EDID6501 – Learning Theory and Instructional Design

Trimester 2 2013/2014

Assignment 2

By

Gerada Holder

Albert Joseph

and

Meredith B. Connor

University of the West Indies

Paper Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

Course Coordinator: Camille Dickson-Deane

Email: Meredith.hodge@my.open.edu
Contents

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................. 3

Cognitive Information Processing ................................................................................................................. 3

Meaningful Learning and Schema Theory .................................................................................................... 5

Situated Cognition Theory ............................................................................................................................ 8

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................... 9

References .................................................................................................................................................. 11
Introduction
This paper was developed in partial completion of an assignment which involved
research and peer discussions on the topics cognitive information processing (CIP), meaningful
learning and schema theory, and situated cognition. The paper will describe how learning
occurs in all three theories, the implications for instructions, outline the progression between
them and state how situated cognition theory provides for human learning.

Cognitive Information Processing

Through the lens of cognitive information processing (CIP) the learner is seen as a
human processor, much like a computer with inputs, processes and output. When learning
occurs, information is inputted from the environment, processed and stored in memory and
output is in the form of some learned capability (Driscoll, 2005). The main focus of CIP is on
memory, that is, how information is stored there. Memory plays an important role because it
helps the learner to organize and understand new concepts based on prior knowledge that was
recalled. Being able to recall information is as a result of a three phase process proposed by
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) as sensory memory, working memory/short-term and long-term
memory.

Sensory memory is the ability to hold on to impressions of sensory information after the
original stimuli has ended. Sensory information is anything that has to do with seeing, hearing,
smell taste or touch in our environment. When this information is detected it is either ignored
in which case it is automatically dismissed; or it is observed which would result in it being
entered into sensory memory. Only information that the brain recognizes as potentially useful
in the future is registered into sensory memory and this is done unconsciously. This type of
memory lasts for up to 30 seconds. If the stimulus catches the learner’s attention then it is
encoded and passed from sensory memory to working memory or short-term memory.
Encoding information is the process of relating incoming information to existing concepts or
ideas in a way to make them more memorable.
 Working memory or Short-term memory as the name implies, has limited capacity and
so small amounts of information is retained for a relatively short period of time unless some
effort is made to preserve it. An example of this is repeating the information as would be done
if the learner was trying to learn vocabulary words for a foreign language. After some repetition
(rehearsal) and meaningful association this information is transferred or stored in long-term
memory for retrieval at a later date. Chunking (grouping individual bits of information into
larger related or similar units), the use of acronyms and mnemonics (e.g. ROYGBIV to recall the
colours of the rainbow) and serial positioning are some strategies for improving short term
memory that are useful for both learners and instructors.

Long-term memory in contrast has a large capacity for storage and retention of
information therefore information is stored indefinitely. Information is stored in long-term
memory based on meaning and association (Semantically), as well as by sound. It is in long-
term memory that the learner stores facts (semantic memory), events (episodic memory) and
procedures (procedural memory) which can be recalled at later dates for example how to play
an instrument. Semantic and episodic memories are also known as declarative memory or
explicit memory. An Example if this type of memory is being able to describe the rules of long
division. The ability to remember information stored in long-term memory would depend on
environmental cues that would trigger recollection.

Instructors can use the following techniques to help students to focus their attention and
activate CIP:-

 Graphic organizers such as concept maps to show the relationship between the concept
being taught and other ideas and information this will help students to retain the
information;
 Using words that have concrete referents that represent things and experiences invoke
imagery in the mind of students and are great for teaching about abstract ideas like
peace and historical events like revolutions, or future events such as general elections;
 Organize material to show the link between new material and previous knowledge this
provides mental scaffolding;
  Highlight important points and present outlines prior to introducing new study
material;
 Use methods that will aid short-term memory for example acronyms and mnemonics,
sequence positioning and chunking. This is useful when teaching complex concepts or
topics. Chucking can be used in language for example to teach related topics like
phonology, morphology and semantics that may be overwhelming if taught in one
lesson.
 Choose instructional approaches that will help the students to become self-regulated
through meta-cognition. A good way to do this is by asking leading questions which
would cause the student to think deeply e.g. What is the relationship between A and
B?
 Use instructional strategies that actively involve the students in learning for example
group discussions, corporative learning, discovery-based learning and any activity that
involves learning by doing.

Meaningful Learning and Schema Theory

Through the lens of meaningful learning and schema theory learning is a result of being
able to making sense of new information by relating (anchoring) it to what was previously
known. In other words, the process of meaningful learning involves recognizing the
relationship between the new information received and something that is already stored in
long-term memory. Schema theory tries to explain how information is best encoded into long-
term memory. Schemata which are mental structures of organized patterns of knowledge
represent some aspect of the world and act as a link between new information and stored
knowledge. We tend to learn what we pay attention to and things that we notice are things
that fit into our existing schema. According to Ausubel’s Subsumption Theory, new ideas and
information are incorporated or subsumed into the learner’s existing cognitive structure in four
different ways derivative subsumption, correlative subsumption, super-ordinate learning and
combinatorial learning.
  Derivative subsumption describes a situation where the new information that a student
is learning is an example of a concept that the student already learned. The new
information would therefore fit into existing schema the fact that there is no change
learning is referred to as accretion;
 Correlative subsumption adds value to existing knowledge because the new information
extends or elaborates on what the student already learned. Although new information
is received the schema is not altered (accretion).
 Supper-ordinate learning occurs when the new information is higher in the concept
structure than the existing concept (or anchor) you have. For example the student may
know of lizards but may not have known that it belongs to a group of animals called
reptiles until it was taught. This is causes a change in schema so this is referred to as
tuning.
 Combinatorial learning describes a process by which the new idea is derived from
another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but at the same level (in a
different, but related, "branch"). You could think of this as learning by analogy. For
example in teaching about plant pollination a student may recall human procreation.
Combinatorial learning is different from the first three learning processes which
involved new information that attaches to a hierarchy at a level that is either below or
above previously acquired knowledge. If the new idea causes the students thinking to
change completely this is referred to as restructuring of schema.

