ADAMA SCINCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND LAW

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

LAND AND WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT STREAM

Determinants of Forest Degradation in Chire woreda, Sidama Zone,

Southern Ethiopia

By

Workineh Asefa

AUGUST, 2016
ADAMA, ETHIOPIA
 ADAMA SCINCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND LAW

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

LAND AND WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT STREAM

Determinants of Forest Degradation in Chire woreda, Sidama Zone,

Southern Ethiopia

By

Workineh Asefa

Advisor

Tsetadirgachew Legesse (PhD)

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES OF ADAMA SCINCE

AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN GEOGRAPHY AND ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES
(SPECIALIZATION IN LAND AND WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT)

AUGUST, 2016
ADAMA, ETHIOPIA
Approval of Board of Examiners

As member of the examining board, we certify that we have read and evaluated the thesis by Ato
Workineh Asefa entitled: “Determinants of forest degradation in Chire woreda, Southern
Ethiopia” that is be accepted as fulfilling the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Arts.

Approved by the Examining Board:

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External Examiner Signature Date

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Internal Examiner Signature Date

Tsetadirgachew Legesse(PhD) ------------------- ---------------

Advisor Signature Date

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Chairman Signature Date
DECLARATION
I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my original work and all sources of materials used
for the thesis have been duly acknowledged. It has not been submitted to any other universities
than the University of Adama Science and Technology for any type of academic degree.

Name: Workineh Asefa

Signature:
Acknowledgments

In the first place, all praises is to the Almighty God who is Gracious and Merciful, and has
created this world of knowledge for us. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my
advisor Dr. Tsexadirgachew Legesse for his consistent invaluable advice, comments and follow
up from the beginning up to the completion of this work. My appreciation goes to the people of
Chire woreda for their cooperation and positive response, sharing their valuable knowledge and
time for the study. I am very much indebted to my friends Abrish and Nakachew Manaye
unbroken moral and financial encouragement throughout the study. Finally, I express my
heartfelt gratitude to Melese Wesere, Dawit Dangiso, Abebe Markos, and Tekalign Welfida who
support me during data collection phase.
 Table of Contents
Contents Page
Declaration……………………………………………………….…………………………….…..….i
Acknowledgment………..……………………………………………...…………...………….…......ii
Table of contents..……………...………………….…………………………………………..….….iii
List of figures……………..………...………………………………………………….…….…………iv
List of tables…….……………………………….…………………………………..………………..v
Acronyms…………………………………………………………………………..…………….…...vi
Abstract..…………………………….………………………...………………………..……..……..vii
Chapter One: Introduction……………………………………………………………………...1
1.1. Background of the Study…………………………………………………………………..1
1. 2. Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………….2
1. 3. Objectives of the Study……………………………………………………………………4
1. 3.1. General objective……………………………………………………………………...4
1.3.2. Specific Objectives …………………………………………………………………..4
1.4. Research Questions………………………………………………………………………...4
1.5. Significance of the Study………………………………………………………………….. 4
1.6. Scope of the Study………………………………………………………………………….5
1.7. Organization of the thesis……………………………...….……………...………………..5
Chapter Two: Review of Related Literature ………………………….……………………….6
2.1. Conceptual Literature………………………………………………………………………6
2.1.1. Concepts of deforestation and forest degradation ……………………………………..6
2.1.2. Indicators of forest degradation…………………………………………………...…..8
2.1.3.Indigenous Knowledge of forest Plant Species……………………………………….10
2.1.4. Values of forest…………………………………………………………………...…..11
2.2. Empirical Literature………………………………………………………………………13
2.2.1. Trend of forest degradation and Forest management practice………...………….....13
2.2.1.1. Trend of forest degradation and determinants………...…………………..….13
2.2.1.2. Forest management practice………………………...………………………..14
2.2.2. The determining causes of deforestation and forest degradation…...……...……..…16
 2.2.2.1. Direct causes forest degradation……………………………..………………..16
2.2.2.2. The underlying causes of forest degradation…….………..…………………..17
Chapter Three: Description of the study area and methodology……………….…...……...19
3.1. Description of the study area……………………………………………………………...19
3.1.1. Location and physical background………………………………………...…………19
3.1.2. population and socioeconomic aspects…………………………………………….....21
3.2. Material and Methods…………………………………………………………………….21
3.2.1. Research design and approach………………………………..…………………......21
3.2.2. Data types and sources ……………………...………………...………………….....22
3.2.3. Sampling techniques ……………………….…………..……………………….…..22
3.2.4. Data validity and Reliability… …………..…………..……………………..............23
3.2.5. Ethical considerations…… ………………………..….…….……….……...………24
3.2.6. Methods of data collection …………………….………………………...…………25
3.2.7. Methods of data analysis ……………………..…………………………………….26
Chapter Four: Result and Discussion……………………………..…………………..……....28

4.1. Respondent Characterstics …………………………………………...…………...…….28

4. 2. Botanical and Environmental Knowledge of Local People in the Study Area and
transfer of knowledge among study area community………….……………...…..….29
4.2.1. Comparison of forest knowledge among different social groups in the
community……………………………………………………………………….31
4.3. Causes of forest degradation in the study area………..………………………….….....34
4.4. Multipurpose Use of forest species………………………………………………..…….37
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendation………………………………………...…..40
5.1. Conclusion……………………….………………………………………………...…....40
5.2. Recommendation……………………...……………………………………...………....42
Reference……...…………………………………………………………………………….…..43
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………………49
 List of Figures

Figures Page
1: Location and administrative map of Chire woreda……………...……………………………20
2: Plant life form in the study area……………………………………………………………….30
3: The relationship of age of informants and number of forest plants recognized……..…….….32
4: Difference of traditional forest knowledge with sex difference………….……..…………….33
5: The effects of agricultural land expansions……..……………………………………………36
6: Fuel wood collection in the study area……...………………………………………………...37
 List of Tables

Tables Page
1: International definitions of forest degradation/degraded forest…………………………...…..7
2: Possible biodiversity indicators of forest degradation……………………………………...…..9
3: Determining causes of deforestation and forest degradation in major world regions…….…..16
4: Allocated proportionate sample sizes from each sample Kebele…………..………………….23
5: Respondents Characterstics……………………………………………………………….......28
6: Pair wise ranking of determinant causes of forest degradation in Chire woreda,
Southern Ethiopia……………………………………………………………………….35
7: Ranking of reasons for forest degradation in chire woreda, Southern Ethiopia……..………..26
8: Average score for direct matrix ranking of six forest species plants on five use criteria……..38
Acronyms

CSA: Central Statistical Authority

CWAO: Chire Woreda Administration Office
CWARDO: Chire woreda Agricultural and Rural Development Office
EEA: Ethiopian Economic Association
EFAP: Ethiopian Forestry Action Program
EMA: Ethiopian Mapping Agency
EPA: Environmental Protection Authority
FAO: Food and Agricultural Organization
FGD: Focus Group Discussion
MoARD: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
NFT: Number of Forest Tree
NGO: Non Governmental Organization
PFM: Participatory Forest Management
SNNPRS: South Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State
SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences
UNDP: United Nations Development Program
UNEP: United Nations Environmental Program
WB: World Bank
Abstract
The purpose of the study was to identify the determinants of forest degradation in. Chire woreda,
Southern Ethiopia. Various techniques were used to collect and analyze the data: semi-
structured interview, field observation, group discussion, paired wise comparison, use diversity
matrix, and descriptive statistical analysis. The study identified the forest is the major source of
livelihood of the people in the area. Due to high level of dependency on forest resources, the
local communities have developed traditional management practices based on orally transmitted
from one generation to the next generation. Trees elements found to be the most widely available
plant life forms and constitute the largest number with 22 species (39%) followed by herbaceous,
17 species (30%) and shrubs make the third growth forms with 13 species (23%) harvested for
multipurpose. Even though the study area possesses diverse natural vegetation, the environment
is under serious threat, mainly due to human induced pressure such as agricultural land
expansion, overgrazing, charcoal production and the need for construction materials. These
have great effects on the availability of forest plants in particular and natural resources in
general. Based on the analysis of the study, the result from matrix ranking showed that
Syzygium guineense, Croton macrostachys and Cordial africana are the most important and
multipurpose plant species. Generally, the result of this study indicates that forest degradation is
the result of an interplay of several anthropogenic factors, including knowledge gap among
different social groups; problem of knowledge transfer; activities like agricultural land
expansion, overgrazing, fuel wood collection. Therefore, it that awareness raising to local
community in the study area on sustainable utilization of forest plants is recommended, and the
introduction of other energy sources are also considered.

Key Words: Forest degradation, Indigenous knowledge, Forest management

 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

Degradation of forest resources is an important society concern that is perceived in many
different ways. Forest degradation can be a serious environmental, social and economic problem
with the potential to adversely affect millions of people who depend on forest goods and
services. Because the state of the forest is important in contributing to sustainable development
and their role for human well-being(FAO, 2011). As forest consider as the basic resource for all
living things that the existence of this resource is the existence of diversified habitats which
regulate the ecosystem (Richard et.al., 2004). As UNEP (2001) defined forest is important
habitat to serve biodiversity and for ecological function in which it regulates the climate of local
and global bad weather events. However, this important resource has being faced a problem and
degradation of forest is continuing in many part of the world. Around 60 percent of the world’s
major ecosystems are now degraded or used unsustainably. More than 50 percent of all types of
forest, agricultural land and wetlands surrounding urban and semi-urban areas have been lost
through conversion to other land uses (MEA, 2005). This destruction has created different
environmental problem in different regions of the world and the future human need of this
resource is failed to meet because the removal of forest by different causes lead the loss of
habitats, biological diversity as well as soil and slope instability, flooding and land slide(Lambin
et.al.,2003; Lambin ,2005).

