UNIT – I: Foundations of Indian

Philosophy
Q1. Differentiate between ‘Asthika’ and ‘Nasthika’ philosophies.

Ans: Asthika philosophies accept the authority of the Vedas and include six darshanas.
Nasthika philosophies reject the Vedas, such as Charvaka, Buddhism, and Jainism. Thus,
Asthika are orthodox while Nasthika are heterodox systems

Q2. Explain the fundamental purpose of darshanas proposed in Indian philosophy.

Ans: The main purpose of darshanas is to free the self from suffering caused by attachment to
matter, realize true knowledge through discipline, and attain liberation (moksha), which is the
end of suffering and rebirth .

Q3. Identify the Sage who proposed Nyaya philosophy and its core concept.

Ans: Sage Gautama founded Nyaya philosophy. Its core concept is logic and reasoning as valid
means of knowledge. By obtaining true knowledge of self and world, liberation from suffering
can be achieved .

Q4. Differentiate between Prakriti and Purusha in Sankhya philosophy.

Ans: Prakriti is unconscious matter, root of creation, formed by three gunas—Sattva, Rajas,
Tamas. Purusha is pure consciousness, eternal, self-illuminated, distinct from body and mind,
and not bound by material existence .

Q5. Identify the three types of sufferings according to Indian philosophy.

Ans: Indian philosophy classifies sufferings as: Adhyatmika (internal, caused by body and
mind), Adhibhoutika (external, due to natural forces), and Adhidaivika (supernatural or karmic).
Liberation aims to overcome these sufferings .

Q6. Express your understanding of ‘Apurva’ in Mimamsa philosophy.

Ans: In Mimamsa, Apurva is the unseen potency generated by properly performed rituals. It
connects actions with results, acting as a bridge between ritual performance and the eventual
fruit, without requiring God’s intervention .

Q7. Distinguish between ‘Dvaita’ Vedanta and ‘Advaita’ Vedanta.

Ans: Advaita Vedanta (Shankaracharya) asserts Brahman and Jiva are one, world is Maya.
Dvaita Vedanta (Madhvacharya) emphasizes dualism, stating Brahman and Jiva are distinct,
with Jiva dependent on Brahman for liberation .

Q8. Which Satdarshana is dualistic, and why?

Ans: Sankhya philosophy is dualistic because it accepts two eternal principles: Purusha
(consciousness) and Prakriti (matter). Both are independent, but liberation comes when
Purusha realizes its separation from Prakriti .

Q9. Meaning of Samadhi in Yoga vs. death context.

Ans: In Yoga, Samadhi is the highest meditative state where meditator, process, and object
merge into oneness. In death, Samadhi refers to burial or resting place. The former is spiritual
realization, not death .

Q10. Why is Sankhya called Nireeswara Sankhya?

Ans: Sankhya is called Nireeswara (Godless) Sankhya because it does not accept God’s
existence. It explains creation and existence purely through Purusha (consciousness) and
Prakriti (matter), without invoking divine intervention .

🔹 6 Marks Questions (120–150 words)

Q1. Explain the historical context and importance of Six Schools of Indian philosophy.

Ans: The six schools of Indian philosophy, known as Satdarshanas, originated from the Vedas
and were systematized by sages around 5000 years ago. They are Asthika schools, meaning
they accept the Vedas as authority. Each school was codified by a sage: Nyaya by Gautama,
Vaiseshika by Kanada, Sankhya by Kapila, Yoga by Patanjali, Mimamsa by Jaimini, and
Vedanta by Vyasa. These schools explore logic, atomism, dualism, meditation, rituals, and God-
realization. Despite differing approaches, they share the common goal of overcoming suffering
and attaining liberation (moksha). They hold historical significance as the intellectual backbone
of Indian spiritual thought, guiding society in ethics, rituals, and philosophy, while influencing
later religious traditions. Their importance lies in balancing rational inquiry with spiritual goals,
forming a complete worldview that integrates material and spiritual aspects of life .

