Introduction to

Indian Knowledge Systems

Dr. Balaji Padhy

Associate Professor
UGC-AICTE empaneled Master trainer for faculty of
HEI in Indian Knowledge System
February -2025
 What are we looking at… (Module-2)

❖ Indian Philosophical Traditions (4 hours)

➢ Six Schools of Indian Philosophy: Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Mimamsa,

Vedanta.

➢ Jainism and Buddhism: Philosophical and Ethical Insights.

➢ Concept of Dharma, Karma, and Moksha

Indian Philosophical schools
• Indian philosophical schools are classified as two types
a)Orthodox School(Astika)
b)Heterodox School( Nastika)
• What is Logic?
Understanding of Knowledge , Value and Existence.
• Philosophy explain in 3 branches
a)Axiology- Ethics and Aesthetics(related to metaphysics)
b) ontology-Really real
c)Epistemology-Study of knowledge
Indian Schools of Philosophy | भारतीय दर्शन के प्रमख
ु संप्रदाय
• Indian philosophy is broadly classified into two categories:
1.Astika (आस्तिक) – Believers in the Authority of Vedas
These philosophies accept the Vedas as the supreme authority. It can be
Sub-divided into:
1. Based on Vedic Text (वैदिक ग्रंथों पर आधाररि)
1. Mimamsa (मीमांसा) – Focuses on rituals and Vedic interpretation.
2. Vedanta (वेिांि) – Explores ultimate reality (Brahman) and liberation (Moksha).
2. Based on Independent Grounds (तविंत्र आधार पर आधाररि)
1. Sankhya (सांख्य) – Discusses dualism of Purusha (spirit) and Prakriti (matter).
2. Yoga (योग) – Focuses on self-discipline and meditation for liberation.
3. Nyaya (न्याय) – Emphasizes logical reasoning and epistemology.
4. Vaisheshika (वैशषे िक) – Studies atomism and categorization of reality.
Indian Schools of Philosophy
2. Nastika (नास्तिक) – Non-Believers in the Authority of Vedas
1. These philosophies do not accept the Vedas as the ultimate authority.
2. Includes:
1. Buddhism (बौद्ध िशशन) – Teaches the Eightfold Path and Nirvana.
2. Jainism (जैन िशशन) – Advocates non-violence and self-discipline for liberation.
3. Charvaka (चावाशक) – Promotes materialism and sensory pleasure.
4. Ajivikas (आस्जषवक) – Believes in destiny and fatalism.
• This classification highlights how different schools of Indian thought
interpret truth, reality, and liberation through logic, scriptures, and
independent reasoning.
• यह वर्गीकरण दर्ाशता है कक भारतीय च त ं न की ववभभन्न परं पराएँ तकश,
र्ास्त्रों और स्त्वतंर वव ारधारा के माध्यम से सत्य, वास्त्तववकता और मोक्ष
की व्याख्या कैसे करती हैं।
Nyaya Darshana – The School of Logic
• Indian Logic and its connection to epistemology (the theory of
knowledge). It highlights that:
• Indian epistemology is a crucial part of Indian philosophy.
• Knowledge (Prama) is considered a means to liberation (Moksha).
• The ultimate goal of acquiring knowledge is to achieve spiritual liberation.
• भारिीय िकशशातत्र और उसका ज्ञानमीमांसा (Epistemology) से संबंध
• भारिीय ज्ञानमीमांसा भारतीय दर्शन का एक महत्वपूणश भार्ग है ।
• ज्ञान (प्रमा) को मोक्ष प्राप्तत का साधन माना जाता है ।
• ज्ञान प्राप्ि करने का अंतिम लक्ष्य आध्याप्त्मक मुप्तत (मोक्ष) प्रातत करना
है ।
Nyaya Darshana – The School of Logic (न्याय दर्शन)