Forest degradation leads to forest biodiversity loss by reducing available habitat of forest-
dependent species and indirectly through disruption of major ecological processes such as
pollination, seed dispersal and gene flow. As FAO, 2009 forest degradation is usually associated
with a reduction in vegetative cover, especially trees. There are exceptions, however, such as the
‘empty forest syndrome’ brought on by excessive hunting and/or the high-grading of
commercially valuable timber species.
The determinant factors related to forest degradation are varies based on the economic interest
and benefit of specific region (UNEP, 2001; Smithson et.al., 2008; Gibbs et.al., 2010; Olson and
Maitima, 2006). In Tropical forest region, where the most essential region of forest that contains
around half of world species diversity, the most determinant factors of forest degradation are
logging, agricultural expansion, fuel wood collection resulting extinction of species. The lost of
under 1% of its forest area, 1-10% of world species would lost (UNEP, 2001). Around tropical
regions, Congo basin and West Africa coast agricultural expansion, fuel wood collection while in
South America and Central America cattle ranching is the dominant determinant factors for
forest degradation, resulting seven out of eight hectares, and three out of four hectares converted
to pastures during 1980s and 1990s respectively(Smithson et.al., 2008; Gibbs et.al., 2010).
Dominantly agricultural expansion is the leading determinant factors for forest degradation in
most part of the world. Around West Africa coast is also a big problem where practicing of forest
clearance for the purpose of space for palm, coffee, cacoa, and rubber plantation, as well as many
small farms. During 1980s forest degradation in South and Central America was a big concern
due to the fact that 74% and 90% of lands in used for agricultural expansion by clearing forests
and this trend continued at 76% and 89% until 1990s (Gibbs et.al., 2010).
In East Africa, including Ethiopia the determinant factors related to the forest degradation in the
last century was mostly associated with the change of land use system as well as the change of
human being life style, especially economic preference such as agricultural expansion, Fuel
wood collection, logging, population pressure, construction materials, and mixed crop-livestock
in natural areas (Olson and Maitima, 2006; Smithson et.al., 2008).
The fact shows that in most parts of the world including Ethiopia have experienced the
increasing trend of forest degradation and the determinant factors for forest degradation are
varies region to region due to the economic interest and benefit of specific region, and related
consequences: climate irregularity, desertification, extinction of species, flooding, land slide, and
other related effects became common problem.

1. 2. Statement of the Problem

World forests resources are in a state of decline and have been degrading at an alarming rate
since agriculture began. The situation created a serious environmental, social and economic
problem with the potential to adversely affect millions of people who depend on forest goods and
services (FAO, 2011). As Lambin (2005), finding the change of the state of forest i.e. forest
degradation contributing to the loss of forest habitat and biological diversity, flooding and land
slide. The problem also became a challenge in combating global warming efforts. The
international community cannot keep the threshold of 2°C acceptable warming without taking
adequate action on global forest resources with such a significant carbon pool (UNDP 2012).
Accordingly if the forests are converted to other land uses, the carbon in the atmosphere will
increased, which in turn could result in unprecedented global warming. This is an indication that
forest in many parts of the world losing their contribution to sustainable development and their
role for human well-being.

The major determining factors for degradation of forests in most parts of the world is human
interference such as expansion of agricultural land and mechanization like timber production;
grazing area; increasing population and the increasing needs of raw material for industries etc
(UN, 2005). As in most parts of the globe, forest degradation has posed a serious environmental
challenge to Ethiopia now a day. In fact, determinants of forest degradation vary with place,
however in many empirical findings agricultural land expansion and fuel wood search due to the
change of land use system (Geist and Lambin 2001; Parry, 2003).

Degradation of natural resources including forest in the study area is a serious problem and the
utilization and conservation of natural resources is found in low level. (CWARDO 2014).
According to the annual report that the loss of forest and agro forestry trees contributed to the
loss of flora diversity and the declining of food production in the study area. Demarcation of
selected forest areas called” kelela” has been taken as the measure to overcome the degradation
of forest, without identified the determinants, so that still the problem is there.

Since there is no enough studies conducted in the study area that consider the major determinants
of forest degradation so far, this study aims to fill this research gap. At least, the study will try to
answer the proposed research questions on the determinants of forest degradation in Chire
woreda.
1. 3. Objectives of the Study

1. 3.1. General objective

The general objective of the study is to investigate the main determinants of forest degradation in
Chire woreda, Southern Ethiopia.

1.3.2. Specific Objectives of the Study

This study specifically is interested to:
1. identify the major causes of forest degradation in Chire woreda
2. spot forest species types that are mostly used by the local people under various uses
3. assess botanical and environmental knowledge of local people in the study area
4. recommend some solutions for future sustainable use of forest resource in the study area

1.4. Research Questions

In order to attain the above stated objectives, the following basic research questions have been
answered in the course of the study.
1. What are the major causes for forest degradation in Chire woreda?
2. Which forest species are mainly used by local people in the study area?
3. How is the botanical and environmental knowledge of local people in the study area?
4. What possible measures are available for the degradation of forest in chire woreda?

1.5. Significance of the Study

The findings of this study provide baseline knowledge about the determinants of forest
degradation in Chire woreda so that, it may fulfill empirical literature gap that will be useful for
the purpose for the determinants of forest degradation and related issues in the study area.
Specifically it brings valid information to Chire woreda agricultural office about the major
causes of forest degradation in order to have appropriate forest resource utilization and
protection mechanisms. The researcher expects that the study indicates the research finding
provides information for policy makers, NGOs that works on forest related activities in the study
area. Further it may serves as a source material for whom interested further investigation in
related research theme.
1.6. Scope of the Study
The spatial scope of the study was limited on Chire woreda, Southern Ethiopia due to the
constraint of sufficient time, budget, and other necessary input. The temporal scope was based
on the investigation of the current determinants of forest degradation in the study area.
Regarding to content scope the main issues assessed included the causes of forest degradation,
environmental and botanical knowledge of local people, and forest plant species which are the
most valuable to local community for various purposes.

1.7. Organization of the study

The thesis is organized into five main chapters. The first chapter deals the introduction part
which included background of the study, statement of the problem, research objectives, research
questions, significance of the study, scope of the study, and organization of the thesis. The
second chapter has discussed reviewing related materials to the study. This section assesses
various conceptual and empirical literature related with the research topic. The description and
interpretation of the study area and the methods employed presented in the third chapter. The
fourth chapter focuses the major findings of the study and discussion. Conclusion and
recommendation deals in the last chapter
 CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction
This chapter reviews the literature mainly concentrates on conceptual and empirical framework
concerning forest degradation. On the part of conceptual literature review focuses on the
definition of deforestation and forest degradation, uses of forest, and indigenous knowledge of
forest plant species while empirical literature review focuses on trend of forest degradation and
forest management practice, the determining cause of forest degradation.
2.1. Conceptual Literature
2.1.1. Concepts of forest degradation
Perceptions of forest degradation are many and varied, depending on the driver of degradation
and the goods or services of most interest and are more difficult to apply universally in a
consistent and transparent way. For example, a manager who replaces a natural forest with a
plantation is unlikely to perceive as degradation of forest. This is an indication of the desire of
forest degradation definition from the perspective of international forest-related reporting,
coherent, comparable and harmonized (FAO, 2011). According to FAO (2009) many definitions
are either very general or focused on the reduction of productivity, biomass or biological
diversity particularly so that the definitions of forest degradation refer to multiple-use forests or
multiple forest benefits comprehensively. As FAO (2009) surveyed the definition of forest
degradation varies from country to country as that countries use various strategies to define
forest degradation. They variously:
 use international or regionally developed definitions;
 have developed their own definitions that may be recognized legally;
 use vegetation categories in classification, with degradation considered (usually
implicitly) as a change from one class to another
 Use indicators of forest degradation without specifically defining it.
 Define associated terms such as secondary forest and degraded forest land.
In general manners the definition of forest degradation, stated below table 1, are more specific
definitions for particular purposes.
Table 1: International definitions of forest degradation/degraded forest