Q2. Common philosophical themes in Satdarshanas.

Ans: All six darshanas share several philosophical foundations. First, they believe the self
(Atman) undergoes rebirth, acquiring different bodies through reincarnation. Second, they
uphold the law of karma as governing human experiences. Third, suffering arises due to
attachment with matter, and liberation (moksha) is the end goal of philosophy. They also
emphasize discipline, purification, and self-control as paths to realization. While Nyaya stresses
reasoning, Sankhya explains matter-spirit dualism, and Vedanta emphasizes God-realization,
their shared vision is to free the self from ignorance and attain higher knowledge. Collectively,
they present a spiritual philosophy grounded in logic, ethics, meditation, and ritual, providing a
holistic system for addressing life’s purpose .

Q3. Compare and contrast Nyaya and Vaiseshika philosophies.

Ans: Nyaya, founded by Sage Gautama, is the philosophy of logic and reasoning. It accepts four
sources of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison, and testimony, and categorizes
reality into 16 divisions. Vaiseshika, by Sage Kanada, focuses on atomism and maintains that
the world is made up of eternal, indivisible atoms. It recognizes only two sources of knowledge:
perception and inference, and accepts seven categories of existence such as substance,
quality, action, and non-existence. While Nyaya emphasizes logical debate to establish truth,
Vaiseshika emphasizes a scientific and physical view of the universe. Despite differences, both
accept liberation as the goal and see ignorance as the root cause of suffering. They
complement each other and are often studied together as Nyaya–Vaiseshika, forming a rational
and scientific foundation for Indian philosophy .

Q4. Analyse the key features of Sankhya philosophy.

Ans: Sankhya, founded by Sage Kapila, is one of the oldest philosophical systems of India. It is
a dualistic philosophy, recognizing two independent realities: Purusha (pure consciousness) and
Prakriti (unconscious matter). Prakriti is composed of three gunas—Sattva, Rajas, and Tamas—
that bind the soul to material existence. Purusha, however, is eternal, unchanging, and self-
luminous. Sankhya is based on the theory of manifestation, which states that nothing new is
created but emerges from hidden potential, like a tortoise extending its limbs. It identifies 25
elements of existence, including mind, senses, subtle and gross elements. Importantly, it denies
God’s existence, and is thus called Nireeswara Sankhya. Liberation is attained when Purusha
realizes its distinction from Prakriti. Sankhya provides a comprehensive metaphysical
framework that influenced Yoga and later Vedanta .

Q5. Discuss the salient features of Yoga philosophy.

Ans: Yoga, propounded by Sage Patanjali, is the philosophy of self-realization through

discipline. It is defined as “Yogaḥ chitta-vṛtti-nirodhaḥ,” meaning regulation of mental
fluctuations. Yoga prescribes the Ashtanga (eightfold) path for spiritual realization. These are:
Yama (ethical discipline), Niyama (self-discipline), Asana (posture), Pranayama (breath control),
Pratyahara (withdrawal of senses), Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation), and Samadhi
(union with the Absolute). The first four are external practices (Bahiranga), while the last four
are internal (Antaranga). Samadhi is the highest state, where meditator and object merge into
one. The goal of Yoga is liberation, freeing the self from bondage by realizing its true nature. It
integrates physical, mental, and spiritual practices, making it one of the most influential systems
worldwide. Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras continue to inspire spiritual seekers across traditions .

Q6. Distinguish between Mimamsa and Vedanta.

Ans: Mimamsa, founded by Jaimini, is also called Purva-Mimamsa, as it focuses on the ritual
portion (Karma Kanda) of the Vedas. It emphasizes Dharma, the duty of ritual action, and
introduces the concept of Apurva, the unseen potency linking action and result. It does not
stress God’s role in karma. Vedanta, founded by Vyasa, is called Uttara-Mimamsa, as it is
based on the Upanishads (Jnana Kanda). It emphasizes God-realization (Brahman) as the
supreme truth and liberation as the ultimate goal. Different schools arose: Advaita (non-
dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita (dualism). Unlike Mimamsa,
Vedanta focuses on Jnana, Bhakti, and Karma for liberation. Thus, Mimamsa stresses ritual
action, while Vedanta stresses ultimate spiritual realization .

