to recognize and cope with stress is another effec ve ADM (Aeronau cal Decision Making) tool. Stress is the
body’s response to demands placed upon it. These demands can be either pleasant or unpleasant in nature. The causes of stress
for a pilot can range from unexpected weather or mechanical problems while in flight to personal issues unrelated to flying.
Stress is an inevitable and necessary part of life; it adds mo va on and heightens an individual’s response to meet any
challenge.

TO SAY IN SHORT
The lesson on Human Behavior focuses on understanding how and why individuals act the way they do, which is
crucial for effec ve instruc on. It highlights the role of mo va on, emphasizing that while it can't be transferred,
instructors can encourage learners through posi ve feedback and by mee ng their human needs—including
physiological needs, security, belonging, esteem, and self-actualiza on. The lesson also covers defense mechanisms
like repression and denial, which can affect learning. Instructors must iden fy signs of serious psychological issues
and act responsibly if safety is compromised. Risk Management is key, with principles like accep ng no unnecessary
risk, making decisions at the right level, and using the PAVE checklist (Pilot, Aircra , Environment, External
pressures) to assess risks. Lastly, effec ve stress management helps pilots recognize and cope with stress, enhancing
their decision-making skills. Understanding these concepts promotes safer and more effec ve avia on training.
 Lesson: 12
HAZARDS INVOLVED IN SIMULATING SYSTEM
FAILURE AND MALFUNCTIONS IN THE AIRCRAFT

Introduc on
There are many aspects to be considered when flight training or tes ng is conducted in airplanes instead of simulators. Much
depends on the depth of the training planned, and what training situa ons are permi ed in the airplane. The informa on
provided does not apply if the characteris cs of a par cular airplane make the exercise unworkable, imprac cal, or hazardous.
The trainer should observe any guidance and limita ons in the Flight Manual, as well as any restric ons applied by the company
and the airworthiness authority.
Pre-flight Prepara on - The suitability of:
• Airfield/airspace for training, including alterna ve airfields
• Weather - cloud, visibility, surface wind, possible icing
• Crosswind for simula ng failure
• Runway condi on for simulated failure – wet/contaminated limita ons
• Aircra serviceability
• Op mum fuel state
• Runway length adequate for touch-and-go landings
• Runway width adequate for engine cuts and abandoned/rejected takeoffs
• Aircra de-ice
Pre-flight Briefing
• Responsibili es of each individual, including those of the duty pilot, if carried
• Use of checklists – when a “Training Checklist” will be in use
• Power se ngs, speeds, gear/flap limits
• Method of taking/handing over control
• Handling of real emergencies in air & on ground
• Taxing, thrust se ngs, braking techniques, turning circles
• Takeoff techniques, rota on, pitch angles
• RTO ac on
• Minimum height for simula ng system failure and malfunc ons in the aircra
• Minimum heights/speeds for stalling
• Condi ons for stalling – clear of cloud, good horizon, aircra configura on
• Incipient or full stall recovery techniques
• Landing techniques, flare, maximum pitch
• Ac on/calls during touch-and-go landings
• Use of speed – training speeds, go-around, minimum speeds
Inflight Handling
• “Following through” during takeoff/landing/touch-and-go
• Taking control during debrief/instruc on
• A en on to gear/flap limit speeds
• Crosswind factor for engine failure prac ce
• Simula on of engine failure, zero-thrust se ng
• angle of bank – reminder of maximum bank of an aircra
• Maximum speed for RTO prac ce
• Brake cooling considera ons
• Method of restoring power a er an asymmetric exercise
• Airspace/lookout/ATC coordina on
• Liaison with ATC for emergency descent prac ce
• Airport/circuit procedures
• Clear instruc ons prior to and during touch-and-go landings
• Avoidance of “landing on one engine”
• Early decision to go-around from long and fast approach
• Incapacita on – how to simulate, how far to con nue
Amplifica on on the topics above will be necessary to ensure all training personnel maintain the same high standards. Company
Opera ons Manuals or Training Manuals should include very specific guidelines. These take the form of Standard Opera ng
Procedures for training flights (Training SOPs), general limita ons and aircra handling notes.
Some examples as to what addi onal details might be appropriate:
• Training airfields can be specified and preferred training airspace defined.
• Minimum al tudes and the need for a good horizon for stalling exercises should be specified.
• Other criteria may be given for upper air work – e.g., demanding exercises should be conducted in visual condi ons
(clear of cloud). If the airplane has penetrated into icing condi ons, it is unwise to con nue maneuvers if there is a risk
that flying controls or airplane surfaces are contaminated.
• Minimum cloud base, inflight visibility and surface wind can be s pulated for circuit work for each aircra type.
• A minimum runway length for touch-and-go landings should be determined and published. The parameters used in the
deriva on of minimum length, such as weight, al tude, temperature, tailwind, wet or dry runway, and addi onal safety
factors should also be given.
• Individual responsibili es during touch-and-go must be clear – who resets trim/flaps, etc.
• A suitable runway length for engine cuts/rejected takeoffs should be specified, if this maneuver is allowed.
Training Standards
Trainers should be checked regularly to verify competence in briefing, ini a ng and handling engine-out situa ons. There should
be par cular emphasis on student mishandling. For safety reasons, this last topic should be dealt with by discussion, prac ce
emergencies in mass briefing, unless a simulator is available for Instructor/Examiner training.
Summary
While simula ng system failure and malfunc ons in the aircra if proper check on the weather condi ons, aircra limita ons,
capabili es of the PIC and trainee and or procedure is not kept, the flight can easily end in disaster. Simula ng system failure
and malfunc ons in the aircra should never be taken lightly and always be demonstrated with extreme cau on.

TO SAY IN SHORT
The lesson on HAZARDS INVOLVED IN SIMULATING SYSTEM FAILURE AND MALFUNCTIONS IN THE AIRCRAFT emphasizes the
importance of safety and prepara on during in-aircra training. Key areas include Pre-flight Prepara on, ensuring the suitability
of airfields/airspace, weather condi ons, runway status, and aircra serviceability. A thorough Pre-flight Briefing covers
individual responsibili es, checklist usage, emergency procedures, and minimum heights for simula ons. During Inflight
Handling, a en on to control handovers, engine failure simula ons, airspace coordina on, and go-around decisions is crucial.
The lesson stresses strict adherence to Training Standards, with regular competence checks for instructors. Ul mately,
simula ng failures must be done with extreme cau on, considering all variables to prevent accidents.