The Nature of Indian Philosophy

 Philosophical Context: Indian philosophy covers a wide range of intellectual traditions and cannot
be lumped into a singular "religious" framework. Though it often intersects with religious concepts,
it encompasses metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical dimensions.

 Comparison with Western Thought: Indian philosophy isn't just spiritual but includes rigorous
logic and analysis. Philosophers like Bimal Matilal showed that Indian philosophy has its own form
of logic (such as Nyaya and Navya-Nyaya) comparable to Western analytic traditions.

2. Three Core Presuppositions of Indian Philosophy

Indian philosophy builds on three crucial presuppositions: Karma and Rebirth, Moksha, and Dharma.

a. Karma and Rebirth

 Karma: The law of cause and effect where actions in past lives affect present circumstances. Karma
was initially tied to rituals and later expanded to ethical actions. Indian philosophers emphasize that
karma explains the moral order of the universe, even beyond this life.

 Rebirth: Rebirth (samsara) is the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, governed by the law of karma.
This explains why individuals experience varying levels of fortune and suffering. Actions in one life
determine the circumstances of the next life.

b. Moksha (Liberation)

 Definition: Moksha is the ultimate goal of human life—liberation from the cycle of samsara. It
represents spiritual freedom, enlightenment, and the realization of one's true self (Atman), which in
many systems like Advaita Vedanta, is equated with the ultimate reality (Brahman).
 Path to Moksha: Each philosophical school in India (except for Charvaka) has its own conception
of how moksha is attained:
o Advaita Vedanta: Realizing the non-duality between Atman and Brahman.
o Nyaya-Vaisheshika: Liberation through true knowledge and cessation of pain.
o Samkhya-Yoga: Understanding the distinction between Purusha (spirit) and Prakriti (matter).

c. Dharma (Moral Law)

 Dharma’s Meaning: Dharma upholds the moral and cosmic order. It represents duty, righteousness,
and the ethical codes governing both personal and social conduct.
 Types of Dharma:
o Svadharma: Individual's duty based on one’s stage of life and caste (varnashrama).
o Sanatana Dharma: Eternal truths and principles governing all beings.
 Dharma operates within the cycle of karma and rebirth but is not the ultimate goal. It’s a necessary
guide for navigating ethical life, but moksha transcends it.
3. The Six Orthodox Schools (Darshanas)

These six systems accept the Vedas' authority and focus on metaphysics, ethics, and epistemology.

a. Nyaya (Logic and Epistemology)

 Key Focus: Emphasizes logic, reason, and epistemology. Nyaya philosophers use four pramanas
(means of knowledge): perception, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony.
 Goal: Knowledge removes ignorance, leading to liberation.

b. Vaisheshika (Metaphysics)

 Focus: Deals with metaphysical categories such as substance, quality, action, generality,
particularity, and inherence.
 Worldview: Everything in the universe is reducible to atoms (paramanu). Vaisheshika shares
epistemological principles with Nyaya, but focuses more on categorizing reality.

c. Samkhya (Dualism)

 Ontology: Proposes a dualistic worldview where Purusha (consciousness) is distinct from Prakriti
(matter).
 Goal: Liberation comes from recognizing this dualism and freeing Purusha from the influences of
Prakriti.

d. Yoga (Practice-Oriented Philosophy)

 Connection to Samkhya: Builds upon Samkhya metaphysics but offers practical methods (Ashtanga
Yoga or the Eightfold Path) to attain liberation.
 Eightfold Path: Includes disciplines like ethical practices (Yama, Niyama), physical postures
(Asana), breath control (Pranayama), and meditation (Dhyana).

e. Mimamsa (Ritual and Ethics)

 Primary Concern: Focuses on interpreting Vedic rituals and duties. Mimamsa holds that rituals
(karma) are necessary to sustain the world and lead to prosperity in this life and the next.
 Philosophical Contribution: Mimamsa develops theories of language and meaning, influencing
later developments in linguistic philosophy.

f. Vedanta (Philosophy of the Upanishads)

 Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualism): Brahman is the only reality, and the world of duality (multiplicity)
is an illusion (Maya). Realizing the oneness of Atman and Brahman leads to liberation.
 Dvaita Vedanta (Dualism): Proposes a dualistic worldview where God (Brahman) and individual
souls are distinct. Moksha is the eternal service to God in Dvaita.