Organization Definition
FAO (2002b) Forest degradation is the reduction of the capacity of a forest to provide
goods and services.
FAO (2001) Forest degradation is changes within the forest which negatively affect
the structure or function of the stand or site, and thereby lower the capacity
to supply products and/or services.
ITTO (2002, 2005) Forest degradation refers to the reduction of the capacity of a forest to
produce goods and services (ITTO, 2002). Capacity includes the
maintenance of ecosystem structure and functions (ITTO, 2005).
A degraded forest delivers a reduced supply of goods and services from a
given site and maintains only limited biological diversity. It has lost the
structure, function, species composition and/or productivity normally
associated with the natural forest type expected at that site (ITTO, 2002).
Degraded primary forest: primary forest in which the initial cover has been
adversely affected by the unsustainable harvesting of wood and/or non-wood
forest products so that its structure, processes, functions and dynamics are
altered beyond the short-term resilience of the ecosystem; that is, the
capacity of these forests to fully recover from exploitation in the near to
medium term has been compromised.
Secondary forest: woody vegetation regrowing on land that was largely
cleared of its original forest cover (i.e. carried less than 10% of the original
forest cover). Secondary forests commonly develop naturally on land
abandoned after shifting cultivation, settled agriculture, pasture or failed tree
plantations.
Degraded forest land: former forest land severely damaged by the
excessive harvesting of wood and/or non-wood forest products, poor
management, repeated fire, grazing or other disturbances or land uses that
damage soil and vegetation to a degree that inhibits or severely delays the
re-establishment of forest after abandonment.
CBD (2001, 2005) A degraded forest delivers a reduced supply of goods and services from
the given site and maintains only limited biological diversity. Such a forest
may have lost its structure, species composition or productivity normally
associated with the natural forest type expected at that site. A degraded
forest is a secondary forest that has lost, through human activities, the
structure, function, species composition or productivity normally
associated with a natural forest type expected on that site. Hence, a
degraded forest delivers a reduced supply of goods and services from the
given site and maintains only limited biological diversity. Biological
diversity of degraded forests includes many non-tree components, which
may dominate in the under-canopy vegetation.
IUFRO(Nieuwenhuis, Forest degradation is damage to the chemical, biological and/or physical
structure of a soil (soil degradation) and to the forest itself (forest
2000)
degradation), as a result of incorrect use or management, and which, if not
ameliorated, will reduce or destroy the production potential of a forest
ecosystem (in perpetuity). Explanatory note: External factors, e.g. air
pollution, can also contribute.
Source: FAO 2011
Hence the meaning of forest degradation may vary based on the service that this resource
provided and may be narrow or wide depending on the purpose of context and Degradation is
relative, not absolute. The definitions of forest degradation are relative not absolute. and also
varying from internationally recognized institutions to explaining the concept considering their
purpose of stand, and each has their own limitation in defining forest degradation. ITTO
definition is probably the most comprehensive while FAO focus is on the reduction of
productivity but CBD define on the context of biological diversity criterion. However, most
definitions of forest degradation refer to or imply application to natural forest and planted forests
on the basis of a loss of potential supply of ‘goods and services’ or ‘benefits’ requires subjective
decisions in determining whether an area has been degraded. It is also subject to tradeoffs in
which one good or service may be reduced or lost while another increases or is restored.

2.1.2. Indicators of forest degradation

Indicators of forest degradation in many countries stated in a comprehensive manner, unable to
mention in a specific approach. According to the survey of FAO (2009) reported One-third of
countries responding they did not have specific indicators for assessing forest degradation. The
remaining listed a wide range of (possible) indicators but the extent to which these are used in
practice is unclear. Indicators listed by one or more countries included aesthetic values; area
affected by fire; disappearance of biodiversity/species; erosion; forest/canopy cover;
fragmentation; occupancy/dominance of invasive/introduced species; presence of pioneer
species/indicator species; soil fertility; soil properties; soil structure; species composition; stock
density; production/value of timber and non-wood forest products (NWFPs); water quality;
wildlife habitats; and wildlife risk. Accordingly the assessment of these indicators based on the
information from national forest inventories or biodiversity assessments. Such as aesthetic
values, soil properties, soil structure and wildlife risk. However, beside their importance in
assessing degradation of forest such indicators of forest degradation they do not represent a
systematic approach.
Table 2: Possible biodiversity indicators of forest degradation

Source: FAO 2011

2.1.3. Indigenous Knowledge of forest Plant Species

Indigenous knowledge is also known traditional or folk knowledge in which a given community
adapted to the local environment through practical testing experience (Martin, 1995). World
Bank (2006) also defined it is cumulative knowledge and practices that has been developed by
the means of informal education system. This knowledge is generated and transmitted to one to
another by interacting within specific community and particular agro-ecological environment
and linked to access and control over power. According to Martin, 1995, the knowledge and
access to this knowledge are not evenly spread between and among communities due to
perception, interest, access to information and resources. Also natural resource knowledge and
practice vary by culture and geographical origin. As Koizumi, (2005) reported that the
knowledge on classification of plants difference within a hunter-gatherer community of Borneo
of Indonesia found difference between men and women, young and elder, and even among adult
men. Related to ethno biological knowledge the knowledge varies within any culture religion,
occupation, educational background, social status and income class, age and gender (Martin,
1995). The knowledge difference is also observed between gender and age due to
variation of responsibilities in a household (Styger et al., 1999).
In the case of East Gojjam Zone, southwestern Ethiopia knowledge variations were observed
between children and adults, where children can lists better wild edible plant species than adults
(Fentahun et al., 2005). Therefore the utilization of plant species depend on existing local
knowledge and the economic pursuit of the people and the factors such as age, gender, and
season were reported to pressure the use this resource. This immeasurable wealth of knowledge
has been a key area in several agro forestry ethno botanical studies to identifying species for
domestication and commercialization and even has role during critical time i.e. crop failure and
drought (Shrestha and Dhillion, 2006; Bell, 1995).
However due to the changes in lifestyle, changing occupational patterns of household members
and disappearance of village elders the world indigenous knowledge is being lost at accelerated
rate (FAO, 1995). According to Badege, 2001 in Ethiopia it is important that the existing public
awareness about forestry and natural resource to maintain the remaining natural forests and
biodiversity. Therefore, weak participation of the people and community in environmental
management activities are some of the environmental challenges of Ethiopia face now days.
2.1.4. Value of Forest
The values of services that forests provide for the functioning of living things in general and
particularly as a source of livelihood for the community including food, medicines, construction
materials and etc. also they regulate local and global climate, bad weather events, regulate the
hydrological cycle, protect watersheds and their vegetation, water flows and soils (UNEP, 2001;
Hladik et al, 1993). Based on forest principle forests have four broader types of value relation
with the services it provided (Zemedie and Kedir, 1997). These are economic, social, cultural,
ecological values. Regarding forests economic value of the forest that wood obtained from the
forests serve as source of income generation such as fuel for cooking and heating, construction
material both local use and industries.
Forest already plays a significant role in sustainable local economies. For instance the collection
and processing of forest and the production of wooden items and handicrafts constitute the most
important sources of income for many rural families and this industry provides full or partial
employment to an estimated 100 million artisans and semi-skilled labourers (World Bank, 2006;
Scherr, 2004). Accordingly it generates more money and jobs per unit of wood than does any
other part of the forest products industry. In many areas, woodcarving also serves as a safety net
as that contributes in the global economy. A further 1 billion people depend on woodlands,
homestead trees and agroforestry for many of their day-to-day needs. For more than 2 billion
people, wood energy is critical for cooking, heating and food preservation (FAO, 2010a). In
developing countries it has been shown that approximate between 60% and 70% of populations
dwell in the interface between agriculture and forest land areas collect various parts of forest
species. Particularly for Africa’s local residents they are important for household food security
like non-cereal plant food, nutrition value, source of income generation and health (Warinwaa
1999; Machakaire, 2001). Forests also in the poorest regions, including in countries with rapidly
emerging economies, stimulating investment in local eco-entrepreneurship and green enterprises
can serve as an engine of rural economic development (Matta, 2009).
Based on the forests environmental value that forest plants can renew the environment as well as
the atmosphere by bringing off oxygen during photosynthesis process. Forests provide a wide
range of ecosystem services. For example, they protect soils from erosion; regulate the water
regime; capture and store carbon; produce oxygen; provide freshwater and habitat; help to reduce
fire risk (in the tropics); and produce wood and non-wood forest products (ITTO, 2002). At the
same time, forests are important components of ecosystems at all scales, providing a wide range
of services and functions: regulating water supplies, buffering floods and droughts, mitigating
the adverse effects of GHG emissions, and harbouring biodiversity. Forests are estimated to store
about 289 gigatonnes of carbon in their biomass alone; they therefore play a central role in the
earth’s carbon balance and hold significant potential to mitigate climate change (FAO, 2010b).
The recent IPCC report estimated over 50% of global greenhouse mitigation potential that the
global forest represents (IPCC, 2007).
The values of forest also vary with region to region. As United Nation Environment Program
forest has multi-purpose and their values may differ with region. In tropical region forests have
direct use values like timber; fuel wood; recreational/tourism; flood/storm protection and carbon
fixing; and land conservation values like crops; agri-business; agro forestry (UNEP, 2001).
According to Wilson 1988 tropical forests, which account around 7% of the land surface, are
home for more than half of the total number of species on earth. The forest of temperate region
has also different values: direct use values include timber; genetic information like
pharmaceutical, agricultural; cultural/religious. Indirect use values like watershed function;
fisheries protection; water supply; global climate including carbon storage.
Forest in Ethiopia playing a significant role in day-to-day activities of the community. The
country’s forest resources supply most of the wood products used within the country, as well as a
large volume of diverse non‐timber forest products, and providing ecological functions for
instance the global carbon balance store. The largest store of carbon in the country is found in the
woodlands (46%) and the shrub lands (34%), while the high forests store about 16% (UNDP,
2010). Therefore forest is the basic natural resource, which has important role in the hydrologic
cycle, soil conservation, and prevention of climate change and preservation of biodiversity. And
it provides space and raw materials for various developmental activities, including wood
production, food, income, and watershed protection.
2.2. Empirical Literature

2.2.1. Trend of forest degradation and Forest management practice

2.2.1.1. Trend of forest degradation and determinants
Forest degradation over the past 30 years has been shown the continuation trend (FAO 2001;
UNEP 2001). Accordingly the change of forest area in developed countries has increasing
slightly while deforestation and forest degradation has continued in developing countries overall
In many parts of Ethiopia forest is currently being degraded and found with severe risk and even
in some region it is now being damaging beyond repair capacity. Due to the determinant factors
such as the change of land use system, mainly for agricultural land expansion and fuel wood
search the Ethiopian highlands, where most of the vast mountain massifs in the heart of the
country that support 88% of the total population and cover about 44% of Ethiopia land area,
facing a risk of loss of forest resource (Diriba, 2006; EFAP, 1994).