• Nyaya Darshana, founded by Maharishi Gautama (Gautama Muni), is

one of the six classical schools of Indian philosophy. It emphasizes
logic, reasoning, and systematic analysis as the means to attain true
knowledge (Prama).
• Core Principles of Nyaya Philosophy
1.Logical Reasoning (िार्कशक षवचार)
1. Nyaya states that nothing should be accepted without logical proof and
reasoning.
2. This approach aligns with the scientific method, where conclusions are
drawn based on observation, inference, and verification.
Four Sources of Valid Knowledge (प्रमाण)
2. Nyaya philosophy identifies four valid means of acquiring knowledge
(Pramana):
1. Pratyaksha (प्रत्यक्ष) – Direct Perception: Knowledge gained through the
senses (e.g., seeing fire and feeling its heat).
2. Anumana (अनम ु ान) – Inference: Drawing conclusions based on previous
experiences (e.g., seeing smoke on a hill and inferring there is fire).
3. Upamana (उपमान) – Comparison: Understanding something unfamiliar by
comparing it with something familiar (e.g., Understanding the "crocodile" by
comparing it with a "lizard.").
4. Shabda (शब्ि) – Verbal Testimony: Knowledge gained from authoritative
sources like the Vedas or trustworthy individuals.
Five-Step Logical Argument (पंचावयव िकश)
Nyaya philosophy defines a structured way of logical debate, known as the five-
step syllogism:
a. Pratijna (प्रतिज्ञा) – Proposition (e.g., "The hill has fire.")
b. Hetu (हे ि)ु – Reason (e.g., "Because smoke is rising.")
c. Udaharana (उिाहरण) – Example (e.g., "Where there is smoke, there is fire, like in
a kitchen.")
d. Upanaya (उपनय) – Application (e.g., "Smoke is present on the hill.")
E. Nigamana (तनगमन) – Conclusion (e.g., "Therefore, there is fire on the hill.")
Example:A doctor diagnosing a disease follows the Nyaya approach by
analyzing symptoms, comparing with past cases, and arriving at a
logical conclusion.
Vaisheshika (Kanada)
• It primarily deals with metaphysics, focusing on the nature of reality
and atomic theory.
• The universe is composed of indivisible, eternal atoms (paramāṇus).
These atoms combine in different ways to form all physical objects.
• Vaiśeṣika classifies existence into seven fundamental categories:
• Dravya (Substance),Guṇa (Quality),Karma (Action), Sāmānya
(Generality) ,Viśeṣa (Particularity) ,Samavāya (Inherence),Abhāva
(Non-existence).
• Freedom from karma and rebirth is attained through knowledge and
realization of the atomic structure of the universe.
Vaisheshika (Kanada) continue
• They believe that God is the guiding principle. The living beings were
rewarded or punished according to the law of karma, based on actions
of merit and demerit.
• The Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools eventually merged because of
their closely related metaphysical theories (Vaisheshika only accepted
perception and inference as sources of valid knowledge).
Samkhya (Kapila):
• It is considered one of the oldest philosophical traditions, with its
roots in the Vedic and Upanishadic periods. It was systematized by
Sage Kapila and later elaborated upon in the Sāṃkhya Kārikā
• Sāṃkhya is a dualistic and atheistic philosophy that explains the
universe through two fundamental realities:
• Puruṣa (Consciousness, Soul)The pure, eternal, unchanging, and
conscious entity.
• Prakṛti (Nature, Matter)
• The unmanifest, eternal, and unconscious principle that is the source
of the material world. It consists of three guṇas (qualities)
Yoga (Patanjali)
• Yoga literally means the union of two principal entities. Yogic
techniques control body, mind & sense organs, thus considered as a
means of achieving freedom or mukti.
• This freedom could be attained by practising self-control (yama),
observation of rules (niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath control
(pranayama), choosing an object (pratyahara) and fixing the mind
(dharna), concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana) and complete
dissolution of self, merging the mind and the object (Samadhi).
• Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher and guide.
Purva Mimamsa (Jaimini):
• This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya- vaisheshika systems and
emphasizes the concept of valid knowledge. According to Purva
Mimamsa, Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge.
• According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all
knowledge, and religion means the fulfilment of duties prescribed by
the Vedas.
• It says that the essence of the Vedas is dharma. By the execution of
dharma, one earns merit which leads one to heaven after death.
Vedanta
• The Vedanta, or Uttara Mimamsa, school concentrates on the
philosophical teachings of the Upanishads (mystic or spiritual
contemplations within the Vedas), rather than the Brahmanas
(instructions for ritual and sacrifice).
• The school separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts
in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries
Six schools of Vedanta