4. Key Concepts in Indian Epistemology

a. Pramana (Means of Knowledge)

 Perception (Pratyaksha): Sensory perception is the first step in acquiring knowledge. This can
include direct sensory experience or mental perception of universals.
 Inference (Anumana): Based on observation and logical reasoning, such as inferring fire from
smoke.
 Comparison (Upamana): Knowledge through analogy.
  Verbal Testimony (Sabda): Trustworthy authority, often sacred texts like the Vedas, is considered a
valid source of knowledge.

b. Realism vs. Idealism

 Most Indian philosophical schools (except Advaita Vedanta) are realists, believing in the external
reality of objects. For instance, Nyaya argues for the independent existence of objects, which are
known through perception and inference.
 Advaita Vedanta: Holds an idealist position where the world of multiplicity is a projection of Maya
(illusion), and only Brahman is real.

5. Ethics and Moral Philosophy

Ethics in Indian Thought:

 Ethical actions (guided by Dharma) are essential but are not the final goal. Following Dharma
ensures order in society and helps individuals accrue good karma, which may lead to better rebirths.
 Moral Dilemmas: The Hindu epic, Mahabharata, particularly in the Bhagavad Gita, explores
complex moral questions, such as when duties conflict (Arjuna’s dilemma on the battlefield).

6. Soteriological Framework in Indian Philosophy

 Samsara (Cycle of Rebirth): Represents the bondage of the soul to the cycle of births and deaths
due to karma.
 Avidya (Ignorance): The root cause of suffering is ignorance of one’s true nature. This ignorance
binds individuals to the cycle of samsara.
 Moksha (Liberation): Attaining self-knowledge (Atman is Brahman) or distinguishing between
Purusha and Prakriti leads to liberation from samsara.

7. Yoga and Spiritual Practices

 In Indian thought, especially in systems like Yoga and Vedanta, spiritual practices play a vital role in
achieving philosophical insights.
 **Meditation

Meditation (Dhyana), breath control (Pranayama), and ethical disciplines (Yama, Niyama) are practical
tools that help individuals transcend the limitations of the body and mind, ultimately leading to Samadhi
(the final stage in Yoga where the practitioner experiences unity with the divine or ultimate reality).

8. Realism and Pragmatism in Indian Philosophy

 Epistemological Realism: Indian philosophical systems like Nyaya-Vaisheshika and Samkhya

assert that the world exists independently of the mind, and knowledge corresponds to reality.
 Pragmatic Theory of Truth: Many Indian schools of thought, especially the Nyaya school,
emphasize that truth is validated by its practical consequences. If a belief leads to successful practice,
it is considered true. This blends coherence and correspondence theories of truth.

9. Metaphysics of Indian Philosophy

 Nature of Reality:
o Samkhya: Dualistic view of Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter), where the
material world is a combination of the three gunas (qualities): sattva (goodness), rajas
(passion), and tamas (inertia).
o Advaita Vedanta: Non-dualistic, positing that only Brahman is real, and the diversity of the
world is a result of Maya (illusion).
10. Practical Application of Philosophy

 Philosophy as a Way of Life: Indian philosophy intertwines theory with practice, where the ultimate
goal is not just intellectual understanding but spiritual transformation (through Yoga, meditation, and
ethical conduct). The search for self-knowledge and the removal of ignorance is seen as a life
pursuit, not merely an intellectual exercise.

1. Introduction to Indian Philosophy

 Indian Philosophy: One of the oldest philosophical traditions globally, deeply integrated with Indian religion
and spirituality.
 Spiritual and Metaphysical Focus: Indian philosophy concentrates on understanding reality, the self
(Atman), and the universe through intellectual inquiry and spiritual practices.

2. The Vedas

 Meaning of Veda: Derived from the Sanskrit root “vid,” meaning "to know." Vedas are the foundational texts
of Indian philosophy.
 Historical Development: Composed by the Aryans, passed down orally, then written.

3. The Four Vedas (Samhitas)

1. Rig Veda:
o Collection of hymns dedicated to gods such as Agni (fire god) and Indra (god of war).
o Focuses on prayers for prosperity and protection.
2. Sama Veda:
o Contains chants and melodies used in rituals.
o Known as the “Veda of songs.”
3. Yajur Veda:
o Focuses on rituals and sacrifices.
o Divided into White Yajur Veda (clear instructions) and Black Yajur Veda (mixed instructions).
4. Atharva Veda:
o Deals with magical spells and practical issues like health and protection.
o The most practical of the Vedas.

4. Vedic Text Structure

 Mantras: Hymns for rituals, praising deities.

