Horace
Background
- Lived during the period of Julius Caesar.
- Initially aligned with Marcus Brutus against Caesar.
- After Brutus’ defeat (42 BC), fled to Rome.
- Gained recognition through poetry and friendship with Virgil.
- Introduced to Augustus Caesar’s imperial circles.
Literary Period and Contributions
- Flourished in the Augustan Age, a stable and affluent time for literature.
- Notable poets of his time: Virgil, Ovid, and Livy.
- Wrote satires, odes, and epistles.
- One of his epistles became known as Ars Poetica (The Art of Poetry).
Ars Poetica: Influence and Significance
- A unique blend of poetry and literary criticism.
- Translated into English by Ben Jonson (1640), influencing writers like
Jonson and Alexander Pope.
- Not a systematic treatise but an informal epistle in verse.
- Borrowed ideas from Neoptolemus of Parium (3rd century BC Greek critic).
- Inspired Romantic poets but remained a classicist, emphasizing discipline
over subjective genius.
Literary Context: Old Latin vs. Alexandrian
Two main literary traditions:
1. Old Latin – Native Roman style.
2. Alexandrian – Greek influence on Roman poetry.
- Horace supported the revival of ancient Greek tradition, drawing from
Aristotle.
- Believed poets should study Greek originals, a view later echoed by Pope
in An Essay on Criticism.
Views on Poetry (Ars Poetica)
- Subject and Style: Vocabulary and meter should match the poem’s theme
(noble, erotic, joyous).
- Consistency: Avoid extravagant improbabilities in verse drama.
- Refinement: Writers should polish their work through effort and emulation
of worthy models.
- Purpose of Poetry:
o To profit or to please (or both).
o Should blend charm and utility.
- Market and Fame: Poets could achieve literary success and recognition if
they balance delight and instruction.
- Criticism of Poets:
o Condemned pretentious language, obscurity, and defective
phrasing.
o Ended Ars Poetica with a satirical image of a mad poet lost in his
passion.
Poetry and Society
- Like Plato, he believed poets had a responsibility to society.
- Unlike Plato, he saw poetry as both pleasure-giving and morally improving.
- Historically, poets were respected for their role in teaching duty to family
and state.
- Great poetry must move the heart and soul of the reader.
Views on Poetic Structure
- Favoured simple and uniform subjects.
- Rejected unnecessary additions to the main theme.
- Emphasized structural unity, similar to Aristotle’s unity of plot.
Views on Poetic Forms and Meter
- Poetry had "settled kinds", each with a suitable meter:
o Epic → Dactylic hexameter (Homeric tradition).
o Elegy & Songs → Elegiac measure (couplet: hexameter +
pentameter).
o Tragedy, Comedy & Satire → Iambic meter.
- Loved satire, a Roman innovation.
- Saw poetic forms as fixed, unaware of later evolutions (e.g., sonnet, novel,
dramatic monologue).
Language and Style
- Synthesized Aristotle’s views on style.
- Advocated for clarity, effective arrangement, and a mix of old and new
words.
- Recommended new coinages to enrich the language.
Genius vs. Art
- Debated the role of genius (natural talent) vs. art (training and effort).
- Believed no one could be a great artist without both.
- Valued hard work and discipline over pure inspiration.
- Genius and art are indivisible in creating great poetry.
Horace’s Concept of Drama
- Borrowed Ideas from Aristotle
- Horace’s views on drama are heavily influenced by Aristotle.
- Focuses on plot, characterization, and style as the key elements of drama.
Plot
- Preferred familiar Greek legends to provide a base for originality in details.
- Advocated for consistency, ensuring a proper beginning and end.
- Disapproved of lengthy and loose plots, similar to Aristotle’s approach.
Condemned excessive spectacle on stage:
o Violent or unbelievable events (e.g., a mother killing her children,
human-animal transformations) should be reported, not shown.
o Supernatural elements should not be used to resolve human
conflicts (Deus ex machina rejected).
Limited the play’s length to five acts, a standard adopted by later
dramatists.
Characterization
- Two types of characters:
1. Based on traditional stories, staying true to their prototypes.
2. Newly invented characters, who must remain true to themselves
(consistent).
- A character should not be contradictory unless they are consistently
inconsistent.
- Emphasized verisimilitude (truth to life):
o A child should behave like a child, a young man like a young man,
etc.
o Led to stereotypical characters, influencing Neoclassical English
drama (comedy and satire).
Style & Dialogue
- Considered iambic meter the best for drama (tragedy and comedy):
o Resembles natural speech.
o Easier to hear in crowded Roman theatres.
- Difference between tragedy and comedy:
o Tragedy → Exalted poetic language, often in verse.
o Comedy → Common language, often in prose.
- Each speech should match the character’s age, gender, status, mood, and
situation.
The Role of Chorus
- The chorus must:
1. Be integrated into the plot without breaking unity.
2. Deliver noble and meaningful comments.
Horace’s Unique Contribution
- Unlike Aristotle, he compromised between pleasure and profit in drama.
- Believed drama should be both entertaining and morally instructive.