In the past decade alone, about 130 million hectares of forest were lost, of which 40 million
hectares were primary forests (FAO, 2010b). This forest loss and degradation are estimated to
cost the global economy between USD 2 trillion and 4.5 trillion a year (Sukhdev, 2010).
Unfortunately, such costs are not captured in traditional measures of economic progress such as
gross domestic product (GDP) (World Bank, 2011c).

Forest resources in Ethiopia have experienced so much pressure due to increasing need for wood
products and conversion to agriculture (UNDP 2010).This trend shows that forests in Ethiopia have
been degraded from time to time and resulting high rate of top soil loss and environmental
degradation threat. Thus the trend in Ethiopia today is to protect the remaining natural forests for
their various social, economic and environmental values. Particular in the study area, as a part of
the country, improper natural resource utilization and management, including forest resources, is
still found at low level utilization and management, and resulting natural resource is became
degrading and related consequences have been observed. Most of the local communities have
less awareness on resource management, and the determinants of forest degradation. This was
the fact that motives the researcher to conduct the study.
2.2.1.2. Forest management practice

According to Aumeeruddy et.al., 2003) forest resource management refers the means that the
forest resource plantation, consumption, and protection properly or the conservation of forest
biomes in meaningful way. The world is large enough to allow different forests to be managed
for different values and outputs: some forests can be protected; others can be intensively
managed for wood; and others can be managed for multiple uses. The management of forest is a
big concern to increases wood production, carbon sequestration, besides its benefits in terms of
biodiversity conservation and watershed protection. Now a day managing forest resources has
become one of the most important agenda in climate negotiations.
The conservation effort of forest resource broadly undertake in in-situ and ex-situ measures.
According to Cotton (1996), In-situ forest conservation refers to the conservation of forest in
their natural habitats or original site while Ex-situ forest conservation means the conservation of
forest outside their natural habitat. Agrawal, 2001 divide four factors that affect proper resource
management:
i. Resource system characteristics - includes resource size, clearly define boundaries, level of
people from place to place, capacity of community save from resource benefit;
ii. User group community characteristics- includes presence of past good experience, the size
of group, norm of community, leadership style, defined boundary ,the interaction of group
member;
iii. Institutional arrangement- like simple and understandable rules, the prevalence of
accountability;
iv. External management-includes time of new technology adaptation ,opportunity of local
authority on decision making, level of central government interfere in local authority
level of adaptation with external market.
The management of forest resource in Ethiopia since mid 1970s was mainly state control and a
non-participatory strategy that could not protect forest destruction, including protected national
forest areas. During this time the major cause led to failed forest management was the absence of
involvement or participation of the concerned body, especially local community on forest
conservation and management effort (FAO, 2010). This fact showed the efforts of government
only could not bring the expected result so far.
In 1990s the Ethiopian government gave emphasis on sustainable participatory forest
management and invited the collaboration of external institutions like NGOs, and launched
participatory forest management(PFM ) approach primarily to participate all the concerned
bodies of forest resources that aiming to sustainable forest utilization, and even to participate on
the rehabilitation effort on the degraded forest areas(UNDP, 2012). PFM is a strategy that
identify and develops responsibility on forest management between community (forest user and
manager) and government service that it promotes to eliminate conflicts on forest resource and to
ensure the benefit of local community from forest resource Mulugeta et.al., 2008).
The new forests policy and forest proclamation (542/2007) is significant legal steps towards
improved management of forests. It defined the issues such as forest ownerships (primate and
state) and purpose (protection and production), decentralized forest administration. However,
weak implementation of the policies is the challenge concerning land use planning land use
conflicts benefit sharing mechanisms etc. (UNDP, 2010). To fill forest policies implementation
gap focus areas include: Proper institutions for managing forest resources (skilled manpower,
sufficient financial and material resources); Applying scientific forest management principles
(e.g., sustainable yield principle where annual harvest equals annual yield); Adequate investment
on required silvicultural operations and forest administration, and Proper utilization and
marketing.
The result from different finding shows that forest resource management in Ethiopia non-
participatory approach and should encounter all the concerned body including the participation
and continuous discussion of forest dependent community, local natural resource facilitators
because the economic benefit from forest is the primary motivator for these bodies. So that
participatory forest management strategy must be established to minimize or give up forest
degradation. Without management intervention it may lead to the extinction of a species and loss
of associated indigenous knowledge on use and management. This problem is one of the major
difficulties for forestry development programs in Ethiopia.
2.2.2. The determining cause of forest degradation
Forest degradation involves a change process that negatively affects the characteristics of a forest
so that the decline of its goods and services. The cause may be natural (e.g. that caused by fire,
storm or drought), human-induced (e.g. through harvesting, road construction, shifting
cultivation, hunting or grazing) or a combination of the two. However, Human-induced
disturbance may be intentional (direct), such as that caused by logging or grazing (FAO, 2009).
Due to the economic preference and the change of life style of human beings, the determining
factors of forest degradation differ from region to region, and vary their effect (Smithson H.et.al,
2008). In Latin America Cattle ranching, inequitable social structure, road networks, resettlement
and spontaneous migration are considered as the major determining factors; including
agricultural expansion, population pressure. In Asia corruption, logging and population pressure
are the leading determining factors for forest degradation (Smithson H.et.al, 2008; UNEP, 2001).

Table3: Determining causes of forest degradation in major world regions

Region Determinants
Latin America Cattle ranching, agricultural expansion, population pressure,
inequitable social structure, road networks, resettlement and
spontaneous migration
Africa Fuel wood collection, logging, agricultural expansion, population
pressure
South Africa Population pressure, agricultural expansion, corruption, fodder
collection, fuel wood collection
South East Asia Corruption, agricultural expansion, logging, population pressure
Source: Smithson H.et.al, 2008
In general there are two broad divisions of causes of determining deforestation and forest
degradation: direct cause of forest degradation and the underlying causes of forest degradation
with their specific activities (Giri, Tejaswi, 2007).

2.2.2.1. Direct causes forest degradation

The direct causes of forest degradation comprise both natural and human activities. Natural cause
includes hurricanes, natural fires, pest, and flood while human activity includes agricultural
expansion, cattle ranching, mining and oil extraction, logging, construction of roads and dam
(Giri, 2007). In Ethiopia forest has been degrading from time to time. During 1950s to 1974s the
increasing mechanized farming practice in the country result large number of rural population
displaced to forest land area (EEA, 2002), and from 1973-1987 resettlement and villagization
and state farm expansion program reduced forest coverage by 11% (Dereje, 2007) . The direct
causes of forest degradation in developing countries including Ethiopia are agricultural
expansion, wood extraction, and expansion of infrastructure (Geist and Lambin 2001; Ababu,
2009). This is due to that Ethiopia’s economy is primarily depends on agriculture that accounts
for 50% GDP and 90 percent of total foreign exchange earnings (MoARD and WB 2007). As
UNDP, 2010 finding the national energy balance is dominated by fuel wood, which is the main
source of energy over 90% of the primary total energy supply for urban and rural areas.

2.2.2.2. The underlying causes of forest degradation

The efforts of coping the problem of forest degradation by initiatives of international, national,
and regional level should also recognized the underlying causes. According to Giri (2007), the
underlying causes of forest degradation includes socio economic and political causes such as
distribution of economic and political power, government weakness like concentration of land
ownership and weak or non-existent ownership and land tenure management, illegal activities
and corruption; mistaken policy and interventions like wrong incentives, regulatory mechanism,
and government investment ; market failure like unpriced forest goods and services, monopolies
and monopolistic forces. The underline causes of forest degradation are often country-specific
and vary among countries (IFF, 2000) and include:
Poverty;
Lack of secure land tenure patterns;
Inadequate recognition within national laws and jurisdiction of the rights and needs of
forest-dependent indigenous and local communities;
Inadequate cross-sectoral policies;
Undervaluation of forest products and ecosystem services;
Lack of participation;
Lack of good governance;
Absence of a supportive economic climate that facilitates sustainable forest management;
Illegal trade;
 Lack of capacity;
Lack of an enabling environment, at both the national and international levels;
National policies that distort markets and encourage the conversion of forest land to other
uses.
In Ethiopia the underlying causes includes socio-political change, population growth, insecurity
of land tenure are the major, however unfortunately they have not been focused so far (Gessesse
D.et.al, 2007). In SNNPR, Hawassa watershed area there is a clear combination of biophysical
and sociopolitical condition: Geographic properties, socio-political change, population growth,
insecurity of land tenure, agricultural development and the improvement of transport capacities
for forest degradation (Gessesse D.et.al, 2007). In Ethiopia the causes of forest degradation is not
identified in spatial manner rather than general manner. The context showed that only the direct
causes of forest degradation are focused by giving comparatively low attention for the
underlying causes of forest degradation. Also the assessments of forest degradation factors based
on specific sites are still given low attention. The situation resulting environmental degradation
and serious threat to forestry and agriculture sector in many parts of Ethiopia including the study
area. For instance few studies that conducted in the study area on natural resource have not
investigated the determinant factors of forest degradation so far.
 CHAPTER THREE
DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA AND METHODOLOGY

Introduction
This chapter covers the background of the geographical scope of the study areas. It also covers
the methodology including source and type of data, data gathering and analysis instrument that
are compatible with the objective set. In addition the chapter reflects the technique of selection
of participants.