 Brahmanas: Explanatory texts on performing rituals using the mantras.

5. The Four Stages of Vedic Texts

1. Samhita: Collection of hymns or mantras.

2. Brahmana: Explanations of rituals and their significance.
3. Aranyaka: Texts focused on meditation and rituals for hermits.
4. Upanishad: Philosophical discussions about meditation, morality, and the nature of the universe,
emphasizing the Atman.
6. Key Philosophical Concepts

 Atman: The individual self or soul, connected to the larger cosmic reality (Brahman).
 Brahman: The ultimate, unchanging reality composed of pure being and consciousness.
 Moksha: Liberation from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (Samsara), achieved through realizing the
unity of Atman and Brahman.

7. Darshana:

 Means "vision" or "insight."

 Refers to the various schools of philosophy in India, each offering different paths to understanding reality
and achieving liberation.

8. Six Orthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy:

1. Nyaya: Focuses on logic and epistemology.

2. Vaisheshika: Concerned with atomism and metaphysics.
3. Samkhya: Dualistic system separating matter (Prakriti) and spirit (Purusha).
4. Yoga: A practice-oriented school that builds on Samkhya but focuses on meditation and self-discipline.
5. Purva Mimamsa: Emphasizes the proper performance of Vedic rituals.
6. Vedanta: Focuses on the Upanishads, emphasizing the unity of Atman and Brahman.

9. The Upanishads

 Considered the culmination of Vedic thought.

 Focus on meditation, moral conduct, and knowledge of the universe.
 The teachings emphasize the interconnectedness of all beings and the pursuit of self-realization.

10. Metaphysics and Ethics in Indian Philosophy

 Ontology (Study of Being): Focuses on the relationship between the material world (Prakriti) and the
spiritual essence (Purusha).
 Ethics: Moral living (following Dharma) is key to achieving Moksha (liberation).

11. Philosophy and Life in India

 Philosophy as a Spiritual Adventure: Philosophy was seen as a way of life, not just intellectual activity.
 Connection to Religion: Philosophy and religion were deeply intertwined, and rituals, meditation, and ethical
living were ways to understand the self and the universe.

12. Rishis (Sages) and the Oral Tradition

 Rishis: The Vedic hymns were revealed to Rishis (seers), believed to be divinely inspired.
 Oral Tradition: Vedic knowledge was passed down orally for generations, ensuring its preservation before it
was written down.

13. Concept of Dharma

 Dharma: Refers to moral law, duty, or the correct way of living.

 Dharma governs both individual conduct and the cosmic order, playing a central role in Indian ethical
philosophy.

14. Karma and Samsara

 Karma: The law of cause and effect, where one’s actions determine future experiences.
  Samsara: The continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Liberation (Moksha) from Samsara is a primary
goal.

15. Shruti and Smriti Texts

 Shruti: Texts considered to be divinely revealed, including the Vedas and Upanishads.
 Smriti: Texts composed by humans, like the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Puranas, which are also influential
in shaping Indian philosophical thought.

16. Criticism of Ritualism in the Upanishads

 The Upanishads criticize the overly ritualistic approach of the early Vedic tradition, promoting meditation
and inner knowledge as more important than external rites.

17. Philosophical Themes in Vedic Rituals

 Vedic rituals have deep philosophical meanings, often symbolizing the relationship between the microcosm
(individual) and the macrocosm (universe).

18. Influence of Indian Philosophy on Later Traditions

 Indian philosophy heavily influenced major religious traditions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism.
 Concepts such as Karma, Moksha, Atman, and Dharma are central to these traditions.

19. The British Colonization and Its Impact

 Colonization's Influence: The British colonization of India significantly impacted the study and interpretation
of Indian philosophy, bringing about new ways of thinking and interaction with Western thought.

20. Development of Indian Philosophy Over Time

 Indian philosophy evolved from early Vedic hymns, centered around rituals and polytheism, into highly
sophisticated metaphysical and ethical discussions found in later texts like the Upanishads and the works of
various philosophical schools.

Final Notes for Exam Preparation:

1. Focus on Concepts: Ensure you thoroughly understand the core ideas of Atman, Brahman, Dharma, Karma,
and Moksha.
2. Understand the Schools: Review the key differences between the six orthodox schools and their
interpretations of reality.
3. Connection to Life: Remember that Indian philosophy is deeply connected to the lived experience and
practical life, so try to relate the concepts to ethical and spiritual practices.
Reviewer: Sankhya School of Indian Philosophy

1. Introduction to Sankhya Philosophy

 Sankhya: One of the oldest and most influential schools of Indian philosophy.
 Founder: Traditionally attributed to sage Kapila.
 Dualistic Philosophy: Sankhya advocates a dualistic understanding of reality, where Purusha
(spirit) and Prakriti (matter) are separate and distinct entities.

