Unit 1: Introduction to IKS

1. What is Knowledge?
Knowledge (Jñāna) in Indian traditions is generally understood as the aware-
ness or understanding of reality. It involves a relationship between:
• Subject (Pramātā): The knower, the conscious self or entity acquiring
knowledge.
• Object (Prameya): That which is known or knowable, the reality or
phenomenon being understood.
• Process/Source (Pramāṇa): The valid means or instrument through
which knowledge is acquired.

Sources of Knowledge (Pramāṇas)

Different schools accept different Pramāṇas. Common ones include:
1. Pratyakṣa (Perception): Direct sensory experience (seeing, hearing,
touching, etc.) and mental perception (feelings, thoughts).
Example: Seeing a tree, feeling happy.
2. Anumāna (Inference): Gaining knowledge through reasoning, based on
observed evidence.
Example: Seeing smoke on a hill and inferring fire.
3. Upamāna (Comparison/Analogy): Gaining knowledge of something
new by comparing it to something already known.
Example: Understanding what a ‘gavial’ (a type of crocodile) is by being
told it’s like a crocodile but with a thinner snout.
4. Śabda (Verbal Testimony): Knowledge gained from reliable sources,
typically spoken or written words (like scriptures, trusted experts).
Example: Learning about historical events from a history book or a
teacher.
5. Arthāpatti (Postulation/Presumption): Assuming an unknown fact
to explain a known fact that is otherwise inexplicable.
Example: If a person is gaining weight despite claiming to fast during the
day, one might postulate they eat at night.
6. Anupalabdhi (Non-apprehension/Absence): Knowing the absence
of something through its non-perception.
Example: Knowing there is no elephant in the room because you don’t see
one.
Note: Not all schools accept all six Pramāṇas. Cārvāka accepts
only Perception.

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2. Four Vedas
The Vedas (“knowledge”) are the foundational scriptures of Hinduism, con-
sidered Śruti (that which is heard, divinely revealed). They are collections of
hymns, prayers, rituals, and philosophical insights.
1. Ṛgveda: The oldest Veda, primarily hymns (sūktas) praising deities
(Agni, Indra, Soma, etc.). Contains insights into cosmology, society, and
early philosophy.
2. Yajurveda: Focuses on prose mantras and procedures for sacrificial ritu-
als (yajñas). Has two main versions: Shukla (White) and Krishna (Black).
3. Sāmaveda: Consists mainly of hymns from the Ṛgveda set to melodies
(sāman) for chanting during Soma sacrifices. Foundation of Indian classical
music.
4. Atharvaveda: Contains hymns, spells, charms, and incantations for heal-
ing, protection, daily life, and also includes philosophical sections (like
some Upanishads).

3. Indian Philosophical Systems (Darśanas)

Indian philosophy is broadly classified into two categories based on their accep-
tance of Vedic authority:
• Āstika (Orthodox/Vedic): Schools that accept the authority of the
Vedas.
• Nāstika (Heterodox/Non-Vedic): Schools that do not accept the au-
thority of the Vedas.

Vedic Schools (Āstika Darśanas) – Often grouped in pairs

1. Nyāya: School of Logic and Epistemology. Focuses on valid reasoning
and the means of acquiring true knowledge (Pramāṇas).
• Theory of Knowledge: Accepts four Pramāṇas: Perception
(Pratyakṣa), Inference (Anumāna), Comparison (Upamāna), and
Testimony (Śabda). Aims to achieve liberation (mokṣa) through
correct knowledge.
• Key Concept: Structured argument/syllogism (e.g.,
1. Thesis: Hill has fire.

2. Reason: Because it has smoke.

3. Example: Like a kitchen.

4. Application: This hill has smoke.

5. Conclusion: Therefore, this hill has fire).

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 2. Vaiśeṣika: School of Atomism and Metaphysics. Analyzes reality into
categories (padārthas) like substance, quality, action, etc., and posits
atoms (paramāṇu) as the fundamental constituents. Often studied along-
side Nyāya.
3. Sāṃkhya: School of Dualism. Posits two fundamental realities: Puruṣa
(consciousness, spirit) and Prakṛti (matter, nature). Liberation comes
from realizing the distinction between the two. Considered atheistic by
some interpretations as it doesn’t necessarily posit a creator God.
4. Yoga: School of Practice (often based on Sāṃkhya metaphysics). Focuses
on controlling the mind and senses through ethical discipline, physical
postures (āsana), breath control (prāṇāyāma), and meditation (dhyāna)
to attain liberation. Patañjali’s Yoga Sūtras are key texts.
5. Mīmāṃsā (Pūrva Mīmāṃsā): School of Vedic Exegesis. Focuses on
the interpretation of Vedic rituals and injunctions (karma-kāṇḍa). Em-
phasizes Dharma as adherence to Vedic duties. Accepts Śabda (Vedic
testimony) as the primary source of knowledge about Dharma.
6. Vedānta (Uttara Mīmāṃsā): School of Upanishadic Philosophy. Fo-
cuses on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads (jñāna-kāṇḍa). Ex-
plores the nature of Brahman (Ultimate Reality), Ātman (Self), and their
relationship. Major sub-schools include Advaita (non-dualism), Viśiṣṭād-
vaita (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita (dualism).

Non-Vedic Schools (Nāstika Darśanas)

1. Cārvāka (Lokāyata): Materialist school.
• Theory of Knowledge: Accepts only Perception (Pratyakṣa) as a valid
means of knowledge. Rejects inference and testimony.
• Metaphysics: Believes reality is composed only of matter (earth, wa-
ter, fire, air). Denies the existence of soul, afterlife, God, and karma.
• Ethics: Advocates hedonism—maximizing pleasure and minimizing
pain in this life is the goal.
2. Buddhist Philosophy: Based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama
(the Buddha).
• Theory of Knowledge: Generally accepts Perception and Inference.
Rejects Vedic authority.
• Core Teachings: Four Noble Truths (suffering exists, suffering has a
cause, suffering can cease, there’s a path to cessation—the Eightfold
Path). Concepts of impermanence (anitya), no-self (anātman), and
dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda). Goal is Nirvāṇa (libera-
tion from suffering).
3. Jain Philosophy: Based on the teachings of the Tīrthaṅkaras (most
recent being Mahāvīra).
• Theory of Knowledge: Known for Anekāntavāda (non-absolutism,
reality has multiple aspects) and Syādvāda (theory of conditional
predication—“maybe”). Accepts Perception, Inference, and Testi-
mony (from Tīrthaṅkaras). Rejects Vedic authority.

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 • Metaphysics: Believes in eternal souls (jīva) and non-soul entities
(ajīva). Karma is seen as subtle matter clinging to the soul.
• Ethics: Emphasizes Ahiṃsā (non-violence), Aparigraha (non-
attachment), and Anekāntavāda. Goal is Mokṣa (liberation of the
soul from karmic bondage).

4. Nīti Śāstras
• Meaning: Treatises on ethics, wise conduct, polity, statecraft, and prac-
tical wisdom for life. They provide guidance on how to live effectively and
ethically in the world.
• Nature: Often presented through stories, fables (like the Pañcatantra,
Hitopadeśa), aphorisms (sūtras), and dialogues.
• Scope: Covers personal ethics, social duties, political strategies, economic
policies, and worldly wisdom (nīti).
• Examples:
– Pañcatantra: Teaches nīti through animal fables.

– Hitopadeśa: Similar to Pañcatantra, offering practical advice.

– Viduranīti: Counsel given by Vidura in the Mahābhārata on ethics

and governance.

– Cāṇakyanīti: Aphorisms attributed to Cāṇakya (Kautilya) on prac-

tical wisdom and statecraft.

5. Four Puruṣārthas (Aims of Human Life)

These are the four legitimate goals or objectives that humans can strive for
within the framework of a righteous life:
1. Dharma (Righteousness, Duty):
• Ethical conduct, fulfilling one’s duties according to their nature (sv-
abhāva) and stage in life (āśrama).
• Includes moral principles, laws, virtues, and responsibilities towards
self, family, society, and cosmos.
• Considered foundational—Artha and Kāma should be pursued within
the bounds of Dharma.
2. Artha (Prosperity, Wealth):
• Pursuit of material well-being, economic security, wealth, political
power, and the means necessary for a fulfilling life.
• Includes skills, career, resource management, and societal contribu-
tions.