• Advaita (Adi Shankara): It states that both the individual self and god are
the same, and knowing this difference causes liberation.
• Visishtadvaita (Ramanuja): It believes that all diversity is subsumed to a
unified whole.
• Dvaita (Madhvacharya): It considers god and the individual as two different
entities, and Bhakti as the route to eternal salvation.
• Dvaitadvaita (Nimbarka): It states that the Brahman(God) is the highest
reality, the controller of all.
• Shuddhadvaita (Vallabhacharya): It states that both God and the individual
self are the same, and not different.
• Achintya Bheda Abheda (Chaitanya Mahaprabhu): It emphasizes that the
individual self (Jīvatman) are both not different from Brahman.
Unorthodox Schools of Indian Philosophy

• Schools that do not accept the authority of Vedas are by definition

unorthodox (nastika) systems. The following schools belong to
heterodox schools of Indian Philosophy.
Charvaka (Brihaspati)
• Charvaka is a materialistic, sceptical and atheistic school of thought.
• According to Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end
of humans .
• It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy-the philosophy of masses.
Buddhist philosophy (Siddhartha Gautama):
• Buddhism is a non-theistic philosophy whose tenets are not especially
concerned with the existence or nonexistence of God. Buddha
considered the world as full of misery and considered a man’s duty to
seek liberation from this painful world. He strongly criticized blind
faith in the traditional scriptures like the Vedas
Introduction to Buddhism
 Buddhism stands on 3 pillars

BUDDHA DHAMMA SANGHA

Order of
It’s founder His teaching Buddhist monks
and nuns
 The Buddha

➢ ‘Light of Asia’
➢ Buddha means "Enlightened One.“
➢ Also known as Sakyamuni or Tathagata.
➢ His birth name was Siddhartha.
➢ Born in 563 BC on Vaisakha Purnima at Lumbini (near Kapilvastu) in Nepal.
➢ Site of birth → Rummindei Pillar of Ashoka.
➢ Father → Suddhodana (Shakya ruler).
➢ Mother → Mahamaya (belonged to the Kosala dynasty).
➢ Mother passed away seven days after his birth.
➢ Step-mother → Gautami.
➢ Married to Yasodhara.
➢ Enjoyed married life for 13 years.
➢ Had a son named Rahul.
➢ Decided to become a wadered , after seeing
A sick A Dead
An old An Ascetic
man Body
man (Sannyasi)
➢ Left his palace at the age of 29 with Channa (charioteer) and his favorite horse Kanthaka, in search of truth, called
"Maha Bhinishkramana" or "The Great Renunciation."
➢ Wandered for 6 years

Tortured himself until he was nothing but a

walking skeleton
➢ His first teacher →Alara Kalama
➢ His next teacher→Uddaka Rāmaputta.

➢ Attained “NIRVANA” OR Enlightment at the age of 35 at Gaya →NIRANJANA RIVER

→ MAGADH (BH)
→ Under peepal tree .