2. Key Concepts of Sankhya

 Purusha: The conscious, eternal, and passive observer, representing the spiritual essence.
o Purusha is beyond physical existence and does not engage in the material world.
 Prakriti: The unconscious, dynamic material world. It is responsible for all physical and mental
processes.
o Prakriti is composed of three Gunas (qualities):
1. Sattva: Purity, wisdom, and balance.
2. Rajas: Activity, passion, and motion.
3. Tamas: Inertia, ignorance, and darkness.
 The Interaction of Purusha and Prakriti: Although separate, Purusha and Prakriti come into
contact, resulting in the creation of the universe and individual experiences.

3. The Concept of Liberation (Moksha) in Sankhya

 Bondage and Liberation: The soul (Purusha) becomes bound to the cycle of Samsara (birth, death,
rebirth) due to ignorance of its true nature.
 Moksha (Liberation): Liberation is achieved when Purusha realizes its distinctness from Prakriti.
This realization ends the cycle of rebirth and leads to eternal peace and freedom.

4. Evolution of the Universe According to Sankhya

 Cosmic Evolution: Sankhya presents a theory of evolution where the material world evolves from
Prakriti when influenced by Purusha’s proximity.
 Stages of Evolution: From Prakriti arises Mahat (cosmic intelligence), followed by the Ahamkara
(ego), and then the creation of the five elements, sense organs, and mental faculties.

5. The 25 Tattvas (Principles)

 Sankhya philosophy explains the creation of the universe through 25 Tattvas (principles) that evolve
from Prakriti. These include:
1. Purusha: The self or soul.
2. Prakriti: The material cause of the universe.
3. Mahat: Cosmic intelligence or the great principle.
4. Ahamkara: The principle of individuality or ego. 5-9.
5. Five Tanmatras: Subtle elements of sound, touch, form, taste, and smell. 10-14. Five
Mahabhutas: The gross elements—earth, water, fire, air, and ether. 15-19. Five
Jnanendriyas: The organs of knowledge—eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and skin. 20-24. Five
Karmendriyas: The organs of action—hands, feet, speech, excretion, and reproduction.
6. Mind (Manas): The coordinator between the sense organs and actions.

6. Sankhya and Epistemology

 Three Valid Means of Knowledge (Pramanas):

 1. Perception (Pratyaksha): Direct sensory experience.
2. Inference (Anumana): Knowledge gained through logical reasoning.
3. Testimony (Shabda): Knowledge from trustworthy sources like the Vedas.

7. Sankhya’s Influence on Other Schools

 Sankhya’s dualistic principles deeply influenced the development of Yoga philosophy, where similar
concepts of Purusha and Prakriti are emphasized.
 It also impacted Vedanta, particularly in terms of cosmology and metaphysics.

8. Ethical Implications in Sankhya

 Non-Attachment: One of the key ethical teachings of Sankhya is that individuals should strive to
remain detached from the material world (Prakriti) to realize their true spiritual nature (Purusha).
 Balance of Gunas: Living a balanced life by controlling the influence of the three Gunas (Sattva,
Rajas, Tamas) helps in spiritual progress.

9. Criticism of Sankhya

 Lack of Theism: Sankhya does not explicitly advocate the worship of a personal god, which differs
from many other schools of Indian philosophy.
 Rigid Dualism: The strict separation of Purusha and Prakriti has been criticized for lacking the
integration seen in monistic systems like Vedanta.

10. Liberation as Discriminative Knowledge

 The primary means of achieving liberation in Sankhya is through discriminative knowledge—

understanding the distinction between Purusha (the self) and Prakriti (the material world).

Comprehensive Reviewer: Yoga School of Indian Philosophy

1. Introduction to Yoga Philosophy

 Yoga: An ancient discipline that encompasses physical, mental, and spiritual practices. One of the
six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy.
 Founder: Traditionally attributed to Patanjali, who systematized the philosophy in the Yoga
Sutras.
 Goal of Yoga: The union of Purusha (the individual self) with the universal consciousness. The
ultimate goal is liberation (Moksha) from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (Samsara).