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 • It is a legitimate goal when pursued ethically (aligned with Dharma).
3. Kāma (Pleasure, Desire):
• Pursuit of sensual pleasure, emotional fulfillment, aesthetic enjoy-
ment, love, and desire.
• Includes enjoyment of arts, music, relationships, and sensory experi-
ences.
• Legitimate when pursued within Dharma and not hindering the path
to Mokṣa.
4. Mokṣa (Liberation, Emancipation):
• The ultimate goal: spiritual liberation from the cycle of birth and
death (saṃsāra).
• Involves self-realization, freedom from suffering, ignorance, and limi-
tations.
• Achieved through knowledge (jñāna), devotion (bhakti), action
(karma yoga), or meditative practices depending on the philosophi-
cal school.

Diagrammatic Representation
graph TD
A[Human Life]--> B(Puruṣārthas);
B--> C{Dharma};
B--> D{Artha};
B--> E{Kāma};
B--> F{Mokṣa};
C-- Guides--> D;
C-- Guides--> E;
D-- Supports--> C;
E-- Motivates--> D;
F-- Ultimate Goal--> A;
Interpretation: Dharma provides the ethical framework guiding the pursuit
of Artha and Kāma. Artha provides the means to support Dharma and enjoy
Kāma. Kāma provides motivation but should be within Dharma. Mokṣa is the
ultimate aim transcending the other three, often pursued after fulfilling duties
related to the first three.

Unit 1: Introduction to IKS – Questions & An-

swers
1 Mark Questions (30 Questions)
Answer in one word or fill in the blank

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 1. The knower in the process of knowledge acquisition is called the
__________.
Answer: Pramātā
2. The object of knowledge is known as __________.
Answer: Prameya
3. A valid means of acquiring knowledge is called a __________.
Answer: Pramāṇa
4. Direct sensory experience is which Pramāṇa?
Answer: Pratyakṣa
5. Inferring fire from smoke is an example of which Pramāṇa?
Answer: Anumāna
6. Knowledge gained from reliable verbal sources is __________.
Answer: Śabda
7. Which philosophical school accepts only Perception (Pratyakṣa) as a valid
Pramāṇa?
Answer: Cārvāka
8. How many Vedas are there?
Answer: Four
9. Which is the oldest Veda?
Answer: Ṛgveda
10. Which Veda primarily deals with melodies and chants?
Answer: Sāmaveda
11. Which Veda contains procedures for sacrificial rituals (yajñas)?
Answer: Yajurveda
12. Spells and charms for daily life are predominantly found in which Veda?
Answer: Atharvaveda
13. Indian philosophical systems are broadly divided into Āstika and
__________.
Answer: Nāstika
14. Āstika schools accept the authority of the __________.
Answer: Vedas
15. Which school focuses on logic and epistemology?
Answer: Nyāya
16. The Nyāya school accepts how many Pramāṇas?
Answer: Four
17. Which school posits Puruṣa and Prakṛti as fundamental realities?
Answer: Sāṃkhya

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 18. Patañjali’s Yoga Sūtras are the key text for which school?
Answer: Yoga
19. Which school focuses on interpreting Vedic rituals (karma-kāṇḍa)?
Answer: Mīmāṃsā
20. Which school focuses on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads
(jñāna-kāṇḍa)?
Answer: Vedānta
21. Cārvāka philosophy is also known as __________.
Answer: Lokāyata
22. The concept of ‘no-self’ (anātman) is central to which philosophy?
Answer: Buddhist
23. Anekāntavāda (non-absolutism) is a key principle of which philosophy?
Answer: Jain
24. Treatises on ethics, polity, and practical wisdom are called __________
Śāstras.
Answer: Nīti
25. The Pañcatantra teaches Nīti through __________ fables.
Answer: Animal
26. What is the term for the four legitimate aims of human life in Indian
thought?
Answer: Puruṣārthas
27. Which Puruṣārtha refers to duty and righteousness?
Answer: Dharma
28. Which Puruṣārtha refers to material prosperity and wealth?
Answer: Artha
29. Which Puruṣārtha refers to pleasure and desire?
Answer: Kāma
30. What is the ultimate goal of liberation called?
Answer: Mokṣa

2 Mark Questions (10 Questions)

Answer within 50 words
1. Define Pramāṇa and list the two most commonly accepted
Pramāṇas.
Answer: Pramāṇa refers to a valid means or source of acquiring accurate
knowledge in Indian philosophy. The two most universally accepted
Pramāṇas across various schools are Pratyakṣa (Perception), which is

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 direct sensory or mental experience, and Anumāna (Inference), which is
knowledge gained through reasoning from observed evidence.
2. Briefly distinguish between the Ṛgveda and the Sāmaveda.
Answer: The Ṛgveda is the oldest Veda, primarily a collection of hymns
(sūktas) praising deities. The Sāmaveda borrows heavily from the Ṛgveda
but sets these hymns to specific melodies (sāman) intended for chanting
during rituals, particularly the Soma sacrifice. Ṛgveda is text, Sāmaveda
is melody.
3. What is the main difference between Āstika and Nāstika schools
of philosophy?
Answer: The fundamental difference lies in their acceptance of the au-
thority of the Vedas. Āstika (orthodox) schools, like Nyāya or Vedānta,
accept the Vedas as a valid source of knowledge (Pramāṇa). Nāstika (het-
erodox) schools, like Cārvāka, Buddhism, and Jainism, reject the authority
of the Vedas.
4. What is the core metaphysical view of the Sāṃkhya school?
Answer: Sāṃkhya philosophy posits a fundamental dualism. It holds
that reality consists of two eternal and distinct principles: Puruṣa (pure
consciousness, the self, passive observer) and Prakṛti (primordial mat-
ter/nature, the source of the material world, active but non-conscious).
Liberation involves realizing Puruṣa’s distinction from Prakṛti.
5. Explain the Cārvāka view on knowledge and reality.
Answer: Cārvāka is a materialist school. It accepts only Perception
(Pratyakṣa) as the sole valid source of knowledge, rejecting inference and
testimony. Consequently, it denies the existence of anything beyond the
material world, including soul, God, afterlife, and karma. Reality is com-
posed only of elements.
6. What are the Four Noble Truths in Buddhism?
Answer: The Four Noble Truths are:
1. The truth of suffering (Duḥkha)—life inevitably involves suffering.

2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudāya)—suffering arises

from craving and attachment.

3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha)—suffering can cease.

4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Mārga)—the

Noble Eightfold Path.
7. What is Anekāntavāda in Jain philosophy?
Answer: Anekāntavāda, meaning “non-absolutism” or “many-sidedness,”
is a core Jain principle. It states that ultimate truth and reality are com-
plex and have multiple aspects. Therefore, any single viewpoint captures

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 only a partial truth. It encourages acknowledging the validity of different
perspectives.
8. What is the purpose of Nīti Śāstras? Give an example.
Answer: Nīti Śāstras aim to provide practical wisdom and guidance on
ethics, conduct, governance, and worldly success (nīti). They teach how
to live effectively and righteously. A famous example is the Pañcatantra,
which uses animal fables to impart lessons in statecraft and wise living.
9. Define the Puruṣārtha ‘Dharma’.
Answer: Dharma, as a Puruṣārtha, signifies righteousness, duty, ethical
conduct, and living in accordance with cosmic and social order. It involves
fulfilling one’s responsibilities based on their nature (svadharma) and stage
of life (āśrama dharma). It provides the ethical foundation for pursuing
other life goals.
10. Explain the relationship between Dharma, Artha, and Kāma.
Answer: Dharma (duty/ethics) provides the guiding framework. Artha
(wealth/prosperity) and Kāma (pleasure/desire) are legitimate goals but
should be pursued within the boundaries set by Dharma. Artha provides
the means for Dharma and Kāma, while Kāma provides enjoyment, ideally
without violating ethical principles.