These changes in schema support the idea that long-term memory changes over time as
they become consistent with our knowledge, beliefs and our expectations. The conditions for
meaningful learning to occur are:-

1) The learner must be ready to learn;

2) Students should have previous knowledge to which the new knowledge can be related;
and
3) The learner must use a meaningful learning set in order to connect learning events in a
way that makes sense.
 Meaningful learning provides the overall framework where knowledge can be incorporated
therefore, it has implications for instruction as they set the stage for learning. The following are
some approaches adapted from the overview of unit 3:-

 Advance organizers – Lessons should begin with the big picture and then narrow
the focus to the area of concentration using mental scaffolding. Graphics and
other visual and audio aids can be used to expose or compare information.
Phrases like “do you recall how yesterday we did...” direct attention to what is
important in the material which is to follow; allows the instructor to highlight
relationships among ideas that will be presented in the lesson and reminds
students of relevant information already in memory i.e. to ‘hook’ or connect the
previously learned knowledge with what is to come. These will be the anchors
which provide relevance to the new ideas being taught and open the learner to
receiving new information.
 Comparative organizers – help the learner to distinguish similarities and
differences among the information being taught. Tables and charts are great
tools that students should be encouraged to utilize as well.
 Progressive differentiation or elaboration – the teacher would start at the most
general idea and the move to more specific areas to clarify anchoring ideas.
Example today our topic is transportation (general), then progress to various
forms of transportation, and then to cars (specific).
 Provide unifying themes for content, since information that lacks a theme can be
difficult to comprehend, or, worse, the learner may “accrete” the information to
the wrong schema.
 Choose texts with “standard” arrangement so that they conform to student
expectations. If designing material use a standard format and ensure that there is
consistency of design throughout the material;
 Encourage students to read titles and headings. Point out the structure of
particular kinds of texts; e.g., what are the key terms.
Situated Cognition Theory
Situated cognition theory is a move away from viewing learning as an individual internal
process to seeing learning as being influenced by external social factors. Through the lens of
situated cognition theory, learning is “naturally tied to authentic activity, context, and culture”
(Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989) in which it occurs. This is so because every human thought is
adapted to the environment that is it is situated in, because what people perceive, how they
conceive of their activity, and what they physically do develop together (Clancy, 1997 as cited in
Driscoll 2005). The theory purports that learners should understand the concepts and skills
being taught in the context in which it will be used. This is why instructors are now creating
environments were people with common interests and goals can interact while completing
tasks are identical or very similar to those that will be encountered in the real world. Therefore
knowledge is viewed as lived practices and learning as participation in communities of practice
as people learn while doing. Situated cognition recognises the relationship between cognitive
processes and their social, cultural and historical setting. This is why case studies and simulated
instruction are used to provide context and practical application of knowledge. Similar
strategies and techniques can be utilized in instruction as shown above so that acquisition of
knowledge and skills would become more natural as the context is created.

Basic Principles of Situated Cognition are:

 Learning is a social and situated activity process

 Knowledge remains inert and unused if taught in a context that is separate from doing,
in other words, people learn by doing; therefore the two cannot be mutually exclusive,
 Knowledge is acquired in social situations and old knowledge is assimilated with current
environmental stimuli, which through reflection and association creates meaningful
schema which results in the creation of new knowledge.
Conclusion
Cognitive information processing theory, schema theory and situated cognition show
the link between how knowledge is acquired and made meaningful by creating context along
with the effective use of various strategies to aid learning.
References
Atkinson, R.C. and Shiffrin, R.M. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and itscontrol
processes. In K. W. Spence and J. T. Spence (Eds) The psychology of Learning and
motivation (Vol 2). London: Academic Press.

Brown, Collins and Duguid (1989) Situated Cognition and the Culture of Learning, Educational
Researcher, 18, 32-42 Retrieved from
http://people.ucsc.edu/~gwells/Files/Courses_Folder/ED%20261%20Papers/Situated%2
0Cognition.pdf (Accessed March 28, 2014)

Driscoll, M., (2005). Psychology of Learning for Instruction.USA. Pearson Education Inc

Driscoll, M., (2004). Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Boston. Allyn & Bacon

Situated Cognition. Edutechwiki. Retrieved from

http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Situated_cognition (Accessed March28, 2014)

Wilson, B.G., Myer, K.M. Situated Cognition in Theoretical and Practical Context. Retrieved from.

http://carbon.ucdenver.edu/~bwilson/SitCog.html (Accessed March 30, 2014)