2. Relationship with Sankhya Philosophy

 Dualism: Yoga shares Sankhya’s dualistic understanding of the universe, viewing reality as
composed of Purusha (spirit) and Prakriti (matter).
 Sankhya's Influence: Sankhya provides the metaphysical foundation for Yoga, but while Sankhya
focuses on theory, Yoga emphasizes practice—the methods and disciplines necessary to achieve
liberation.

3. The Eight Limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga)

Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras describe the eight-fold path (Ashtanga Yoga), a structured path toward spiritual
growth:

1. Yama: Social ethics or moral restraints:

o Ahimsa: Non-violence.
o Satya: Truthfulness.
o Asteya: Non-stealing.
o Brahmacharya: Chastity.
o Aparigraha: Non-possessiveness.
2. Niyama: Personal disciplines:
o Saucha: Purity.
o Santosha: Contentment.
o Tapas: Austerity or self-discipline.
o Svadhyaya: Self-study or study of sacred texts.
o Ishvara Pranidhana: Surrender to God.
3. Asana: Physical postures designed to prepare the body for meditation and maintain health.
4. Pranayama: Control of breath to regulate the flow of Prana (life energy), balancing body and mind.
5. Pratyahara: Withdrawal of the senses from external stimuli, directing awareness inward.
6. Dharana: Concentration or one-pointed focus on an object.
7. Dhyana: Meditation, a deeper, sustained focus beyond concentration.
8. Samadhi: The ultimate state of absorption, where the individual self merges with the object of
meditation, achieving Moksha.

4. Key Concepts in Yoga Philosophy

 Purusha: The true self or pure consciousness, eternal and unchanging.

 Prakriti: The material world, including the mind, body, and senses.
 Chitta: The mind-stuff, which includes the conscious, subconscious, and unconscious mind. The
goal of Yoga is to quiet the fluctuations of Chitta to reveal the true nature of Purusha.
o Chitta Vritti: The modifications or fluctuations of the mind (e.g., desires, fears, memories).
Yoga seeks to quiet these fluctuations.
 Kleshas: Five afflictions or obstacles that hinder spiritual progress:

1. Avidya (ignorance): The root of all other obstacles.

2. Asmita (egoism): Identifying with the ego.
3. Raga (attachment): Desire for pleasure.
4. Dvesha (aversion): Aversion to pain.
5. Abhinivesha (fear of death): Fear that arises from attachment to life.

5. The Three Gunas (Qualities of Nature)

Yoga, following Sankhya, teaches that Prakriti is composed of three Gunas or qualities:

1. Sattva: Purity, harmony, and wisdom. Leads to clarity and peace.

2. Rajas: Activity, passion, and restlessness. Drives desire and attachment.
3. Tamas: Inertia, ignorance, and darkness. Causes confusion and lethargy.

The aim of Yoga is to cultivate Sattva, diminishing the influence of Rajas and Tamas, leading to spiritual
insight and calmness.

6. The Concept of Liberation (Moksha)

 Liberation in Yoga: Moksha is achieved through the realization of Purusha’s true nature, distinct
from Prakriti. This realization occurs in the state of Samadhi.
  Chitta Vritti Nirodha: The cessation of the fluctuations of the mind. When the mind is still, it
reflects the pure consciousness of Purusha, leading to liberation.

7. Meditation (Dhyana) and Samadhi

 Dhyana (Meditation): Continuous, unbroken flow of concentration on an object. Meditation is a

critical tool for quieting the mind and attaining self-realization.
 Samadhi: The final stage of meditation where the mind, body, and senses dissolve, and the
practitioner experiences unity with the object of meditation, leading to Moksha.

8. The Role of Ethical Discipline

 Yamas and Niyamas: The first two limbs are ethical guidelines essential for preparing the mind and
body for higher practices. They ensure the practitioner is spiritually pure and morally disciplined
before progressing to advanced techniques like meditation.

9. The Epistemology of Yoga

Yoga accepts three valid sources of knowledge (Pramanas):

1. Pratyaksha (Perception): Direct sensory experience.

2. Anumana (Inference): Logical reasoning based on observed facts.
3. Shabda (Testimony): Knowledge from reliable authorities, such as scriptures or enlightened
teachers.

10. Ishvara (God) in Yoga Philosophy

 Ishvara Pranidhana: Surrendering to a higher power or God is one of the Niyamas in Yoga.
 Ishvara: Unlike other schools of thought, Yoga acknowledges the presence of a personal God
(Ishvara), who is beyond the effects of karma and time. Ishvara is a model of perfection and a guide
for practitioners seeking liberation.