Unit 2: IKS – Science, Technology & Practices

1. Traditional Agriculture Practices
Ancient and medieval India developed sophisticated agricultural techniques
adapted to diverse climates and terrains. Key practices included:
• Crop Rotation & Diversity: Understanding soil health and pest cy-
cles led to rotating different types of crops (legumes, cereals, oilseeds) to
maintain fertility and reduce pest buildup. Polyculture (growing multiple
crops together) was common.
• Water Management:
– Irrigation Systems: Construction of canals, tanks (reservoirs like
eris in South India), stepwells (baolis/vavs), and check dams (ahars
pynes in Bihar) for efficient water harvesting and distribution.
– Water Lifting Devices: Use of devices like the Persian wheel
(rāhaṭ) for drawing water from wells.
• Soil Conservation & Fertilization: Use of animal manure, compost,
and green manures (ploughing green plants back into the soil). Techniques
like terracing on hillsides to prevent soil erosion.
• Seed Preservation: Traditional methods for selecting, storing, and pre-
serving seeds for future planting, maintaining biodiversity.
• Weather Forecasting: Observation of natural phenomena (cloud pat-
terns, wind direction, animal behavior, flowering times) for short-term

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 weather prediction relevant to farming cycles (often linked to almanacs or
Pañcāṅga).
• Ploughing Techniques: Development of various types of ploughs suited
for different soil types.
Example: The Grand Anicut (Kallanai) dam on the Kaveri River in Tamil Nadu,
built around the 2nd century CE, is a testament to ancient Indian hydraulic
engineering for irrigation.

2. Traditional Āyurveda and Plant-Based Medicines

Āyurveda (“Science of Life”) is a holistic system of medicine native to India,
focusing on balance within the body and with nature for health and wellness.
• Core Principles:
– Pañcamahābhūtas: The five great elements (Earth, Water, Fire,
Air, Ether/Space) compose everything in the universe, including the
body.
– Tridoṣa Theory: The three vital energies or humors—Vāta
(Air/Ether), Pitta (Fire/Water), and Kapha (Earth/Water)—govern
physiological functions. Health is maintained when these are in
balance; imbalance leads to disease.
– Prakṛti: An individual’s unique constitution based on the combina-
tion of Doṣas, determined at birth. Treatment is often personalized
based on Prakṛti.
– Holistic Approach: Considers body, mind, and spirit intercon-
nected. Focuses on prevention (lifestyle, diet) as much as cure.
• Diagnosis: Methods include pulse diagnosis (Nāḍī Parīkṣā), observation
of tongue, eyes, skin, urine, and detailed questioning about lifestyle and
symptoms.
• Treatment:
– Herbal Medicines: Extensive use of plants, herbs, spices, min-
erals, and metals (processed for safety) in various forms (powders,
decoctions, oils, pills).
Examples: Turmeric (anti-inflammatory), Ashwagandha (adapto-
gen), Triphala (digestive aid).
– Pañcakarma: Purification therapies to detoxify the body.
– Diet & Lifestyle: Specific recommendations based on Doṣa imbal-
ance and season (Ṛtucaryā).
– Yoga & Meditation: Integrated for mental and physical well-being.

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3. Sixty-Four Art Forms and Occupational Skills (64 Kalās)
The concept of Catuḥṣaṣṭi Kalā (64 Arts/Skills) represents a wide range of
proficiencies considered essential for a cultured and well-rounded individual in
ancient India.
• Fine Arts: Singing (gītam), instrumental music (vādyam), dancing
(nṛtyam), painting (ālekhyam), sculpture.
• Literary Arts: Poetry composition (kāvya-kriyā), recitation, knowledge
of lexicons (abhidhāna).
• Crafts & Practical Skills: Garland making (mālya-grathana), dyeing
(rāga), weaving (tantra-karma), carpentry (takṣaṇa), metalworking (dhā-
tuvāda), jewelry making (bhūṣaṇa-yojana), pottery.
• Domestic Arts: Cooking (pāka-karma), preparing beverages (pānaka-
rasa-yojana), perfumery (gandha-yukti), flower arrangement (puṣpās-
tarana).
• Intellectual & Recreational Skills: Magic (indrajālam), solving
riddles (prahelikā), mimicry (anukaraṇa), knowledge of languages
and dialects, logic (tarka-karma), gambling (dyūta-kriyā), training
parrots/mynas to speak.
• Physical Skills: Archery, swordsmanship, massage (mardana).
Significance: This concept highlights a holistic view of education and accom-
plishment, valuing both aesthetic/intellectual pursuits and practical/occupational
skills.

4. Metals and Metal Working Technology

India has a long and rich history of metallurgy, dating back to the Indus Valley
Civilization.
• Key Metals & Alloys:
– Copper (Tāmra): One of the earliest metals worked (Chalcolithic
Age). Used for tools, vessels, statues (e.g., Harappan dancing girl).
Bronze (copper + tin alloy) was also widely used.
– Gold (Suvarṇa): Highly valued for ornamentation, coinage, and re-
ligious artifacts since ancient times. Known for intricate goldsmithing
techniques.
– Iron (Loha/Ayas): Iron Age began around 1000 BCE. India was
renowned for high-quality iron and steel production.
∗ Wootz Steel: A high-carbon crucible steel produced in South
India (esp. Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu) from ~300 BCE
onwards. Famous for its sharpness and durability, used for Dam-
ascus swords. Exported globally.
∗ Example: The Iron Pillar of Delhi (c. 400 CE) stands as a
testament to advanced iron extraction and processing, showing

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 remarkable resistance to corrosion.
– Zinc (Yaśada): India was the first country to master large-scale
zinc smelting (distillation process) around the 12th-13th century CE
at Zawar mines, Rajasthan. Zinc was used in alloys like brass (copper
+ zinc).
– Silver (Rajata): Used for coins, jewelry, and vessels.
– Lead (Sīsa) & Tin (Trapu): Used in alloys (like bronze) and other
applications.
– Mercury (Pārada): Used in alchemy (Rasaśāstra) and some tradi-
tional medicines (requires careful purification).
• Techniques: Smelting, casting (lost-wax process – cire perdue), forging,
alloying, distillation (for zinc, mercury).

5. Dyes and Painting Technology

India has a vibrant tradition of using natural materials for colours in textiles
and art.
• Natural Dyes: Expertise in extracting dyes from plants, minerals, and
insects.
– Indigo: Deep blue dye from the Indigofera plant, a major export
from India for centuries.
– Madder: Red dye from the root of the Rubia plant.
– Turmeric: Yellow dye.
– Lac: Red dye from lac insects.
– Pomegranate rind, Myrobalan: Used for yellows, browns, and as
mordants (fixing agents).
• Mordanting & Resist Dyeing: Sophisticated techniques were devel-
oped to make dyes colourfast and create patterns.
– Example: Kalamkari (pen-work) and Ikat (tie-dye before weaving)
involve intricate resist-dyeing methods.
• Painting Technology:
– Murals: Fresco techniques used in cave paintings (Ajanta, Ellora)
and temples, using natural pigments mixed with binders.
– Miniature Painting: Developed during the medieval period, using
finely ground mineral and plant pigments on paper or cloth, often
with gold and silver highlights. Different schools emerged (Mughal,
Rajput, Pahari, Deccani).

6. Town Planning & Architecture in India

Indian architecture showcases diverse styles reflecting geographical, cultural,
and historical influences, often guided by specific principles.

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 • Indus Valley Civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE):
– Remarkably advanced urban planning (Harappa, Mohenjo-daro).
– Grid-pattern streets, sophisticated drainage and sanitation systems,
multi-storied brick houses, public baths (Great Bath at Mohenjo-
daro), granaries.
• Temple Architecture: Two major styles emerged:
– Nāgara (North Indian): Characterized by a beehive-shaped tower
(śikhara) topped with an āmalaka (ribbed disk) and kalaśa (finial).
Often built on a raised platform. Examples: Khajuraho temples,
Konark Sun Temple.
– Drāviḍa (South Indian): Characterized by a pyramid-shaped
tower (vimāna) consisting of multiple receding stories (talas),
topped with a dome-shaped śikhara or stūpī. Enclosed within
concentric walls with large gateway towers (gopurams). Examples:
Brihadeeswarar Temple (Thanjavur), Meenakshi Temple (Madurai).
• Buddhist Architecture: Stūpas (hemispherical mounds housing relics,
e.g., Sanchi), Chaityas (prayer halls, often rock-cut, e.g., Karle), Vihāras
(monasteries, e.g., Nalanda).
• Indo-Islamic Architecture: Blend of Indian and Islamic styles, featur-
ing arches, domes, minarets, intricate geometric patterns, and calligraphy.
Examples: Qutub Minar, Taj Mahal.
• Vāstu Śāstra: Discussed below.