➢ Delivered his first sermon at → Sarnath

DHARAM CHAKRA PARIVARTAN

(or)
“Turning of the wheel of Law”
➢ Attained Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar(483BC) At the age of 80 in MALLA Republic.
Major events of Buddha’s life
SL.No: Events Symbols

1 Birth (Janma) Lotus & Bull

2 Renunciation (Maha Horse
Bhinishkramana)
3 Enlightenment (Nirvana/Samadhi) Bodhi Tree
4 First Sermon (Dharma Chakra Wheel
Parivartan)
5 Death (Mahaparinirvana) Stupa

Last Sermon → Vaishali

➢ His last sermon was delivered to Subhadda.
➢ Most Important Festival for Buddhists → Buddha Purnima
➢ Falls on Vaisakha Purnima day.
➢ Gautam Buddha was born,
• Attained enlightenment
• Attained Mahaparinirvana on this day.
Major events of Buddha’s life con…
STUPAS
❖ Death
➢ His remains were divided into 8 parts, and 8 stupas were
built to enshrine them.

❖ Stupas

➢ Buddhist monument → Main function: To preserve relics.

➢ To offer believers a place to meditate & pray.

➢ Famous Stupa → Sanchi Stupa (Madhya Pradesh)

 The Dhamma
The teaching of the Buddha

❖The four Noble truths:--

1) SABBAM DUKKAM (Suffering) :→ The world is full of sorrow & misery.
2) DWADASH NIDAN (Truth of the Cause of Suffering) :→ The cause of all pain and misery is desire.
3) NIRVANA (Truth of the End of Suffering ):→ Pain & misery can be ended by killing/controlling desire.
4) ASTANGIKA MARGA(Truth of the Path to the End of Suffering ):→ Desire can be controlled by following The eight Fold
path.

❖ The Eight fold paths:-

→ Right faith →Right efforts

→ Right thought →Right speech
→ Right Action →Right remembrance
→ Right livelihood →Right concentration

❖ Belief in Nirvana
when desires ceases ,rebirth ceases & Nirvana is attained as
(Freedom from the cycle of births, deaths and rebirth)
Nirvana--implication of flame and desire
➢ According to Buddha , soul is a myth.

➢ Belief Ahimsa: one should not cause injury to any living being , animal or man.

➢ Law of Karma:-- Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds.

➢ Buddha was Agnostic :--(A Person who believes that nothing is known of the existence or nature of god). He emphasized
self-awareness and inner peace.

The SANGHA
➢ It consists of Monks & Nuns (Bhikshus & shramanas).
➢ Bhikshus acted as the torch bearer of Dharma.
➢ The worshippers were also called upasaks.
council Location Chairman Outcomes
First(483BC) Rajgriha Mahakassppa(King- Divided the teaching of
Ajatshatru) Buddha into 2 Pitakas
recited by
Vinay pitaka →upali
Sutta pitaka →Ananda
council Location Chairman Outcomes

2nd (383 BC) Vaishali Sabakami Followers were divided

(king-kalasoka) into Sthaviravadins &
Mahasanghikas.
3rd (250 BC) Patliputra Mogliputta Tissa The third part of the
(king-Ashok) “Tripitaka” was coded in
pali language.
4th (72 AD) Kashmir Vasumitra Divided buddhism into-
(Kundalavana) (vice chairman- two sets→Mahanayana
Asvaghosa) & Hinayana
(king-Kanishka)

Buddhist Literature
Buddha
Pali- Language BPL
pali
 Buddhist scriptures are commonly referred as :

Tripitakas (Three-fold Basket)

Abhidhamma
Vinaya pitaka Sutta pitaka
pitaka

Rules of It contains collection of Explanation of the

discipline in Buddhist sermons philosophical principal of
Buddhist Buddhist religion
monasteries

Buddhist texts:-Maha Vansh & Deep Vansh. it provide information about the Sri Lanka
→ Biographies of Buddha Include- Buddha Charita (written by Aswaghosa),
→ Other important texts are Maha Vastu, Lalita Vistara sutra , Nidana katha
→ Buddhist Text : Digh Nikaya
 Buddhism sects

Mahayana Hinayana Vajrayana

• →Greater vehicle • → Became popular in • →Appeared later in 18th
• →Idol Worship is there srilanka & Magadha century
• →Became popular in • →No idol-worship • Grew rapidly in Bihar &
china, Japan, korea • Lesser vehicle Bangal
• → Chief diety= TORAS
• → Did not treat meat
,fish,wine etc as tobacco in
Dietary Habit
• → Can freely consume
them.
 ❖ Causes of Decline of Buddhism:-

➢ Succumbed to the Brahminic rituals such as idol Worship which Buddhism has earlier
denounced.