UNIT – II: Scientific Advancements

🔹 2 Marks Questions

Q1. Explain the approximation of π computed by Aryabhata.

Ans: Aryabhata approximated π by stating: add four to 100, multiply by 8, then add 62,000. For

diameter 20,000, circumference becomes 62,832. This gives π ≈ 3.1416, highly accurate for his

time .

Q2. Write about Kuttaka method proposed by Aryabhata.

Ans: Aryabhata proposed the Kuttaka method, meaning pulverizing, to solve indeterminate
equations of the form ax + by = c. It was a systematic process for breaking problems into
smaller parts, foundational in Indian algebra .

Q3. Mention the names of two significant texts by Brahmagupta.

Ans: Brahmagupta authored two major texts: Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta and Khandakhadyaka.

These works contained his groundbreaking contributions to mathematics and astronomy,
including gravity, planetary motion, and calculation of eclipses .

Q4. Elaborate on the goal of Ayurveda.

Ans: The goal of Ayurveda is Swasthya, meaning health. It aims to maintain harmony between
body, mind, senses, and soul, ensuring physical, mental, and emotional balance, and
preventing disease through lifestyle practices .

Q5. Differentiate between health and disease according to Ayurveda.

Ans: In Ayurveda, health is the equilibrium of three doshas (Vata, Pitta, Kapha). Disease occurs
when any dosha increases or decreases beyond its normal state due to diet, climate, or lifestyle
.
Q6. Identify the dosha composed of earth and water, and the symptoms caused by its
imbalance.

Ans: Kapha dosha, formed from earth and water, governs structure and immunity. Its imbalance
leads to lethargy, congestion, excessive weight gain, and respiratory issues like phlegm
accumulation .

Q7. Mention and explain any two techniques used in ancient times in India.

Ans: Ancient India used smelting to extract metals using furnaces and bellows, and fermentation
to produce alcoholic beverages, vinegar, and medicines. These techniques show advanced
scientific and practical knowledge .

Q8. Illustrate the precautions taken in ancient times for control of corrosion with an example.

Ans: Ancient metallurgists prevented corrosion by selecting pure ores, alloying metals, and
applying protective rust layers. The Iron Pillar of Delhi is an example, resisting rust for over 1600
years due to high-purity iron .

Q9. List the ancient texts that prove the application of techniques in chemistry in India.

Ans: Ancient texts proving chemical knowledge include Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita,
Arthashastra, Rasaratnakara, and Rasarnava. They describe distillation, sublimation,
metallurgy, and preparation of medicines .

Q10. Illustrate with examples the application of extraction and purification in ancient India.

Ans: Ashes of plants were used to produce alkalis for soap. Natural salts like black salt were
extracted by evaporation. Metals were purified by heating, quenching, and washing. Citric acid
was derived from lemons .

🔹 6 Marks Questions

Q1. Build the list of mathematical contributions of Aryabhata and explain them in detail.

Ans: Aryabhata (476–550 CE), a great mathematician-astronomer, made remarkable

contributions. He introduced the place value system using powers of 10 and conceptualized
zero, which enabled the decimal system. He approximated π to 3.1416, far ahead of his time.
He discussed trigonometry, defining sine (artha-jya), and provided formulas for calculating the
area of a triangle. Aryabhata also solved series, giving results for summation of squares and
cubes. His Kuttaka method for indeterminate equations pioneered algebra in India. Through his
text Aryabhatiya, he laid the foundation for advanced mathematics, influencing later scholars
globally. His work demonstrates precision, originality, and intellectual brilliance .
Q2. Explain the astronomical contributions of Brahmagupta.