7. Vāstu Śāstra
• Meaning: “Science of Architecture,” a traditional Indian system of archi-
tecture and design based on principles aimed at harmonizing structures
with the natural and cosmic environment.
• Core Concepts:
– Integrates principles from Hindu (and sometimes Buddhist) beliefs.
– Considers factors like directional alignments (orientation based on
cardinal directions), site layout (Vāstu Puruṣa Maṇḍala – a meta-
physical diagram representing the site), spatial geometry, and ar-
rangement of rooms.
– Aims to optimize the flow of energy (prāṇa) within a building, pro-
moting health, prosperity, and well-being for the inhabitants.
– Incorporates considerations of sunlight, ventilation, and the five ele-
ments (Pañcamahābhūtas).
• Application: Traditionally applied to temples, houses, forts, and even
town planning. Modern interpretations adapt these principles for contem-
porary buildings.

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8. A Vaiśeṣika Approach to Physical Reality
The Vaiśeṣika school (one of the six Āstika Darśanas) provides a detailed anal-
ysis of the nature of physical reality.
• Padārthas (Categories of Reality): It classifies all knowable things
(reality) into fundamental categories. Initially six, later expanded:
1. Dravya (Substance): The substratum where qualities and actions
reside. Nine substances: Earth (Pṛthvī), Water (Ap), Fire (Tejas),
Air (Vāyu), Ether (Ākāśa), Time (Kāla), Space (Dik), Self (Ātman),
Mind (Manas).
2. Guṇa (Quality): Properties that inhere in substances but don’t
have independent existence (e.g., color, taste, smell, touch, number,
dimension).
3. Karma (Action/Motion): Movement inherent in substances (e.g.,
upward, downward, contraction, expansion).
4. Sāmānya (Generality/Universality): Common properties that
allow grouping (e.g., ‘cowness’ shared by all cows).
5. Viśeṣa (Particularity): Unique properties distinguishing entities,
especially eternal substances like atoms. Gives the school its name.
6. Samavāya (Inherence): The inseparable relationship between a
substance and its qualities/actions, or between a whole and its parts.
7. (Later Added) Abhāva (Non-existence/Absence): The cate-
gory of negation.
• Paramāṇuvāda (Atomism):
– Posits that the first four physical substances (Earth, Water, Fire,
Air) are composed of eternal, indivisible, and indestructible atoms
(Paramāṇu).
– These atoms are distinct for each element type.
– Atoms combine in specific ways (dyads, triads, etc.) to form compos-
ite objects that we perceive.
– Ākāśa (Ether/Space), Kāla (Time), Dik (Space/Direction), Ātman
(Self), and Manas (Mind) are considered eternal, all-pervading (ex-
cept Manas which is atomic in size but not a physical element atom),
non-atomic substances.
Significance: Vaiśeṣika offered one of the earliest systematic atomic theories in
the world, providing a framework for understanding the composition and nature
of the physical universe.

14
Unit 2: IKS – Science, Technology & Practices –
Questions & Answers
1 Mark Questions (30 Questions)
Answer in one word or fill in the blank
1. Growing different crops in succession on the same land is called
__________.
Answer: Crop Rotation
2. Stepwells used for water harvesting in India are also known as baolis or
__________.
Answer: Vavs
3. The ancient Grand Anicut (Kallanai) dam is built on which river?
Answer: Kaveri
4. The traditional Indian system of medicine is known as __________.
Answer: Āyurveda
5. Āyurveda is based on the balance of three vital energies or humors known
as __________.
Answer: Tridoṣa
6. Name one of the three Doṣas in Āyurveda.
Answer: Vāta / Pitta / Kapha (any one)
7. An individual’s unique constitution in Āyurveda is called __________.
Answer: Prakṛti
8. Ayurvedic pulse diagnosis is known as __________ Parīkṣā.
Answer: Nāḍī
9. The five Ayurvedic purification therapies are collectively called
__________.
Answer: Pañcakarma
10. How many traditional art forms or skills are listed in the concept of
Catuḥṣaṣṭi Kalā?
Answer: 64
11. Name one fine art from the 64 Kalās.
Answer: Singing / Dancing / Painting / Music (any one)
12. Name one practical skill from the 64 Kalās.
Answer: Weaving / Carpentry / Metalworking / Pottery (any one)
13. Which metal was one of the earliest to be worked in India (Chalcolithic
Age)?
Answer: Copper

15
14. The alloy of copper and tin is called __________.
Answer: Bronze
15. The high-quality crucible steel produced in ancient South India was known
as __________.
Answer: Wootz Steel
16. The Iron Pillar famous for its corrosion resistance is located in which city?
Answer: Delhi
17. India pioneered the large-scale smelting of which metal using distillation?
Answer: Zinc
18. The alloy of copper and zinc is called __________.
Answer: Brass
19. The lost-wax process for metal casting is also known as ___________.
Answer: Cire perdue
20. Which natural blue dye was a major export from India?
Answer: Indigo
21. The root of the Rubia plant yields which colour dye?
Answer: Red
22. The technique of pen-work dyeing in Andhra Pradesh is called
__________.
Answer: Kalamkari
23. Ajanta cave paintings are famous examples of which type of painting?
Answer: Mural
24. Name one of the two major styles of Indian temple architecture.
Answer: Nāgara / Drāviḍa (any one)
25. The beehive-shaped tower in North Indian temples is called a
__________.
Answer: Śikhara
26. The large gateway towers in South Indian temples are called
__________.
Answer: Gopurams
27. The traditional Indian science of architecture and design is known as
__________ Śāstra.
Answer: Vāstu
28. The metaphysical diagram representing the site in Vāstu Śāstra is the
Vāstu Puruṣa __________.
Answer: Maṇḍala
29. Which school of Indian philosophy provides a detailed atomic theory?
Answer: Vaiśeṣika

16
 30. According to Vaiśeṣika, the indivisible, eternal constituent of matter is
called __________.
Answer: Paramāṇu

2 Mark Questions (10 Questions)

Answer within 50 words
1. List two traditional water management techniques used in an-
cient India.
Answer: Two traditional techniques were: 1. Construction of tanks (eris)
or reservoirs to store monsoon runoff for irrigation. 2. Building stepwells
(baolis/vavs) which allowed access to groundwater levels that fluctuated
seasonally, serving both irrigation and domestic needs. Canals and check
dams were also common.
2. What is the Tridoṣa theory in Āyurveda?
Answer: The Tridoṣa theory posits that three fundamental vital
energies—Vāta (movement), Pitta (metabolism/transformation), and
Kapha (structure/lubrication)—govern all physiological and psychological
functions. Health exists when these Doṣas are in balance specific to an
individual’s constitution (Prakṛti); imbalance leads to disease.
3. What does the concept of ‘64 Kalās’ signify about ancient Indian
culture?
Answer: The concept of Catuḥṣaṣṭi Kalā (64 Arts/Skills) signifies a holis-
tic approach to education and accomplishment in ancient India. It high-
lights the value placed on a wide range of abilities, encompassing fine arts,
crafts, intellectual pursuits, and practical skills, suggesting a well-rounded
personality was highly esteemed.
4. What was Wootz steel, and why was it significant?
Answer: Wootz steel was a high-carbon crucible steel produced in South
India from ancient times. It was significant for its exceptional hardness,
sharpness, and resilience, making it ideal for high-quality swords (like
Damascus blades). Its production represented advanced metallurgical
knowledge in India.
5. Mention two key features of town planning in the Indus Valley
Civilization.
Answer: Two key features were: 1. A grid layout for streets, indicating
planned urban design. 2. Sophisticated drainage and sanitation systems,
including covered drains along streets and bathrooms connected to these
drains in houses, showcasing advanced civic infrastructure.
6. Differentiate between the Nāgara and Drāviḍa styles of temple
towers.