11. Viveka (Discriminative Knowledge)

 Viveka: Discriminative knowledge is the key to spiritual growth. It refers to the ability to distinguish
between Purusha (spirit) and Prakriti (matter), enabling the practitioner to rise above worldly
illusions and experience spiritual liberation.

12. Importance of Breath Control (Pranayama)

 Pranayama: The regulation of breath is a core practice in Yoga. It is believed that controlling the
breath helps control the mind, leading to increased focus, calmness, and energy flow (Prana).
Pranayama also prepares the body and mind for deeper meditation practices.

13. Stages of Meditation

The progression of meditation in Yoga can be broken down into three key stages:

1. Dharana: Concentration on a single point or object.

2. Dhyana: Meditation, where the focus is sustained without interruption.
3. Samadhi: The culmination of meditation, where the self merges with the object of meditation,
resulting in spiritual enlightenment and Moksha.

14. Practical Application of Yoga Philosophy

  Yoga in Daily Life: Yoga is not just a physical or meditative practice but a comprehensive spiritual
discipline. The ethical principles (Yama and Niyama), physical postures (Asanas), and breath control
(Pranayama) are designed to purify the body and mind, preparing the practitioner for meditation and
spiritual realization.
 Balance of the Gunas: The cultivation of Sattva, while reducing Rajas and Tamas, helps in creating
a peaceful and stable mind that is conducive to meditation and spiritual growth

The Vaisheshika school is one of the six orthodox schools of Indian philosophy.
Founded by Sage Kanada, it emphasizes metaphysics, particularly in understanding the nature of reality through a
system of categorization.
Below are some of the main concepts you can cover for your essay exam: 1. Padarthas (Categories of Reality)
Vaisheshika outlines seven categories (padarthas), which explain everything that exists. They are: • Dravya
(Substance): The nine types of substances that are the basis of existence. These include: • Earth (Prithvi) • Water
(Apas) • Fire (Tejas) • Air (Vayu) • Ether (Akasha) • Time (Kala) • Space (Dik) • Self (Atman) • Mind (Manas) •
Guna (Qualities): Inherent attributes of substances, like color, taste, smell, touch, and numbers. • Karma (Action): The
motion or activity that substances can engage in. • Samanya (Generality): The common nature or universality that
multiple objects share. • Vishesha (Particularity): The specific individuality that differentiates objects from each other.
• Samavaya (Inherence): The relationship that exists between substances and their qualities or actions. For example,
the color of an object is inseparably related to that object. • Abhava (Non-existence): The concept of absence or non-
being. Vaisheshika acknowledges that non-existence is also a part of reality, such as the absence of a chair in a room.
2. Atomism (Anu-vada) One of the central tenets of Vaisheshika is its atomic theory, which posits that all material
objects are made of indivisible and eternal atoms (anus). These atoms combine to form more complex materials. The
theory emphasizes that the universe is composed of these atoms interacting in various ways under the influence of
karma and divine will. 3. Samavaya (Inherence) Samavaya refers to the inseparable and eternal relationship between
objects and their properties. For instance, the color red cannot exist independently but must inhere in a red object. This
concept is unique to Vaisheshika and is key to understanding the school’s metaphysical approach. 4. Abhava (Non-
existence) The concept of abhava is crucial in Vaisheshika metaphysics. It refers to the notion of non-existence or
absence, which the school categorizes into: • Pragabhava (prior non-existence): The non-existence of an object before
its creation. • Pradhvamsabhava (posterior non-existence): The non-existence of an object after its destruction. •
Atyantabhava (absolute non-existence): The total non-existence of something in any context. • Anyonyabhava (mutual
non-existence): The mutual exclusion between two objects that are distinct from each other. 5. Bondage and
Liberation (Bandha and Moksha) In Vaisheshika, the concept of bondage (bandha) refers to the soul’s entanglement in
the physical world through attachment to material objects and desires. This bondage is the result of ignorance and
leads to the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (samsara). Liberation (moksha), on the other hand, is the state where the
soul is freed from this cycle. It is attained through the right knowledge of reality, particularly understanding the
distinctions between the self and the material world. Once liberated, the soul remains in a state of eternal bliss and
freedom from worldly attachments. 6. Epistemology (Pramanas) Vaisheshika recognizes two sources of valid
knowledge (pramanas): • Perception (Pratyaksha): Knowledge that comes through the direct observation of objects. •
Inference (Anumana): Knowledge that is derived from reasoning based on observed data.