Ans: Brahmagupta (598–668 CE), an Indian mathematician-astronomer, made many

astronomical discoveries. In Brahma-sphuta-siddhanta and Khandakhadyaka, he explained
gravity as “gurutvakarshanam,” describing Earth’s natural attraction. He correctly argued that
Earth is round and rotates, opposing flat-Earth beliefs. He calculated a year as 365 days, 6
hours, 12 minutes, and 9 seconds—close to modern value. He explained phases of the moon
and disproved myths of eclipses caused by demons, showing they are shadows of Earth and
moon. His contributions also include planetary positions, conjunctions, and solar-lunar eclipse
predictions. His scientific outlook made astronomy evidence-based and rational .

Q3. Elaborate on the techniques used in metallurgy in ancient India.

Ans: Ancient India had advanced metallurgical techniques. Smelting used furnaces and bellows
for high temperatures, while fluxes removed impurities. Copper alloys like brass and bronze
were crafted into statues and tools. Wootz steel, a high-carbon crucible steel, was produced as
early as 300 BCE, famous for its toughness and exported widely. Distillation of zinc was
pioneered in Zawar, Rajasthan. The Iron Pillar of Delhi is evidence of rust-resistant iron due to
phosphorus-rich slag. Techniques like forge welding, quenching, refining of gold, silver
purification, and mercury amalgamation were well known. Texts like Arthashastra and
Rasaratnakara record these practices .

Q4. Analyse the fundamental principles of Ayurveda.

Ans: Ayurveda, meaning “science of life,” focuses on holistic health. It recognizes the
coordination of Atma (soul), Manas (mind), Indriya (senses), and Sharira (body). The five
elements (Panchamahabhutas)—earth, water, fire, air, space—form all existence. Their
combinations create Tridoshas: Vata (movement), Pitta (digestion), and Kapha (structure).
Health is equilibrium of doshas; imbalance causes disease. Ayurveda also explains
Saptadhatus (seven body tissues) like blood, muscle, bone, and reproductive fluids, which
sustain life. It emphasizes balance, lifestyle, diet, and seasonal practices. Its goal is Swasthya—
maintaining harmony physically, mentally, and emotionally. Thus, Ayurveda is not just medicine,
but a way of life .

Q5. Explain the following concepts of Ayurveda: (a) Tridoshas and (b) Saptadhatus.

Ans: Ayurveda describes three doshas derived from elements: Vata (air + space) governs
movement; imbalance causes anxiety, constipation. Pitta (fire + water) governs digestion;
imbalance causes acidity, anger. Kapha (earth + water) governs structure; imbalance causes
lethargy, obesity. Balance ensures health. Saptadhatus are seven body tissues: Rasa (plasma),
Rakta (blood), Mamsa (muscle), Meda (fat), Asthi (bone), Majja (marrow), and Shukra
(reproductive tissue). These tissues nourish, protect, and maintain the body. Their proper
functioning ensures vitality. Imbalance in doshas weakens dhatus, causing disease. Together,
Tridoshas and Saptadhatus explain Ayurveda’s systemic approach to health .

Q6. Discuss the techniques employed in chemistry in ancient India.

Ans: Ancient Indian chemistry, known as Rasayana Shastra, was advanced. Distillation and
sublimation were used to extract aromatic oils and purify mercury. Extraction and purification
techniques included obtaining alkalis from plant ash, salts by evaporation, and acids from fruits.
Fermentation produced alcohol, vinegar, and medicines. Dyeing with indigo, safflower, and
turmeric used mordants like alum. Calcination (Maran) converted metals like gold and mercury
into fine powders (bhasma). Glass and ceramic glazes were also developed using silica and
minerals. Texts like Charaka Samhita, Sushruta Samhita, Arthashastra, and Rasa Shastra
preserve this knowledge. These techniques show India’s scientific and medicinal excellence .

UNIT – III: Cultural Perspectives

🔹 2 Marks Questions

Q1. Explain the family and social values exemplified from Ramayana.