17
 Answer: The Nāgara style (North India) features a curvilinear, beehive-
shaped tower (śikhara) ending in an āmalaka. The Drāviḍa style (South
India) features a pyramid-shaped tower (vimāna) composed of multiple
receding stories (talas) topped by a dome-like śikhara or stūpī.
7. What is the primary aim of Vāstu Śāstra?
Answer: The primary aim of Vāstu Śāstra is to create buildings that
are in harmony with cosmic and natural energies. It seeks to optimize
the flow of positive energy (prāṇa) by considering factors like directional
alignment, spatial arrangement, and site layout, thereby promoting the
well-being of inhabitants.
8. According to Vaiśeṣika, what are the nine fundamental sub-
stances (Dravyas)?
Answer: The nine Dravyas are the five physical elements (Earth, Wa-
ter, Fire, Air, Ether/Ākāśa), plus Time (Kāla), Space/Direction (Dik),
Self (Ātman), and Mind (Manas). These are the basic substrata in which
qualities and actions reside.
9. What is the concept of Paramāṇu in Vaiśeṣika philosophy?
Answer: Paramāṇu refers to the ultimate, indivisible, and eternal atoms
that constitute the four physical elements (Earth, Water, Fire, Air) ac-
cording to Vaiśeṣika. These atoms combine to form all perceptible objects.
It represents one of the earliest atomic theories of matter.
10. How were natural dyes used in traditional Indian textiles? Give
one example.
Answer: Natural dyes, extracted from plants, minerals, or insects, were
used extensively with sophisticated techniques like mordanting (fixing
colour) and resist dyeing (creating patterns). For example, Indigo dye,
extracted from the Indigofera plant, was famously used to produce deep
blue colours on textiles.

Unit 3: Indian Mathematics & Astronomy

1. Indian Mathematics: Overview
Indian mathematics has a long and influential history, characterized by practical
applications (geometry for altar construction, astronomy) and profound concep-
tual developments (zero, decimal system, negative numbers, algebra, trigonom-
etry). Key contributions were often embedded within astronomical or religious
texts.

2. Great Mathematicians and Their Contributions

• Piṅgala (c. 3rd/2nd century BCE):

18
 – Chandaḥśāstra: Treatise on Sanskrit prosody (meters).
– Contributions:
∗ Earliest known description of a binary numeral system
(laghu/short and guru/long syllables, analogous to 0 and 1).
∗ Methods for combinatorics (permutations and combinations, re-
lated to Pascal’s triangle—Meru Prastāra).
∗ Understanding of Fibonacci sequence (mātrāmeru).
• Āryabhaṭa (476–550 CE):
– Āryabhaṭīya: Major work on mathematics and astronomy in verse.
– Contributions:
∗ Place Value System & Zero: Algorithms imply use of zero and
place value system.
∗ Approximation of �: Calculated � � 3.1416 (62832/20000).
∗ Trigonometry: Tables of sines (jyā) and versines (utkrama-jyā).
Sine values at intervals of 3°45’.
∗ Algebra: Solutions to linear and quadratic equations (ax + b =
cy), indeterminate equations (ax + by = c)—kuṭṭaka method.
∗ Area/Volume formulas: Triangles, circles, volume of spheres,
pyramids.
∗ Astronomy: Earth’s rotation, scientific explanations for eclipses,
accurate sidereal rotation period.
• Brahmagupta (598–668 CE):
– Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta: Comprehensive text on mathematics and
astronomy.
– Contributions:
∗ Zero: Rules for arithmetic operations involving zero (addition,
subtraction, multiplication; division by zero discussed).
∗ Negative Numbers: Rules for operating with negative numbers
(dhana — positive, ṛṇa — negative).
∗ Algebra: General solution for quadratic equation, solutions for
indeterminate equations of second degree (Pell’s equation: Nx²
+ 1 = y²)—chakravala method.
∗ Geometry: Formula for the area of a cyclic quadrilateral (Brah-
magupta’s formula).
• Bhāskara II (Bhāskarāchārya) (1114–1185 CE):
– Siddhānta Śiromaṇi: Magnum opus in four parts:
∗ Līlāvatī: Arithmetic, basic geometry.
∗ Bījagaṇita: Algebra, including positive/negative numbers, zero,
surds, linear/quadratic equations, indeterminate equations.
∗ Grahagaṇita: Mathematics of planets.
∗ Golādhyāya: Spherics (celestial globe, trigonometry, eclipse cal-
culations).
– Contributions:
∗ Calculus Concepts: Preliminary ideas of differential calculus (in-
stantaneous motion, derivatives, hints of Rolle’s theorem).
∗ Algebra: Work on indeterminate equations; recognized positive

19
 numbers have two square roots.
∗ Division by Zero: Stated that division by zero results in infinity
(khahara).
∗ Trigonometry: Further developments in spherical trigonometry.

3. Arithmetic Operations
• Decimal Place Value System: Developed the base-10 place value sys-
tem, using digits 1–9 and zero (śūnya). Revolutionized computation.
• Operations: Efficient algorithms for basic operations (addition, subtrac-
tion, multiplication, division), as well as square roots and cube roots.
• Fractions (Kalāsavarṇa): Well-understood rules for operations with
fractions.
• Rule of Three (Trairāśika): Method for solving proportion problems.

4. Geometry
• Śulba Sūtras (c. 800–500 BCE):
– Manuals for geometrical rules in fire altar construction for Vedic rit-
uals.
– Methods for constructing geometric shapes, area transformations,
constructing circles from squares and vice versa.
– Statements equivalent to the Pythagorean theorem; lists
Pythagorean triples.
• Āryabhaṭīya-bhāṣya: Commentaries further elaborated geometrical
concepts.
• Area & Volume: Formulas for areas of various shapes (triangle, circle,
trapezoid) and volumes (sphere, pyramid).

5. Value of � (Pi)
• Early Approximations: Śulba Sūtras contained implicit approxima-
tions.
• Āryabhaṭa: � � 3.1416; stated as:
(4 + 100) × 8 + 62000 = 62832
62832 / 20000 = 3.1416
• Later Mathematicians: Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340–1425) de-
rived infinite series for � (related to Gregory-Leibniz series), calculated �
to 11 decimal places.

20
6. Trigonometry
• Origin of Sine Function: Indian mathematicians pioneered use of the
sine function (jyā or ardha-jyā—half-chord), crucial in astronomy.
• Tables: Āryabhaṭa provided a table of sine values. Madhava developed
infinite series for sine, cosine, arctangent.
• Versine: The versine (utkrama-jyā) was also used.
• Spherical Trigonometry: Developed for astronomical applications.

7. Algebra (Bījagaṇita)
• Meaning: Bīja (seed/element/analysis) + gaṇita (calculation) = science
of calculation with elements/analysis.
• Key Developments:
– Systematic use of symbols for unknowns.
– Operations with zero and negative numbers.
– Solutions for linear and quadratic equations.
– Indeterminate Equations:
∗ Linear: Kuṭṭaka method (Āryabhaṭa, Brahmagupta) for ax +
by = c.
∗ Second Degree (Pell-type): Chakravala method (Brahmagupta,
Bhāskara II) for Nx² + 1 = y².

8. Chandaḥ Śāstra of Piṅgala

• Treatise on Sanskrit meters (chandaḥ).
• Mathematical Contributions:
– Binary System: Patterns of short (laghu) and long (guru) syllables
to classify meters, representing numbers in binary.
– Combinatorics: Methods to calculate rhythmic patterns, equivalent
to binomial coefficients (nCr).
– Meru Prastāra: Triangular arrangement of numbers (like Pascal’s
triangle).
– Fibonacci Sequence: Pattern calculation relates to Fibonacci num-
bers (mātrāmeru).

9. Indian Astronomy (Jyotiṣa)

• Deeply intertwined with mathematics and religion; essential for timekeep-
ing, calendar, navigation, astrology.
• Observational Tradition: Long history of observing celestial bodies.

21
 • Siddhāntic Tradition: Comprehensive astronomical treatises (Siddhān-
tas):
e.g., Āryabhaṭa’s Āryabhaṭīya, Varāhamihira’s Pañcasiddhāntikā, Brah-
magupta’s Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta, Bhāskara II’s Siddhānta Śiromaṇi.