3.1. Description of the study area

3.1.1. Location and Physical Background

The study conducted in Chire woreda, Sidama zone, SNNP regional state of Ethiopia. It is
located 480kms from Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia in Southern direction, and 207
km away from Hawassa, the capital city of SNNPR in South East direction. Astronomically it is
0 ’ 0 0 0
located at 6 17 45”- 6 36’55” North latitude and 38 54’ 47”- 39 7’50”East longitude. The
woreda bordered on the North and East Oromiya region by Nensibo woreda and the South Guje
zone by the Haranfama Woreda, on the West Aroresa and Benesa Woreda ,Sidama zone SNNPR
(CWAO 2014). The Woreda is sub-divided into 16 administrative kebeles and two urban centers
that are chire balo(01 kebele) and Chire Kumburta(02 kebele) (CHWAO, 2014; CSA, 2007).
Chire woreda has two ecological zones that Woina Dega accounts 68.75 percent, and Dega
consists 31.25 percent. The study area is situated at an altitude of 1641 to 3300 meters above sea
0
level with mean annual rain fall 800 to 1500 mm and the mean annual temperature of 15 to 25 c.
From the total land areas farm land accounts 87%, around 8% of the land area is covered by
forest with 5% mountainous land (CWARDO 2014).
Figure 1: Location and administrative map of Chire woreda

Source: EMA, 2013

3.1.2. Population and Socio-economic aspects
According to information obtained from Administration Office, the total population of the study
area is 114,413 (male 57,452 and female 56,961) as projected from the 2007 Population and
Housing census (CSA, 2007). Out of the total population, 98% lives in rural areas while the
remaining 2% lives in urban areas. The population is composed of mainly Sidama nation and
Christianity is the dominant religion. There are also different ethnic communities living in the
towns. These ethnic groups are living together with mutual understanding and tolerance.
The livelihood of rural population is depends on agriculture while the livelihood of urban
population depends on small scale trade activities, income from house rent (CHWAO, 2014).
The study area experienced two rainy seasons: the main rainy season that from June to
September, and short rainy season from March to April. During the main rainy season barley,
wheat and teff ( eragrostis teff) grow while during short rainy season intercropping of maize,
cabbage, and green peppers with immature enset and coffee. Chire woreda also mentioned the
farming of enset, Chat(chata edulis), Tikle Gomen ,carrot and Habesha Cabbage ,Coffee (coffe
arabica). Rearing animals is another practice that creates income to chire woreda residents. The
major type of livestock rearing in the Chire woreda are Cattle, goats, sheep, horses, mules and
donkeys. However, from total livestock found in the woreda cattle, goats and sheep are largely
dominant (CWARDOR 2014).

3.2. Materials and Methods

3.2.1. Research Design and Approach
The study is aim at investigating some of the major determinants of forest degradation in chire
woreda of SNNPR. For the purpose, mixed research approach is chosen as an overall approach
for its ability to incorporate different methods and techniques in the collection and analysis
various statistical and non statistical data that focuses on the various issues of the study. In this
case of the researcher used both quantitative such as frequency and percentage and qualitative,
discussing a non statistical data, approaches are employed. Quantitative research is a numerical
research and organization of data while qualitative research is a non statistical way of
understanding the meaning, individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The
study design is descriptive survey which is based on the nature of the data because it provide a
multifaceted approach for data collection and presents an opportunity to fuse both quantitative
and qualitative data about forest degradation. So that the method assumed to enables the
researcher to assess the existing problem.

3.2.2. Data types and sources

The study needs both qualitative and quantitative types of data. The data were obtained from
Primary and secondary sources. Primary data has been collected from households of the three
purposively selected kebeles through focus group discussion, field observation and interview. It
helped the researcher to know the direct setting of events related to forest and forest related
issues. The researcher also used secondary data those were generated from related research
materials; journals; and documents from different organizations; annual reports such as CWAR
DO reports, CWAO annual reports, specifically forest resources data; statistical abstracts, and
other official documents. The later data source helped the researcher to associate and support the
data that get from primary sources.

3.2.3. Sampling techniques

The study included both probability and non-probability sampling techniques. Purposive
sampling technique conducted to select three sample kebeles. These kebeles were Chiri-balo
Lalesa, and Abaytaka their selection was based on their agro-climatic zone variation. Household
surveys conducted to collect information from selected individuals. Both women headed and
male headed households considered for data collection. To select the sample size of the
households from the total households of three kebeles use a simplified formula to calculate
sample size for questionnaire survey. According to Yamane, 1967 a 95% confidence level and
precision level of 5% are assumed for equation. Based on this,

( )
n=

Where, n= sample size

N= population size

e= level of precision

Accordingly the population size of sample kebeles is 4643 HHs (Chiri-balo kebele 998 HH;
Lalesa kebele 1608 HH; Abaytaka kebele 2037 HH)
 ( ) ( . )
Therefore n= n=

n= 1+4643×0.0025 = 1+11.6 =12.6 ≈ 13

n=

n=357

After applying the above formula the result 357 household assumed as the sample size household
from total household of the selected three kebeles in the study area. Then to maintain
proportional representation of sample kebeles William, 1977 stratified formula conducted:

PS = × No of household in each kebele

Where PS= proportional size
n = total household sample size
N= total number of household in the three selected kebeles

Table 4: Allocated proportionate sample sizes from each sample Kebele

Sample kebeles Total HH at sample kebeles Allocated proportionate
samples from kebele
Chiri-balo 998 77
Abaytaka 2037 157
Lalesa 1608 123
Total 4643 357

Source: Own construction on data from CSA, 2007

3.2.4. Data Validity and Reliability

As Golafshani (2003), validity and reliability of data should be recognized in every scientific
research, as they were ways to establish a truth in a multiple way. Validity is the usefulness of
research instruments in addressing research objectives and research questions (Knapp and
Mueller, 2010). Therefore, in order to assure the validity of the research, the researcher has been
tried to review quite adequate conceptual and empirical literatures related to the problem under
investigation. This enables the researcher incorporates major themes in data generating
instruments so as to investigate the problem in all-embracing way. In the same way, the
researcher has been consulted methodological aspects on past research outputs and scholarly
articles undertaken in order to select accurate data generation tools and techniques.
Reliability is another important criterion to keep the quality of a study so that it measures the
result of the study either consistent or not over time (Joppe, 2000). As Yin (2009) reliability
ensures that “that if a later investigator followed exactly the same procedures as described by
earlier investigator conducted the same case study all over again the later investigator should
arrive at the same findings and conclusion”. In order to keep the reliability of measurements in
questionnaire the researcher carried out a pilot study prior to actual survey in randomly selected
kebele that was not included in the study i.e. Chiri kumiburita kebele. The main reason
conducting pilot study was to detect any weakness on questionnaire such as legibility, logical
sequence, formatting and vague statements in order to take corrective measures. Doing so few
vague statements seen in questionnaire then rejected and changed in clear statement for the
actual survey. Piloting helped the researcher to determine whether the respondents understood
the questions and revise the research instruments. Also to extract reliable data in case of
qualitative data collection procedures such as FGDs and KIIs, the researcher has been also avail
himself in friendly and good interpersonal relation with research subjects.

3.2.5. Ethical Consideration

Ethical consideration looks attentively in the study process in order to account the human
elements such as integrity, consents, concern and anonymity of participants (Neuman, 2007).
The participants’ in household questionnaire survey, FGDs, KIIs kindly requested their
willingness to participate in the study so that they were been informed about the objectives and
outcomes of the research. Also their name and other unnecessary personal information are not
part of the study. In addition the data/information that obtained from participants and institutions
would be used only for the purpose of the study and never transfer to another body. In addition to
the ethics on human subjects, research ethics was consider acknowledgement of data generated
by others and appropriate citations of scholarly research outputs, books, journals, websites, and
any other related documents in order to assure intellectual and scientific integrity of the research.
As of these, the researcher has been tried to cite and acknowledge all the information taken from
different scholarly literatures.
3.2.6. Methods of data collection

3.2.6.1. Observation

Field observation was conducted by being employing checklist guideline and interview to
identify and collect data about forest species found in the study area. In order to have an insight
on the natural resource settings of the study site such as forest, and the state of the living
conditions of the society the researcher undertook unstructured observations on selected kebeles.
The method can gives the researcher to get direct clue about the interaction of phenomena, and
the real setting of things in addition the reported data that can get from the participants. Field
observations have various advantages over other qualitative data collection tools in providing
supplementary and confirmative information on the issue under investigation. During field
observation the researcher conducting observation in the three selected kebeles (Chiri-balo,
Lalesa, and Abaytaka) based on agro climatic zone difference woina dega and dega respectively.