➢ Use of Sanskrit → the language of intellectuals.

➢ in place of pail→ the language of common people.

➢ Revival of Hinduism :
with the preaching of Shankaracharya deteriorate in the moral standards among the
monks living in Buddhist monasteries

➢ Attacks of Huna king Mihir Kula

Introduction to Jainism
 The Jainism
➢ Jainism was founded by Rishabhnath.
❖Key Points:
•There are a total of 24 Tirthankaras (prophets/teachers), and all of them were Kshatriyas.
•The first Tirthankara was Rishabhnath, whose emblem was a bull.
• He is mentioned in the Rigveda.
• However, there is no historical evidence for the existence of the first 22 Tirthankaras.
•Historical evidence is available only for the 23rd and 24th Tirthankaras.
❖23rd Tirthankara Parshwanath
➢ His emblem was a snake.
➢ He was the son of King Ashusena of Banaras.
➢ His main teachings included:
1. Non-injury (Ahimsa) – Avoiding harm to any living being.
2. Non-lying (Satya) – Speaking the truth.
3. Non-stealing (Asteya) – Not taking anything without permission.
4. Non-possession (Aparigraha) – Detachment from material possessions.
 The Jainism
❖ 24th Tirthankara
Vardhaman Mahavira
➢ He was the last Tirthankara.
➢ His emblem was a lion.
➢ All 24 Tirthankaras were distinguished by their unique emblems.
❖ Kalpasutra
➢ The Kalpasutra is a religious text of Jains.
➢ It mentions the life stories of all 24 Tirthankaras.
➢ It also mentions that the first Tirthankara was Rishabhnath.
❖ Rishabhnath
➢ Rishabhnath is believed to have existed before the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC).
➢ In the Bhagavata Purana, he is referred to as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu.
➢ It is believed that the name of the Brahmi script was inspired by his daughter, Brahmi.
 Vardhman Mahavira
❖ Birth and Family:
➢ Born in Kundagram (near Muzaffarpur, Bihar) in 540 BC.
➢ His father was Siddhartha (Head of the Jnatrika clan).
➢ His mother was Trishla (Sister of Lichchavi prince Chetak of Vaishali).
❖ Marriage and Family:
➢ Married to Yashodha.
➢ Had a daughter named Priyadarshena, whose husband, Jamali, became his first disciple.
❖ Renunciation and Ascetic Life:
➢ At the age of 30, after the death of his parents, Mahavira became an ascetic (Sanyasi).
➢ In the 13th year of his asceticism (on the 10th of Vaishakha), he attained Supreme
Knowledge (Kevalya) outside the town of Jimbhika grama at the age of 43.
❖ Teachings and Preaching:
➢ Delivered his first sermon at Vipulanchal Parbat (in Rajgriha, Magadh).
➢ From then on, he was called Jina or Mahavira, and his followers were called Jains.
➢ He was also given the title of Arihant (meaning "the worthy one").
 Teachings of Jainism
❖Teachings:
➢Preached almost the same teachings as Parshwanath:
• Non-injury (Ahimsa)
• Non-lying (Satya)
• Non-stealing (Asteya)
• Non-possession (Aparigraha)
•He added a fifth vow: Celibacy (Brahmacharya).
❖Death:
➢Attained moksha at the age of 72 near Pavapuri in 468 BC.
➢His death occurred during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya.
➢A famine during this period led to a major exodus of Jain monks from the
Ganga Valley to the Deccan region.
 The Great Separation in Jainism(Due Famine)
After the death of Mahavira, Jainism split into two main sects due to differences in
practices and beliefs.
1. Digambara (Sky-clad) – Naked Sect
➢ Followers believed that monks should not wear any clothes to practice complete
renunciation.
➢ The leader of the Digambaras was Bhadrabahu.
➢ Digambaras insisted on following the original strict rules of renunciation, which were
established by Mahavira.