10. Celestial Coordinate System

• Ecliptic System: Used as the reference plane.
• Nakṣatras: The ecliptic divided into 27 (sometimes 28) lunar mansions
or constellations, for tracking the Moon’s position.
• Rāśis: 12 zodiac signs, similar to Babylonian/Greek system.
• Coordinates: Concepts analogous to longitude (dhruvaka) and latitude
(śara) relative to the ecliptic.

11. Elements of the Indian Calendar

• Lunisolar System: Most traditional Indian calendars are lunisolar,
tracking both the Moon’s phases and the Sun’s position.
• Months: Lunar months from new moon (Amāvásyā) or full moon
(Pūrṇimā) to the next.
• Intercalary Month (Adhika Māsa): Extra month added periodically
to synchronize lunar with solar year.
• Solar Year: Defined by Sun’s transit through zodiac signs.
• Tithi: A lunar day (30 Tithis in a lunar month).

12. Āryabhaṭīya and the Siddhāntic Tradition

• Āryabhaṭa’s Contributions:
– Earth’s Rotation: Proposed apparent stellar movement is due to
Earth’s rotation.
– Eclipse Calculations: Scientific explanations for solar and lunar
eclipses.
– Planetary Models: Epicyclic models for planetary positions (mainly
geocentric).
– Accurate Parameters: Calculated astronomical constants with re-
markable precision.
• Siddhāntic Tradition: Ongoing stream of texts refining earlier knowl-
edge, algorithms, and parameters for planetary positions, eclipses, con-
junctions, and other phenomena.

22
13. Pañcāṅga: The Indian Calendar System
• Meaning: Pañca (five) + aṅga (limbs) = The Five Limbs.
• Purpose: Hindu almanac providing astronomical and astrological infor-
mation for rituals, festivals, and daily life.
• The Five Elements:
1. Vāra: Day of the week (named after planets).
2. Tithi: Lunar day.
3. Nakṣatra: Constellation in which the Moon resides.
4. Yoga: Period calculated from Sun and Moon longitudes.
5. Karaṇa: Half of a Tithi.
• Usage: Still widely used for religious and cultural purposes.

14. Astronomical Instruments (Yantras)

• Early Instruments: Gnomon (śaṅku—vertical stick) for measuring shad-
ows, clepsydra (water clock—ghaṭikā yantra).
• Armillary Sphere (Gola Yantra): Skeletal celestial sphere for model-
ing celestial movements.
• Astrolabe: Adapted from Greco-Islamic traditions.
• Quadrant Instruments: For measuring altitudes of celestial bodies.

15. Jantar Mantar (Raja Jai Singh Sawai)

• Builder: Maharaja Sawai Jai Singh II of Jaipur (1688–1743).
• Purpose: Large masonry astronomical observatories (Yantra Mandira →
Jantar Mantar) to improve astronomical tables and make accurate naked-
eye observations.
• Locations: Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Varanasi, Mathura (Mathura one now
lost).
• Key Instruments:
– Samrāṭ Yantra: Giant sundial, time measurement down to 2 sec-
onds (Jaipur).
– Jayaprakāśa Yantra: Hemispherical bowls representing celestial
sphere.
– Rāma Yantra: Cylindrical structures for measuring altitude and
azimuth.
– Miśra Yantra (Delhi): Composite instrument for multiple func-
tions.
• Significance: Unique culmination of traditional Indian observational as-
tronomy using large-scale, fixed instruments.

23
Unit 3: Indian Mathematics & Astronomy –
Questions & Answers
1 Mark Questions (30 Questions)
Answer in one word or fill in the blank
1. The treatise Chandaḥśāstra dealing with meters also contains the earliest
known description of the __________ numeral system.
Answer: Binary
2. The Chandaḥśāstra was written by __________.
Answer: Piṅgala
3. Which Indian mathematician gave the approximation � � 3.1416?
Answer: Āryabhaṭa
4. Āryabhaṭa’s major work is titled __________.
Answer: Āryabhaṭīya
5. The method for solving indeterminate linear equations (ax + by = c)
mentioned by Āryabhaṭa is called __________.
Answer: Kuṭṭaka
6. Which mathematician explicitly introduced rules for operating with zero
and negative numbers?
Answer: Brahmagupta
7. Brahmagupta’s famous text is the Brāhmasphuṭa__________.
Answer: Siddhānta
8. The cyclic method (chakravala) for solving Pell’s equation (Nx² + 1 = y²)
is associated with Brahmagupta and __________.
Answer: Bhāskara II
9. Bhāskara II’s magnum opus is the Siddhānta __________.
Answer: Śiromaṇi
10. The section of Siddhānta Śiromaṇi dealing with arithmetic is named
__________.
Answer: Līlāvatī
11. The section of Siddhānta Śiromaṇi dealing with algebra is named
__________.
Answer: Bījagaṇita
12. Bhāskara II stated that division by zero results in __________.
Answer: Infinity (or Khahara)
13. The Indian term for zero is __________.
Answer: Śūnya

24
14. The Indian method for solving proportion problems is called __________
(Rule of Three).
Answer: Trairāśika
15. Which ancient Indian texts contain geometric rules for constructing fire
altars?
Answer: Śulba Sūtras
16. The Śulba Sūtras contain statements equivalent to which famous geometric
theorem?
Answer: Pythagorean theorem
17. The Indian term for the sine function is __________.
Answer: Jyā (or Ardha-jyā)
18. The Indian term for algebra is __________.
Answer: Bījagaṇita
19. The triangular arrangement of binomial coefficients in Indian tradition is
known as __________ Prastāra.
Answer: Meru
20. The sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8… is related to the __________ sequence,
hinted at in Piṅgala’s work.
Answer: Fibonacci
21. Comprehensive Indian astronomical treatises are known as __________.
Answer: Siddhāntas
22. Varāhamihira summarized five earlier Siddhāntas in his work __________.
Answer: Pañcasiddhāntikā
23. The Indian system divides the ecliptic into 27 lunar mansions called
__________.
Answer: Nakṣatras
24. Most traditional Indian calendars are __________ systems, tracking
both Sun and Moon.
Answer: Lunisolar
25. An extra month added to synchronize the Indian lunar calendar with the
solar year is called __________ Māsa.
Answer: Adhika
26. A lunar day in the Indian calendar system is called a __________.
Answer: Tithi
27. The traditional Indian almanac containing five key astronomical elements
is called a __________.
Answer: Pañcāṅga
28. Name one of the five ‘limbs’ (aṅga) of the Pañcāṅga.
Answer: Vāra / Tithi / Nakṣatra / Yoga / Karaṇa (any one)

25
 29. A vertical stick used as a simple sundial in ancient India is called a
__________.
Answer: Śaṅku
30. Who built the Jantar Mantar observatories in India?
Answer: (Maharaja Sawai) Jai Singh II

2 Mark Questions (10 Questions)

Answer within 50 words
1. What is the significance of the decimal place value system de-
veloped in India?
Answer: The Indian decimal place value system, using nine digits and
zero, revolutionized mathematics and computation globally. It allowed for
efficient representation of large numbers and simplified arithmetic opera-
tions, forming the basis of modern numerical systems worldwide.
2. State two major contributions of Āryabhaṭa to mathematics or
astronomy.
Answer: Two major contributions are: 1. Providing a highly accurate
approximation for � (3.1416). 2. Proposing that the Earth rotates on its
axis daily, explaining the apparent movement of stars, and giving scientific
explanations for eclipses.
3. How did Brahmagupta contribute to the understanding of zero
and negative numbers?
Answer: Brahmagupta was among the first to explicitly define zero and
provide rules for arithmetic operations involving it (addition, subtraction,
multiplication). He also systematically treated negative numbers (‘debts’)
alongside positive numbers (‘fortunes’), defining rules for their operations.
4. What are Śulba Sūtras and what mathematical knowledge do
they contain?
Answer: Śulba Sūtras are ancient Indian texts providing geometric rules
for constructing Vedic fire altars. They contain practical geometry, includ-
ing methods for constructing squares and rectangles, area transformations,
approximations for �, and knowledge equivalent to the Pythagorean theo-
rem with examples of Pythagorean triples.
5. Explain the concept of ‘Jyā’ in Indian trigonometry.
Answer: ‘Jyā’ (or ‘Ardha-jyā’) in Indian trigonometry refers to the half-
chord of an arc in a circle, which corresponds directly to the modern sine
function (multiplied by the radius). This focus on the half-chord, rather
than the full chord used by Greeks, was a key development simplifying
trigonometric calculations, especially in astronomy.