3.2.6.2. Household questionnaire survey

Household questionnaire survey was conducted in order to collect information concerning the
general characteristics household in the study area (the relationship about the knowledge of
forest with age and sex of the local people). This helped the researcher to assess and presented
comparatively more knowledgeable discussants about forest within the community in the study
site. Also the method helped to analyze the perception and attitude of local people towards
forest, such as the use of forest, the activities that affecting forest. To create common
understanding between researcher and field assistances, and participants of the study the
structured household questionnaire survey has been developed in English and translated to
Amharic language. The field assistances were school principal and their selection was expecting
their experience on the general situation that prevails in the study sites.

3.2.6.3. Focus group discussion

To obtain primary qualitative data related to the cause of forest degradation; the types of forest
that are mostly used by the local people; the indigenous knowledge towards forest for the study,
the researcher used FGD data gathering instrument. The setting under the technique allows open
discussion of the participants to grasp collective view of the respondents. It organized in each
kebele and carried out with purposively selected discussants from kebele offices, Agricultural
and Rural Development Office, and Woreda Administration Office. The study comprised three
FGD and each included 6 discussants, their selection were based on the position they hold so that
to obtain valid information the issues under discussion. The role of the researcher was only
facilitates the discussion and guides the issues related to the objective of the study. Suitable
conditions were set for the discussants so that they were able to describe the issues under
investigation precisely in their own language, sidamu afoo.

3.2.6.4. Key Informant Interview

The participants in key informant interview selected based on purposive sampling technique. The
key informants were elderly, knowledgeable farmers and few active youth members of the
society from female and male-headed farmers, kebele chairman, who lived in the area for long
time and knowledgeable about the problem and who can give more valid data for the study,
were selected from three kebeles of the Woreda. The issues raised during KII were the attitude of
local people regarding to forest, the types of forest species founded in the study area, factors
affecting forest degradation. It helped the researcher to get in-depth information on which the
issues under investigation and the result was used to support findings from the household
questionnaire.

3.2.7. Methods of data analysis

3.2.7.1. Pair-wise ranking
Pair wise ranking was designed to identify and analyze the major causes for forest degradation in
Chire woreda and to assess the perception of local people about the determinant causes of forest
degradation in the study area. Pair wise conducted and the number of possible pairs was
calculated using the formula:
n (n-1)/2
Where n is the number of determining causes (Martin, 1995)
Therefore, n (n-1)/2
5 (5-1)/2
20/2= 10
It primarily focused to obtain data related the major causes for forest degradation in the study
area. Accordingly the local community identified five most determining causes of forest
degradation then the ten pairs were arranged based on the above formula and presented to the
key informant to choose one from the two causes at a time. The cause that got the highest total
score ranked first i.e. the most determined factor, and the factor that got the lowest score ranked
comparatively the least determining cause of forest degradation.

3.2.7.2. Descriptive statistics

A descriptive statistical method such as percentage and frequency were employed to analyze and
summarize the descriptive data obtained from the interviews on reported forest degradation and
associated knowledge. Microsoft Excel spreadsheet software (Microsoft Corporation, 2003) was
employed for organizing and analyzing data. The findings were presented using descriptive
statistical tools such as percentage; tabulation; supporting descriptive statements were derived
according to the relevant themes of the study. In addition, five categories of plant use-reports and
relative frequency of tree species was tabulated and analyzed statistically.

3.2.7.3. Direct Matrix ranking (use diversity ranking)

The method applied in order to compare multipurpose use of forest species in the study area and
to relate this to the extent of its utilization versus its dominance. It helped to spot forest species
types that are mostly used by the local people under various uses at sample kebeles of study site.
The selected key informants requested to assign and give value about the importance and
usefulness of forest species based on their experience, and their response categorized on the basis
of the following rating as:
5= Excellent
4= very good
3= good
2= least used
1= not used
By considering the ranking helped to identify comparatively the most valuable forest plants to
the local community under various uses in the study area.
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

Introduction
This chapter deals with the analyses and interpretation of major findings of the study on
determinants of forest degradation in Chire woreda which are derived from the data analysis.
The chapter also discusses how these factors have influenced the forest plant species in the study
area.
4.1. Respondent Characterstics
The study Among the 357 respondents participated in the study, 290(81.2%) and 67(18.76%)
were male and female respondents respectively. This showed males accounted for the highest
number than female respondents. Many of the participants in the area seem to have not gone to
schools. About 52.38% of the respondents cannot read and write. Those household heads that are
just able to read and write accounts for about 47.6%. Many informants, actually about 47.6% are
in the age category <35 years old. The marital status of the informants showed that most of them
are married that accounted for 86.27% married and single 13.72%.
Table 5: Respondents Characterstics

Kebele
Chiri-balo Abaytaka Lalesa Total
No. % No. % No. % No. %
Male 53 68.8 115 73.2 122 99.18 290 81.2
Sex Female 24 31.2 42 26.8 1 0.81 67 18.76
Total 77 100 157 100 123 100 357 100
< 35 years old 30 38.96 94 59.87 46 37.39 170 47.6
36 - 50 years old 42 54.54 49 31.21 60 48.78 151 42.29
Age
> 50 years old 5 6.49 14 8.91 17 13.82 36 10.08
Total 77 100 157 100 123 100 357 100
Single 14 18.18 34 21.6 1 0.81 49 13.72
Marital Married 63 81.8 123 78.3 122 99.18 308 86.27
Status Divorced 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Total 77 100 157 100 123 100 357 100
Level of Cannot read/write 37 48.05 52 33.12 98 79.67 187 52.38
Education Primary (1-8) 18 23.37 61 38.85 6 4.87 85 23.8
 Secondary (9-12) 14 18.18 26 16.56 12 9.75 52 14.56
Tertiary (12+) 8 10.38 18 11.46 7 5.69 33 9.24
Total 77 100 157 100 123 100 357 100
Source: Survey data

4. 2. Botanical and Environmental Knowledge of Local People in the Study Area

and transfer of knowledge among study area community

Natural resource utilization and management practice in the study area is based on traditional
ecological knowledge. The local people in the study area have their own traditional knowledge
related to environment and its surroundings including knowledge about classification of soils,
land, and vegetation. The Botanical and Environmental classification of local people in the study
area shows that the local people have traditional knowledge/experience to categorizing these
resources based on their specific characteristics i.e. composition, density, benefit, topographic
arrangement etc. People in the study area classify vegetation into five categories based on plant
density and composition: Dubbo (forest), Qorccishu Ula (mixture of shrubs and grass
communities), Caffa (vegetation growing in marshy and water logged areas), Kalloo (grass
community) Hawaddi Lelo(mixture of herbs and grasses). The study documented 56 forest plant
species belonging to33 families. Out of 33 families the most widely utilized species belonged to
Fabaceae(5), Rosaceae(4), Solanaceae(4), Moraceae(3), and Rubiaceae(3) had the highest
proportion of plants species. The habitats and ecological niches of the recorded species are
rather diverse and several of them occupy multiple niches. The distribution of plant habitat in the
study area includes trees, herbs, shrubs and climber. Trees were the dominant growth forms in
the study area. Herbs the second to trees dominant growth forms in the study area. Accordingly
trees were the dominant growth life forms with 39% species, followed by herbs with 30%
species from, and shrubs accounts 23%. On the other hand, climbers were the least life forms
with 7% (Figure 2). Most of these species occurring as tree in their growth form could be
advantageous in view of getting hold of diverse utilization in relation to agroforestry system. The
analysis indicated that forest plants are widely distributed in diverse habitats and wide
altitudinal ranges as well (Appendix 1).
 Plant life form in Chire woreda
40 38 %

35
31 %
30

25 24 %
perce

20

15

10
7%
5

0
Trees Shrubs Herbs Climber

Figure 2: Plant life form in the study area

Knowledge transfer/ good information on forest condition and the extent of forest degradation
will enable to prevent further degradation and to restore and rehabilitate degraded forests.
Unfortunately the transfer of forest related knowledge doesn’t easily transfer to other within the
community. Instead, the knowledgeable people want their knowledge to be secreted and they
don’t want to share their knowledge and keep secretly and the knowledge of plant remedies
remained in their hands. According to some key informants the reason behind those
knowledgeable people secreted their knowledge is that this knowledge is the source for income,
in which some plant species have traditional medicinal value. According to WHO, 1998 in
Ethiopia traditional medicine from forest plant species is still important side by side with that of
modern medicine due to cultural and economic factors. However, response during group
discussion some knowledgeable people pass their knowledge only to the person to whom they
trust.
Due to the dominance practice of folk knowledge in the study area which guided by traditional
ecological knowledge, transmitted through orally, due to knowledge transfer to close relatives,
unwillingness of young generations resulting the degradation of natural resources such as
destruction of forests. All the above factors are happening due to lack of environmental
awareness. As Girma, 2001 finding there is direct linkage between environmental awareness
with environmental development and environmental challenge in Ethiopia now a day. Therefore,
the study result is the reflection in which the level of botanical and environmental knowledge
within the local community as determinant for forest degradation in the study area.