➢ They believed that complete nudity was necessary for attaining spiritual purity.
2. Shvetambara (White-clad) – White-clothed Sect
➢ Followers were allowed to wear white clothes as a part of their renunciation.
➢ The leader of the Shvetambaras was Sthulabhadra.
➢ Shvetambaras remained in the North and followed a more moderate approach to ascetic
life.
➢ They believed that wearing white clothes was acceptable for spiritual practice.
 Teachings of Mahavira
Mahavira’s teachings focused on non-violence, truth, and spiritual discipline. He rejected many traditional
beliefs and introduced a simple and practical path to achieve liberation (moksha).
Key Teachings:
1.Rejected the authority of the Vedas
He did not accept the Vedas (ancient Hindu scriptures) as a source of ultimate truth or authority.
2.No importance to sacrifices
He taught that performing rituals and sacrifices had no spiritual value.
3.Rejected the concept of a universal soul or supreme power
• He believed that liberation comes through self-effort, not by worshipping gods.
• However, he did not deny the existence of gods but placed them at a lower status than the soul
(Jiva).
4.Universal brotherhood
He rejected the caste system and taught that all beings are equal.
5.Path to salvation (Moksha)
• Liberation can be attained through self-purification and strict spiritual discipline.
• He practiced and taught extreme penance, even to the point of dying from starvation to achieve
salvation.
6.Strict non-violence (Ahimsa)
• Mahavira taught that even the smallest object or particle has a soul and consciousness.
• Strict non-violence towards all living beings is necessary for spiritual progress.
 Three Jewels (Tri-Ratna) of Jainism:
❖ To attain salvation, one must follow: Tri-Ratna
1.Right Faith
2.Right Conduct
3.Right Knowledge
This combination is called the "Way of Nirvana."
❖Jain Councils (Meetings):
1.First Council
1. Place: Pataliputra
2. Leader: Sthulabhadra
3. Outcome: Compilation of 12 Angas (scriptures) to replace the lost 14 Purvas.
2.Second Council
1. Place: Vallabhi
2. Leader: Devardhi Ghanani
3. Outcome: Final compilation of 12 Angas and 12 Upangas (secondary scriptures).
 Jainism – Rise and Decline
This content explains how Jainism became popular and later declined over time.
❖Rise of Jainism:
1.Peak under Chandragupta Maurya’s Rule
• Jainism was very popular and influential during the time of Chandragupta Maurya
(4th–3rd century BCE).
2.Royal Support
• Jainism was supported and promoted by kings like Kharavela in the 1st century AD.
• This helped Jainism grow and spread.
3.Jain Literature
• Jain teachings were written in regional languages like Ardhamagadhi and Prakrit
dialects, making them accessible to more people.
4.Influence on Regional Languages
• Jainism influenced the development of languages like:
Suraseni – led to Marathi, Kannada, Gujarati, and Rajasthani.
 Jainism – Rise and Decline
❖Factors Responsible for the Decline of Jainism:
1.Extreme Ahimsa (Non-violence)
• Jainism took the idea of non-violence too far:
• Followers were advised not to take medicine because it could kill germs
(which are living beings).
• They believed that even trees and vegetables have life, so they avoided
harming plants.
• This strict lifestyle was difficult for common people to follow.
2.Lack of Royal Support
• After the early centuries, later kings stopped supporting Jainism, which
reduced its influence and spread.
Introduction to
Indian Knowledge Systems

धन्यवाद!

Contact Information
Dr. Balaji Padhy
Associate Professor
UGC-AICTE empaneled Master trainer for faculty of HEI in Indian
Knowledge System
Email: balaji.padhy@cutm.ac.in