26
 6. What is the ‘Kuṭṭaka’ method used for?
Answer: The ‘Kuṭṭaka’ (meaning pulverizer) method, described by
Āryabhaṭa and Brahmagupta, is an algorithm used to find integer
solutions (x, y) for linear indeterminate equations of the form ax + by =
c. It was crucial for solving various astronomical problems.
7. What is the ‘Chakravala’ method used for?
Answer: The ‘Chakravala’ (cyclic) method, perfected by Bhāskara II
based on earlier work, is a sophisticated algorithm for finding integer so-
lutions to indeterminate quadratic equations of the Pell’s equation type
(Nx² + 1 = y²). It was a major achievement in Indian number theory.
8. What are Nakṣatras in Indian astronomy?
Answer: Nakṣatras are 27 (or 28) sectors or ‘lunar mansions’ along the
ecliptic, the apparent path of the Sun and Moon. They serve as markers
for tracking the Moon’s position throughout its monthly cycle and are
fundamental elements in the Indian calendar (Pañcāṅga) and astrology.
9. What is a Pañcāṅga? List its five elements.
Answer: A Pañcāṅga is a traditional Indian almanac providing essential
daily astronomical data. Its name means “five limbs,” referring to its five
core elements: Vāra (day of the week), Tithi (lunar day), Nakṣatra (lunar
mansion), Yoga (a lunisolar angle calculation), and Karaṇa (half a Tithi).
10. What was the purpose of the Jantar Mantar observatories built
by Jai Singh II?
Answer: Jai Singh II built the Jantar Mantar observatories to create more
accurate astronomical tables and enable precise naked-eye observations.
He aimed to improve upon existing knowledge by constructing large-scale,
stable masonry instruments (Yantras) for measuring time and celestial
positions with greater precision.

Unit 4: Humanities & Social Sciences in IKS

1. Health, Wellness & Psychology in IKS
Indian knowledge systems offer holistic perspectives on health, emphasizing the
interconnectedness of body, mind, spirit, and environment.

Āyurveda: Sleep and Food

Āyurveda places great importance on diet (Āhāra) and sleep (Nidrā) as two of
the three pillars of health (the third being Brahmacarya—appropriate energy
management/celibacy).
• Food (Āhāra):
– Food is not just sustenance but medicine. The what, when, and how
of eating profoundly impact health.

27
 – Individualized Diet: Tailored to one’s constitution (Prakṛti) and
imbalances (Vikṛti).
– Six Tastes (Ṣaḍ Rasas): Sweet, Sour, Salty, Pungent, Bitter, As-
tringent. A balanced meal ideally includes all six.
– Qualities of Food (Guṇas): Foods classified as Heavy/Light,
Hot/Cold, Oily/Dry, etc., which affect the Doṣas (Vāta, Pitta,
Kapha).
– Digestive Fire (Agni): Maintaining strong Agni is crucial for
proper digestion and assimilation, preventing toxin (Āma) formation.
– Mindful Eating: Eating in a calm environment, chewing well, fo-
cusing on the food.
– Seasonal Eating (Ṛtucaryā): Adjusting diet based on season to
maintain Doṣic balance.
• Sleep (Nidrā):
– Essential for rejuvenation, repair, mental clarity, and overall health.
Lack of proper sleep aggravates Vāta Doṣa and can cause ailments.
– Timing: Sleep and wake times aligned with natural rhythms (e.g.,
sleeping during Kapha time, waking during Vāta time).
– Quality: Deep, undisturbed sleep.
– Factors: Diet, stress, daily activities. Practices like oil massage
(Abhyaṅga) or warm milk before bed promote sleep.

Role of Water in Wellbeing

• Physiological: Essential for fluids, digestion, temperature regulation,
toxin flushing.
• Therapeutic Uses: Drinking (often warm), bathing (Snāna) for hygiene
and purification, hydrotherapy.
• Ritual Significance: Water used in purification rituals (Pūjā, Abhiṣeka),
sacred rivers (Ganga, Yamuna).
• Environmental Aspect: Traditional systems for water conservation and
management are vital for community wellbeing.

Yoga Way of Life (Aṣṭāṅga Yoga)

Yoga, beyond āsana (postures), is a comprehensive system for well-being, aiming
for cessation of mental fluctuations and liberation (Mokṣa). Patañjali’s Yoga
Sūtras outline the Eight Limbs (Aṣṭāṅga):
1. Yama (Ethical Restraints):
• Ahiṃsā (Non-violence)
• Satya (Truthfulness)
• Asteya (Non-stealing)
• Brahmacarya (Moderation)
• Aparigraha (Non-hoarding)

28
 2. Niyama (Personal Observances):
• Śauca (Purity)
• Saṃtoṣa (Contentment)
• Tapas (Austerity)
• Svādhyāya (Self-study)
• Īśvarapraṇidhāna (Surrender to the Divine)
3. Āsana: Steady and comfortable postures for health and meditation.
4. Prāṇāyāma: Breath control for mental calmness.
5. Pratyāhāra: Withdrawal of senses from external objects.
6. Dhāraṇā: Concentration on a single point.
7. Dhyāna: Meditation—uninterrupted flow of concentration.
8. Samādhi: Deep absorption/enlightenment.

Diagrammatic Representation
graph TD
A[Aṣṭāṅga Yoga]-->B(External Limbs- Bahiraṅga)
A-->C(Internal Limbs- Antaraṅga)
B-->YAMA[1. Yama]
B-->NIYAMA[2. Niyama]
B-->ASANA[3. Āsana]
B-->PRANAYAMA[4. Prāṇāyāma]
B-->PRATYAHARA[5. Pratyāhāra]
C-->DHARANA[6. Dhāraṇā]
C-->DHYANA[7. Dhyāna]
C-->SAMADHI[8. Samādhi]
YAMA & NIYAMA-- Foundation-->ASANA & PRANAYAMA
ASANA & PRANAYAMA-- Prepare Body/Mind-->PRATYAHARA
PRATYAHARA-- Bridge-->DHARANA
DHARANA-->DHYANA-->SAMADHI
SAMADHI-- Leads to-->Kaivalya[Liberation]

Indian Approach to Psychology

Traditional Indian thought integrates psychology within philosophical and spir-
itual frameworks:
• Mind (Manas/Citta): Subtle, restless, influenced by senses, desires, ego
(ahaṃkāra), and impressions (saṃskāras).
• Suffering (Duḥkha): Arises from ignorance (avidyā), attachment (rāga),
aversion (dveṣa), and clinging (abhiniveśa).
• Karma & Saṃskāra: Actions create impressions that shape personality
and future experiences.
• Goal: Transcend suffering through self-awareness, discipline, and discrim-
inative knowledge (viveka).

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The Triguṇa System
From Sāṃkhya philosophy—three qualities (Guṇas) in all creation:
1. Sattva (Purity, Harmony): Clarity, peace, knowledge; promotes well-
being.
2. Rajas (Activity, Passion): Movement, desire, restlessness; drives ac-
tion, can cause agitation.
3. Tamas (Inertia, Ignorance): Dullness, darkness, resistance; hinders
clarity and growth.
Interaction: All three are always present in varying degrees; personality and
mood reflect the dominant Guṇa(s). The goal is to cultivate Sattva and then
transcend all Guṇas.

Body-Mind-Intellect-Consciousness Complex
Model from Vedānta and Yoga:
• Body (Annamaya Kośa): Physical body.
• Mind (Manomaya Kośa): Sensory/emotional mind.
• Intellect (Vijñānamaya Kośa): Reasoning, decision-making, ego sense.
• Consciousness (Ātman/Puruṣa): Pure, unchanging self—the witness.
• Interaction: Consciousness illuminates intellect, which directs mind and
body. Self-realization is recognizing one’s true nature as pure conscious-
ness.