Ans: The Ramayana highlights family harmony, obedience, and sacrifice. Rama respects his
father’s word, Sita shows loyalty, and Hanuman exemplifies service. It stresses respecting
elders, fulfilling duties, and prioritizing family values over personal comfort .

Q2. Explore the moral and ethical dimensions of Mahabharata.

Ans: The Mahabharata presents complex moral dilemmas. Dharma is situational, often
conflicting, as seen in Yudhishthira, Karna, and Bhishma’s struggles. It emphasizes
responsibility, truth, and sacrifice while showing that ethical choices are rarely simple .

Q3. “The Mahabharata is still continuing its relevance in the present days” – Justify.

Ans: The Mahabharata remains relevant as it addresses universal struggles—justice, fate,

moral ambiguity, and leadership. Modern society, organizations, and politics often draw lessons
from its ethical debates and the Bhagavad Gita’s timeless philosophy .

Q4. Explain the religious and spiritual influence offered by the Mahabharata.

Ans: The Mahabharata, especially the Bhagavad Gita, offers deep spiritual teachings on
devotion, duty, and detachment. It integrates rituals, divine guidance, and Krishna’s role as
charioteer, shaping Hindu religious thought and practices .

Q5. Discuss the religious and ritual influence offered by the Ramayana.

Ans: The Ramayana is deeply linked to religious practices. Recitations form part of festivals like
Rama Navami and Dussehra. Temples and rituals commemorate Rama’s life, blending devotion
with cultural and spiritual traditions .
🔹 6 Marks Questions

Q1. Analyse the epic Ramayana in terms of its cultural perspectives.

Ans: The Ramayana, composed by Valmiki, is more than an epic—it is a cultural guide shaping
South and Southeast Asia. It emphasizes moral ideals like Rama as Maryada Purushottama
(ideal man), Sita as virtue, and Hanuman as devotion. Social values like loyalty, obedience, and
family harmony are central. Religiously, it presents Rama as Vishnu’s incarnation, making the
text integral to festivals, rituals, and devotion. Artistically, it inspired countless adaptations:
Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas in Hindi, Kamban’s Ramavataram in Tamil, and Southeast Asian
versions like Ramakien. Its flexibility allows reinterpretations of gender roles, justice, and
politics, making it dynamic. The Ramayana continues to guide moral conduct, inspire art, and
shape community life, preserving cultural identity .

Q2. Present the analysis of the cultural perspectives of the Mahabharata.

Ans: The Mahabharata, authored by Vyasa, is one of the longest epics, blending history,
philosophy, and mythology. It addresses complex dharma, showing conflicts where no choice is
entirely right. Characters like Karna, Bhishma, and Draupadi embody moral struggles.
Spiritually, the Bhagavad Gita within it teaches devotion, duty, and detachment, shaping Hindu
philosophy. Socially, it reflects monarchies, caste dynamics, and women’s roles in politics and
family. Artistically, it inspired regional versions, shadow plays, Kathakali, Yakshagana, and
paintings. It critiques war, showing destruction despite justice, making it a meditation on peace.
Even today, it inspires leaders, scholars, and common people, as its moral, cultural, and
spiritual teachings remain universal .

Q3. Compare cultural aspects in Ramayana and Mahabharata: (a) Artistic legacy and (b) Moral
and ethical framework.

Ans: Artistically, both epics inspired retellings, theater, dance, and sculpture. The Ramayana
influenced Southeast Asia with adaptations like Ramakien, while the Mahabharata inspired
shadow plays, Kathakali, and Yakshagana in India. Both shaped literature in regional languages
like Hindi and Tamil. Morally, the Ramayana emphasizes clear ideals—Rama as the righteous
king, Sita as loyal wife—giving straightforward moral lessons. In contrast, the Mahabharata
highlights moral ambiguity, where dharma is situational and choices may cause suffering
despite good intentions. While Ramayana represents virtue in clarity, Mahabharata presents the
complexity of ethical dilemmas. Together, they balance simple ideals with real-world
complexities, offering comprehensive moral and cultural guidance .