4.2.1. Comparison of forest knowledge among different social groups in the community
The knowledge related to forest in the study area is not evenly distributed among different social
groups in the community, such as age, sex, education level and other variables. Regarding to
education level of informants, based on the data from key informants there as being more
educated (modernization) minimize traditional knowledge related to forest. Mean the level of
education of informants’ increases, the indigenous knowledge of people on forest decreases. This
shows that in the study area most the educated generation have little recognition about
indigenous forest knowledge. During group discussion the decline trend of this knowledge
driven by several factors including life style change such as the increasing trend in trade
activities than agriculture.
 Relationship of traditional forest knowledge with age level of the informants

Figure 3: The relationship of age of informants and number of forest plants recognized
The study showed that there were significant differences among average numbers of plants cited
by youngsters and elders as indicated by the above figure (figure 6). It revealed that there is a
positive relationship (r = 0.292) between the age of informants and their forest knowledge in the
study area. The older person could know and mentioned more forest trees number than the
youngsters. The same result was reported by Tesfaye et al., 2009 in ethnobotanical study in
Kaffa, Ethiopia reported that age of informants’ showed direct association with the number of
medicinal plants mentioned. Therefore relationship is observed in both variables in the study
area. Also there is uneven knowledge distribution between sexes. Also the uneven knowledge
distribution is also revealed on sex difference. According to the study finding, figure below, male
have more knowledgeable than female informants in the study area i.e. 9 and 7 average score
accordingly (figure 7). This is due to the fact that men have more power in the community in
controlling land and the resources found. Similar result observed in the study conducted by
(Styger et al., 1999) that the knowledge difference between gender and age due to variation of
responsibilities in a household.

9
8
7
6
5 columns show means
N

4
3
2
1
0
male
Sex female

Figure 4: Difference of traditional forest knowledge with sex difference

4.3. Causes of forest degradation in the study area

Currently, information from participants and field observation showed that forest plants in the
study area are subjected to frequent deforestation by the local community. This is attributed
mainly by different demographic pressure and its associated effects. The study result compatible
with the result of IFF finding; that In developing countries, forest degradation is typically
caused by human action but in developed countries the main causes are natural – both discrete
events and slow, chronic degradation (IFF 2000). According to group discussion result from the
informants the main causes of forest degradation were identified by participants and recorded.
These were firewood collection; agricultural expansion; charcoal production; construction
materials and overgrazing were considered as the major determining causes of forest degradation
in the study area. It was observed during field observation that such activities caused
considerable damage to the trees and shrub stands in the study area. Then to assess the
perception of local people about the causes of forest degradation Pair wise ranking conducted
and the number of possible pairs was calculated using the formula: n (n-1)/2 (Martin, 1995).
Then the ten pairs were arranged and presented to the key informants to choose one from the two
determinant causes at a time. Accordingly the cause that got the highest total score ranked first
(Table 7).

Table 6: Pair wise ranking of determinant causes of forest degradation in Chire woreda,Southern
Ethiopia

Determining Charcoal Construction Agricultural Firewood

Overgrazing
causes production material expansion collection

Charcoal Construction Agricultural Firewood

Overgrazing
production material expansion collection

Construction Agricultural Construction

Overgrazing
material expansion material

Agricultural Agricultural Agricultural

expansion expansion expansion
 Firewood
Overgrazing
collection

Overgrazing

Source: own survey

Table 7: Ranking of reasons for forest degradation in Chire woreda, Southern Ethiopia

Number of times
Determining causes Rank
preferred

Agricultural expansion 4 1
Overgrazing Construction 3 2
materials Fire wood collection 2 3
Charcoal production 1 4
0 5
Source: own survey

Accordingly agricultural expansion, overgrazing, and construction materials, as the three leading
determinant causes for forest degradation in the study area (table 3). Informants considered the
agricultural land expansion, that got the highest score, as the major determining causes of forest
degradation and still the most threatening factors now a day (figure 8 below). Likewise in
Canada agriculture sector is the largest source of forest conversion, half of the deforestation and
approximately two-thirds of gross deforestation and also agricultural expansion in Mexico
accounts 82% of Mexico’s forest conversion (Hall et al., 2006). As EPA, 1998 finding the
expansion of agricultural land and fuel wood collection are the major causes of forest
degradation in Ethiopia. It was observed during field observation that agricultural expansion as
the major determining cause due to the fact that the community mainly depend on agricultural
economy that driven the problem.
Figure 5: The effects of agricultural land expansions

Source: Abrham, 2015

Following to agricultural land expansion, overgrazing as the second principal cause for
degradation of forest in the study area. The reduction of grazing land due to agricultural
expansion has possibly resulted in overstocking in the study area. This over exploitation pressure
put some forest species as endangered. Therefore the remaining forest resources of the study area
will be further degraded by the action of the above determinants, unless tangible measures taken.
Figure 6: Fuel wood collection in the study area

Source: Abrham 2015

4.4. Multipurpose Use of forest species

The flora of the studied area is rich and provides diverse useful species. Forest resources supply
most of the wood products used within the woreda, as well as a large volume of diverse
non‐timber forest products, besides their various functions to the day to day activities of the
community. In the study area local people are largely depend on forest for various purposes such
as construction ,fire wood, charcoal production, fencing, shade, medicinal etc. According to
UNDP, 2010 forestry offers significant potential for such as forest products for energy,
construction materials, packaging and a wide variety of other consumer products while
preserving the pieces and functions of a healthy forested ecosystem. It has also role for
investment, many people hesitate to enter the business because of inherent risks, including the
long gestation period involved in establishing, tending and ultimately harvesting forest products.
Because forests contain more than 80 percent of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity (plants,
animals, birds and insects), they will be an important resource in the development of new
medicines, improved plant varieties and countless other products (FAO, 2010b).
The study revealed that such forest species plants were identified by local people based on their
different use potential. Accordingly six most multipurpose forest species plants were selected by
the priority of the community. Then five use criteria, that linked with the daily life activities of
the community, used to rank the selected forest species. Direct matrix ranking was employed to
assess the multipurpose of forest and to evaluate their relative importance forest to local people.

Table 8: Average score for direct matrix ranking of six forest species plants on five use criteria
(use given from 1 - 4, 1= no used, 2= least used 3= good, 4= very good5=excellent).

Millettia Cordial Podocarpu

Syzygium Croton Rhus s falcatus
ferruginia africana
UV guineense macrostachys glutinosa

k1 k2 k3 k1 k2 k3 k1 k2 k3 k1 k2 k3 k1 k2 k3 k1 k2 k3

C 1 1 1 2 1 2 4 4 4 2 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1

CM 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 5 5 3 2 3 4 4 3 5 5 5
3 2 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 4 5 5 3 2 2 1 1 1
MD

FW 5 5 5 3 2 2 2 2 2 5 5 5 4 3 3 1 1 1

FN 4 4 3 5 4 5 5 5 5 2 2 2 1 2 4 3 2 1

16 15 15 17 14 16 19 19 19 16 15 17 13 12 14 11 10 9
TI

46 47 57 48 39 30
GT
4 3 1 2 5 6
RA

Note: UV= use value, CM=construction material, MD=medicinal, FW=fuel wood,

FN=fencing, C= charcoal. K1-K3= Informant 1-3, TI= total number of informants,
GT=grand total, RA=rank

The results of the study revealed that the majority of the species have multiple uses and serve for
more than one use categories. The major use categories namely, fuel wood collection, fencing,
medicinal usage, construction/building, and charcoal use. The result of direct matrix ranking
indicates that Syzygium guineense, Croton macrostachys and Cordial africana are the first three
top valuable forest species type in the study area based on the setting criteria. Syzygium
guineense was found to be the most multi-purposed plant scoring 57, followed by Croton
macrostachys scoring 48 (table 4). According to some key informants Syzygium guineense, and
Cordial africana are widely harvested for different purposes such as timber. The distribution of
these plants in the study area is therefore, rare indicating their over exploitation and harvesting in
the study area. Also during field observation the researcher observed that these forest species
type are not easily available on most farm. This may prohibit that the mentioned forest plants are
highly endanger to disappear for future in the study area. However, those The least ranked
th th th
species Millettia ferruginia, Rhus glutinosa, Podocarpus falcatus ranking from 4 , 5 and 6
respectively, are not mean that they are the less threatened and dominantly distributed species in
the area.
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. Conclusion