2. Governance, Public Administration & Management

Indian traditions offer significant texts and concepts related to statecraft, ethics,
and administration.

Reference to Rāmāyaṇa
• Rāma Rājya: Ideal of righteous governance—Dharma-centric, welfare of
subjects, truthfulness, accessibility, rule of law.
• Significance: Benchmark for ethical, effective governance.

Arthaśāstra
• Attributed to: Kautilya (Chanakya, c. 4th century BCE).
• Nature: Pragmatic treatise on statecraft, economics, military, adminis-
tration.

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 • Key Areas:
– Duties of the king and officials
– State administration and organization
– Law and justice
– Economic policy (agriculture, trade, taxation)
– Foreign policy & diplomacy (Maṇḍala theory—Sāma, Dāna, Bheda,
Daṇḍa)
– Military strategy
• Realism: Focus on practical means for state objectives, sometimes per-
mitting morally ambiguous methods for security and stability.

Kautilyan State (Saptāṅga Theory)

• State = Organism of seven limbs:
1. Svāmī (Sovereign/King): The virtuous, wise head.
2. Amātya (Ministers/Officials): Competent, loyal bureaucracy.
3. Janapada (Territory/People): Land and population—the foun-
dation.
4. Durga (Fort): Security and defense.
5. Kośa (Treasury): Financial resources.
6. Daṇḍa (Army): Military strength.
7. Mitra (Ally): Friendly states offering support.
• Interdependence: All seven are crucial and mutually dependent for a
healthy, stable state.

Unit 4: Humanities & Social Sciences in IKS –

Questions & Answers
1 Mark Questions (30 Questions)
Answer in one word or fill in the blank
1. Āyurveda considers food and __________ as two of the three pillars
of health.
Answer: Sleep (Nidrā)
2. How many tastes (Rasas) are recognized in Āyurveda for a balanced meal?
Answer: Six
3. The Ayurvedic concept of digestive fire is known as __________.
Answer: Agni
4. Undigested food residue leading to toxins in Āyurveda is called
__________.
Answer: Āma

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 5. Adjusting diet and lifestyle according to seasons in Āyurveda is called
__________.
Answer: Ṛtucaryā
6. Lack of proper sleep primarily aggravates which Doṣa?
Answer: Vāta
7. The traditional Ayurvedic practice of oil massage is called __________.
Answer: Abhyaṅga
8. Water in Sanskrit, one of the five great elements, is called Jala or _____.
Answer: Ap
9. How many limbs are there in Patañjali’s Aṣṭāṅga Yoga?
Answer: Eight
10. What is the first limb of Aṣṭāṅga Yoga?
Answer: Yama
11. The Yama principle of non-violence is called __________.
Answer: Ahiṃsā
12. The Yama principle of truthfulness is called __________.
Answer: Satya
13. The Niyama principle of contentment is called __________.
Answer: Saṃtoṣa
14. The Niyama principle of self-study is called __________.
Answer: Svādhyāya
15. What is the third limb of Aṣṭāṅga Yoga?
Answer: Āsana
16. The practice of breath control in Yoga is called __________.
Answer: Prāṇāyāma
17. The withdrawal of senses in Yoga is called __________.
Answer: Pratyāhāra
18. The state of deep meditative absorption in Yoga is called __________.
Answer: Samādhi
19. Subtle mental impressions created by actions in Indian psychology are
called __________.
Answer: Saṃskāras
20. Ignorance of one’s true nature, a root cause of suffering in Yoga, is called
__________.
Answer: Avidyā
21. How many Guṇas (qualities of nature) are described in Sāṃkhya philoso-
phy?
Answer: Three

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 22. Which Guṇa represents purity, harmony, and knowledge?
Answer: Sattva
23. Which Guṇa represents activity, passion, and dynamism?
Answer: Rajas
24. Which Guṇa represents inertia, darkness, and ignorance?
Answer: Tamas
25. In the Body-Mind complex, the intellect or wisdom sheath is called
__________ Kośa.
Answer: Vijñānamaya
26. The ideal of righteous governance depicted in the Rāmāyaṇa is known as
__________ Rājya.
Answer: Rāma
27. The comprehensive treatise on statecraft attributed to Kautilya is the
__________.
Answer: Arthaśāstra
28. Kautilya is also identified with which famous advisor to Chandragupta
Maurya?
Answer: Chanakya
29. The theory describing the seven essential constituents of the Kautilyan
state is the __________ theory.
Answer: Saptāṅga
30. In the Saptāṅga theory, the sovereign or king is referred to as
__________.
Answer: Svāmī

2 Mark Questions (10 Questions)

Answer within 50 words
1. Why is diet (Āhāra) considered crucial in Āyurveda?
Answer: In Āyurveda, diet is crucial because food is seen as medicine
that directly impacts the balance of Doṣas (Vāta, Pitta, Kapha) and the
strength of digestive fire (Agni). Proper diet, tailored to one’s consti-
tution and season, nourishes tissues, prevents toxin buildup (Āma), and
maintains overall health.
2. What is the importance of sleep (Nidrā) according to Āyurveda?
Answer: Sleep is vital in Āyurveda for physical and mental rejuvena-
tion, tissue repair, memory consolidation, and balancing Doṣas (especially
Vāta). Adequate, timely, and quality sleep enhances immunity, vitality,

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 and mental clarity, while lack of it contributes significantly to disease
processes.
3. List the five Yamas of Aṣṭāṅga Yoga.
Answer: The five Yamas (ethical restraints) are: Ahiṃsā (non-violence),
Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacarya (right use of
energy/continence), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness/non-hoarding).
They form the ethical foundation of Yoga practice.
4. List the five Niyamas of Aṣṭāṅga Yoga.
Answer: The five Niyamas (personal observances) are: Śauca (pu-
rity/cleanliness), Saṃtoṣa (contentment), Tapas (austerity/discipline),
Svādhyāya (self-study/study of scriptures), and Īśvarapraṇidhāna (sur-
render/devotion to a higher power). They cultivate inner discipline and
attitude.
5. Briefly explain the concept of Prāṇāyāma.
Answer: Prāṇāyāma, the fourth limb of Aṣṭāṅga Yoga, involves the con-
scious regulation and control of breath (prāṇa or life force). Techniques
aim to extend, balance, and refine the breath, leading to calmness, mental
clarity, increased vitality, and preparation for deeper meditation.
6. Describe the three Guṇas (Sattva, Rajas, Tamas).
Answer: The Triguṇas are fundamental qualities of nature (Prakṛti):
Sattva embodies purity, balance, light, and knowledge; Rajas represents
activity, passion, desire, and restlessness; Tamas signifies inertia, darkness,
ignorance, and obstruction. They constantly interact, influencing mind
and matter.
7. What is the ‘Body-Mind-Intellect-Consciousness Complex’?
Answer: This model describes layers of human existence: the physical
Body (Annamaya Kośa), the emotional/sensory Mind (Manomaya Kośa),
the discerning Intellect (Vijñānamaya Kośa), all illuminated by the un-
derlying pure Consciousness (Ātman/Puruṣa). Understanding this helps
differentiate the true Self from its coverings.
8. What does ‘Rāma Rājya’ signify in the context of governance?
Answer: Rāma Rājya, derived from the Rāmāyaṇa, signifies an ideal
state characterized by righteous governance (Dharma), justice, prosperity,
and the ruler’s complete dedication to the welfare and happiness of the
subjects (Prajā). It represents the benchmark for ethical leadership and
public service.
9. What is the central focus of Kautilya’s Arthaśāstra?
Answer: The Arthaśāstra is primarily focused on the pragmatic aspects
of statecraft: acquiring and maintaining political power and economic
prosperity (Artha) for the state. It provides detailed guidance on adminis-
tration, law, economic policy, diplomacy, espionage, and military strategy
to ensure state security and stability.

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10. List any four of the seven limbs (Aṅgas) of the Kautilyan state.
Answer: Four limbs of the Saptāṅga theory are: 1. Svāmī (The
Sovereign King), 2. Amātya (Ministers/Officials), 3. Janapada (Territory
and People), 4. Durga (Fortified Capital). (Other three: Kośa—Treasury,
Daṇḍa—Army, Mitra—Ally).

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