The main purpose of the study is to investigating the current determinants of forest degradation,
knowledge on forest resource, and to assess forest resources management status in Chire woreda,
Southern Ethiopia. The findings of the study revealed that there are varieties of factors that lead
to forest degradation in the study area, and much of forest degradation caused by human
activities (anthropogenic factors) such as agricultural expansion, overgrazing, and construction
materials.
Accordingly to the study result the local people in the study area have their own traditional
knowledge related to environment and its surroundings. The local people classify vegetation into
five categories based on plant density, composition and benefit: Dubbo (forest), Qorccishu Ula
(mixture of shrubs and grass communities), Caffa (vegetation growing in marshy and water
logged areas), Kalloo (grass community) Hawaddi Lelo(mixture of herbs and grasses). The
distribution of plant habitat in the study area includes trees, herbs, shrubs and climber. Trees
were the dominant growth forms in the study area.
However, this knowledge is unevenly distributed among different social groups in the
community. Accordingly, there are knowledge difference between men and women; men have
more knowledge about forest than women informants in the study area. Also relationship of
forest knowledge with age level of the informants observed. The older person could know more
forest trees number than the young generation. Due to knowledge transfer to close relatives,
unwillingness of young generations, and other could be determinant to forest degradation.
This study could be also a witness that activities include agricultural expansion, firewood
collection, construction materials and other resulting the degradation of forests in the study area.
Currently, information from participants and field observation showed that forest plants in the
study area are subjected to frequent deforestation by the local community. This is attributed
mainly by different demographic pressure and its associated effects. Accordingly, agricultural
expansion overgrazing, and construction materials are the major causes to forest degradation in
Chire woreda.
The study has provided essential information about the various uses of forest in the study area.
The local people use forest for fire wood, charcoal production, fencing, and medicinal value. The
result of the study indicated that Syzygium guineense, Croton macrostachys and Cordial africana
are the most valuable forest species type for various uses in the study area. Finally, the results of
this study suggest that improving local people awareness and controlling anthropogenic factors
will contribute to overcome forest degradation in the study area, and similarly it could enhance
the overall productivity and stability of agro-ecosystems.
5.2. Recommendation

In view of the findings contained in this research, the following recommendations are forwarded:

 Increasing public awareness to maintain about determinants forest degradation through

formal and informal ways. The Chire woreda agricultural office should participate the
experts who are knowledgeable in natural resource. Also Adult education program may
an input to reach illiterate individuals and households. Good information on forest
condition and the extent of forest degradation will enable to prevent further degradation
and to restore and rehabilitate degraded forests.
 The CWARDO shall implement participatory forest management strategy to participate
all the concerned bodies related to forest and forest resources that aiming to sustainable
forest utilization, and for rehabilitation effort. Here complementarities between in-situ,
the conservation of forest in their natural habitats and ex-situ conservation, the
conservation of forest outside their natural habitat, of biodiversity should be considered
as priority area of conservation. Decisions about the type of management appropriate for
each forest should be made through participatory processes that engage all levels of
society. It is essential to construct a decision for forests that incorporates the best science,
local experience and traditional knowledge.
 Alternative sources of energy should be introduced such as solar energy source and other
locally made materials that need low energy consumption should be introduce to
minimize the cutting of trees for the purpose of fire wood.
 The knowledgeable farmer concerning forest resource should share and transfer their
botanical knowledge to the young generation who reside in their compound without
considering only their close relative, family member or other individual they can trust.
 Reforestation should consider. However, this activity shall prioritize the most degraded
areas and plant species because such as plants Syzygium guineense, and Cordial africana
are declining their volume from time to time and found in sparsely distribution in the
study area. Therefore it would provide a better advantage for the conservation of these
species while it could enhance the overall productivity and stability of agro-ecosystems.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Lists of plants life form in study area based on their family, scientific and
local names. Growth: Tree= T, Shrub= S, Herb= H, Climber= C .
Scientific name Family name Vernacular name Habit
Acokanthera schimperi (A. DC.) Apocynaceae Qararo S
Schweinf
Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthaceae Raafo H
Allophyllus abyssinicus(Hochst) Sapindaceae Xonxoloma T
Rodalkofer
Apodytes dimidiataE.Mey ex. Am. Icinacaceae Doongiicho T
Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott. Araceae Qolcooma H
Arundinaria alpina K. Schum. Poaceae Hooyiicho T
Cajanus cajan (L.)Millsp. Fabaceae Yemakku Atara H
Canthium oligocarpum subsp. Rubiaceae Kincho S
oligocarpum Hiern.
Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae Otila S
Cordia africana Lam. Boraginaceae Waaddiicho T
Croton macrostachyus Del. Euphorbiaceae Masinna T

Cyperus usitatus Burch. Cyperaceae Taichcho H

Datura stramonium L Solanaceae Banje S
Dioscorea abyssinica Hochst. ex Dioscoreaceae Bohe C
Kunth
Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. Ebenaceae Horerasa T
DC.
Dovyalis abyssinica (A. Rich.) Warb. Flacourtiaceae Huro S
Ehretia cymosa Thonn. Boraginaceae Gidiincho T
Ekebergia capensisSparrm. Meliaceae Olooncho T
Embelia schimperi Vatke Myrsinaceae Qaanqo C
Eriosema cordifolium Hochst. ex A. Fabaceae Silinga H
Rich.
Eriosema verdickiiDewild. Fabaceae Qoci-qoo'male H

Ferula communis L Apiaceae Nugusa H

Ficus palmata Forssk. Moraceae Badana T
Ficus mucuso Ficalho Moraceae Odakko T
Galiniera saxifraga(Hochst.) Bridson Rubiaceae Daanshicho T
Justicia schimperiana (Hochst.ex Acanthaceae Ciikkicho S
A.Nees) T.Anders
Kniphofia isoetifoliaSteud.ex Hochst Asphodelaceae Galade H
Lagenaria siceraria(Molina) Standl Cucurbitaceae Surupha C
Lepidotrichillia volkensii (Gurke) Meliaceae Xabbicho T
Leroy
Maesa lanceolataForssk Myrsinaceae Gowacho T
Millettia ferruginea (Hochst.) Bak. Fabaceae Hengedicho T
Momordica boivinii Baill Cucurbitaceae Ki're C
Morus alba L. Moraceae Boowili go'ra S
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata (Wall. Oleaceae Ejersa T
ex G.Don) Cif.
Pavetta abyssinicaFresen Rubiaceae Shamelcho S
Physalis peruviana L. Solanaceae Maree'ra H
Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) Mirb. Podocarpaceae Dagucho T
Prunus africana(Hook.f.) Kalklm Rosaceae Garbicho T
Rhamnus prinoidesL'Herit.R. Rhamnaceae Xaddo T
Staddo.A.Rich.

Rhus glutinosa A. Rich Anacardiaceae Oloncho T

Ritchiea albersii Gilg Capparidaceae Baxaraqicho S

Rosa abyssinicaLindley. Rosaceae Hagala S
Rubus apetalus Poir. Rosaceae Worichu Go'ra S
Rubus volkensii Engl. Rosaceae Allichchu Go'ra S
Rumex abyssinicusJaccq. Polygonaceae Shishoone H
Sauromatum venosum(Ait.) Kunth Araceae Bukki-bu're H
Senna occidentalis (L.) Fabceae Shishsha H

Sida ovata Forssk. Malvaceae Qirqixxe H

Solanum nigrum L. Solanaceae Xu'naayye H

Solanum tarderemotum Bitter Solanaceae shaana H
Syzygium guineense(Willd.) Dc. Myrtaceae Duuwancho T
Thymus serrulatusHochst. Lamiaceae Xooshine H
Urtica simensis Steudel Urticaceae Sonicho H
Vepris dainelli(Pichi-Sperm) Kokwaro Rutaceae Lelcho T
Vernonia amygdalinaDel. Asteraceae Hechcho S
Ximenia americana L Olacaceae Goto T

Source: Abrham 2015

Appendix 2: Interview Guide

Dear respondent,
My name is Workineh Asefa . I am a postgraduate student at Adama Science and Technology
University, in Land and Water Resource Management Stream of the Department of Geography
and Environmental Management. Currently, I am writing my thesis on the Determinants of forest
Degradation in Chire woreda, SNNPR. You have been selected purposively from different
experts in Chire Woreda Administration office, and Agricultural bureau. The responses you give
are valuable and will be held in utmost confidentiality and will be used only for the analysis of
this research. You will not be identified by name in any case. If you accept to participate in this
research, you will be doing so voluntarily and there will not be any monetary returns. You are
also free to refuse to respond to any questions you do not feel comfortable answering or to
withdraw from the research all together.
Thank you in advance for your cooperation

Interview Guide: To be administered to Chire Woreda Agricultural Bureau, Woreda

Administration office
1. List forest species that found in Chire woreda?
2. How do the local people manage forest? are there any indigenous botanical and
environmental practices that the local people experienced ?
3. Mention the activities that threats forest in Chire woreda?
4. Is there any connection between age and knowledge about the type of forest existed in this
woreda?
5. What is the attitude of local people about forest resources?
6. What are the causes of forest degradation in Chire woreda?
7. Mention the major forest species type that are mostly used by local people under various
purpose

Appendix 3: Checklist for FGD and HH

1. What are the major factors for forest degradation?
2. Mention the name of forest type that you know?
3. Is any conservation practice you adapted to protect forest? What is the mechanism?
Mention the way of transfer the knowledge to next generation?
4. Which age groups of the community have better knowledge about the type of forest?
5. Which activity is mostly damaging forest in your area?
6. Which type of forest is more vulnerable for deforestation? Why?
7. What is the role of forest in your area?
8. Mention the major forest species type that are mostly used by local people under various
purpose
9. Any other additional information about forest degradation?